Calculus 1 & 2 PDF

MODULE CALCULUS 1 WITH ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
CHAPTER 1
REVIEW OF THE REAL NUMBERS SYSTEM AS AN ORDERED FIELD
1.1 REPRESENTATION OF THE REAL LINE
Objectives:
• Classify a real number as a natural, whole, integer, rational, or irrational

number; and
• Use the following properties of real numbers: commutative, associative,
distributive, inverse, and identity.
A real number line, or simply number line, allows us to visually display real numbers by
associating them with unique points on a line. The real number associated with a point is called
a coordinate. A point on the real number line that is associated with a coordinate is called its
graph.
To construct a number line, draw a horizontal line with arrows on both ends to indicate
that it continues without bound. Next, choose any point to represent the number zero, this point
is called the origin.
Mark off consistent lengths on both sides of the origin and label each tick mark to define
the scale. Positive real numbers lie to the right of the origin and negative real numbers lie to the
left. The number zero (0) is neither positive nor negative. Typically, each tick represents one
unit.
The graph of each real number is shown as a dot at the appropriate point on the number
line. A partial graph of the set of integers Z follows:
The real number system consists of a s set R of elements called real numbers and two
operations called addition and multiplication, denoted by the symbols + and ∙, respectively. If a
and b are elements of the set R, a+b indicates the sum of a and b, and a∙b (or ab) indicates
their product. The operation of subtraction is defined by the equation
𝐚 − 𝐛 = 𝐚 + (−𝐛)
where –b denotes the negative of b such that b(-b)=0. The operation division is defined by the
equation
𝐚 ÷ 𝐛 = 𝐚 ∙ 𝒃−𝟏 𝒃≠𝟎
CHAPTER 1 1
where 𝒃−𝟏 denotes the reciprocal of b such that b ∙ 𝒃−𝟏 = 𝟏

The real number system can be completely described by a set of axioms (the word
axiom is used to indicate a formal statement that is assumed to be true without proof). With
these axioms we can derive the properties of the real numbers from which follow the familiar
algebraic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, as well as the algebraic
concepts of solving equations, factoring, and so forth.
Properties that can be shown to be logical consequences of axioms are theorems. In
the statement of most theorems there are two parts: the “if” part, called the hypothesis, and the
“then” part, called the conclusion. The arguments verifying a theorem is a proof. A proof
consists in showing that the conclusion follows from the assumed truth of the hypothesis.
A real number is either positive, negative, or zero, and any real number can be classified
as either rational or irrational. A rational number is one that can be expressed as the ratio of
𝑝
two integers. That is, a rational number is of the form ⁄𝑞, where p and q are integers and q≠0.
The rational numbers consist of the following:
The integers (positive, negative, and zero)
… , −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ,5, …
The positive and negative fractions, such as
2 3 67
,− ,
7 7 3
The positive and negative terminating decimals, such as
236 3,251
2.36 = , − 0.003251 = −
100 1,000,000
The positive and negative nonterminating repeating decimals, such as
1 61
0.333 … = , − 0.549549549 … = −
3 111
The real numbers that are no rational are called irrational numbers. These are positive
and negative nonterminating nonrepeating decimals, for example
√3 = 1.732 … 𝜋 = 3.14159 …
We can say that a set is a collection of objects, and the objects in a set are
called elements. If every element of a set S is also an element of a set T, then S is a
subset of T.
We use the symbol ϵ to indicate that a specific element belongs to a set. Hence, we may
write 8∈N, which is read as “8 is an element of N.” The notation a, b ∈ S indicates that both a
CHAPTER 1 2
1 1
and b are elements of S. The symbol ∉ is read “is not an element of.” Thus, we read ∉ N as “
2 2
is not an element of N.”
A pair of braces {a} used with words or symbols can describe a set.
Method of Writing Set

A. Roster Method. The elements of the set are enumerated and separated by a comma it
is also called tabulation method.
B. Rule Method. A description phrase is used to describe the elements or members of the
set it is also called set builder notation, symbol it is as {x|P(x)}
Example: If S is the set of natural number less than 6, we can write the set S as
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
We can also write the set S as {𝑥|𝑥 is a natural number less than 6}
LET’S RECALL ABOUT THE OPERATIONS ON SET
UNION. The union of A and B, denoted 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is the set of all elements x in U such
that x is in A or x is in B. Symbolically: 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 v 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}. Let A and B be
subsets of a universal set U.
INTERSECTION. The intersection of A and B, denoted 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the set of all
elements x in U such that x is in A and x is in B. Symbolically: 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 =
{𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 Λ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}. Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U.
Example of Union Set

If 𝐴1 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, 𝐴2 = {𝑐, ℎ}, 𝐴3 = {𝑎, 𝑑} then 𝑈1 𝐴1 = 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ 𝐴3 =
{𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, ℎ, 𝑑}. We can similarly define the union of indefinitely many sets 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪
𝐴3 ∪ …
CHAPTER 1 3
Example of Intersection Set

If {1, 2} ∩ {2, 3} = {2}{1, 2} ∩ {2, 3} = {2}. In Figure below, the intersection of
set A and B is shown by the shaded area using a Venn diagram.
For further understanding visit these links

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8LeCkGaNgY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kO3qPf3Kq0
1.2. INEQUALITIES AND INTERVALS
Objectives:
• Graph the solutions of a single inequality on a number line and express the
solutions using interval notation; and
• Graph the solutions of a compound inequality on a number line, and
express the solutions using interval notation.
If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅,
DEFINITION 1.2 (i) 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 if and only if either 𝑎 < 𝑏 or 𝑑 = 𝑏;
(ii) 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏 if and only if either 𝑎 > 𝑏 or 𝑎 = 𝑏
The statement 𝑎 < 𝑏, 𝑎 > 𝑏, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏, and 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏 are called inequalities. In particular,

𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑎 > 𝑏 are called strict inequalities, whereas 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏 are called nonstrict
inequalities.
CHAPTER 1 4
(i) If 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0, then 𝑎 + 𝑏 > 0.

THEOREM 1.2.1 (ii) If 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0, then 𝑎𝑏 > 0.
(i) If 𝑎 > 0 if and only if a is positive;

THEOREM 1.2.2 (ii) If 𝑎 < 0 if and only if a is negative.
Transitive Property of order

THEOREM 1.2.3 If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, ∈ 𝑅, and If 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑏 < 𝑐, then 𝑎 < 𝑐
Suppose 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, ∈ 𝑅
THEOREM 1.2.4 (i) If 𝑎 > 𝑏, then 𝑎 + 𝑐 > 𝑏 + 𝑐.
(ii) If 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑐 > 0, then 𝑎𝑐 < 𝑏𝑐.
(iii) If 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑐 < 0, then 𝑎𝑐 > 𝑏𝑐.
Intervals is an important property of the real numbers is that they are totally ordered, so,
we can compare any two real numbers, a and b, and make a statement of the form a≤b or b≤a,
with strict inequality if a 6=b. Given any two points on the real line, a and b, we call the set of
points between a and b an interval.
CHAPTER 1 5
Example 1 Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the inequality
2 + 3𝑥 < 5𝑥 + 8
Solution: The following inequalities are equivalent

2 + 3𝑥 < 5𝑥 + 8
2 + 3𝑥 − 2 < 5𝑥 + 8 − 2
3𝑥 < 5𝑥 + 6
−2𝑥 < 6
𝑥 > −3
Therefore, the solution set is the interval (-3,+∞), which is illustrated in Figure 1.
Example 2 Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the inequality
4 < 3𝑥 − 2 ≤ 10
Solution: By adding 2 to each member of the given inequality we obtain the equivalent
inequalities
6 < 3𝑥 ≤ 12
2<𝑥≤4
Thus, the solution set is the interval (2,4] as shown in Figure 2.
Example 3
7
Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the inequality 𝑥 > 2
Solution: Multiply both sides of the given inequality by x, we obtain the following equivalent
inequalities:
7 > 2𝑥
7
>𝑥
2
7
𝑥<
2
7 7
Therefore, the solution set is {𝑥|𝑥 > 0} ∩ {𝑥|𝑥 < } or, equivalent, the set {𝑥|0 < 𝑥 < }, which is
2 2
7
the interval (0, 2) shown in Figure 3.
CHAPTER 1 6

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ISKII3Eyoko
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7rzZQJtwllk
1.3. ABSOLUTE VALUES
Objectives:
• Graph an absolute value function.

• Solve an absolute value equation.
• Solve an absolute value inequality.
• Determine absolute values.
The concept of the absolute value of a number is used in some important definitions.
Furthermore, you will need to work with inequalities involving absolute value.
The absolute value of x, denoted by |x|, is defined by

DEFINITION 1.3.1 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = {
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
DEFINITION 1.3.2 |𝑥| < 𝑎 ↔ −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 where 𝑎 > 0
DEFINITION 1.3.3 |𝑥| < 𝑎 ↔ 𝑥 > 𝑎 or 𝑥 < −𝑎 where 𝑎 > 0
Example 1
Solve each of the equations for given the |3x+2|=5
Solution: This equation will be satisfied if either

3𝑥 + 2 = 5 or − (3x + 2) = 5
7
𝑥=1 𝑥=−
3
CHAPTER 1 7
Example 2
Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the inequality |𝑥 − 5| < 4
Solution:
|𝑥 − 5| < 4
−4 < 𝑥 − 5 < 4
1<𝑥<9
Therefore, the solution set is the open interval (1,9).
Example 3
Find the solution set of the inequality |3x+2|>5
Solution: The given inequality is equivalent to 3𝑥 + 2 > 5 or 3𝑥 + 2 < −5

3𝑥 + 2 > 5
𝑥>1
Therefore, in every number in the interval (1,+∞) is a solution.
3𝑥 + 2 < −5
7
𝑥<−
3
7
Hence, every number in the interval (−∞, − 3) is a solution.
7
The solution set of the given inequality is therefore (−∞, − 3) ∪ (1, +∞).

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra-home/alg-absolute-value/alg-
absolute-value-inequaliities/v/absolute-value-inequalities-example-1
REFERENCES
Winston S. Sirug. (2014). College Algebra. Revised Edition.

Louis Leithold. The Calculus With Analytic Geometry. Sixth Edition.
CHAPTER 1 8
CHAPTER 2
THE 2-DIMENSIONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
2.1. GRAPH OF EQUATIONS
Objectives:
• Solve for the slope intercept, x and y intercept, and graph the following equations.
The graphs of linear equations in two variables are straight lines. Linear equations
may be written in several forms:
Slope-Intercept Form: y=mx+b
In an equation of the form y=mx+b, such as y=−2x−3, the slope is m and the y-
intercept is the point (0,b). To graph equations of this form, construct a table of values
(Method1) or use the slope and y-intercept (Method3).
General Form: ax+by=c
To graph equations of this form, such as 3x−2y=−6, find the x-and y intercepts
(Method2), or solve the equation for y to write it in the form y=mx+b and construct a table
of values.
Horizontal Lines: y=b

The graph of y=b is a horizontal line passing through the point (0,b) on the y-axis.
To graph an equation of this form, such as y=4, plot the point (0,b) on the y-axis and draw
a horizontal line through it. If the equation is not in the form y=b, solve the equation for y.
Vertical Lines: x=a
The graph of x=a is a vertical line passing through the point (a,0) on the x axis. To
graph a vertical line, such as 4x+12=0, solve the equation for x to write it in the form x=a,
plot the point (a,0) on the x-axis, and draw a vertical line through it
METHOD 1: CONSTRUCT A TABLE OF VALUES
To graph equations of the form y=mx and y=mx+b,

1) Choose three values for x. Substitute these values in the equation and solve to find the
corresponding y-coordinates.
2) Plot the ordered pairs found in step 1.
3) Draw a straight line through the plotted points. If the points do not line up, a mistake has
been made.
CHAPTER 2 1
Example 1: Graph 𝑦 = −2𝑥 − 3
To graph the equation, choose three values for x and list them in a table. (Hint: choose
values that are easy to calculate, like −1,0,and1.) Substitute each value in the equation and
simplify to find the corresponding y-coordinate. Plot the ordered pairs and draw a straight line
through the points.
Example 2: Graph 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −6
The equation 3x−2y=−6 is written in the general form. To graph this equation with a table
of values, first solve the equation for y to write it in the form y=mx+b, as shown:
3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −6
3𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 3𝑥 = −3𝑥 − 6
−2𝑦 = −3𝑥 − 6
3
𝑦 = 𝑥+3
2
Next, choose three values for x and calculate the corresponding y-coordinates. (Hint: to
cancel fractions, choose multiples of the denominators.) Plot the points in the table and draw a
line through them.
CHAPTER 2 2
METHOD 2: FIND THE X AND Y-INTERCEPTS
1) To find the x-intercept, let y=0 then substitute 0 for y in the equation and
solve for x.
2) To find the y-intercept, let x=0 then substitute 0 for x in the equation and
solve for y.
3) Plot the intercepts, label each point, and draw a straight line through these
points.
In Example 2, the line crosses the x-axis at (−2,0) and y-axis at (0,3). The point where
the line crosses the x-axis is called the x-intercept. At this point, they-coordinate is 0. The point
where the line crosses the y-axis is called the y-intercept. At this point, the x-coordinate is 0.
When an equation is written in the general form, such as −2x+4y=8, it is easier to graph the
equation by finding the intercepts.
Example 3: Graph −2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 8
1) To graph the equation, find the x and y-intercepts.

To find the x-intercept, let y=0 and solve To find the y-intercept, let x=0 and solve
the equation for x. the equation for y.
𝑦 = 0, − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 8 𝑥 = 0, − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 8
−2𝑥 + 4(0) = 8 −2(0) + 4𝑦 = 8
−2𝑥 = 8 4𝑦 = 8
𝑥 = −4 𝑦=2
The x-intercept is (-4, 0) The y-intercept is (0, 2)
2) Next, plot each intercept, label the points, and draw a line through them.
Graphing Horizontal and Vertical Lines
The graph of y=b is a horizontal line passing through the point (0,b), they intercept. The
graph of x=a is a vertical line passing through the point (a,0), the x intercept.
CHAPTER 2 3
Example 4: Graph 𝑦 = 4
To graph the equation, plot the intercept on the y-axis, label the point, and draw a
horizontal line through the point.
Example 5: Graph 4𝑥 + 12 = 0
First, solve the equation for x to write it in the form x=a.

4𝑥 + 12 = 0
4𝑥+= −12
𝑥 = −3
The x-intercept is (−3,0). Plot this point on the x-axis, label the point, and draw a vertical
line through the point.
METHOD 3: USE THE SLOPE AND Y-INTERCEPT
To graph an equation using the slope and y-intercept,

1) Write the equation in the form y=mx+b to find the slope m and the y-intercept (0,b).
2) Next, plot the y-intercept.
3) From the y-intercept, move up or down and left or right, depending on whether the slope
is positive or negative. Draw a point, and from there, move up or down and left or right
again to find a third point.
4) Draw a straight line through all three points.
CHAPTER 2 4
Example 6: Graph 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 10
To graph the equation using the slope and y-intercept, write the equation in the form
y=mx+b to find the slope m and the y-intercept (0,b).
2𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 10
2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑥 = −2𝑥 + 10
5𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 10
1
𝑦=− 𝑥+2
2
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 2
The slope 𝑚 = = = − and the y-intercept is (0, 2).
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑟𝑢𝑛 5
Now, plot the y-intercept. From there, move up or down two units (the rise) then move
right or left five units to the right (the run) to find additional points.
When the slope is negative, make the change in y negative to locate points to the right of
the y-intercept; make the change in x negative to locate points to the left of the y intercept.

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/x2f8bb11595b61c86:forms-of-
linear-equations/x2f8bb11595b61c86:standard-form/v/plotting-x-y-
relationships
CHAPTER 2 5
2.2. GRAPH OF INEQUALITIES
Objectives:
• Solve for the slope intercept, x and y intercept, and graph the following
inequalities.
Graphing inequalities is similar to graphing equations except for a few minor

differences
• If the graph consists of > 𝑜𝑟 <, the line is dotted.

• If the graph consists of ≥ 𝑜𝑟 ≤, the line is solid.
The graphing of the actual lines for inequalities is the same when graphing equalities.
Using the Symbols to Decide Where to Shade
1. Make sure the line(s) is in one of the following forms

a. 𝑦 > 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
b. 𝑦 ≥ 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
c. 𝑦 < 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
d. 𝑦 ≤ 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
2. Graph the lines as equations 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 but keep in mind if the line(s) need to be dotted
or not.
3. Decide where to shade
a. If you have 𝑦 > 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 or 𝑦 ≥ 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, then shade above the line.
b. If you have 𝑦 < 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 or 𝑦 ≤ 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, then shade below the line.
4. When a problem asks for you to graph the solution set of a system of inequalities, start
by going one line at a time. Graph the line and shade the correct side. Then repeat the
process for the next line, until you have graphed and shaded for each of the lines given.
Then look for the area that was shaded by all the inequalities. This area you will keep
shaded. For the other sections that are only shaded by one of the inequalities you erase
the shading.
Note: For vertical inequalities of the form

a. 𝑥 > 𝑎 or 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎, shade to the right
b. 𝑥 < 𝑎 or 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎, shade to the left
Example: Graph the solution set of 𝑦 < 3𝑥 − 2; 𝑦 ≥ −2𝑥 + 4
CHAPTER 2 6
Using Test Point to Decide Where to Shade
Graphing with test points is helpful when you cannot remember what symbol means
shade above or below. To use test points, we
1. Graph the inequality(s) (the same way as above)
2. Pick a point in a region that is not on any line
3. Put that point in to the inequality if the statement is true, shade the region that includes
that point. If you have a system of inequalities, put the point into both inequalities. Both
equations must be true for you to be able to shade.
4. Check other regions. These regions should make the inequality false.
1
Example: Graph the solution set of 𝑦 < 2 𝑥 + 4; 𝑥 ≥ 2
First Graph the lines

1
𝑦 < 2 𝑥 + 4 as a dotted line
𝑥 ≥ 2 as solid line
From the graph, we can

see that are four regions,
which we have labeled for
demonstrative purposes.
CHAPTER 2 7
We will start with region 3. It doesn’t matter what region you start with. Picking the point (0,0),
which is the easiest point if you can do it. Plugging the point into the inequalities we get
1
0 < (0) + 4 or 0 < 4 which is true
2
0 ≥ 2, which is false
Since both statements are not true, we cannot shade. Next, we’ll try region 1. We pick the point
(3,6) and plug this information into our inequalities we get
1
6 < (3) + 4 or 6 < 5.5 which is false
2
3 > 2, which is true

Since both statements are not true, we cannot shade.

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/x2f8bb11595b61c86:inequaliti
es-systems-graphs/x2f8bb11595b61c86:graphing-two-variable-
inequalities/v/graphing-inequalities
REFERENCES

CHAPTER 2 8
CHAPTER 3
LINES AND CIRCLES
3.1. SLOPE OF A LINE
Objectives:
• Solve for the slope of a line.
An important characteristic of a straight line is its slope, a number that represents the
“steepness” of the line. The slope m of a line through the two different points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
is defined as the change in y divided by the change in x, or
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 ∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚= = =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
where 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2
Example 1: Find the slope through the points (-7, 6) and (4, 5).
Solution:
∆𝑦 5−6 1
𝑚= = =−
∆𝑥 4 − (−7) 11
Example 2: Find the slope through the points (5, -3) and (-2, -
3).
Solution:
∆𝑦 −3 − (−3) 0
𝑚= = =− =0
∆𝑥 −2 − 5 7

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/x2f8bb11595b61c86:linear-
equations-graphs/x2f8bb11595b61c86:slope/v/slope-of-a-line
CHAPTER 3 1
3.2. STANDARD AND GENERAL EQUATIONS OF A LINE
Objectives:
• Solve for the standard and general equation of a line.
The standard form of the equation of a line is ax+by=c, with a≥0. If a, b, and c are all
rational, they often are converted t integer with no common factor. The point–slope form also
can be used to find an equation of a line if we know two different points that the lines goes
through.
Example 3: Find an equation of the line through (5, 4) and (-10, -2)
−2−4 −6 2
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = =
−10−5 −15 5
Used the two – point slope form

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
2
𝑦 − 4 = (𝑥 − 5)
5
5𝑦 − 20 = 2(𝑥 − 5)
5𝑦 − 20 = 2𝑥 − 10
5𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 10
−2𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 10
2𝑥 − 5𝑦 = −10 Standard Form
The formula 0=Ax+By+C is said to be the 'general form' for the equation of a line. A, B,
and C are three real numbers. Once these are given, the values for x and y that make the
statement true express a set, or locus, of (x, y) points which form a certain line.
5
Example 4: Convert 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2 to General Form
5
𝑦 = 2𝑥 −
2
−2𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 5
4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 5 = 0 General Form

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UBxwbcLWD4c
CHAPTER 3 2
3.3. PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
Objectives:
• Solve for parallel and perpendicular line.
One application of slope involves deciding whether two lines are parallel. Since two
parallel lines are equally “steep,” they should have the same slope. Also, two lines with the
same “steepness” are parallel.
PARALLEL LINES
Two non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope
Example 5: Find the equation of a line passes through the point (3, 5) and is parallel to
the line 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 4.
Solution:
2𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 4
2 4
𝑦=− 𝑥+
5 5
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
2
𝑦 − 5 = − (𝑥 − 3)
5
5(𝑦 − 5) = −2(𝑥 − 3)
5𝑦 − 25 = −2𝑥 + 6
2𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 31
PERPENDICULAR LINES
Two lines, neither of which is vertical, are perpendicular if and only if their slopes have a
product of –1.
Example 6: Find the slope of the line L perpendicular to the line having the equation
5𝑥 − 𝑦 = 4
To find the slope, write 5𝑥 − 𝑦 = 4 in slope–intercept form:

The slope is 5. Since the lines are perpendicular, if line L has slope, then 5m = −1 or
CHAPTER 3 3
1
𝑚=−
5

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/basic-geo/basic-geo-lines/parallel-
perp/v/parallel-and-perpendicular-lines-intro
3.4. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
Objectives:
• Solve angle between two lines.
The acute angle θ between the two lines whose slopes are 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are given by
𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = | |
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2
If the lines are parallel then 𝑚1 = 𝑚2
If the lines are perpendicular then 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1
Example 7: Find the angle between the lines 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 7 = 0 and 7𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 9 = 0.
Solution:
Comparing the equation with equation of straight line, 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐,
2
Slope of line 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 7 = 0 is (𝑚1 ) = 3
7
Slope of line 7𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 9 = 0 is (𝑚2 ) = − 4
Let, 𝜃 bet he angle between two lines, then
CHAPTER 3 4
Example 8: Find the equation of the line through (3, 2) and making angle 45° with
the line 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 3.
Solution:
Let m be the slope of the required line passing through (3, 2). So, using slope point form,
its equation is 𝑦 − 2 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 3)
1
Slope of line 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 3 is
2
Since, these lines make an angle of 45° so,
Substituting values of m in equation 𝑦 − 2 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 3),

(𝑥−3)
we get 𝑦 − 2 = 3(𝑥 − 3) and 𝑦 − 2 = or
3
3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 7 = 0 and 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 9 = 0 are the required equations of line.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JSEPDJfl8m8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ILZzOzUNXuSs
3.5. DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO A LINE
Objectives:
• Solve for the distance from a point to a line.
The distance from a point (m, n) to the line Ax+By+C=0 is given by:
|𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑛 + 𝐶 |
𝑑=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2
There are some examples using this formula following the proof.
Proof of the Perpendicular Distance Formula
Let’s start with the line Ax+By+C=0 and
𝐴
label it DE. It has slope − 𝐵.
CHAPTER 3 5
We have a point P with coordinates (m, n). We wish to find the perpendicular distance
from the point P to the line DE (that is, distance PQ)
We now do a trick to make things easier for ourselves (the algebra is really horrible
𝐴
otherwise). We construct a line parallel to DE through (m, n). This line will also have slope −
𝐵
since it is parallel to DE. We will call this line FG.
Now, we construct another line parallel to PQ passing through the origin.

𝐵
This line will have slope 𝐴, because it is perpendicular to DE.
Let's call it line RS. We extend it to the origin (0,0).

We will find the distance RS, which I hope you agree is equal to the distance PQ that
we wanted at the start.
CHAPTER 3 6
𝐴 𝐴
Since FG passes through (m, n) and has slope − , its equation is 𝑦 − 𝑛 = − (𝑥 − 𝑚) or
𝐵 𝐵
−𝐴𝑥+𝐴𝑚+𝐵𝑛
𝑦= 𝐵
𝐵
Line RS has equation 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑥.
𝐵 −𝐴𝑥+𝐴𝑚+𝐵𝑛
Line FG intersect with line RS when 𝐴 𝑥 = 𝐵
𝐴(𝐴𝑚+𝐵𝑛)
Solving this gives us 𝑥 = 𝐴2 +𝐵2
𝐵
So, after substituting this back into 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑥, we find that point R is
𝐴(𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑛) 𝐵(𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑛)

=
𝐴2 + 𝐵2 𝐴2 + 𝐵2
𝐵
Point S is the intersection of the lines 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑥 and 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0, which can be written
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑦=−
𝐵
This occurs when (that is, we are solving them simultaneously)
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐶 𝐵
− = 𝑥
𝐵 𝐴
−𝐴𝐶 −𝐵𝐶
Solving for x gives ,
𝐴2 +𝐵2 𝐴2 +𝐵2
The Distance RS, using the distance formula,
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 is
−𝐴𝐶 𝐴(𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑛) 2 −𝐵𝐶 𝐵(𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑛) 2

𝑑 = √( − ) + ( − )
𝐴2 + 𝐵2 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 𝐴2 + 𝐵2
{(−𝐴(𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑛 + 𝐶 )}2 + {(−𝐵(𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑛 + 𝐶 )}2

=√
(𝐴2 + 𝐵2 )2
(𝐴2 + 𝐵2 )(𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑛 + 𝐶 )2
=√
(𝐴2 + 𝐵2 )2
(𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑛 + 𝐶 )2
=√
(𝐴2 + 𝐵2 )
|𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑛 + 𝐶 |
𝑑=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2
CHAPTER 3 7
Example 1
Find the perpendicular distance from the pint (5, 6) to the line −2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4 = 0,
using the formula we just found.
|𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑛 + 𝐶 |
𝑑=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2
|(−2)(5) + (3)(6) + 4|
= = 3.328
√4 + 9
Here is the graph of the situation. We can see that our
answer of just over 3 units is reasonable.
6
Example 2 Find the distance from the point (-3, 7) to the line 𝑦 = 5 𝑥 + 2
We first need to express the given line in standard form.

6
𝑦 = 𝑥+2
5
5𝑦 = 6𝑥 + 10
6𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 10 = 0
Using the formula for the distance from a point to a line, we have:
|𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵𝑛 + 𝐶 |
𝑑=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2
|(6)(−3) + (−5)(7) + 10|
𝑑=
√36 + 25
= |−5.506|
= 5.506

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h13wl_gi4GA
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/geometry-home/analtic-geometry-
topic/distance-between-a-point-and-a-line/v/distance-between-a-point-and-
a-line
CHAPTER 3 8
3.6. EQUATION OF A CIRCLE IN CENTER-RADIUS FORM
Objectives:
• Solve for the center-radius form of an equation.
A circle is the s of all points in a plane equidistant from a

DEFINITION 3.6 fixed point. The fixed point is called the center, and the content
equal distance is called the radius.
The circle with center at the point (h, k) and radius r has an
THEOREM 3.6.1 equation
(𝑥 − ℎ )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2
Example 1: Find an equation of the circle having a diameter with endpoints at A(-2, 3) and
B(4, 5)
Solution: The midpoint of the line segment from A to B is the center of the circle.
−2 + 4 3+5
ℎ= 𝑘=
2 2
=1 =4
The center is at C(1, 4). The radius of the circle can be computed as either |𝐶𝐴| or |𝐶𝐵|.
If 𝑟 = |𝐶𝐴|, then
𝑟 = √(1 + 2)2 + (4 + 3)2 = √10

An equation of the circle is therefore,
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 = 10
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 7 = 0
For further understanding visit this link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JbEfcJyOd2Y
CHAPTER 3 9
3.7. GENERAL EQUATION OF A CIRCLE
Objectives:
• Solve for the general equation of a circle.
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
which is called the general form of an equation of a circle. Because every circle has a center
and radius, its equation can be put in the center–radius form, and hence into the general form. If
we start with an equation of a circle in the general form, we can write it in the center–radius form
by completing squares.
NOTE:
𝑟 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
𝑟 > 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
𝑟 < 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
Example: Find the center and radius of the circle having the equation
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 15 = 0
Solution: The given equation may be written as

(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 ) + (𝑦 2 − 2𝑦) = 15
(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9) + (𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1) = 15 + 9 + 1
(𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑥 − 1)2 = 25
Because this equation is in the center–radius form, the center is at (-3,1) and the radius
is 5. Therefore, the graph is in the circle graph.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XhISU5aCuTg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xmde2JLKAFQ
REFERENCES

CHAPTER 3 10
CHAPTER 4
CONICS
4.1. PARABOLA
Objectives:
• Identify the three main forms of a parabolic equation.

• Demonstrate a deep understanding of one form of parabolic equation.
• Use concepts of vertex, axis of symmetry and intercept as they relate to
parabolas.
A second conic section, which appears in a great many physical applications, is the
parabola. In this section, we shall derive its equation and study its properties.
By definition, a parabola is the locus of points in a plane equidistant from a given line
and a given point not on the line. The line is called the directrix, and the point is called the
focus. A simple equation for a parabola is found if a point on the x-axis is used for the focus
and a line perpendicular to the x-axis and on the opposite side of the origin from the focus is
used as the directrix.
The distance from an arbitrary point (x, y) to the focus (a, 0) is, by the distance formula,
√(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 . The perpendicular from (x, y) to the directrix intersects that line at (−a, y),
and so the distance from the point to the line is √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦)2 = |x + a|. The point (x, y)
lies on the parabola if and only if the two distances are equal. Hence an equation of the
parabola is
√(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑦 2 = |x + a|
An equivalent equation, which is simpler, is obtained by squaring both sides. We get
𝑥 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥

This equation has been derived in such a way that its graph contains all points and only
those points equidistant from the focus and the directrix.
CHAPTER 4 1
The point on a parabola nearest its directrix is called the vertex. For the parabola defined
2
by 𝑦 = 4𝑎𝑥, the vertex is the origin, and there are no points on the curve to the left of the
vertex. Since |y| increases indefinitely as x increases, the graph is not a closed curve but opens
to the right. Note that the graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis.
If we had chosen (−a, 0) for the focus and the line x=a for the directrix, we would have a
parabola with equation 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥. This parabola would also have its vertex at the origin, also be
symmetric with respect to the x-axis, but would open to the left.
With a horizontal directrix and the focus on the y-axis, the equation would be
𝑥 = 4𝑎𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 = −4𝑎𝑦, opening upward or downward, respectively. Thus, the graphs of 𝑦 2 =
2
𝑘𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 = 𝑘𝑦 are parabolas with their vertices at the origin. The line through the vertex and
the focus is called the axis of the parabola. The graph of 𝑦 2 = 𝑘𝑥 has the x axis for its axis and
opens to the right or left, depending on the sign of k. The graph of 𝑥 2 = 𝑘𝑦has the y-axis for its
axis and opens upward or downward, depending on the sign of k. The absolute value of k
determines the shape of the parabola. If k=0, the two equations reduce to 𝑦 2 = 0 and 𝑥 2 = 0 ,
whose graphs are the x-axis and the y-axis respectively. Thus, a straight line may be regarded
as a degenerate parabola.
Example 1:
Find the coordinates of the focus and an equation of the directrix of 𝑥 2 = −7𝑦,
7
and sketch its graph. An equivalent form of the equation is 𝑥 2 = −4 (4) 𝑦, from which
7 7
it follows that the focus is (0, − 4), that the directrix is 𝑦 = 4, and that the graph opens
downward.
Example 2:
Write an equation of the parabola with focus at (−3,0) and directrix x=3. Sketch
its graph. An equation may be found by use of the definition or by use of the formulas,
either method giving 𝑦 2 = −12𝑥 as the simplest equation.
In every case considered so far, the parabola has one of the coordinate axes for its axis
and the focus and directrix are equally spaced on opposite sides of the origin. The equations
CHAPTER 4 2
are somewhat more involved if other vertical or horizontal lines are chosen as axes, and even
more involved if the parabolas have axes which are not parallel to one of the coordinate axes.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uePqXn7FXvY
4.2. ELLIPSE
Objectives:
• Describe that a circle is a special ellipse.

• Describe that the equation 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 = 𝐶. Represents an ellipse when the
coefficients A, B and P are the same sign.
• Describe the axis of symmetry parallel to the x-axis as the horizontal axis
of an ellipse.
A third conic section, quite fashion able these days as astronauts circle the earth in
elliptical orbits, is the ellipse. In this section we shall derive its equation and study its properties.
By definition, an ellipse is the locus of points in a plane the sum of whose distances
from two given points is a constant. The constant, of course, must be greater than the distance
between the two given points. The two points are called the foci of the ellipse. A simple equation
for an ellipse is found if the points (−c,0) and (c,0) are
used for foci and 2a for the constant sum of distances.
The distance from (x, y) to (−c,0) is √(𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 ,
and that from (x, y) to (c,0) is √(𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 . The
point (x, y) lies on the ellipse if and only if the sum of
these two distances is equal to 2a. Hence, an equation of
the ellipse is
CHAPTER 4 3
√(𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 + √(𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
Simpler equivalent equations are found by subtracting √(𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 from both sides of
the equation
√(𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 = 2𝑎 − √(𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
squaring both sides of the equation and simplifying
𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎2 − 4𝑎√(𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 = 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑦 2 ,
4𝑎√(𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎2 − 4𝑐𝑥,

dividing by 4 and squaring again
𝑎2 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 𝑎4 − 2𝑎2 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 𝑥 2
and simplifying again,
𝑥 2 (𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 ) + 𝑎2 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 (𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 )
Finally, dividing by 𝑎2 (𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 ) we have
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2
Since a>c, it follows that 𝑎2 > 𝑐 2 , and were place 𝑎 2 − 𝑐 2 by 𝑏2 . We then have the
canonical form of an equation for the ellipse,
𝑥2 𝑦 2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
This equation is derived in such a way that its graph contains all points which satisfy the
locus condition. One of the problems at the end of the section will be to show that the graph
contains only those points.
By placing y equal to 0, we obtain x=±a. The graph therefore cuts the x-axis at
(−a,0) and at (a,0), and the numbers a and −a are the x intercepts of the graph. The line
segment between (−a,0) and (a,0) is called the major axis of the ellipse. Similarly, the graph
cuts the y-axis at (0,−b) and at (0,b), and the numbers b and −b are the y intercepts of the
graph. The line segment between (0,−b) and (0,b) is called the minor axis of the ellipse. It is not
CHAPTER 4 4
difficult to see that there are no points on the graph for which |x|>a or for |y|>b. Symmetry
across both axes and across the origin can be seen by noting that (−p, q), (p,−q), and (−p,−q) all
lie on the graph if (p, q) does.
There is a simple method of constructing an ellipse by placing thumbtacks at the
foci and looping around them a string of length 2a+2c. If a pencil is placed in the loop so as to
hold it taut and moved in a complete turnaround the foci, the curve traced is an ellipse. This is
readily seen from the definition.
Example 1:
Describe the graph of 4𝑥 2 + 25𝑦 2 = 100 and draw it. An equivalent form of
𝑥2 𝑦2
the equation is + = 1, from which it is apparent that the graph is an ellipse with
25 4
x intercepts of −5 and 5, major axis of length10, y-intercepts of −2 and 2, and minor
axis of length 4. The intersection of these axes, in this case the origin, is called the
center of the ellipse. Using 𝑎 2 = 25, 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 = 4, we have 𝑐 2 = 21. Thus, the foci
are (−√21, 0) at and (√21, 0).
If the foci are located on the y-axis at (0,c) and (0,−c), an analogous derivation gives the
equation
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦 2
+ = 1 and its equivalent form + =1
𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑏2
In this case, the major axis is the line segment between (0,−a) and (0,a), and the minor
axis that between (−b,0) and (b,0).
Example 2:
Describe and draw the graph of 4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 36. An equivalent form of the

𝑥2 𝑦2
equation is 9
+ 36 = 1, from which we see that the positive y intercept is larger than
the positive x intercept and therefore that the foci are on the y-axis. The x-intercepts
are 3 and -3, the y-intercepts are 6 and -6, and the foci are at (0, √36 − 9)
CHAPTER 4 5
Examples 1 and 2 were each for an ellipse with its center at the origin. In a manner
similar to that used in the last section, we can write an equation for an ellipse with center at
(h, k) and foci at (h−c, k) and (h+c, k). The equation is then
(𝑥 − ℎ )2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
If the center is at (h, k) and the foci at (h, k−c) and (h, k+c), an equation is
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑥 − ℎ )2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
Example 3:
Describe and draw the graph of 16𝑥 2 + 25𝑦 2 = 64𝑥 + 150𝑦 − 111 = 0.
Equations equivalent to this one are
16(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) + 25(𝑦 2 + 6𝑦) = 111
16(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + 25(𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 9) = 111 + 16(4) + 25(9)

16(𝑥 − 2)2 + 25(𝑦 + 3)2 = 400
(𝑥 − 2)2 (𝑦 + 3)2
+ =1
25 16
From the last equation we can see that the graph is an ellipse with center at (2, −3),
horizontal major axis of length 10, vertical minor axis of length 8, and 𝑐 = √25 − 16. Thus, the
foci are at (−1,−3) and (5,−3).
As Example4 illustrates, almost every equation of the type 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑒 = 0

with ab>0 has an ellipse for its graph. There as on for the “almost” can be seen as we write
equivalent equations
If the expression on the right side of the last equation has the
same sign as a (and hence b), then the graph is an ellipse. If the
expression on the right side is equal to zero, the graph is the single
𝑐 𝑑
point − 2𝑎 , − 2𝑏. If the expression on the right side has sign opposite
to that of a, there is no graph, although the equation is said to have
an imaginary ellipse for its graph. If a=b, the foci coincide and the
graph is a circle.
CHAPTER 4 6

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/precalculus/x9e81a4f98389efdf:conic
s/x9e81a4f98389efdf:ellipse-center-radii/v/conic-sections-intro-to-ellipses
4.3. HYPERBOLA
Objectives:
• Locate a hyperbola's vertices and foci.

• Write equations of hyperbolas in standard form.
• Graph hyperbolas centered at the origin.
• Graph hyperbolas not centered at the origin.
• Solve applied problems involving hyperbolas
The fourth and last conic section is the hyperbola. By definition a hyperbola is the locus
of points in a plane the absolute value of the difference of whose distances from two given
points is a positive constant. The constant must be less than the distance between the two
points, since the length of one side of a triangle must be greater than the absolute value of the
difference between the lengths of the other two sides. The two given points are called the foci of
the hyperbola.
If we select (−c,0) and (c,0) as foci and 2a as the difference of distances, the point (x, y)
will lie on the hyperbola if and only if
|√(𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 − √(𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 | = 2𝑎
This equation is an abbreviation for the two equations
|√(𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 − √(𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 | = 2𝑎
|√(𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 − √(𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 | = 2𝑎
We shall simplify the first of these two equations and leave as Problem 1 at the end of
the section the proof that a similar simplification of the second results in the same equation.
The steps are similar to those for the simplification of the defining equation of an ellipse:
√(𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 = 2𝑎 + √(𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
𝑥 2 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎2 √(𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑦 2
−4𝑐𝑥 − 4𝑎2 = 4𝑎√(𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
𝑐 2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑎2 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑎4 = 𝑎2 (𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑦 2 )
(𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 )𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 )
CHAPTER 4 7
and finally
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
This last equation is closely akin to the equation of an ellipse; however, the second term
𝑦2 𝑦2
is 𝑐 2−𝑎 2 instead of 𝑎2−𝑐 2 . For the hyperbola, it is the case that 2𝑎 < 2𝑐 and so 𝑎 < 𝑐, and
therefore 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 > 0. Thus, it is 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 which we replace by 𝑏2 to obtain the canonical
equation for the hyperbola
𝑥2 𝑦 2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
We know, from the derivation, that the graph of this equation contains all points (x,y)
such that the distance between (c,0) and (x, y) is 2a more than the distance between (−c,0) and
(x, y). In Problem 1 you will be asked to show that the graph also contains all points (x, y) such
that the distance between (−c,0) and (x, y) is 2a more than the distance between (c,0) and (x,
y). In Problem 3 you will be asked to show that the graph contains only those points.
By setting y equal to 0, we see that the graph cuts the x-axis at (−a,0) and (a,0). These
points are called the vertices of the hyperbola and the line segment joining them the
𝑏2
transverse axis. By writing the equivalent equation 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 2 (𝑥 2 = 𝑎2 ), we see that there are no
points on the graph for |x| < a, and |y| increases indefinitely as |x| increases. The curve is
symmetric with respect to both axes and to the origin, since (−p, q), (p,−q), and (−p,−q) all lie on
the graph whenever (p, q) does. When we ask for the sketch of a hyperbola, it is the central part
which is to be drawn.
𝑏
The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 is the upper half of the right branch of the hyperbola for x≥a
and the upper half of the left branch for x≤−a. In each case, since |x| > √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 , it is true that
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑎
|x| > 𝑎 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 . However, the difference between the two functions 𝑎 |x| and 𝑎 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 gets
less and less as |x| increases. Thus, the upper half of the hyperbola lies below the graph of
𝑏 𝑏
𝑦 = |x| but gets closer to it as |x| increases. Similarly, the graph of𝑦 = √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑦 is the lower
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏
half of the hyperbola and it lies above the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎 |x|, but gets closer to it as |x| increases.
𝑏 𝑏
The union of the two graphs, those of 𝑦 = 𝑎 |x| and 𝑦 = − 𝑎 |x|, is also the union of the graphs of
𝑏 𝑏
the straight lines 𝑦 = − 𝑎 x and 𝑦 = − 𝑎 x. These lines, approached by the hyperbola, are called
the asymptotes of the hyperbola. They are of use in sketching the graph of a hyperbola, giving
CHAPTER 4 8
guidelines approached by the hyperbola. They are easily drawn as the diagonals of the
rectangle with vertical sides passing through the vertices of the hyperbola and horizontal sides
passing through (0, −b) and (0,b).
𝑥2 𝑦2
Example 1: Describe and sketch the graph of 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2 = 1. Here we have a=4,
b=3, and c=5. The transverse axis is of length 8, the x-intercepts are −4 and 4, the
3 3
foci are at (−5,0) and (5,0), and the asymptotes are the lines 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 and 𝑦 = − 4 𝑥.
A very useful device for remembering equations of the asymptotes is obtained by
replacing the ”1” in the equation of the hyperbola by ”0”:
𝑥2 𝑦 2
− =1
16 9
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
which is equivalent to ( + ) ( − ) = 1
4 3 4 3
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
The graph of this equation is the union of the graphs of ( 4 + 3 ) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( 4 − 3 ) = 0,
equations of the asymptotes.
If the foci of the hyperbola are on the y-axis, at (0,−c) and (0,c) the equation will be
𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑎2
− 𝑏2 = 1. The graph will have branches opening upward and down ward instead of to the right
𝑎 𝑎
and left. The lines 𝑦 = 𝑏 x and 𝑦 = − 𝑏 x will be asymptotes.
(𝑥+2)2 (𝑦−1) 2
Example 2: Describe and sketch the graph of 9
− 16
. The center of the
hyperbola is at (−2,1), the foci are at (−7,1) and (3,1), and the transverse axis is
4
horizontal and of length 6. The asymptotes have equations 𝑦 − 1 = 3 (𝑥 + 2) and
4
𝑦 − 1 = − 3 (𝑥 + 2). There is a focus–directrix definition of the hyperbola,
analogous to those for the parabola and the ellipse. The distance from a point (x,y)
to the focus (c, 0) is √(𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 . The point lies on the hyperbola if and only if
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑐2
− = 1 or 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥2 .
𝑎2 𝑐 2−𝑎 2 𝑎2
CHAPTER 4 9
Thus, the distance from a point on the hyperbola to the focus is
𝑐2 2 𝑐2
√𝑥 2 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 + (𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 ) = √ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑎2
𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑐 2
= √( 𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑎
𝑐
= | 𝑥 − 𝑎|
𝑎
𝑐 𝑎2 𝑐
As with the ellipse, this distance is equal to 𝑎 |𝑥 − 𝑐
| or 𝑎 times the distance to the line
𝑎2 𝑐
𝑥= 𝑐
. This line is again called the directrix, and the ratio 𝑎 the eccentricity. However, for the
hyperbola the eccentricity is greater than 1. The hyperbola can therefore also be defined as the
locus of points the ratio of whose distances to the focus and to the directrix is a constant greater
𝑎2
than 1. Corresponding to the focus (−c,0) is a second directrix 𝑥 = − .
𝑐
Not all hyperbolas with horizontal or vertical axes appear with equations in canonical
form. But canonical equations can be found for them by factoring and completing the square.

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/precalculus/x9e81a4f98389efdf:conic
s/x9e81a4f98389efdf:hyperb-intro/v/conic-sections-intro-to-hyperbolas
REFERENCES

CHAPTER 4 10
CHAPTER 5
FUNCTIONS
5.1. DOMAIN AND RANGE
Objectives:
• Determine the domain and range of a function.
Function is a type of relation between two sets of elements in which for each
element in the first set there corresponds one and only one element in the second set.
The first set, which is usually the set of x values, is called the domain, and the second set
of all corresponding elements in the second set, which is usually the set of y values, is
called range.
Example 1: State the domain and range of the following relation. Is the relation a
function? {(2,–3),(4,6),(3,–1),(6,6),(2,3)}
The above list of points, being a relationship between certain x's and certain y's, is a
relation. The domain is all the x-values, and the range is all the y-values. To give the domain
and the range, I just list the values without duplication:
domain: {2,3,4,6}
range: {–3,–1,3,6}
While the given set does indeed represent a relation (because x's and y's are being
related to each other), the set they gave me contains two points with the same x value: (2,–3)
and (2,3). Since x=2 gives me two possible destinations (that is, two possible y-values), then
this relation is not a function.
Example 2: Determine the domain and range of the given function:
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0
CHAPTER 5 1
The domain is all the values that x is allowed to take on. The only problem I have with
this function is that I need to be careful not to divide by zero. So, the only values that x cannot
take on are those which would cause division by zero. So, I'll set the denominator equal to zero
and solve; my domain will be everything else.
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1
Then the domain is "all x not equal to –1 or 2".
The range is "all real numbers".
−2𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0
The domain is all values that x can take on. The only problem I have with this function is
that I cannot have a negative inside the square root. So, I'll set the insides greater than or equal
to zero, and solve. The result will be my domain:
−2𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0
2𝑥 ≤ 3
3
𝑥≤ = 1.5
2
Then the domain is "all x ≤3/2".
The range is "all y ≤0".
CHAPTER 5 2

𝑦 = −𝑥 4 + 4
This is just a garden-variety polynomial. There are no denominators (so, no division-

by zero problems) and no radicals (so no square root of a negative problems). There are no
problems with a polynomial. There are no values that I can't plugin for x. When I have a
polynomial, the answer for the domain is always:
The domain is "all x".
The range is "all y ≤4".

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/a;gebra/x2f8bb11595b61c86:functions
/x2f8bb11595b61c86:introduction-to-the-domain-and-range-of-a-
function/v/domain-of-a-function-intro
5.2. SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
Objectives:
• Graph and solve the Special Functions: Absolute Value, Step, Constant,
Linear, Quadratic, and Greater Integer.
ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTIONS

Illustration: This is the Absolute Value Function:
𝒇(𝒙) = |𝒙|
CHAPTER 5 3
Its Domain is the Real Numbers

Its Range Is the Non-Negative Real Numbers: [0,+∞)
Example 5: Graph the absolute value function below using the table of values.
𝑦 = |𝑥 − 2|
The first step is to find the latex is not defined-coordinate of the vertex which will serve
as the center point in the table of values of latex is not defined.
−𝑏 −(−2)
𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = ( , 𝑐) = ( , 0) = (2,0)
𝑚 1
The latex is not defined-coordinate of the vertex will be the center value of all latex is not
defined on the table. We generated the rest of the latex is not defined by finding three numbers
to the left and right of the middle value of latex is not defined with an increment of latex is not
defined. You may use an increment of latex is not defined, and trust me, the graph will be the
same.
Plot the points on the latex are not defined plane

and connect the dots with a straight edge. If you get it
right, you should have something similar below. As you
can see, the low point of the graph is the vertex located
at (latex is not defined, latex is not defined).
Its Domain is the Real Numbers

Its Range Is the Non-Negative Real Numbers: [2,+∞)
CHAPTER 5 4
STEP FUNCTIONS
A step function is a piecewise-defined function in which every piece is a horizontal
line segment or a point.
Mathematically speaking, a step function is a function whose graph looks like a series
of steps because it consists of a series of horizontal line segments with jumps in -between. For
this reason, it is also sometimes called a stair case function.
Example 6: Let the function shown be defined for all the integers as
𝑦 = 2 for 𝑥 < 1; 𝑦 = 3 for 𝑥 ≥ 1
This function is made up of infinitely many discrete points each of which have a y-
coordinate of either −2 or 3.
Example 7: Consider the function, y=-n for 𝑛 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑛 + 1 where 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
This function is made up of infinitely many horizontal segments, each of which includes
the right endpoint but not the left endpoint.
CHAPTER 5 5
CONSTANT FUNCTIONS
A constant function is a linear function for which the range does not change no matter
which member of the domain is used. 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥2 ) for any 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 in the domain.
With a constant function, for any two points in the interval, a change in x results in a
zero change in 𝑓 (𝑥).
Example 8: Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3.
The graph of a constant function is always a horizontal line.
DOMAIN AND RANGE OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS
Example 9: Find the domain and range of the linear function 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 1.
The first thing I’ve observed is that there is no square root symbol or denominator in this
problem. This is wonderful because getting a square root of a negative number or a division of
zero is not possible with this function. Since there are no x-values that can make the function to
output invalid results, I can easily claim that the domain is all x values. However, it is much
better to write it in set notation or interval notation.
Here’s the summary of the domain and range of the given function written in two ways
CHAPTER 5 6
Because the function involved is a line, I can predict that the range is all y values. It
can definitely go as high or as low without any limits. Look at the graph below to understand
what I mean. It’s always wonderful to see the graph of the function together with its domain and
range, in pictorial format.
Example 10: Find the domain and range of the quadratic function
𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 3
I can see that I can plug any values of x into the function and it will produce a valid
output. So, I can safely say that its domain is all x values. This time, however, I need to be
careful how to describe the range. Is it going to be all y values? Well, I don’t think so, because I
know this function is a parabola and one of its traits is having a high point (maximum) or a low
point (minimum). To be safe, I will first graph it.
The graph of the parabola has a low point at y=3 and it can go as high as it wants. Using
inequality, I will write the range as y≥3. Summary of domain and range in tabular form:
CHAPTER 5 7
GREATEST INTEGER FUNCTION

In mathematics, a common example used to introduce step functions is the greatest
integer function (also called the floor function).The greatest integer function is often represented
as x with bottom brackets around it.
It maps each real number x to the greatest integer that is less than or equal to x.
Whatever we put into the greatest integer function; we get the greatest integer that is less than
or equal to that input as our output. Here is the graph of the greatest integer function.
It is easy to see that the greatest integer function is a step function from its graph.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gh8m_stXv3I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i-mOO8Rt1G4
5.3. OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS
Objectives:
• Perform the operations on functions.
If f and g are two functions, a new function f(g), called the composition of g with f, is defined
by (f(g))(x)=f(g(x)).
CHAPTER 5 8
(𝒇 + 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙),

(𝒇 − 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙),
(𝒇𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙),
𝒇 𝒇(𝒙)
(𝒙) = 𝒊𝒇 𝒈(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎
𝒈 𝒈(𝒙)
𝑥+1
Example 11: If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥−1, then
3
(𝑓(𝑔))(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = (𝑔(𝑥)) − 1
𝑥+1 3 2(3𝑥 2 + 1)
=( ) −1=
𝑥−1 (𝑥 − 1)3
The composition of two functions is the function obtained by applying one after the other.
If f and g are regarded as computing machines, then f(g) is the composite machine constructed
by feeding the output of g into the input of f as indicated in the figure below.
In general, it is not true that f(g)=g(f). In the above example we have

𝑓(𝑥) + 1
(𝑔(𝑓))(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) =
𝑓(𝑥) − 1
(𝑥 3 − 1) + 1 𝑥3
= 3 =
(𝑥 + 1) + 1 𝑥 3 + 2
and the two functions are certainly not the same. In terms of ordered pairs the composition f(g)
of g with f is formally defined to be these to f all ordered pairs (a, c) for which there is an
element b such that b=g(a) and c=f(b). If f and g are two real valued functions, we can perform
the usual arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Thus for the
𝑥+1
functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
we have
𝑥+1
𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 1 +
𝑥−1
𝑥+1
𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 1 −
𝑥−1
CHAPTER 5 9
𝑥+1
𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 3 − 1)
𝑥−1
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 3 − 1 (𝑥 3 − 1)(𝑥 − 1)
= =
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
𝑥−1
Example 12: Let functions f and g be defined by f(x) = x − 2 and g(x) = x2 − 5x + 6.

Draw the graphs of f, g, 2f, and f+g.
Solution:
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
= (𝑥 − 2) + (𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6)
= 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4
= (𝑥 − 2)2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fieyNGo8Tbw
REFERENCES

CHAPTER 5 10
CHAPTER 6
LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS
6.1. INTUITIVE MOTIVATION FOR LIMITS
Objectives:
• Demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the tangent line

and the limit.
• Demonstrate an understanding of the area between a curve and the x axis.
• Understand the notion of the limit of a function as an independent variable.
Limits is one of the most fundamental concepts of calculus. The foundation of

calculus was not entirely solid during the time of Leibniz and Newton, but later
developments on the concept, particularly the ε-δ definition by Cauchy, Weierstrass and
other mathematicians established its firm foundation. In the discussion below, I shall
introduce the concept of limits intuitively as it appears in common problems.
Circumference and Limits
If we are going to approximate the circumference of a circle using the perimeter of an

inscribed polygon, even without computation, we can observe that as the number of sides of the
polygon increases, the better the approximation. In fact, we can make the perimeter of the
polygon as close as we please to the circumference of the circle by choosing a sufficiently large
number of sides. Notice that no matter how large the number of sides our polygon has, its
perimeter will never exceed or equal the circumference of the circle.
As the number of sides of the polygons increases, its perimeter gets closer to the circumference
of the circle.
Functions and Limits
1
Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 where x is a natural number. Calculating the values of the
function using the first 20 natural numbers and plotting the points in the xy-plane.
CHAPTER 6 1
Tangent line and Limits
Recall that the slope of a line is its “rise” over its “run”. The formula of slope m of a line is
𝑦2 −𝑦1
𝑚= , given two points with coordinates (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ). One of the famous ancient
𝑥2 −𝑥1
problems in mathematics was the tangent problem, which is getting the slope of a line tangent
to a function at a point. In the Figure3, line n is tangent to the function f at point P.
Area and Limits
Another ancient problem is about finding the area under a curve. During the ancient
time, finding the area of a curved plane was impossible.
CHAPTER 6 2
Numbers and Limits
We end with a more familiar example usually found in books. What if we want to find the
limit of 2𝑥 + 1 as x approaches 3?
To answer the question, we must find the value 2𝑥 + 1where x is very close to 3. Those
values would be numbers that are very close to 3– some slightly greater than 3 and some
slightly less than 3.Place the values in a table we have
As x approaches 3, 2𝑥 + 1 approaches 7.

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-limits-new/ab-
limits-optional/v/limit-intuition-review
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nDJ8XNg9KTU
6.2. FORMAL DEFINITION (EPSILON-DELTA)
Objectives:
• Given a real value c and a real-valued function f, determine a positive δ

that satisfies the formal definition of a limit for different values of positive ϵ
• Compose a proof of a limit using the formal definition for certain simple
functions.
Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined on an open interval around

𝑥0 (𝑓 (𝑥0 ) need to be defined). We say that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as x
approaches 𝑥0 is L, i.e.
DEFINITION 6.2 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿,

𝑥→𝑥0
If for every 𝜀 > 0 there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that for all x
0 < |𝑥 = 𝑥0 | < 𝛿 → |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀
In words, the definition states that we can make values returned by the function f(x) as
close as we would like to the value L by using only the points in a small enough intervals around
CHAPTER 6 3
𝑥0 .One helpful interpretation of this definition is visualizing an exchange between two parties,
Alice and Bob. First, Alice challenges Bob, "I want to ensure that the values of f(x) will be no
farther than 𝜀 > 0 from L" If the limit exists and is indeed L, then Bob will be able to respond by
giving her a value of 𝛿, "If for all points x is within an 𝛿-radius interval of 𝑥0 , then f(x) will always
be within an 𝜀 -interval of L." If the limit exists, then Bob will be able to respond to Alice's
challenge no matter how small she chooses 𝜀.
For example, in the graph for function f(x) below, if Alice gives Bob the value 𝜀, then
Bob gives her the number 𝛿 such that for any x in the open
interval 𝑥0 − 𝛿, 𝑥0 + 𝛿, the value of f(x) lies in the interval
𝐿 − 𝜀, 𝐿 + 𝜀. In this example, as Alice makes 𝜀 smaller and
smaller, Bob can always find a smaller 𝛿 satisfying this
property, which shows that the limit exists
The exchange between Alice and Bob
demonstrates, Alice begins by giving a value of 𝜀 and then
after knowing this value, Bob can determine a
corresponding value for 𝛿. Because of this ordering of
events, the value of 𝛿 is often given as a function of 𝜀.
Note that there may be multiple values of 𝛿 that Bob can
give.
If there is any value of 𝜀 for which Bob cannot find
a corresponding 𝛿,then the limit does not exist.

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-limits-new/ab-
limits-optional/v/epsilon-delta-definition-of-limits
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejyell0i5c
6.3. THEOREMS ON LIMITS
Objectives:
• Know the basic theorems and how to apply them to evaluate limits.
If m and n are any constant, lim (𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑏

THEOREM 1 𝑥→𝑎
Example 1 lim (3𝑥 + 5) = (3)(2) + 5 = 11

𝑥→2
CHAPTER 6 4
If c is a constant, then for any number a, lim 𝑐 = 𝑐

Example 2 lim 7 = 7
𝑥→5
lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
Example 3 lim 𝑥 = −6
𝑥→−6
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 ± 𝑀]

THEOREM 4 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
If lim 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐿1 , lim 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝐿2 , … , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) =

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑛
THEOREM 5 𝐿𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim [𝑓1 (𝑥) ± 𝑓2 (𝑥) … ± 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)] = 𝐿1 ± ⋯ ± 𝐿𝑛
𝑥→𝑎
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿𝑀]

THEOREM 6 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Example 4
lim [𝑥(2𝑥 + 1)] = lim 𝑥 lim (2𝑥 + 1) = 3(7) = 21
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3
If lim 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐿1 , lim 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝐿2 , … , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) =

THEOREM 7 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑛
𝐿𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim [𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑓2 (𝑥) … 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)] = 𝐿1 𝐿2 … 𝐿𝑛
𝑥→𝑎
If lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐿 and n is any positive integer, then

lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛 ]
𝑥→𝑎
Example 5
4
lim (5𝑥 + 7)4 = [ lim (5𝑥 + 7)] = (−3)4 = 81
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2
If lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 9
𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
lim = 𝑖𝑓 𝑀 ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑀
CHAPTER 6 5
Example 6
𝑥 lim x 4
𝑥→4
lim = =−
𝑥→4 −7 + 1 lim (−7𝑥 + 1) 27
𝑥→4
𝑛
If n is a positive integer and lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐿, then lim 𝑛√𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 10
with the restriction that if n is even, 𝐿 > 0
Example 7
3
3 𝑥 3 𝑥 3 4 √4
lim √ = √lim = √− =−
𝑥→4 −7𝑥 + 1 𝑥→4 −7𝑥 + 1 27 3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GwrLLAQrXEHc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xn4r4eagvnU
6.4. ONE – SIDED LIMITS
Objectives:
• Evaluate one sided limit.

• Limit in general Two-sided limits and one-sided limits how to find limits
numerically and graphically how to determine if the limit exists.
Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open

DEFINITION 6.4.1 interval (a, c).Then the limit of f(x), as x approaches a from the
right, is L, written lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 if for any 𝜖 > 0, however small,
𝑥→𝑎
there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 then |𝑓(𝑥)| − 𝐿 < 𝜖
|𝑥| 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
Example 1 Let g be defined by 𝑔(𝑥 ) = {
2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
(a) Draw a sketch of the graph of g
(b) Find lim− 𝑔(𝑥) if it exists
𝑥→0
Solution:
(a) Draw a sketch of the graph of g
CHAPTER 6 6
(b) Find lim− 𝑔(𝑥) if it exists

𝑥→0
lim− 𝑔(𝑥) = lim− (−𝑥 ) = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
lim+ 𝑔(𝑥) = lim+(𝑥 ) = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
4 − 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 1
Example 2 Let h be defined by ℎ(𝑥 ) = {
2 + 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 1 < 𝑥
(a) Draw a sketch of the graph of h
(b) Find each of the following limits if they exist:
lim− ℎ(𝑥); lim+ ℎ(𝑥 ); lim ℎ(𝑥 )
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
Solution:
(a) Draw a sketch of the graph of h

(b) lim− ℎ(𝑥 ) = lim− (4 − 𝑥 2 ) = 3
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
lim+ ℎ(𝑥 ) = lim+ (2 + 𝑥 2 ) = 3
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rp4e_RySr0g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bV0RTtywt4g
6.5. INFINITE LIMITS
Objectives:
• Evaluate infinite limits.

• Interpret the behavior of functions using limits involving infinity.

interval l containing a, except possibly at the number a itself. As x
DEFINITION 6.5.1 approaches a, f(x) increases without bound, which is written
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ if for any number 𝑁 > 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such
𝑥→𝑎
that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎 | < 𝛿 then 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑁
−𝟑
Example 1 𝒈(𝒙) = (𝒙−𝟐)𝟐
CHAPTER 6 7
−𝟑
The function value given by 𝒈(𝒙) = are the negative of
(𝒙−𝟐)𝟐
𝟑
the function values given by 𝒇(𝒙) = . So, for the function g as x
(𝒙−𝟐)𝟐
approaches 2, either from the right or the left, g(x) decreases without
−𝟑
bound, and we write lim = −∞
𝑥→2 (𝒙−𝟐)𝟐

interval l containing a, except possibly at the number a itself. As x
approaches a, f(x) decreases without bound, which is written
DEFINITION 6.5.2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ if for any number 𝑁 > 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such
𝑥→𝑎
that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎 | < 𝛿 then 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑁
𝟐𝒙
Example 2 𝒉 ( 𝒙) =
𝒙−𝟏
𝟐𝒙
lim− = −∞
𝑥→1 𝒙−𝟏
𝟐𝒙
lim+ = +∞
𝑥→1 𝒙−𝟏
That is, for the function defined, as x approaches 1 through values less than 1, the
function values decrease without bound, and as x approaches 1 through values greater than 1,
the function values increase without bound.
If r is any positive integer, then

1
(i) lim+ 𝑥 𝑟 = +∞
6.5.3 LIMIT THEOREM 11 𝑥→1
1 −∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
(ii) lim+ 𝑥 𝑟 = {
𝑥→1 +∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
Illustration 1 From Limit Theorem 11

1 1
(i) It follows that lim+ = +∞ and lim+ 𝑥 4 = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 3 𝑥→0
1 1
(ii) lim− 𝑥 3 = −∞ and lim− 𝑥 4 = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
If a is any real number, and if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑐,

where c is a constant not equal to 0 then
6.5.4 THEOREM
(i) If 𝑐 > 0 and if 𝑓(𝑥) → 0 through positive values of 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥)
lim = +∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)
CHAPTER 6 8
(ii) If 𝑐 > 0 and if 𝑓(𝑥) → 0 through positive values of 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥)
lim = −∞
(iii) If 𝑐 < 0 and if 𝑓(𝑥) → 0 through positive values of 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥)
lim = −∞
Example 3
Find:
𝑥 2+𝑥+2 𝑥 2+𝑥+2
(a) lim+ 𝑥 2−2𝑥−3 (b) lim− 𝑥 2−2𝑥−3
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
Solution
𝑥 2+𝑥+2 𝑥 2+𝑥+2
(a) lim+ = lim+ (𝑥−3)(𝑥+1)
𝑥→3 𝑥 2−2𝑥−3 𝑥→3
The limit of the denominator is 0, and the denominator is approaching 0 through positive
values. Then from Limit Theorem 12(i),
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 2
lim+ = +∞
𝑥→3 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
𝑥 2+𝑥+2 𝑥 2+𝑥+2
(b) lim− = lim− (𝑥−3)(𝑥+1)
𝑥→3 𝑥 2−2𝑥−3 𝑥→3
As in part (a), the limit of the numerator is 14.

lim (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = lim−(𝑥 − 3) lim−(𝑥 + 1) = 0(4) = 0
𝑥→3− 𝑥→3 𝑥→3
In this case, the limit of the denominator is 0, but the denominator is approaching 0
through negative values. Then from Limit Theorem 12(ii),
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 2
lim = −∞
𝑥→3− 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
(i) If lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = +∞, lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑐, where c is any

constant, then lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = +∞
6.5.5 THEOREM 𝑥→𝑎
(ii) If lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −∞, lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑐, where c is any
constant, then lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = −∞
𝑥→𝑎
CHAPTER 6 9
1 1 1
Illustration 2 Because lim+ = +∞ and lim+ 𝑥+2 = 4, it follows
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2
1 1
from Theorem 6.5.4 (i) that lim+ [𝑥−2 + 𝑥+2] = +∞
𝑥→2
If lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = +∞, lim 𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 𝑐, where c is any constant

except 0, then
6.5.6 THEOREM
(i) If 𝑐 > 0, lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 ) = +∞;
𝑥→𝑎
(ii) If 𝑐 < 0, lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 ) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎
The Theorem is also valid if "𝒙 → 𝒂" is replaced by
"𝒙 → 𝒂+ " or "𝒙 → 𝒂− "
5 𝑥+4
Illustration 3 lim = +∞ and lim 𝑥−4 = −7
𝑥→3 (𝑥−3)2 𝑥→3
5 𝑥+4
Therefore, from Theorem 6.5.6 (ii), lim [( ) (𝑥−4)] = −∞
𝑥→3 (𝑥−3)2
If lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −∞, lim 𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 𝑐, where c is any constant

except 0, then
6.5.7 THEOREM
(iii) If 𝑐 > 0, lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 ) = −∞;
𝑥→𝑎
(iv) If 𝑐 < 0, lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 ) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎
The Theorem is also valid if "𝒙 → 𝒂" is replaced by
"𝒙 → 𝒂+ " or "𝒙 → 𝒂− "
√4−𝑥 2
Illustration 4 lim = −∞
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
𝑥−3 1
Furthermore, lim 𝑥+2 = − 4
𝑥→2
√4−𝑥 2 𝑥−3
Thus, from Theorem 6.5.7 (ii) it follows that , lim [( ) (𝑥+2)] = +∞
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rp4e_RySr0g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bV0RTtywt4g
CHAPTER 6 10
6.6. ASYMPTOTE
Objectives:
• Calculate the limit of a function as increases or decreases without bound.

• Recognize a horizontal asymptote on the graph of a function.
• Estimate the end behavior of a function as increases or decreases without
bound.
• Recognize an oblique asymptote on the graph of a function.
• Analyze a function and its derivatives to draw its graph.
The line x=a is said to be vertical asymptote of the graph of the

function if at least one of the following statements is true:
DEFINITION 6.6.1 (i) lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = +∞

𝑥→𝑎 +
(ii) lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎 +
(iii) lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎 −
Example 1 Find the vertical asymptote and draw a sketch of the graph of the
function defined by
3
𝑓 (𝑥) =
𝑥−3
Solution:
3 3
lim+ = +∞ lim− = −∞
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→3 𝑥−3
It follows from Definition 6.6 that the line x=3 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f.
The line y=b is said to be horizontal asymptote of the graph of

the function if at least one of the following statements is true:
(i) lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑏, and for some number N, if 𝑥 > 𝑁,

𝑥→+∞
DEFINITION 6.6.2 then 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≠ 𝑏
(ii) lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑏, and for some number N, if 𝑥 < 𝑁,
𝑥→−∞
then 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≠ 𝑏
Example 2 Find the horizontal asymptotes and draw a sketch of the graph of the function
𝑥
defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2
√𝑥 +1
CHAPTER 6 11
Solution
First, consider lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑟

𝑥→+∞
𝑥
lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥→+∞ √𝑥2 + 1
We divide the numerator and denominator by √𝑥 2 and we have
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 √𝑥2 |𝑥|
lim = lim = lim
𝑥→+∞ √𝑥2 +1 𝑥→+∞ 2 𝑥→+∞ 1
√𝑥2 + 12 √𝑥 +
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2
Because x → +∞, x > 0; therefore |x| = x. Thus
𝑥
𝑥 |𝑥|
lim = lim
𝑥→+∞ √𝑥2 +1 𝑥→+∞ 1
√𝑥 +
𝑥2
lim 1
𝑥→+∞
=
1
lim 1 + lim
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 2
1
= =1
√1 + 0
Therefore, by Definition 6.6.2 (i), the line y=1 is a horizontal asymptote.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt67Y2FpSI0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIEFmfiNis
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 6 12
CHAPTER 7
CONTINUITY
7.1. DEFINITION
Objectives:
• Define Continuity.
• Classify different types of discontinuous.
Continuous Function
At the basic level, teachers tend to describe continuous functions as those whose
graphs can be traced without lifting your pencil. While it is generally true that continuous
functions have such graphs, this is not a very precise or practical way to define continuity. Many
graphs and functions are continuous, or connected, in some places, and discontinuous, or
broken, in other places. There are even functions containing too many variables to be graphed
by hand. Therefore, it's necessary to have a more precise definition of continuity, one that
doesn't rely on our ability to graph and trace a function.
Limits – A Quick Definition
The definition of continuity in calculus relies heavily on the concept of limits. In case you
are a little fuzzy on limits: The limit of a function refers to the value of f(x) that the function
approaches near a certain value of x. The limit of a function as x approaches a real number a
from the left is written like this
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂−
The limit of a function as x approaches a real number a from the right is written like this:
𝒙→𝒂+
If the left limit and the right limit exist (are not infinity) and are equal, then we say the
limit of the function as x approaches a exists and is equal to the one-sided limits. We write it like
this:
𝒙→𝒂
Remember, the limit describes what the function does very close to a certain value of x.
The function value at the point x=a is written f(a).
What is Continuity?
In calculus, a function is continuous at x=a if and only if all three of the following
conditions are met:
CHAPTER 7 1
1. The function is defined at x=a; that is, f(a) equals a real number
2. The limit of the function as x approaches a exists
3. The limit of the function as x approaches a is equal to the function value at x=a
There are three basic types of discontinuities:

1. Removable (point) discontinuity – the graph has a hole at a single x-value.
Imagine you're walking down the road, and someone has removed a manhole cover
(Careful! Don't fall in!). This function will satisfy condition #2 (limit exists) but fail
condition #3 (limit does not equal function value).
2. Infinite discontinuity – the function goes toward positive or negative infinity.
Imagine a road getting closer and closer to a river with no bridge to the other side
3. Jump discontinuity – the graph jumps from one place to another. Imagine a
superhero going for a walk: he reaches a dead end and, because he can, flies to
another road.
Both infinite and jump discontinuities fail condition #2 (limit does not exist), but how
they fail is different. Recall for a limit to exist, the left and right limits must exist (be finite)
and be equal. Infinite discontinuities have infinite left and right limits. Jump
discontinuities have finite left and right limits that are not equal.
Example Using Continuous
Let's go through some examples using this graph to represent the function of f(x):
Examples 1: Is f(x) continuous at x=0
CHAPTER 7 2
To check for continuity at x=0, we check the three conditions:

1. Is the function defined at x=0? Yes, f(0)=2
2. Does the limit of the function as x approaches 0 exist? Yes
3. Does the limit of the function as x approaches 0 equal the function value at x=0?
Yes

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLyxHJa9Gr4
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/in-in-grade-12-ncert/in-in-continuity-
differentiability/copy-of-continuity-at-a-point-ab/v/limits-to-define-
continuity
7.2. REMOVABLE AND ESSENTIAL DISCONTINUITIES
Objectives:
• Differentiate the different types of discontinuities.

• Solve and graph the discontinuities.
Removable Discontinuity
A removable discontinuity is a point on the graph that is undefined or does not fit the rest
of the graph. There is a gap at that location when you are looking at the graph. When graphed,
are movable discontinuity is marked by an open circle on the graph at the point where the graph
is undefined or is a different value like this.
Do you see it? There is a small open circle at the point where x=2.5 approximately.
CHAPTER 7 3
There are two ways a removable discontinuity can be created. Let's talk about the first
one now.
Created Discontinuity
A removable discontinuity can be created by defining a blip in the graph like this.
The above function tells us that the graph generally follows the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1
except for at the point x=4. When we graph it, we will need to draw a little open circle at the
point on the graph and mark that it equals 2 at that point. This is a created discontinuity. If you
were the one defining the function, you can easily remove the discontinuity by redefining the
function. Looking at the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1, we can calculate that at x=4, f(x)=15. So, if we
redefine our point at x=4 to equal 15, we will have removed our discontinuity
If we were to graph the above, we would get a continuous graph without any
discontinuities. When you see functions written out like that, be sure to check whether the
function really has a discontinuity or not. Sometimes the function is continuous but just written
like it isn't just to be tricky.
What Are Holes?
Another way we can get a removable discontinuity is when the function has a hole. A
hole is created when the function has the same factor in both the numerator and denominator.
When you get a function like that you will get into a situation at some point where the function is
undefined. Look at this function, for example.
This function has the factor x-4 in both the numerator and denominator. What happens at the
point x=4? Let's see.
CHAPTER 7 4
4(4 − 4) 4(0)
𝑓 (4) = = =0
4−4 0
Examples
1) Does the function graphed below have a removable discontinuity? If so, where
does it occur?
2) Does the function below have a removable discontinuity? If yes, how could you
redefine the function so it does not have this discontinuity?
Yes, the function has a removable discontinuity since f(2)=5, but if we substitute x=2 into
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1 we have 𝑓(2) = 23 − 3(2) + 1 = 8 − 6 + 1 = 3. We could redefine the
function to remove this discontinuity as:
3) Fully factor the rational function to find if it has any

𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥) =
𝑥3 − 𝑥
To factor the function, first factor out the greatest common factor for both the numerator and
denominator. Then factor the quadratics.
𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥) =
𝑥3 − 𝑥
CHAPTER 7 5
𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)
𝑓 (𝑥) =
𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 1)
𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1)
𝑓 (𝑥) =
𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
There are common factors of x and x+1 in both the numerator and the denominator and if we
cancel the common factors out, we are no longer dividing by zero at x=0 and x=-1. So, we have
holes at x=0 and x=-1.
Essential or Infinite Discontinuity
An infinite discontinuity is a type of essential discontinuity where one or both of the one-
sided limits go toward infinity. Essential discontinuity limits can also not exist.
Example
1
We will look at 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2
Now, look at the axes! Notice that, to the left of

the y-axis, as the value of x approaches 0, the
function grows infinitely smaller! Likewise, on the right
of the y-axis, as the value of x approaches 0, the
function increases infinitely! This is what we call an
infinite discontinuity. We can notice one when
there is a part of a function such that on one side of that
part, the function tends towards infinity.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fWYmFpWzGTs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yvdVK3QFI7s
7.3. THEOREMS ON CONTINUITY
Objectives:
• Explain the three conditions for continuity at a point.

• Describe three kinds of discontinuities.
• Define continuity on an interval.
CHAPTER 7 6
If f and g are two functions that are continuous at the number a, then
(i) 𝑓 + 𝑔 is continuous at a;
7.3.1 THEOREM (ii) 𝑓 − 𝑔 is continuous at a;
(iii) 𝑓𝑔 is continuous at a;
𝑓
(iv) is continuous at a, provided that 𝑔(𝑎) ≠ 0.
𝑔
7.3.2 THEOREM A polynomial function is continuous at every number.
Illustration 1 If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 1, then f is a polynomial function and therefore,

y Theorem 7.3.2, is continuous at every number. In particular, because f is continuous at 3,
lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓(3). Thus
𝑥→3
lim (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 1) = 33 − 2(3)2 + 5(3) + 1 = 25

𝑥→3
A rational function is continuous at every number in its domain.

7.3.3 THEOREM
Example 1
Determine the numbers at which the following function is continuous
𝑥3 + 1
𝑓 (𝑥) =
𝑥2 − 9
Solution:
The domain of f is the set of real numbers except those for which 𝑥 2 − 9 = 0 whenx =
±3, it follows that the domain of f is the set of all real numbers except 3 and –3. Because f is a
rational function, it follows from Theorem 7.3.1 that f is continuous at all real numbers except 3
and –3.
If n is a positive integer and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√𝑥 then

7.3.4 THEOREM
(i) If n is odd, f is continuous at every number;
(ii) If n is even, f is continuous at every positive number
Illustration 2
(a) If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 3√𝑥 , it follows from Theorem 7.3.4 (i)

that f is continuous at every real number.
(b) If 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥, then from Theorem 7.3.4 (ii), g is
continuous at every positive number.
CHAPTER 7 7
The function f is continuous at the number a if f is defined on

7.3.5 THEOREM some open interval containing a and if for any ϵ > 0 there exists a
δ > 0 such that if |x − a| < δ then |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)| < ϵ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ArhTldjH0Gs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iSFmDs2h-h4
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 7 8
CHAPTER 8
DERIVATIVES
8.1. THE TANGENT LINE TO A CURVE

(SLOPE AS INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF CHANGE OF Y WITH RESPECT TO X)
Objectives:
• Interpret the difference quotient as an average rate of change over a

specified interval. Interpret the instantaneous rate of change as the rate at
which the function is changing at a point. Attach units to the difference
quotient and the instantaneous rate of change based on the context.
• Apply knowledge of the position, velocity, and acceleration functions to
solve problems related to motion.
At a given point on a curve, the gradient of the curve is equal to the gradient of the
tangent to the curve.
The derivative (or gradient function) describes the gradient of a curve at any point on the
curve. Similarly, it also describes the gradient of a tangent to a curve at any point on the curve
To determine the equation of a tangent to a curve:

1. Find the derivative using the rules of differentiation.
2. Substitute the x-coordinate of the given point in to the derivative to calculate the
gradient of the tangent.
3. Substitute the gradient of the tangent and the coordinates of the given point into an
appropriate form of the straight-line equation.
4. Make y the subject of the formula.
The normal to a curve is the line perpendicular to the tangent to the curve at a given
point.
CHAPTER 8 1
FINDING THE EQUATION OF A TANGENT TO A CURVE
Example 1 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 at the point (1,3).
Sketch the curve and the tangent.
Solution:
1. Find the derivative
Use the rules of differentiation:
𝑦 = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
= 3(2𝑥) = 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥
2. Calculate the gradient of the tangent
To determine the gradient of the tangent at the point (1,3), we substitute the x
value into the equation for the derivative
𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑚 = 6(1) = 6
3. Determine the equation of the tangent
Substitute the gradient of the tangent and the coordinates of the given point into
the gradient-point form of the straight-line equation.
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 3 = 6(𝑥 − 1)
𝑦 = 6𝑥 − 6 + 3
𝑦 = 6𝑥 − 3
4. Sketch the curve and the tangent
Example 2 Given 𝑔(𝑥) = (x + 2)(2x + 1)2 ,determine the equation of the tangent to
the curve at x=−1.
Solution:
1. Determine the y-coordinate of the point
𝑔(𝑥) = (x + 2)(2x + 1)2
CHAPTER 8 2
𝑔(−1) = (−1 + 2)[2(−1) + 1]2

= (1)(−1)2 = 1
Therefore, the tangent to the curve passes through the point (−1,1)
2. Expand and simplify the given function

𝑔(𝑥) = (x + 2)(2x + 1)2
= (x + 2)(4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1)
= 4𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 8𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 2
= 4𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 2
3. Find the derivative
𝒈′ (𝒙) = 𝟒(3𝑥 2 ) + 12(2𝑥) + 9 + 0
= 12 + 24𝑥 + 9
4. Calculate the gradient of the tangent
Substitute x=-1 into the equation for 𝒈′ (𝒙):
𝒈′ (−𝟏) = 𝟏𝟐(−1)𝟐 + 24(−1) + 9
𝒎 = 𝟏𝟐 − 24 + 9 = −3
5. Determine the equation of the tangent
Substitute the gradient of the tangent and the coordinates of the given point into
the gradient-point form of the straight-line equation.
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 1 = −3(𝑥 − (−1))
𝑦 = −3𝑥 − 3 + 1
𝑦 = −3𝑥 − 2

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-differentiation-1-
new/ab-2-1/v/derivative-as-slope-of-curve
CHAPTER 8 3
8.2. INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY IN RECTILINEAR MOTION
Objectives:
• Explain the difference between average velocity and instantaneous

velocity.
• Calculate the instantaneous velocity given the mathematical equation for
the velocity.
The derivative of a function f at the number x has a powerful interpretation as the

instantaneous rate of change of f at x. We begin by considering an application in physics: the
motion of a particle on a line. Such a motion is called rectilinear motion. Let f be the function
determining the directed distance of the particle from O at any particular time.
To be more specific, let s meters (m) be the directed distance of the particle from O at t
seconds (sec). Then f is the function defined by the equation
𝒔 = 𝒇(𝒕)
which gives the directed distance from the point O to the particle at a particular instant.
ILLUSTARTION 1 Let
𝒔 = 𝒕𝟐 + 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟑
Then when t=0, s=-3; therefore the particle is 3m to the left of point O when t= 0. When
t=1, s=0; so the particle is at point O at 1sec. When t=2, s=5; so the particle is 5m to the right at
point O at 2sec. When t=3, s=12; so the particle is 12m to the right of point O at 3sec.
If f is a function given by the equation 𝒔 = 𝒇(𝒕) and a particle is moving along a

straight line such that x is the number of units in the directed distance of the particle from a
fixed point on the line at t units of time, then the instantaneous velocity of the particle at t
unit of time is v units of velocity, where
𝑑𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑓 (𝑡) ⇔ 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.
𝑑𝑡
Example 1 A particle is moving along a horizontal line according to the equation
𝒔 = 𝟐𝒕𝟑 − 𝟒𝒕𝟐 + 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟏
Determine the intervals of time when the particle is moving to the right and when it
is moving to the left. Also determine the instant when the particle reverses its
direction.
CHAPTER 8 4
Solution:
𝑑𝑠
𝑣= = 𝟔𝒕𝟐 − 𝟖𝒕 + 𝟐 = 𝟐(𝟑𝒕𝟐 − 𝟒𝒕 + 𝟏)
𝑑𝑡
1
The instantaneous velocity is zero when 𝑡 = and 𝑡 = 1. Therefore the particle is at rest
3
at these two times. The particle is moving to the right when v is positive, and it is moving to the
left when v is negative. We determine the sign of v for various intervals of t, and the results.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-physics-1/ap-one-dimensional-
motion/instantaneous-velocity-and-speed/v/instantaneous-speed-and-
velocity
CHAPTER 8 5
8.3. DEFINITION AND NOTATION OF DERIVATIVES
Objectives:
• Differentiate the different notation of derivatives.
Often the most confusing thing for a student introduced to differentiation is the notation
associated with it. Here an attempt will be made to introduce as many types of notation as
possible. A derivative is always the derivative of a function with respect to a variable. When we
write the definition of the derivative as
we mean the derivative of the function f(x) with respect to the variable x. One type of notation for
derivatives is sometimes called prime notation.
The function f´(x), which would be read ``f-prime of x'', means the derivative of f(x) with
respect to x. If we say y=f(x), then y´ (read ``y-prime'')=f´(x). This is even sometimes taken as
far as to write things such as, for y = 𝑥 4 + 3x (for example), y´ = (𝑥 4 + 3x)´.
Higher order derivatives in prime notation are represented by increasing the number of
primes. For example, the second derivative of y with respect to x would be written as
Beyond the second or third derivative, all those primes get messy, so often the order of
the derivative is instead written as a roman superscript in parenthesis, so that the ninth
derivative of f(x) with respect to x is written as 𝑓 (9) (𝑥) or 𝑓 (𝑖𝑥) (𝑥).
A second type of notation for derivatives is sometimes called operator notation. The
operator 𝐷𝑥 is applied to a function in order to perform differentiation. Then, the derivative of
f(x)=y with respect to x can be written as 𝐷𝑥 𝑦 (read ``D--sub—x of y'') or as 𝐷𝑥 𝑓 (x ( read ``D—
sub x--of--f(x)''). Higher order derivatives are written by adding a superscript to 𝐷𝑥 , so that, for
example the third derivative of y = (𝑥 2 + sin(x)) with respect to x would be written as
Another commonly used notation was developed by Leibnitz and is accordingly called
Leibnitz notation. With this notation, if y=f(x), then the derivative of y with respect to x can be
written as
CHAPTER 8 6
(this is read as ``dy--dx'', but not ``dy minus dx'' or sometimes ``dy over dx''). Since y=f(x), we
can also write
This notation suggests that perhaps derivatives can be treated like fractions, which is
true in limited ways in some circumstances. This is also called differential notation, where dy
and dx are differentials. This notation becomes very useful when dealing with differential
equations.
𝑑
which resembles the above operator notation, with (𝑑𝑥 as the operator).
Higher order derivatives using Leibnitz notation can be written as
The exponents may seem to be in strange places in the second form, but it makes sense
if you look at the first form.

https://encripted-
vtbn2.gstatic.com/video?q=tbn:ANd9GcSsNHCLdij5leHpnJGiBjZj5Yn_e3s
alYsfVjLDWgZAyVUURGSf
8.4. GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION OF DERIVATIVES OF A FUNCTION
Objectives:
• Interpret the derivates of function geometrically.
Let AB be the secant line, passing through the points (x, f(x))and(x + ∆x, f(𝑥∆x )). If B→A
that is, ∆x approaches zero, then the secant line approaches the tangent line at the point
(x, f(x)). Accordingly, the slope of the tangent line is the limit of the slope of the secant line when
∆x approach zero:
CHAPTER 8 7
Thus, the derivative f’(x) can be interpreted as the slope of the tangent line at the point
(x, y) on the graph of the function f(x).
If a function is increasing on some interval, then the slope of the tangent is positive at
each point of that interval, and hence, the derivative of the function is positive.
If a function is decreasing on some interval, then the slope of the tangent is negative at
each point of that interval, and hence, the derivative of the function is negative.
If a function is increasing on some interval, then the slope of the tangent is positive at
each point of that interval, and hence, the derivative of the function is positive.
If a curve y=f(x) has a smooth top then the peak of the curve serves as the boundary
between intervals of increasing and decreasing of the function. At this point the tangent is
parallel to the x-axis. Therefore, its slope equals zero, and so f’(x).
Likewise, if a curve y=f(x) has a smooth bottom then there exists a point peak of the
curve serves as the boundary between intervals of increasing and decreasing of the function. At
this point the tangent is parallel to the x-axis. Therefore, its slope equals zero, and so f’(x)=0.
CHAPTER 8 8
Example
If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 5 − 6𝑥 2 + 5, then
𝑓′(𝑥) = 5𝑥 4 − 12𝑥
1 101
In particular, 𝑓 ′ (− 2) = 6
, and so the equation of
the line tangent to the graph of f at x=−12 is
101 1 111
𝑦= (𝑥 + ) +
6 2 22

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1OkAmd_AD8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ZQGmSX3H38
8.5. DIFFERENTIABILITY OF A FUNCTION
Objectives:
• Determine whether the function whose graph is shown is differentiable or

continuous at a particular value of x
• Determine whether the equation of a function given is differentiable or
Differentiable means that the derivative exists
Example 1: Is 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 differentiable?
Solution: Derivative rules tell us the derivative of 𝑥 2 is 2x and the

derivative of x is 1, so: Its derivative is 2x+6. So yes! 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 is
differentiable and it must exist for every value in the function's
domain.
Domain
In its simplest form the domain is all the values that go into a function
CHAPTER 8 9
Example 2: The function f(x)=|x| (absolute value)
At x=0 it has a very point y change!

Does the derivative exist at x=0?
Testing
We can test any value "c" by finding if the limit exists:
lim 𝑓 (𝑐 + ℎ ) − 𝑓(𝑐)ℎ
ℎ→0
Let's calculate the limit for |x| at the value 0
The limit does not exist! To see why, let's compare left and right side limits:
The limits are different on either side, so the limit does not exist. So the function f(x)=|x|
is not differentiable.
A good way to picture this in your mind is to think: As I zoom in, does the function tend to
become a straight line?
CHAPTER 8 10
Here are a few more Examples
The Floor and Ceiling Functions are not differentiable at integer values,
as there is a discontinuity at each jump. But they are differentiable
elsewhere.
The Cube root function 𝑥 1⁄3 .Its derivative is (1⁄3)𝑥 −(2⁄3) by the Power
Rule) At x=0 the derivative is undefined, so 𝑥 1⁄3 is not differentiable.
At x=0 the function is not defined so it makes no sense to ask if they

are differentiable there.
To be differentiable at a certain point, the function must first of all be
defined there!
As we head towards x=0 the function moves up and down faster and
faster, so we cannot find a value it is "heading towards". So it is not
differentiable
Which is Differentiable?
And I am "absolutely positive" about that:) So the function g(x)=|x| with Domain (0,+∞)
is differentiable. We could also restrict the domain in other ways to avoid x=0 (such as all
negative Real Numbers, all non-zero Real Numbers, etc).
Why Bother?
Because when a function is differentiable, we can use all the power of calculus when
working with it.
Continuous
When a function is differentiable it is also continuous.

Differentiable⇒ Continuous
CHAPTER 8 11
But a function can be continuous but not differentiable. For example, the absolute value
function is actually continuous (though not differentiable) at x=0.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YEG18ISnThE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GG76ZEmRAol
8.6. DIFFERENTIABILITY AND CONTINUITY
Objectives:
• Determine whether the function whose graph is shown is differentiable or

• Determine whether the equation of a function given is differentiable
If f is differentiable at 𝑥0 , then f is also continuous at 𝑥0 .
The logically equivalent statement is quite useful: If f is not continuous at 𝑥0 , then f is not
differentiable at 𝑥0 .
(The converse is not necessarily true.) We have already seen that the converse is not
true in some cases. The function can have a cusp, a corner, or a vertical tangent and still be
continuous, but it is not differentiable.
For an introduction to the derivative, see
Math Video Tutorials by James Sousa, Introduction to the Derivative
The following simulator traces the instantaneous slope of a curve and graphs a
qualitative form of derivative function on an axis below the curve Surfing the Derivative.
The following applet allows you to explore the relationship between a function and its
derivative on a graph. Notice that as you move x along the curve, the slope of the tangent line to
f(x) is the height of the derivative function, f'(x) Derivative Applet. This applet is customizable
after doing the steps outlined on the page, feel free to change the function definition and explore
the derivative of many functions.
For a video presentation of differentiability and continuity, see
Differentiability and Continuity
CHAPTER 8 12
Example 1: Test the differentiability of the function f(x)=|x-2| at x=2
Solution: We know that this function is continuous at x=2.
Since the one-sided derivatives f′(2− ) and f′(2+ ) are not equal, f′(2) does not exist. That
is, f is not differentiable at x=2. At all other points, the function is differentiable.
If 𝑥0 ≠ 2 is any other point then
The fact that f′(2) does not exist is reflected geometrically in the fact that the curve
y=|x-2| does not have a tangent line at (2,0). Note that the curve has a sharp edge at (2,0).
Example 2: Examine the differentiability of f(x) = 𝑥 1⁄3 at x=0
Solution:
Let f(x) = 𝑥 1⁄3 . Clearly, there is no hole (or break) in the
graph of this function and hence it is continuous at all points of its
domain.
Let us check whether f′(0) exists.
CHAPTER 8 13
Therefore, the function is not differentiable at x=0. Further we conclude that the tangent
line is vertical at x=0. So f is not differentiable at x=0.

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-differentiation-1-
new/ab-2-4/v/differentiability
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fml0-ELYLaE
8.7. BASIC RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION
Objectives:
• Use the power rule, constant multiple rules, sum and difference rule,
product rule, quotient rule for differentiation.
The Power Rule (for positive integer power) of Differentiation
Suppose n is a positive integer and 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑛 , then 𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
CHAPTER 8 14
Example 1: If f(x) = 𝑥 4 , differentiate the function.
To solve for it use the Power Rule (for positive integers) where in
Solution:
𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 4−1
𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 3
Example 2: If f(x) = 𝑥 9 , differentiate the function.
To solve for it use the Power Rule (for positive integers) where in
Solution:
𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 9𝑥 9−1
𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 9𝑥 8
The Power Rule (for negative integer power) of Differentiation
The Power Rule (for negative integers power) of differentiation suppose f(x) = 𝑛−𝑛 ,
where –n is a negative integer and x≠0, then 𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 𝑛−𝑛−1 .
Since we are given that –n is a negative integer and also considering the previous
theorem which is Power Rule (for positive integer), we can simply express the function as
quotient and apply the quotient rule,
CHAPTER 8 15
And we will have the formula 𝑓 ′ (x) = −𝑛𝑥−𝑛−1
3
Example: Differentiate the given function, 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 5 using Power Rule (for
negative integer power) of Differentiation
Solution:
𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 −5
𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 3(−5𝑥 −6 )
15
𝑓 ′(𝑥) = −
𝑥6
The Constant Multiple Rule of Differentiation
Constant times a function is just same as constant multiple rule. This includes the other
types of derivatives like power rule.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
If y = f(x) is a function then the derivative of y can be represented by 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑦′ or 𝑓′ or 𝑑𝑦
CHAPTER 8 16
The derivative of constant times a function is the constant times the derivatives of the
function if this derivative exists.
By combining two theorems which is the constant rule and power rule we obtain
𝑓 ′ (x) = c𝑛𝑥𝑛−1
𝐷𝑥 (c𝑛𝑥𝑛 ) = c𝑛𝑥𝑛−1
The Sum and Difference Rule of Differentiation
If f and g are functions and if h is a function defined as,
ℎ(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥)

then suppose 𝑓 ′ (x) and 𝑔′ (x) exist,
ℎ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) + 𝑔′ (𝑥)
Here is the proof,
EXAMPLES:
Here’s the solution by combining the Theorem 1, 2, and 3.
1. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 + 2
= 16𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 7
2. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 12𝑥
= 4𝑥 3 + 12
CHAPTER 8 17
The Power Rule of Differentiation
The derivative of the product of two functions is the first function times the derivative of
the second function plus the second function times the derivative of the first function if these
derivatives exist
EXAMPLES:
1. Given: 𝑓 (𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 )(7𝑥 3 ), find 𝑓 (𝑥)
Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 )(7𝑥 3 )
𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 ) (7𝑥 3 ) + (3𝑥 2 )(7𝑥 3 )
𝐷𝑥 𝐷𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 )(21𝑥 2 ) + (6𝑥)(7𝑥 3 )
= 63𝑥 4 + 42𝑥 4
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 105𝑥 4
Quotient Rule of Differentiation
The derivative of the Quotient of two differentiable functions is equal to the denominator
times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the
denominator, all divided by the square of the denominator.
CHAPTER 8 18
Example: Finding the Derivative of a Quotient. Find the

derivative of:
𝑥−1
𝑓(𝑥) =
2𝑥 + 3
Solution: Apply the Quotient Rule, as shown:

𝒅 𝒅
𝒅 (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑) [𝒙 − 𝟏] − (𝒙 − 𝟏) [𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑]
= 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙 (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑)𝟐
(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝟏) − (𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝟐)
=
(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑)𝟐
𝟓
=
(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑)𝟐
CHAPTER 8 19

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lvLpN1G1Ncg
https://encryptrd-
vtbn1.gstatic.com/video?q=tbn:ANd9GcTVUY6NkiAhRXshicCHPukihf55C
KJCukwThSGpmjeSCS8nT1Pp
8.8. THE CHAIN RULE: COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
Objectives:
• Use chain rule: composite functions for differentiation
If the function g is differentiable at x and the function f is

8.8.1 THEOREM differentiable at g(x), then composite function 𝑓°𝑔 is differentiable at
x, and (𝑓°𝑔)′ = 𝑓′(𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′(𝑥)
Example 1: Find 𝑓′(𝑥)by the chain rule if

1
𝑓 (𝑥) =
4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 8
Solution:
We write 𝑓 (𝑥) = (4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 8)−1 and apply the chain rule to obtain
𝑓′(𝑥) = −1(4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 8)−2 [𝐷𝑥 (4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 8)]

𝑓′(𝑥) = −1(4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 8)−2 (12𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 7)
−𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 7
𝑓′(𝑥) =
(4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 8)2
Example 2: Compute
𝑑 2𝑥 + 1 4
[( ) ]
𝑑𝑥 3𝑥 − 1
Solution:
𝑑 2𝑥 + 1 4 2𝑥 + 1 3 𝑑 2𝑥 + 1
[( ]
) = 4( ) [ ( )]
𝑑𝑥 3𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥 3𝑥 − 1
CHAPTER 8 20
2𝑥 + 1 3 (3x − 1)(2) − (2x + 1)(3)

= 4( )
3𝑥 − 1 (3x − 1)2
4(2x + 1)3 (−5)
=
(3x − 1)5
20(2x + 1)3
=
(3x − 1)5

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddZB_Jb35d4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vNXjMTv4vHs
8.9. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
Objectives:
• Find the derivative of an implicitly defined function using implicit

differentiation;
• Find the equation of a tangent line to a curve which implicitly defines a
function.
The subset C of the xy-plane consisting of all ordered pairs (x, y) that satisfy the
equation
𝑥2 𝑦 2
− =1
9 4
It is apparent from the figure that the whole set C is not a function, since it is easy to find
instances of ordered pairs (a, b) and (a, c) in C with 6=C. For example, both (6,2√3) and (6,-
2√3) lie on the curve. On the other hand, many subsets of C are functions. For instance, the set
of all ordered pairs (x, y) in C for which x>3 and y>0. Central to the ideas that follow is the fact
that since the points (x, f(x)) that comprise f belong to C, they satisfy the equation of the
hyperbola. That is,
𝑥 2 (f(x))2
− =1
9 4
For every x>3. We say that the function f is defined implicitly by (1). It is geometrically obvious
that the hyperbola has a tangent line at every point, and we therefore conclude that the function
f(x) is differentiable except at x=3, where the tangent is vertical. We can compute f'(x) most
CHAPTER 8 21
easily by observing that since (2) holds for every x in the domain of f, it is a y-axis equality
between two functions. Specifically, the composite function
𝑥2 (f(4))2
9
− 4
= 1 is equal to the constant function 1. Equal functions have equal derivatives. Hence
and solving for f'(x), we obtain

4𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
9𝑓(𝑥)
4(6) 24
𝑓 ′ (6) = =
9(2√3) 3√3
The set of all points (x, y) of C for which 𝑦 < 0 is another such function, and it includes
the point (6, −2√3). However, we have 𝑓 (6) = −2√3. Hence, this time,
4(6) 24
𝑓 ′ (6) = =−
9(−2√3) 3√3
𝑑𝑦
Example 1: Given (𝑥 + 𝑦)2 − (𝑥 − 𝑦)2 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑦 4 , find 𝑑𝑥
Solution: Differentiating implicitly with respect to x we have

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2(𝑥 + 𝑦) (1 + ) − 2(𝑥 − 𝑦) (1 − ) = 4𝑥 3 + 4𝑦 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + (2𝑥 + 2𝑦) − 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + (2𝑥 − 2𝑦) = 4𝑥 3 + 4𝑦 3
𝑑𝑦
(4𝑥 − 4𝑦 3 ) = 4𝑥 3 − 4𝑦
𝑑𝑥
CHAPTER 8 22
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 3 − 𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑦 3
Example 2: Find the equation tangent line to the curve 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 9 at the point (1, 2)
Solution: We differentiate implicitly with respect to x

𝑑𝑦
3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥2
=− 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 1
Therefore, at the point (1,2), 𝑑𝑥 = − 4. An equation of the tangent line is then
1
𝑦 − 2 = − (𝑥 − 1)
4
𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 9 = 0

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab-differentiation-2-
new/ab-3-2/v/implicit-differentiation-1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fly5Wav4rok
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 8 23
CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
9.1. RATE OF CHANGE
Objectives:
• Determine a new value of a quantity from the old value and the amount of
change.
• Calculate the average rate of change and explain how it differs from the
instantaneous rate of change.
• Apply rates of change to displacement, velocity, and acceleration of an
object moving along a straight line.
• Predict the future population from the present value and the population
growth rate.
In this section we look at some applications of the derivative by focusing on the

interpretation of the derivative as the rate of change of a function. These applications include
acceleration and velocity in physics, population growth rates in biology, and marginal
functions in economics.
Amount of Change Formula
One application for derivatives is to estimate an unknown value of a function at a point

by using a known value of a function at some given point together with its rate of change at the
given point. If f(x) is a function defined on an interval [a, a+h], then the amount of change of
f(x) over the interval is the change in the y values of the function over that interval and is given
by
𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
The average rate of change of the function f over that same interval is the ratio of the
amount of change over that interval to the corresponding change in the x values. It is given by
𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
ℎ
As we already know, the instantaneous rate of change of f(x) at a is its derivative
𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓′(a) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
For small enough values of h, ℎ
. We can then solve for f(a+h) to get the amount
of change formula:
𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ ) ≈ 𝑓′(a)h
CHAPTER 9 1
We can use this formula if we know only f(a) and f'(a) and wish to estimate the value of
f(a+h). For example; we may use the current population of a city and the rate at which it is
growing to estimate its population in the near future. As we can see in Figure, we are
approximating f(a+h) by the y coordinate at a+h on the line tangent to f(x) at x=a. Observe that
the accuracy of this estimate depends on the value of has well as the value of f'(a).
The new value of a changed quantity equals the original value plus the rate of change
times the interval of change: 𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ ) ≈ 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓′(a)h.
Example 1: Estimating the value of a function

If 𝑓 (3) = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ (3), estimate 𝑓(3.2)
Solution: Begin by finding h. We have h = 3.2 − 3 = 0.2. h = 3.2 − 3 = 0.2. Thus, f(3.2) = f(3 +
0.2) ≈ f(3) + (0.2)f′ (3) = 2 + 0.2(5) = 3.
Motion along a Line
Another use for the derivative is to analyze motion along a line. We have described
velocity as the rate of change of position. If we take the derivative of the velocity, we can find
the acceleration, or the rate of change of velocity. It is also important to introduce the idea of
speed, which is the magnitude of velocity. Thus, we can state the following mathematical
definitions.
Let s(t) be a function giving the position of an object at time t.
• The velocity of the object at time t is given by v(t)=s'(t)

• The speed of the object at time t is given by |v(t)|.
• The acceleration of the object at t is given by a(t)=v'(t)=s′′(t).
Example 2: Computing Instantaneous Velocity And Average
A ball is dropped from a height of 64feet. Its height above ground (in feet) t seconds later
is given by s(t)=−16t2+64.
CHAPTER 9 2
a. What is the instantaneous velocity of the ball when it hits the ground?
b. What is the average velocity during its fall?
Solution:
The first thing to do is determine how long it takes the ball to reach the ground. To do
this, sets (t)=0. Solving −16𝑡 2 + 64 = 0, we get t=2, so it takes 2 seconds for the ball to reach
the ground.
a. The instantaneous velocity of the ball as it strikes the ground is v(2). Since
v(t) = s′(t) = −32t, we obtain v(t)=−64ft/s.
b. The average velocity of the ball during its fall is
𝑠(2) − 𝑠(0) 0 − 64
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = −32 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
2−0 2
Example 3: Position and Velocity
A particle moves on the x-axis and its coordinate, as a function of time, is given by
x(t) = 2𝑡 3 − 21𝑡 2 + 60t − 14, where t is measured in seconds. Describe its motion.
Solution:
We first take derivatives to find velocity and acceleration:
v(t) = 6𝑡 2 − 42t + 60
= 6(𝑡 2 − 7t + 10) = 6(𝑡 − 2)(𝑡 − 5) and 𝑎(𝑡) = 12𝑡 − 42 = 6(2𝑡 − 7)

At zero time the particle is at x=−14, moving to the right with a velocity of 60 units per
second. At that moment, acceleration is −42, and the particle is slowing down. At time t=2, the
1
particle is at rest (v=0) at x=38, and the acceleration is still negative: a=−18. For the next 1
2
7 1
seconds the particle moves to the left until, at 𝑡 = 2 it is at 𝑥 = 24 2 , moving to the left with a
1
speed of 13 units per second. At that moment, however, the acceleration is zero and, in the
2
next instant, the velocity will begin to increase to the right and the particle begins to slow down.
CHAPTER 9 3
1
The particle continues to move to the left for the next 1 seconds, until t=5. At that time,
2
the particle is at rest at x=11 and the acceleration is positive. From that time on, the particle will
move to the right with ever-increasing velocity.
Population Growth Rate
In addition to analyzing velocity, speed, acceleration, and position, we can use

derivatives to analyze various types of populations, including those as diverse as bacteria
colonies and cities. We can use a current population, together with a growth rate, to estimate
the size of a population in the future. The population growth rate is the rate of change of a
population and consequently can be represented by the derivative of the size of the population.
If P(t) is the number of entities present in a population, then the population growth
rate of P(t) is defined to be P'(t).
Example 4: Estimating a Population
The population of a city is tripling every 5 years. If its current population is 10,000, what
will be its approximate population 2 years from now?
Solution:
Let P(t) be the population (in thousands) t years from now. Thus, we know that P(0)=10
and based on the information, we anticipate P(5)=30. Now estimate P'(0), the current growth
rate, using
𝑃 (5) − 𝑃(0) 30 − 10
𝑃 ′ (0) ≈ = =4
5−0 5
By applying Equation to P(t), we can estimate the population 2 years from now by
writing
𝑃 ′ (0) ≈ P(0) + (2)𝑃 ′ (0) ≈ 10 + 2(4) = 18;
thus, in 2 years the population will be 18,000.
Changes in Cost and Profit
In addition to analyzing motion along a line and population growth, derivatives are useful
in analyzing changes in cost, revenue, and profit. The concept of a marginal function is common
CHAPTER 9 4
in the fields of business and economics and implies the use of derivatives. The marginal cost is
the derivative of the cost function. The marginal revenue is the derivative of the revenue
function. The marginal profit is the derivative of the profit function, which is based on the cost
function and the revenue function.
• If C(x) is the cost of producing x items, then the marginal cost MC(x) is
MC(x)=C'(x).
• If R(x) is the revenue obtained from selling x items, then the marginal revenue
MR(x) is MR(x)=R'(x).
• If P(x)=R(x)−C(x) is the profit obtained from selling x items, then the marginal
profit MP(x) is defined to be MP(x)=P'(x)=MR(x)−MC(x)=R'(x)−C'(x).
We can roughly approximate

𝐶 (𝑥 − ℎ ) − 𝐶(𝑥)
𝑀𝐶 (𝑥) = 𝐶 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
by choosing an appropriate value for h. Since x represents objects, a reasonable and small
value for his 1. Thus, by substituting h=1, we get the approximation MC(x)=C'(x)≈C(x+1)−C(x).
Consequently, C'(x) for a given value of x can be thought of as the change in cost associated
with producing one additional item. In a similar way, MR(x)=R'(x) approximates the revenue
obtained by selling one additional item, and MP(x)=P'(x) approximates the profit obtained by
producing and selling one additional item.
Example 5: Applying Marginal Revenue
Assume that the number of barbeque dinners that can be sold, x, can be related to the
price charged, p, by the equation p(x) = 9 − 0.03x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 300.
In this case, the revenue in dollars obtained by selling x barbeque dinners is given by
R(x) = xp(x) = x(9 − 0.03x) = −0.03x2 + 9xfor0 ≤ x ≤ 300.
Use the marginal revenue function to estimate the revenue obtained from selling the
101st barbeque dinner. Compare this to the actual revenue obtained from the sale of this dinner.
Solution:
First, find the marginal revenue function: MR(x)=R'(x)=−0.06x+9.. Next, use R'(100) to
approximate R(101)−R(100) the revenue obtained from the sale of the 101st dinner. Since
R'(100)=3, the revenue obtained from the sale of the 101 st dinner is approximately $3.
The actual revenue obtained from the sale of the 101 st dinner is
R(101) − R(100) = 602.97 − 600 = 2.97
The marginal revenue is a fairly good estimate in this case and has the advantage of
being easy to compute.
CHAPTER 9 5

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uePqXn7FXvY
https://ww.youtube.com/watch?v=oqjltRxRJz8
9.2. RELATED RATES
Objectives:
• To know the related rates

• To expose in different formulas that are needed
• To provide with methods on solving problems in related rates
• To become better problem solvers especially in solving common
application problems involving related rates.
Introduction:
We have seen how we can use mathematics to model some of the phenomenon in the
world around us. If a situation is model with a continuous function, we can use calculus to
analyze how things are changing and then possibly use that information to make predictions.
Up until now, we have considered how the one quantity is changing with respect to a
change in the other quantity. Now we will consider the interaction between the rates of change
of two quantities with respect to a third quantity, which is the time. Thus, we are going to look at
how the rates of the two quantities are related to each other with respect to time.
Learning Content:
We use related rates in our day-to-day activities because anything we do here in earth
will always respect with time. Some of the related rates problems involves ladder problems,
rates of two quantities approaching each other, volume problems and air traffic controls.
If we are pumping air into a balloon, both the volume and the radius of the balloon are
increasing and their rates of increase are related to each other. But it is much easier to measure
directly the rate of increase of the volume than the rate of increase of the radius.
In a related rate problem, the idea is to compute the rate of change of one quantity in
terms of the rate of change of another quantity (which maybe more easily measured). The
procedure is to find an equation that relates the two quantities and then uses the Chain Rule
and other rules for differentiation to differentiate both sides with respect to time.
Formulas that we will use in this topic:
CHAPTER 9 6
We have here a useful suggestion for solving a Related Rates Problem.
Example: A 13-meter ladder is leaning against a vertical wall with its foot on the same
horizontal plane as the base of the wall. If the lower end of the ladder is moving away from
the wall horizontally at 4meters per minute, how fast is the top of the ladder descending
when the lower end is 5meters from the wall?
Given:
➢ We must first draw a diagram and label it as Figure1.
CHAPTER 9 7
➢ Let t be the number of minutes that has elapsed since the top of the ladder
started to slide down the wall.
➢ Let x be the distance from the wall to the foot of the ladder.
➢ Let y be the distance from the floor to the top of the ladder.
➢ Let c be the measured of the ladder
𝑑𝑥
➢ Since x is increasing at 4m per min, we have 𝑑𝑡 = 4
𝑑𝑦
➢ Note that 𝑑𝑡
is the time rate of change that we are asked to find.
Solution:
Now we need to establish a relationship between x and y by using Pythagorean
Theorem.
Since x=5c=13 we have to solve for y.
Pythagorean Theorem 𝑥2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑐2
Solve for y in terms of the given quantity 𝑦 2 = 𝑐2 − 𝑥2
Substitute the given 𝑦 2 = 132 − 52

Simplify 𝑦 = 12
The distance from the floor to the top of the ladder is 12meters.
Pythagorean Theorem c=13 𝑥2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑐2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 169
By considering x and y as functions of t and differentiating with respect to t, we get.
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 169
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
To solve for 𝑑𝑡
apply your knowledge in Algebra
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2𝑦 = −2𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
= − 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑦
By substituting the given we get
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 (5)(4) 5
= 4𝑥 + 5, 𝑦 = 12 =− =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 12 3
CHAPTER 9 8
𝑑𝑦
The fact that 𝑑𝑡
is negative means that the distance from the top of the ladder to the
5
ground is decreasing at a rate of 3 meters per second.
𝟓
Therefore, the top of the ladder is descending at the rate of meters per minute.
𝟑

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-diff-contextual-
applications-new/ab-4-5/v/related-rates-of-water-pouring-into-cone
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-diff-contextual-
applications-new/ab-4-5/v/falling-ladder-related-rates
9.3. DERIVATIVES OF HIGHER ORDER
Objectives:
• Calculate higher order derivatives

• Apply higher order derivatives in application problems
If p(x) is a polynomial of degree n (i.e. the largest exponent in the

polynomial) then,
DEFINITION 9.3.1
𝑝(𝑘) (x) = 0 for k ≥ n + 1
Let’s start this section with the following function.

f(x) = 5𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 10x − 5
By this point we should be able to differentiate this function without any problems. Doing
this we get,
f′(x) = 15𝑥 2 − 6x + 10
Now, this is a function and so it can be differentiated. Here is the notation that we’ll use
for that, as well as the derivative.
f′′(x) = (f′(x))′ = 30x − 6
This is called the second derivative and f′(x is now called the first derivative.
Again, this is a function, so we can differentiate it again. This will be called the third
derivative. Here is that derivative as well as the notation for the third derivative.
f′′′(x) = (f′′(x))′ = 30
CHAPTER 9 9
Continuing, we can differentiate again. This is called, oddly enough, the fourth
derivative. We’re also going to be changing notation at this point. We can keep adding on
primes, but that will get cumbersome after a while.
f(4)(x) = (f′′′(x))′ = 0f(4)(x) = (f‴(x))′ = 0
This process can continue but notice that we will get zero for all derivatives after this
point. This set of derivatives leads us to the following fact about the differentiation of
polynomials.
We will need to be careful with the “non-prime” notation for derivatives. Consider each of
the following.
𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 𝑓′′(𝑥)
𝑓 2 (𝑥) = [𝑓(𝑥)]2
The presence of parenthesis in the exponent denotes differentiation while the absence
of parenthesis denotes exponentiation.
Collectively the second, third, fourth, etc. derivatives are called higher order
derivatives.
Let’s take a look at some examples of higher order derivatives.
Example: Find 𝑦′′ for 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 4 = 10
Solution:
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 3 𝑦′ = 0
𝑥
𝑦′ = −
2𝑦 3
′ 𝑥
𝑦 ′ = (− )
2𝑦 3
2𝑦 3 − 𝑥 (6𝑦 2 𝑦 ′ )
=−
(2𝑦 3 )2
2𝑦 3 − 𝑥 (6𝑦 2 𝑦 ′ )
=−
4𝑦 6
′ 𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑦 ′
𝑦′ = −
2𝑦 4
𝑥
𝑦 − 3𝑥 (− )
2𝑦 3
=−
2𝑦 4
3
𝑦 + 2 𝑥 2 𝑦 −3
=−
2𝑦 4
CHAPTER 9 10

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7rdYPJrNc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLkz5LGWihw&vl=en
9.4. RELATIVE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES OF A FUNCTION
Objectives:
• To define what is Maximum and Minimum Values

• To expose in different word problems engaging Maximum and Minimum
Values
Introduction:
In this chapter, we will discuss the important application of the derivative, which is
Maximum and Minimum. In this function we can define maxima and minima in easy way. We
can define a MAXIMUM VALUE if the point is high and if it is low point it is said to be MINIMUM
VALUE.
Learning Content:
Many of our applications in this chapter will revolve around minimum and maximum
values of a function. While we can all visualize the minimum and maximum values of a function,
we want to be a little more specific in our work here.
In this section we give several examples showing applications of calculus to maximum
and minimum problems. To solve these examples, go through the following steps.
CHAPTER 9 11
MAXIMUM PROBLEM
Example 1
A ball is thrown in the air. Its height any time t is
given by
ℎ = 3 + 14𝑡 − 5𝑡 2
What is its maximum height?
Solution: Using the derivatives, we can find the slope of that function:
𝑑
ℎ = 3 + 14𝑡 − 5𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡
= 0 + 14 − 5(2𝑡)
= 14 − 10𝑡
Now find the slope is zero:

𝑑
ℎ = 14 − 10𝑡
𝑑𝑡
0 = 14 − 10𝑡
14 = 10𝑡
𝑡 = 1.4
The slope is zero at 𝑡 = 1.4 seconds
Finding the maximum height, we have to substitute the value of t from the
equation.
ℎ = 3 + 14𝑡 − 5𝑡 2
= 3 + 14(1.4) − 5(1.4)2
= 3 + 19.6 − 9.5
= 12.8
Therefore, the maximum height of the ball is 12.8m at 𝑡 = 1.4 seconds.
Example 2
Farmer has 800m of fencing material to enclose a rectangular pen adjacent to
an existing wall. He will use the wall for one side of the pen and the available fencing
material for the remaining three sides. What is the maximum area that can be
enclosed this way?
CHAPTER 9 12
Solution: Let x be the length of the two sides (800-2x) be the length of the third side A be the
area.
𝐴 = 𝑥(800 − 2𝑥)
= 800𝑥 − 2𝑥 2
Domain: (0, 400)
To find the critical points, set A’=0, and find x.
𝐴 = 800𝑥 − 2𝑥 2
A’ = 800𝑥 − 4𝑥 800 − 2𝑥 = 0
0 = 800𝑥 − 4𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 800 − 2(200) = 0
4x = 800𝑥 800 − 400 = 400
x = 200
Find the second derivative. A’′ = −4
Since A” is always negative, A has a relative maximum at x = 200, which is the only one
critical number A.
Therefore, A has an absolute maximum at x = 200. The maximum area is 80000m².
MINIMUM PROBLEM
Example 1 Find the two numbers whose sum is 10, and the sum of whose squares is a
minimum.
Solution: Let x and 10-x represents a number, and y the sum of their squares.
Since y’’ = 4 > 0. Therefore, the numbers are 5 and 5.
Example 2 Ms. Harris has a taco stand. She has found that her daily costs are
approximated by: 𝑐 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 40𝑥 + 610. c(x) is the cost in dollars to sell x units of the
tacos. Find the number of units of tacos she must sell to minimize her cost. Find that
minimum cost.
CHAPTER 9 13
Solution:
Given: Let x–units of tacos
c(x) – daily operating cost
𝑐 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 40𝑥 + 610 a=1 and b=-40

Required: Find the minimum cost?
Vertex?
The vertex [𝑥, 𝑐(𝑥)] is (20, 210)
If the unit of tacos are 20 then the minimum cost for tacos is 210.

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graphs-using-differentiation/copy-of-critical-points-ab/v/identifying-relative-
extrema
9.5. ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES OF A FUNCTION
Objectives:
• Find all absolute maximum and minimum points of a function on a closed

interval.
A function f is said to have an absolute maximum value on an

interval if there is some number c in the interval such that f(c)≥f(x)
DEFINITION 9.5.1
for all x in the interval. In such a case, f(c) is the absolute maximum
value of f on the interval.
A function f is said to have an absolute minimum value on an

interval if there is some number c in the interval such that f(c)≤f(x)
DEFINITION 9.5.2 for all x in the interval. In such a case, f(c) is the absolute minimum
value of f on the interval.
CHAPTER 9 14
An absolute extremum of a function on the interval is either an absolute maximum value

or an absolute minimum value of the function on the interval function may or may not
have an absolute extremum on a particular interval.
Illustration 1Suppose f is the function defined by f(x)=2x
A sketch of the graph of f on [1,4) is in the figure below. This function has an
absolute minimum value of 2 on [1,4). There is no absolute maximum value of f on
[1,4) because lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 8, but f(x) is always less than 8 on the interval.
𝑥→4
Illustration 2 Consider the function f defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = −𝑥 2

A sketch of the graph of f on (-3,2] is in the figure below. This function has an
absolute maximum value of 0 on (-3,2]. There is no absolute minimum value of f on (-
3,2] because lim+ 𝑓 (𝑥) = −9, but f(x) is always greater than –9 on the interval.
𝑥→3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3wrXDw5ETh4
9.6. EXTREME VALUE PROBLEMS
Objectives:
• Determine if the Extreme Value Theorem applies to a given situation
If the function f is continuous on the closed interval [a,b], then f has

DEFINITION 9.6 an absolute maximum value and an absolute minimum value on
[a,b].
PROCEDURE:
1. Find the function value at the critical numbers of f on (a,b).
2. Find the values of f(a) and f(b).
3. The largest of the values from step 1 and step 2 is the absolute maximum
1
Example 1 Find the absolute extrema of f on [−2, 2] if 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1
[-2, 1 2]iff(x)=x3 +x2 -x+1 1

Solution: Because f is continuous on [−2, 2], the extreme–value theorem applies. To find the
critical numbers of f, first find 𝑓′:
𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1
CHAPTER 9 15
Because 𝑓′(𝑥) exists for all real numbers, the only critical numbers of f will be the value
of x for which 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0. Set 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0
(3𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
1
𝑥= 𝑥 = −1
3
1
The critical numbers of f are –1 and , and each of these numbers is in the given closed
3
1
interval [−2, 2]. The function values at the critical numbers and at the endpoints of the interval
are given in table below.
1
The absolute maximum of f on [−2, 2] ] is therefore 2, which occurs at –1, and the
1
absolute minimum value of f on [−2, ] is –1, which occurs at the left endpoints –2.
2
SAMPLEAPPLICATIONOFANABSOLUTEEXTREMUMONACLOSEDINTERVAL
1. Point A and B are opposite each other in on shores of a straight river 3km wide.
Point C is on the same shore as B but 2km down the river from B. A telephone
company wishes to lay a cable from A to C. If the cost per kilometer of the cable is
25 percent more under the water than it on land, what line of cable would be least
expensive for the company?
Solution: Let P be a point on the same shore as B and C and between B and C so that the
cable will run from A to P to C. Let x kilometer be the distance from B to P. Then 2-x kilometers
5
is the distance from P to C, and x∈[0,2]. Let k dollars be the cost per kilometer on land and 𝑘
4
dollars be the cost per kilometer under the water (k is a constant). If C(x) dollars is the total cost
of running the cable from A to P and from P to C, then
5
𝐶 (𝑥) = 𝑘√32 + 𝑥 2 + k(2 − x)
4
Because C is continuous on [0,2], the extreme value theorem applies, thus C has both
an absolute maximum value and an absolute minimum value on [0,2]. We wish to find the
absolute minimum value.
5𝑘𝑥
𝐶 (𝑥) = −k = 0
4√9 + 𝑥 2
5𝑥 = 4√9 + 𝑥 2
CHAPTER 9 16
25𝑥 2 = 16(9 + 𝑥 2 )
9𝑥 2 = 16(9)
𝑥 2 = 16
𝑥 = ±4
The number –4 is an extraneous root of (1), and 4 is not in the interval [0,2]. Therefore,
there are no critical numbers of C in [0,2]. The absolute minimum value of C on [0,2] must
therefore occur at an endpoint of the interval. Computing C(0) and C(2) we get
23 5
𝐶 (0) = 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 (2) = 𝑘√13
4 4
5 23 5
Because 4 𝑘√13 < 4
𝑘 the absolute minimum value of C on [0,2] is 4 𝑘√13, occurring
when x=2. Therefore, for the cost of the cable to be least, the cable should go directly from A to
C under the water.

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-diff-analytical-application-
new/ab-5-2/v/extreme-value-theorem
9.7. ROLLE’S THEOREM AND THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM
Objectives:
• Interpret both continuous and differentiable functions geometrically and

analytically and apply Rolle's Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem.
Let f be a function such that

(i) It is continuous on the closed interval [a,b];
(ii) It is differentiable on the open interval (a,b);
DEFINITION 9.7
(iii) f(a)=0 and f(b)=0.
Then, there is a number c in the open interval (a,b) such that f'(c)=0.
Example 1
Given 𝑓 (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 9𝑥. Verify that conditions (i), (ii), and (iii) of the hypothes is of
3 3 3 3
Rolle’s theorem are satisfied for each of the following intervals: [− , 0] , [0, ] , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 [− , ].
2 2 2 2
Then find the suitable value for c in each of these intervals for which 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0
CHAPTER 9 17
Solution: 𝑓′(𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 − 9

Because f'(x) exists for all values of x, f is differentiable on (-∞,+∞) and therefore
continuous on (-∞,+∞). Conditions (i) and (ii) of Rolle’s theorem thus hold on any interval. To
determine on which intervals condition (iii) holds, we find the values of x for which f(x)=0. If
f(x)=0,
9
4𝑥 (𝑥 2 − = 0)
4
3 3
𝑥=− 𝑥=0 𝑥=
2 2
3 3
With 𝑎 = − 2 and b=0, Rolle’s theorem holds on [− 2 , 0]. Similarly, Rolle’s theorem holds
3 3 3
on [0, 2] and [− 2 , 2]. To find the suitable values for c, set f '(x) =0 and get
12𝑥 2 − 9 = 0
1 1
𝑥 = − √3 𝑥 = √3
2 2
3 1 3
Therefore, in the interval [− , 0] a suitable choice for c is − √3. In the interval [0, ],
2 2 2
1 3 3 1 1
take 𝑐 = 2 √3. In the interval [− 2 , 2] there are two possibilities for c either − 2 √3 or 2 √3
9.7.1. MEAN VALUE THEOREM
Let f be a function such that

(i) It is continuous on the closed interval [a,b];
(ii) It is differentiable on the open interval (a,b);
DEFINITION 9.7.1
Then there is a number c in the open interval (a,b) such that
𝑓 (𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎
Example 2
Given 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥. Verify that the hypothesis of the mean value theorem
is satisfied for a=1 and b=3. Then find all numbers c in the open interval (1,3) such that
𝑓 (3) − 𝑓(1)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
3−1
Solution: Because f is a polynomial function, f is continuous and differentiable for all value of
x. Therefore, the hypothesis of the mean value theorem is satisfied for any a and b.
CHAPTER 9 18
𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 3
𝑓(1) = −7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 (3) = −27
Hence,
𝑓(3) − 𝑓(1) −27 − (−7)
= = −10
3−1 2
Set 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = −10 to obtain
3𝑐 2 − 10𝑐 − 3 = −10
3𝑐 2 − 10𝑐 + 7 = 0
(3𝑐 − 7)(𝑐 − 1) = 0
7
𝑐= 𝑐=1
3
7
Because 1 is not in the open interval (1,3), the only possible value for 𝑐 = 3.

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application-new/ab-5-1/v/mean-value-theorem-1
9.8. SKETCH OF THE GRAPH OF A FUNCTION
Objectives:
• Solve and sketch the graph of a function (Increasing/decreasing; relative

extrema; concavity; points of inflection)
INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS AND THE FIRST–DERIVATIVE TEST
A function f defined on an interval is said to be increasing on that

DEFINITION 9.8.1 interval if and only if 𝑓′(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓′(𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 where 𝑥1 and
𝑥2 are any numbers in the interval.
The function of figure above is increasing on the following closed intervals:

[𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ];[ 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 ];[ 𝑥5 , 𝑥6 ];[ 𝑥6 , 𝑥7 ];[ 𝑥5 , 𝑥7 ]
CHAPTER 9 19
A function f defined on an interval is said to be decreasing on that

DEFINITION 9.8.2 interval if and only if 𝑓′(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓′(𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 where 𝑥1 and
𝑥2 are any numbers in the interval.
The function of figure above is decreasing on the following closed intervals: [𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ]; [𝑥4
, 𝑥5 ].
If a function is either increasing on an interval or decreasing on an interval, then it is said
to be monotonic on the interval.
Before stating a theorem that gives a test for determining if a function is monotonic on an
interval, let us see what happening geometrically. Refer to figure above, and observe that when
the slope of the tangent line is positive the function is increasing and when it is negative the
function is decreasing. Because f'(x) is the slope of the tangent line to the curve y=f(x), f is
increasing when f'(x)>0 and decreasing when f' (x)<0, the function values are decreasing as x
increases.
Let the function f be continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and

differentiable on the open interval (a,b):
THEORM 9.8.3
(i) If f'(x)>0 for all x in (a,b), then f is increasing on [a,b];
(ii) If f'(x)<0 for all x in (a,b), then f is decreasing on [a,b].
𝑓 (𝑥2 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥1 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑐 ) =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST FOR RELATIVE EXTREMA

Let the function f be continuous at all points of the open interval
(a,b) containing the number c, and suppose f’ exists at all points of
(a,b) except possibly at c”
THEORM 9.8.4 (i) If f'(x)>0 for all values of x in some open interval having c as
its right endpoint, and if f'(x)<0 for all values of x in some open
interval having c as its left endpoint, then f has a relative
maximum value at c;
(ii) If f'(x) <0 for all values of x in some open interval having c as
its right endpoint, and if f'(x)>0 for all values of x in some open
interval
In summary, to determine the relative extrema of a function f:

1. Find f'(x).
2. Find the critical numbers of f, that is, the value of x for which f'(x)=0 or for
which f'(x) does not exist.
CHAPTER 9 20
Example 1: Given 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 1.

Find the relative extrema of f by applying the first derivative test. Determine the
values of x at which the relative extrema occur, as well as the intervals on which f is
increasing and the interval on which f is decreasing. Draw a sketch of the graph.
Solution:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9 = 0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) exists for all values of x. Set 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0
3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9 = 0
(3𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
𝑥=3 𝑥=1
Thus ,the critical numbers of f are 1 and 3. To determine whether f has a relative
extremum at either of these numbers, apply the first derivative test. The results are summarized
in table below.
𝑥 2 − 4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 3
Example 2: Given 𝑓 (𝑥) = {
8 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 3 ≤ 𝑥
Find the relative extrema of f by applying the first derivative test. Determine the
values of x at which the relative extrema occur, as well as the intervals on which f is
increasing and the interval on which f is decreasing. Draw a sketch of a graph.
Solution:
If 𝑥 < 3, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −2𝑥. If 3 ≤ 𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1. Because 𝑓−′ (3) = 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓+′ (3) = −1, 𝑓 ′ (3), does
not exist. Therefore, 3 is a critical number of f. Because f'(x)=0 when x=0, it follows that 0 is a
critical number of f. Applying the first derivative test, we summarize the results in table below.
CHAPTER 9 21
SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST FOR RELATIVE EXTREMA

Let c be a critical number of a function f at which f'(c)=0 and let f
exist for all values of x in some open interval containing c. If f''(c)
THEORM 9.8.5 exist and
(i) If f'(x) <0, then f has a relative maximum value at c;
(ii) If f'(x)>0 then f has a relative minimum value at c
Example
4
Given 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 3 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 .
Find the relative maxima and minima of f by applying the second derivative test.
Draw a sketch of the graph of f.
Solution: We compute the first and second derivative of f.

𝑓′(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥
𝑓′′(𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 8
Set f'(x)=0
4𝑥(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
𝑥=0 𝑥 = −2 𝑥=1
Thus the critical numbers of f are –2, 0, and 1. We determine whether or not there is a
relative extremum at any of these critical numbers by finding the sign of the second derivative
there.
CHAPTER 9 22
CONCAVITY AND POINTS OF INFLECTION
The graph of function f is said to be concave upward at the point

DEFINITION 9.8.5 (c,f(c)) if f'(c) exists and if there is an open interval I containing c
such that for all values of x≠c in I the point (x,f(x)) on the graph is
above the tangent line to the graph at (c,f(c)).
The graph of function f is said to be concave downward at the

DEFINITION 9.8.6 point (c,f(c)) if f'(c) exists and if there is an open interval I containing
c such that for all values of x≠c in I the point (x,f(x)) on the graph is
above the tangent line to the graph at (c,f(c)).
Illustration1
Figure 2 shows a sketch of a portion of the graph of a function f that is concave upward
at the point (c,f(c)), and Figure 3 shows a sketch of a portion of the graph of a function f that is
concave downward at the point (c,f(c)).
CHAPTER 9 23
The graph in Figure 1 is concave downward at all points (x,f(x)) for which x is in either of
the following open intervals: (𝑥1 , 𝑥3) or (𝑥5 , 𝑥6 ). Similarly, the graph in Figure 1 is concave
upward at all points (x,f(x)) for which x is in either (𝑥3 , 𝑥5 ) or (𝑥6 , 𝑥7 ).
Illustration 2
If f is the function defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , then f'(x)=2x and

f''(x)=2. Thus, f''(x)>0 for all x. Furthermore, because the graph of f,
appearing in Figure 4, is above all of its tangent lines, the graph is
concave upward at all of its points.
If g is the function defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = −𝑥 2 , then g'(x) =-2x and

g''(x)=-2. Hence g''(x) <0 for all x. Also, because the graph of g,
shown in Figure 5, is below all of its tangent lines, it is concave downward at
all of its points.
The function f of Illustration 2 is such that f''(x)>0 for all x, and the
graph of f is concave upward everywhere. For function g of Illustration 2,
g''(x)<0 for all x, and the graph of g is concave downward everywhere.
These two situations are special cases of the following theorem.
Figure 5
POINTS OF INFLECTION
The point (c,f(c)) is a point of inflection of the graph of the function f

DEFINITION 9.8.7 if the graph has a tangent line there, and if there exists an open
interval I containing c such that if x is in I, then either
(i) If f''(x)<0, if x<c, and f''(x) >0 if x>c, or
(ii) If f''(x)>0, if x<c, f''(x) <0 if x>c
Illustration 3
Suppose it is estimated that t hours after starting work at 7am a factory worker on an
assembly line has performed a particular task on f(t) units, and
𝑓 (𝑡) = 21𝑡 + 9𝑡 2 − 𝑡 3 0≤𝑡≤5

In table 1 there are function values for integer values of t from 1 through 5, and Figure 6
shows a sketch of the graph of f on [0,5].
𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = 21𝑡 + 18𝑡 − 3𝑡 2

𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) = 18 − 6𝑡
𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) = 6(3 − 𝑡)
Observe that f''(t)>0 if 0<t<3 and f''(t) <0 if 3<t<5. From Definition 9.8.7 (ii) it follows that
the graph of f has a point of inflection at t=3. From Theorem 9.8.3, because f''(t)>0 when 0<t<5,
f(t) is decreasing on [3,5]. Therefore, since f'(t) is the rate of change of f(t) with respect to t, we
CHAPTER 9 24
conclude that in the first three hours (from 7am until 10am) the worker is performing the task at
an increasing rate, and during the remaining two hours (from 10am to noon) the worker is
performing at a decreasing rate. At t=3 (10am) the workers are producing most efficiently, and
when 3<t<5 (after 10am) there is a reduction in the worker’s production rate. The point of
diminishing returns; this point is a point of inflection of the graph of f.
Definition 9.8.7 indicates nothing about the value of the second derivative of f at a point
of inflection. The following theorem states that if the second derivative exists at a point of
inflection, it must be zero there.

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application-new/ab-5-4/v/finding-relative-maximum-example
SKETCH OF THE GRAPH OF A FUNCTION

An asymptote of a graph that is either horizontal or vertical is called an oblique
asymptote. To obtain a sketch of the graph of a function f you should apply the properties
discussed in this chapter and proceed as follows:
1. Determine the domain of f.

2. Find any y intercepts of the graph. Locate any x intercepts if the resulting
equation is easy to solve.
3. Test for symmetry with respect to the y axis and origin.
4. Compute f'(x) and f''(x)
5. Determine the critical numbers of f. These are the values of x in the domain of f
for which either f'(x) does not exist or f'(x)=0
6. Apply either the first derivative test or the second derivative test to determine
whether at a critical number there is a relative maximum value, a relative
minimum value, or neither.
7. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing by finding the value of x for which
f'(x) is positive; determine the intervals on which f is decreasing by finding the
values of x for which f'(x) is negative. In locating the intervals on which f is
monotonic, also check the critical numbers at which f does not have a relative
extremum.
8. To obtain possible points of inflection, find the critical numbers of f, that is, the
values x for which f''(x) does not exist of f''(x)=0. At each of these values to check
to see if f''(x) changes sign and if the graph has a tangent lie there t determine if
there actually s a point of inflection.
CHAPTER 9 25
9. Check for concavity of the graph. Find the values of x for which f''(x) is positive to
obtain points at which the graph is concave upward; to obtain points at which the
graph is concave downward find the values of x for which f''(x) is negative.
10. It is helpful to find the slope of each inflectional tangent.
11. Check for any possible horizontal, vertical, or oblique asymptotes.
Example
Given 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 3.
Draw a sketch of the graph of f first finding the following: the relative extrema of f;
the points of inflection of the graph of f; the intervals on which f is increasing; the intervals
on which f is decreasing; where the graph is concave upward; where the graph is
concave downward; and the slope of any number.
Solution: The domain of f is the set of all real numbers. The y intercept is 3.
′
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 − 6
Set f'(x)=0 to obtain x=0 and x=2. From f''(x)=0 we get x=1. In
making the table, consider the points at which x=0, x=1, and x=2, and
intervals excluding these values of x:
𝑥<0 0<𝑥<1 1<𝑥<2 2<𝑥
From the information in table below and by plotting a few
points, we obtain the sketch of the graph appearing in Figure 6. Figure 6
CHAPTER 9 26

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REFERENCES

CHAPTER 9 27
CHAPTER 10
DIFFERENTIAL OF A FUNCTION
10.1. GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION
Objectives:
• Geometrically interpret the differential of functions.
Consider a function y=f(x), which is continuous in the interval [a,b]. Suppose that at
some point 𝑥0 ∈ [a,b] the independent variable is incremented by Δx. The increment of the
function Δy corresponding to the change of the independent variable Δx is given by
Δy = Δf(𝑥0 ) = f(𝑥0 + Δx) − f(𝑥0 ).
For any differentiable function, the increment Δy can be represented as a sum of two
terms: Δy = AΔx + ο(Δx), where the first term (called the principal part of the increment) is
linearly dependent on the increment Δx, and the second term has a higher order of smallness
with respect to Δx. The expression AΔx is called the differential of function and is denoted by dy
or df(𝑥0 ).
Consider the idea of partition of the increment of the function Δy into two parts in the
following simple example. Given a square with side 𝑥0 = 1𝑚 shown in Figure 1.
Its area is obviously equal to 𝑆0 = 𝑥02 = 1𝑚 2 .

If the side of the square is increased by Δx=1cm, the exact value of the area of the
square will be equal to
𝑆 = 𝑥 2 = (𝑥0 + Δx)2 = 1. 012 = 1. 0201𝑚 2 , that is the increment of the area ΔS is Δx = S − 𝑆0 =
1.0201 − 1 = 0. 0201𝑚 2 = 201𝑐𝑚 2 .
We now represent this increment ΔS as follows:
Thus, the increment ΔS consists of the principal part (the differential of the function),
which is proportional to Δx and is equal to dy = AΔx = 2𝑥0 Δx = 2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 0.01 = 0.02𝑚 2 = 200𝑐𝑚 2 ,
CHAPTER 10 1
and the term of a higher order of smallness, which in turn is equal to

o(Δx) = (Δx) 2 = 0.01 2 = 0.0001𝑚 2 = 1𝑐𝑚 2
In sum, both these terms comprise the full increment of the square area equal to
200 + 1 = 201𝑐𝑚 2
Note that in this example the coefficient A is equal to the value of the derivative of S at
the point 𝑥0 .
𝐴 = 2𝑥0
It turns out that for any differentiable function, the following theorem is valid.
The coefficient A in the principal part of the increment of a function at a point 𝑥0 is equal
to the value of the derivative f′(𝑥0 ) at this point, that is the increment Δy is given by
Δy = AΔx + ο(Δx) = f′(𝑥0 ) )Δx + ο(Δx
. Dividing both sides of the equation by Δx ≠ 0 gives
ΔyΔx = A + ο(Δx)Δx = f′(𝑥0 ) + ο(Δx)Δx.
In the limit as Δx→0, we obtain the value of the derivative at the point 𝑥0 :
y ′ (𝑥0 ) = limΔx → 0ΔyΔx = A = f ′ (𝑥0 ).
Here we took into account that for a small quantity ο(Δx) of higher order of smallness
than Δx, the limit is equal to
o(Δx)
lim =0
Δx→0 Δx
Assuming that the differential of the independent variable dx is equal to its increment Δx:
dx = Δx,
we obtain from the relationship dy = AΔx = y′dx that y ′ = dydx, i.e. the derivative of a function
can be represented as the ratio of two differentials.
Figure 2 schematically shows splitting of the increment Δy into
the principal part AΔx (the differential of function) and the term of a
higher order of smallness ο(Δx).
The tangent MN drawn to the curve of the function y=f(x) at the
point M, as it is known, has the slope angle α, the tangent of which is
equal to the derivative:
tanα = f′(𝑥0 ).
When the independent variable changes by Δx, the tangent
increments by AΔx. This linear increment formed by the tangent is just
the differential of the function. The remaining part of the full increment
Δy (the segment 𝑁𝑀1 ) corresponds to the “nonlinear” additive of a
higher order of smallness with respect to Δx
CHAPTER 10 2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FJIV2NJFeq8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fGQSU2mebY
10.2. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS OF DIFFERENTIATION FORMULAS
Objectives:
• Familiarize and use the different differential forms of differentiation formulas.
The formulas from these theorems are now stated with the Leibniz notation. Along with
the formula for the derivative there is a corresponding formula for the differential. In these
𝑑𝑢
formulas, u and v are functions of x and it is understood that the formulas hold providing 𝑑𝑥 and
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
exist. When c appears, it is a constant.
Example 1
Given 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 3 + 5𝑦 3 + 6𝑥𝑦 2 = 5
𝑑𝑦
Where x and y are functions of a third variable, find by computing the differential
𝑑𝑥
term by term.
Solution: This problem involves implicit differentiation. Taking the differential term by term we
get
4𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 9𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 15𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 + 6𝑦 2 + 12𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
CHAPTER 10 3
Dividing by dx, if dx≠0, we have

𝑑𝑦
(4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 15𝑦 2 + 12𝑥𝑦) = −4𝑥𝑦 2 + 9𝑥 2 − 6𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 9𝑥 2 − 6𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 2
= 2
𝑑𝑥 4𝑥 𝑦 + 15𝑦 2 + 12𝑥𝑦
Example 2
𝑑
Compute (tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥) = tan 𝑥 [ (sec 𝑥)] + (tan 𝑥)(sec 𝑥)
= tan 𝑥( sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥) + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (sec 𝑥)
= sec 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WY1PcRjROt4
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 10 4
CHAPTER 11
ANTIDIFFERENTIATION
11.1. FORMULAS
Objectives:
• Perform the formulas of antidifferentiations.
You are already familiar within inverse operations. Addition and Subtraction are inverse
operation, multiplication and division are inverse operations, as are raising to powers and
extracting roots. In this section we develop the inverse operation of differentiation called
antidifferentiation.
A function F is called an antiderivative of a function of a

DEFINITION function f on an interval f if F'(x)=f(x) for every value of x in I.
Illustration 1
If F is defined by
𝐹 (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 5
then F′(x) = 12𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5. Thus, if f is the function defined by f(x) = 12𝑥 2 + 2x
We state that f is the derivative of F and that F is an antiderivative of f. If G is the
function defined by G(x) = 4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 17 then G is also an antideivative of f, because
G′(x) = 12𝑥 2 + 2x. Actually, any function whose function value is given by 4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + C, where
C is any constant, is an antiderivative of f.
If f and g are two functions such that f'(x)=g'(x) for all x in the
THEOREM 11a interval I, then there is a constant K such that
f(x)=g(x)+K for all x is I
If F is a particular antiderivative of f on an interval I, then

THEOREM 11b every antiderivative of f on I is given by F(x)+C where C is an
arbitrary constant, and all antiderivatives of f on I can be obtained
from (1) by assigning particular values to C.
Leibniz introduced the convention of writing the differential of a function after the
antidifferentiation symbol. The advantage of using the differential I this manner will be apparent
to you when we compute antiderivatives by changing the variable. We can write it by
∫ d(F(x)) = F(x) + C
CHAPTER 11 1
This equation will be used to obtain formulas for antidifferentiation in the sections that
follows; the equation states that when we antidifferentiate the differential of a function, obtain
that function plus an arbitrary constant. So we can think of the ∫ symbol for antidifferentiation as
meaning that operation which is the inverse of the operation denoted by d for computing a
differential.
If {F(x)+C} is the set of all functions whose differential are f(x)dx, it is also the set of all
functions whose derivatives are f(x). Therefore antidifferentiation is considered as the operation
of finding the set of all functions having a given derivative. Because antidifferentiation is the
inverse operation of differentiation, antidifferentiation theorems can be obtained from
differentiation theorems. Thus the following theorems can be proved from the corresponding
ones for differentiation.
THEOREM 11.1.1 ∫ dx = x + C
∫ af(x)dx = a ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑 x
THEOREM 11.1.2
where a is a constant.
If 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are defined on the same interval, then

THEOREM 11.1.3
∫[𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝑓2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥] = ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
If 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , … , 𝑓𝑛 are defined on the same interval

THEOREM 11.1.4 ∫[𝑐1 𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝑐2 𝑓2 (𝑥) + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐1 ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐2 ∫ 𝑓2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 ∫ 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
where 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 are constant.
If n is a rational number.
THEOREM 11.1.5 𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
Illustration 2 Applying Theorem 11.1.5 for particular values of n we have

𝑥3
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
3
𝟏
∫ 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒙−𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟐
CHAPTER 11 2
𝑥 −2+1
= +𝐶
−2 + 1
𝑥 −1
= +𝐶
−1
1
= − +𝐶
𝑥
Illustration 3 Applying Theorem 11.1.1
∫(3𝑥 + 5)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 5𝑑𝑥
= 𝟑 ∫ 𝒙𝒅𝒙 + 𝟓 ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝑥2
= 3 ( ) + 𝐶1 + 5(𝑥 + 𝐶2 )
2
3
= 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + (3𝐶1 + 5𝐶2 )
2
Because 3𝐶1 + 5𝐶2 is an arbitrary constant, it may be denoted by C; so the result can be
written as
3 2
𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 𝐶
2
The answer can be checked by finding its derivative
3
𝐷𝑥 ( 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 𝐶) = 3𝑥 + 5
2
Example 1 Evaluate
∫(5𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7)𝑑𝑥
Solution:
∫(5𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7)𝑑𝑥
= 5 ∫ 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 − 8 ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + 9 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 7 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥5 𝑥4 𝑥3 𝑥2
= 5( ) − 8 ( ) + 9 ( ) − 2 ( ) + 7𝑥 + 𝐶
5 4 3 2
= 𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 𝐶
CHAPTER 11 3
Example 1 Evaluate
1
∫ √𝑥 (𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
Solution:
1 1
∫ √𝑥 (𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 𝑥 −1 )𝑑𝑥
𝑥
3 1
= ∫ (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 −2 ) 𝑑𝑥
3 1
= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
5 1
𝑥2 𝑥2
= + +𝐶
5 1
2 2
2 5 1
= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝐶
5
THEOREM 11.1.6 ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
THEOREM 11.1.7
THEOREM 11.1.8 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
THEOREM 11.1.9 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cot 𝑥 + 𝐶
THEOREM 11.1.10 ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶
THEOREM 11.1.11 ∫ csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −csc 𝑥 + 𝐶
Example 3 Evaluate ∫(3 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − 5 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
CHAPTER 11 4
Solution: We apply Theorem 11.1.10 and 11.1.9
∫(3 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − 5 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − 5 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 3 sec 𝑥 − 5(−𝑐0𝑡 𝑥) + 𝐶
= 3 sec 𝑥 + 5 𝑐0𝑡 𝑥 + 𝐶
Trigonometric identities are often used when computing antiderivatives involving

trigonometric functions. The following eight fundamental identities are crucial:
sin 𝑥 csc 𝑥 = 1 cos 𝑥 sec 𝑥 = 1 tan 𝑥 cot 𝑥 = 1

sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
tan 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 cot 𝑥 = sin 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥
Example 4 Evaluate
2 cot 𝑥 − 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
Solution:
2 2
2 cot 𝑥 − 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 2 cot 𝑥 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
= 2∫ (cot 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 − 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 sin 𝑥
= 2 ∫ csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 3 ∫ sin 𝑑𝑥
= 2(− csc 𝑥) − 3(− cos 𝑥) + 𝐶

= −2 csc +3 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
Example 5 Evaluate ∫(𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 + 4)𝑑𝑥
Solution:
∫(𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 + 4)𝑑𝑥 = ∫[(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1) + (𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1) + 4] 𝑑𝑥
CHAPTER 11 5
= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
= tan 𝑥 − 𝑐0𝑡 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝐶

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7YOZA2EFcKs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GNeURxL87o
11.2. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION (CHAIN RULE)
Objectives:
• Review the chain rule for derivatives.

• Define and use u-substitution for integrals.
Let g be a differentiable function, and let the range of g be an

interval I. Suppose that f is a function defined on I and that F is an
THEOREM 11.2.1 antiderivatives of f on I. Then
∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))[𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥] − 𝐹(𝑔(𝑥)) + 𝐶
If g is a differentiable function, and n is a rational number,
THEOREM 11.2.2 [𝑔(𝑥)]𝑛+1

∫[𝑔(𝑥)]𝑛 [𝑔′ (𝑥)] = +𝐶 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
Example 1 Evaluate ∫ √3𝑥 + 4 𝑑𝑥
Solution: To apply Theorem 11.2.2 we first write
∫ √3𝑥 + 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(3𝑥 + 4)1⁄2 𝑑𝑥
We observe that if
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 + 4 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑔′ (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑑𝑥

Therefore, we need a factor of 3 to go with dx to give 𝑔 ′ (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥. Hence, we write
CHAPTER 11 6
1
∫(3𝑥 + 4)1⁄2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (3𝑥 + 41⁄2 ) (3 𝑑𝑥)
3
1
= ∫(3𝑥 + 4)1⁄2 (3 𝑑𝑥)
3
Thus from Theorem 11.2.2, with g(x) and g’(x)dx, we have
1 1⁄2 ( 1 (3𝑥 + 4)3⁄2

∫(3𝑥 + 4) 3 𝑑𝑥 = [
) ]+𝐶
3 3 3
2
2
= (3𝑥 + 4)3⁄2 + 𝐶
9
Example 2 Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 2 (5 + 2𝑥 3 )8 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
Observe that if
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 5 + 2𝑥3 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑔′ (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑥2 𝑑𝑥

We need a factor of 6 to go with 𝑥 2 dx to give 𝑔 ′ (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥. Hence, we write
1
∫ 𝑥 2 (5 + 2𝑥 3 )8 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(5 + 2𝑥 3 )8 (6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥)
6
1 1 (5 + 2𝑥 3 )9
∫(5 + 2𝑥 3 )8 (6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥) = [ ]+𝐶
6 6 9
1
= (5 + 2𝑥3 )9 + 𝐶
54
The chain rule for antidifferentiation (Theorem11.2.1) is
∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))[𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥] = 𝐹(𝑔(𝑥)) + 𝐶
where F is an antideriative of f. If I this formula f is the cosine function, then s the sine function
and we have
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑔(𝑥))[𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥] = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑔(𝑥)) + 𝐶
We use this formula in the next example.
Example 3 Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Solution: If
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑔′ (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
CHAPTER 11 7
Because
∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(cos 𝑥 2 )(𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
We need a factor of 2 to go with xdx to give g’xdx. Thus we write

1
∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(cos 𝑥 2 )(2𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
2
1
= sin 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2
11.3. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH SEPARABLE VARIABLE
Objectives:
• Solve a separable differential equation.

• Solve the initial-value problem Separate the variables Integrals.
Introduction
An equation containing derivatives is called a differential equation. Some simple

differential equations are
The order of a differential equation is the order of the derivative of highest order that
appears in the equation. Therefore, the first and second are first order differential equation and
the third is of the second order. The simplest type of differential equation is a first order equation
of the form
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
For which is a particular example. Writing this equation with differentials we have
CHAPTER 11 8
Another type of differential equation of the first order is one of the form
Equation (2) is a particular example of an equation of this type. If this equation is written
with differentials, we have
ℎ(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
In both (4) and (5), the left side involves only the variable y and the right side involves
only the variable x. Thus, the variables are separated, and we say that these are separable
differential equations.
Consider Equation (4), which is
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
To solve this equation, we must find all functions G for which y=G(x) such that the
equation is satisfied. So, if F is an antiderivative of f, all functions G are defined by G(x) =
F(x) + C, where C is an arbitrary constant. That is, if
𝑑(𝐺 (𝑥)) = 𝑑(𝐹 (𝑥) + 𝐶)
= 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
then what is called the complete solution of (4) is given by y = F(x) + C
This equation represents a family of functions depending on an arbitrary constant and is
called one–parameter family. The graphs of these functions form a one–parameter family of
curves in the plane, and through any particular point (𝑥1 , y) there passes just one curve of the
family.
Illustration 1 Suppose we wish to find the complete solution of the differential equation
We separate the variables by writing the equation with differentials as dy=2xdx.

We antidifferentiate on both sides of the equation and obtain
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 + 𝐶1 = 𝑥 2 + 𝐶2
Because 𝐶2 − 𝐶1 is an arbitrary constant if 𝐶2 and 𝐶1 are arbitrary, we can replace 𝐶2 −
𝐶1 by C, there by obtaining
CHAPTER 11 9
which is the complete solution of differential equation (6).

Equation (7) represents a one–parameter family of functions. Figure 1 shows sketches
of the graphs of the functions corresponding to 𝐶 = −4, 𝐶 = −1, 𝐶 = 0, 𝐶 = 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 2
Now consider (5), which is ℎ(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
If we antidifferentiate on both sides of the equation, we write
∫ ℎ(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
If H is an antiderivative of h, and G is an antiderivative of g, the complete solution of (5)

is given by
𝐻 (𝑦) = 𝐺 (𝑥) + 𝐶
Example 1 Find the complete solution of the differential equation

𝑑𝑦 2𝑥 2
=
𝑑𝑥 3𝑦 3
Solution: If the given equation is written with differentials, we have
3𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
and the variables are separated. We antidifferentiate on both sides of the equation and obtain
∫ 3𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 2𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
3𝑦 4 2𝑥 3 𝐶
= +
4 3 12
9𝑦 4 = 8𝑥 3 + 𝐶
which is the complete solution.
At first the arbitrary constant was written as C/12 so that when both sides of the equation
are multiplied by 12, the arbitrary constant becomes C.
Illustration2 To find the particular solution of differential equation (6) satisfying the
initial condition that y=6 when x=2, we substitute these values in (7) and solve for C, giving
6=4+C, or C=2. Substituting the value of C in (7) we obtain
𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 2
which is the particular solution desired.
Equation (3) is an example of a particular type of differential equation of the second
order
𝑑2𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2
CHAPTER 11 10
Two successive antidifferentiations are necessary to sole this equation, and two arbitrary
constants occur in the complete solution. The complete solution therefore represents a two–
parameter family of functions, and the graphs of these functions form a two–parameter family of
curves in the plane. The following example shows the method of obtaining the complete solution
of an equation of this kind.
Example 2 Find the complete solution of the differential equation
𝑑2 𝑦
= 4𝑥 + 3
𝑑𝑥 2
Solution: Because
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
2
= ( )
𝑑𝑦
and letting 𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 , we can write the given equation as
𝑑𝑦′
= 4𝑥 + 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 ′ = (4𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑦 ′ = ∫(4𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥
𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑦
Because 𝑦 ′ = , we make this substitution in the above equation and get
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = (2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 𝐶1 ) 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(2𝑥2 + 3𝑥 + 𝐶1 ) 𝑑𝑥
2 3
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
3 2
which is the complete solution.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FJiV2NJFeq8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fGQU2mebY
CHAPTER 11 11
11.4. APPLICATIONS TO RECTILINEAR MOTIONS AND ECONOMICS
Objectives:
• Solve for the applications of rectilinear motions and economics.
If an object is moving freely in a vertical one and is being pulled toward the earth by a
force of gravity, the acceleration due to gravity varies with the distance of the object from the
center of the earth. However, for small changes of distances the acceleration due to gravity is
almost constant. If the object is near sea level, an approximate value of the acceleration due to
gravity is 32ft/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 or 9.8m/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 .
Example: A stone is thrown vertically upward from the ground with an initial velocity of
128ft/sec. If the only force considered is that attributed to the acceleration due to gravity,
find
(a) How long it will take for the stone to strike the ground?
(b) The speed with which it will strike the ground, and
(c) How high the stone will rise?
Solution: The motion of the stone is illustrating in the given figure. The positive direction is
upward.
Let t seconds be the time that has elapsed since the stone was thrown s feet be the
distance of the stone from the ground at t seconds, v feet per second be the velocity of the
stone at t seconds and |v| feet per second be the speed of the stone at t seconds.
When the stone strikes the ground, s=0. Let 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 be the particular values of t and v
when s=0 and t≠0. The stone will be at its highest point when the velocity is zero. Let 𝑠 be the
particular value of s when v=0. Table 1 shows the boundary conditions.
Because the only acceleration is due to gravity, which is the downward direction, the
acceleration has an approximate constant value of −32ft/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2. Because the acceleration is
𝑑𝑣
given by we have
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
= −32
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 = −32 𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = −32 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = −32𝑡 + 𝐶
Since v − 128 and t=0, we substitute these values in the above equation and get
𝐶1 = 128. Therefore, v = −32t + 128
CHAPTER 11 12
𝑑𝑠
Because 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠
= −32𝑡 + 128
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 = (−32𝑡 + 128) 𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫(−32𝑡 + 128) 𝑑𝑡
𝑠 = −16𝑡 2 + 128𝑡 + 𝐶
Since s=0 we get t=0, then𝐶2 = 0, and substituting 0 for 𝐶2 in the above equation gives
𝑠 = −16𝑡 2 + 128𝑡
(a) In 𝑠 = −16𝑡 2 + 128𝑡, we substitute 𝑡 for t and 0 for s and get

0 = −16𝑡(𝑡 − 8)
For which 𝑡 = 0 or 𝑡 = 8. However, the value 0 occurs when the stone is thrown; so it
takes 8 sec for the stone to strike the ground.
(b) To obtain 𝑣 we use v = −32t + 128 and substitute 8 for t and 𝑣 for v to obtain
𝑣 = −32(8) + 128
Thus, |v|=128; so the stone strikes the ground with a speed of 128ft/sec.
(c) To find 𝑠 we find the value of t for which 𝑣 = 0. From 𝑣 = −32(8) + 128, t=4 when
v=0. In s = −16t2 + 128t we substitute 4 for t and 𝑠 for s and get 𝑠 = −16(16) +
128(4) = 256
Therefore, the stone will rise 256ft.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FJiV2NJFeq8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fGQU2mebY
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 11 13
MODULE CALCULUS 2
CHAPTER 1
INTEGRATION CONCEPTS/FORMULAS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to
• evaluate different integration concepts: simple power formula, simple
trigonometric function, logarithmic and exponential function.
Introduction
Integration concepts/formulas is the subjects of Chapter 1. The first sections
involve antidifferentiation. I use the term “antidifferentiation” instead of
“indefinite integration,” but the standard notation ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is retained. This
notation will suggest that some relation must exist between definite integrals
and antiderivatives, but I see no harm in this as long as the presentation gives
the theoretically proper view of the definite – integral as the limit of sums.
1.1. ANTI – DIFFERENTIATION
You are now familiar with inverse operations. Addition and

subtraction are inverse operations; multiplication and division are inverse operations, as
are raising to powers and extracting roots. In this section we develop the inverse
operation of differentiation called antidifferentiation.
A function F is called an antiderivative of a function f on an

1.1.1 Definition interval I if 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for every value of x in I.
If f and g are two functions such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑔′ (𝑥) for all x in
1.1.2 Theorem the interval I, then there is a constant K such that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝐾 for all 𝑥 in 𝐼
If F is a particular antiderivatives of f on an interval I, then

every antiderivative of f on I is given by 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶
1.1.3 Theorem
where C is an arbitrary constant, and all antiderivatives of f on I
can be obtained by assigning particular values to C.
CHAPTER 1 1
MODULE CALCULUS 2
1.1.4 Theorem ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶
∫ 𝑎𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
1.1.5 Theorem
where a is a constant.
If 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are defined on the same interval, then

1.1.6 Theorem
∫[𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝑓2 (𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
If 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , … , 𝑓𝑛 are defined on the same interval,
∫[𝑐1 𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝑐2 𝑓2 (𝑥) + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥

1.1.7 Theorem
= 𝑐1 ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐2 ∫ 𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 ∫ 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
Where 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 are constants.
If n is a rational number,
1.1.8 Theorem 𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
1.1.9 Theorem ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
1.1.10 Theorem ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
1.1.11 Theorem ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
CHAPTER 1 2
MODULE CALCULUS 2
1.1.12 Theorem ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cot 𝑥 + 𝐶
1.1.13 Theorem ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶
1.1.14 Theorem ∫ csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −csc 𝑥 + 𝐶
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 csc 𝑥 = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 sec 𝑥 = 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 cot 𝑥 = 1
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
tan 𝑥 = cot 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥
Example 1
Evaluate ∫(5𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7) 𝑑𝑥
∫(5𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7) 𝑑𝑥
= 5 ∫ 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 − 8 ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + 9 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 7 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥5 𝑥4 𝑥3 𝑥2
= (5) ( ) − (8) ( ) + (9) ( ) − (2) ( ) + 7𝑥 + 𝐶
5 4 3 2
= 𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 𝐶
CHAPTER 1 3
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 2
1
Evaluate ∫ √𝑥 (𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1
∫ √𝑥 (𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 1⁄2 (𝑥 + 𝑥 −1 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
= ∫(𝑥 3⁄2 + 𝑥 −1⁄2 ) 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑥 3⁄2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 −1⁄2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 5⁄2 𝑥 1⁄2
= + +𝐶
5 1
2 2
2 5⁄2
= 𝑥 + 2𝑥 1⁄2 + 𝐶
5
Example 3
5𝑡 2 + 7
Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 4⁄3
5𝑡 2 + 7 𝑡2 1
∫ 4⁄3
𝑑𝑡 = 5 ∫ 4⁄3
𝑑𝑡 + 7 ∫ 4⁄3 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
= 5 ∫ 𝑡 2⁄3 𝑑𝑡 + 7 ∫ 𝑡 −4⁄3 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 5⁄3 𝑡 −1⁄3
= 5( ) +7( )+𝐶
5 1
−3
3
3
= 5 ( 𝑡 5⁄3 ) + 7(−3𝑡 −1⁄3 ) + 𝐶
5
21
= 3𝑡 5⁄3 − +𝐶
𝑡 1⁄3
CHAPTER 1 4
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 4
Evaluate ∫(3 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − 5 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
We apply Theorem 1.1.13 and 1.1.12.
∫(3 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − 5 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 5 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 3 sec 𝑥 − 5(− cot 𝑥) + 𝐶
= 3 sec 𝑥 + 5 cot 𝑥 + 𝐶
Example 5
2 cot 𝑥 − 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
2 cot 𝑥 − 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ (cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) − 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
= 2 ∫ csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 3 ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2(− csc 𝑥) − 3(− cos 𝑥) + 𝐶
= −2 csc 𝑥 + 3 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 From Theorem 1.1.14 and

1.1.9
Example 6
Evaluate ∫(𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 + 4) 𝑑𝑥
∫(𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 + 4) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫[(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1) + (𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1) + 4] 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
= tan 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝐶 From Theorem 1.1.11 and

1.1.12
CHAPTER 1 5
MODULE CALCULUS 2
1.2. SIMPLE POWER FORMULA
The power rule for integrals allows us to find the indefinite (and later the
definite) integrals of a variety of functions like polynomials, functions involving roots, and
even some rational functions. If you can write it with an exponent, you probably can
apply the power rule.
𝑛
𝑥 𝑛−1
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛−1
To apply the rule, simply take the exponent and add 1. Then, divide by
that same value. Finally, don’t forget to add the constant C.
Example 1
Evaluate ∫ 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
= 2 ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + 4 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3+1 𝑥 2+1
= 2( ) + 4( )+𝐶
3+1 2+1
𝑥4 𝑥3
= 2( ) + 4( ) + 𝐶
4 3
𝑥 4 4𝑥 3
= + +𝐶
2 3
Example 2
Evaluate ∫ √𝑥 + 4 𝑑𝑥
∫ √𝑥 + 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 1⁄2 + 4 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑥 2+1
= + 4𝑥 + 𝐶
1
+ 1
2
CHAPTER 1 6
MODULE CALCULUS 2
3
𝑥2
= + 4𝑥 + 𝐶
3
2
2 3⁄2
= 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 𝐶
3
Example 3
3 1
Evaluate ∫ 5
− 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 4𝑥
3 1 1
∫ 5
− 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3𝑥 −5 − 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 4𝑥 4
𝑥 −5+1 1 𝑥 −2+1
= 3( )− ( )+𝐶
−5 + 1 4 −2 + 1
3 1
= − 𝑥 −4 + 𝑥 −1 + 𝐶
4 4
3 1 1 1
= − ( 4) + ( ) + 𝐶
4 𝑥 4 𝑥
3 1
=− 4
+ +𝐶
4𝑥 4𝑥
1.3. SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
In this section we are going to look at quite a few integrals involving

trigonometric functions and some of the techniques we can use to help us evaluate
them.
Example 1
Evaluate the following integral.
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let’s first notice that we could write the integral as follows,
CHAPTER 1 7
MODULE CALCULUS 2
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)2
Now recall the trigonometric identity,

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 → 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠
With this identity the integral can be written as,
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
and we can now use the substitution 𝑢 = cos 𝑥. Doing this given us,
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫(1 − 𝑢2 )2 𝑑𝑢
= − ∫ 1 − 2𝑢2 + 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢
2 1
= − (𝑢 − 𝑢3 + 𝑢5 ) + 𝐶
3 5
2 1
= − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥
3 5
+𝐶
Example 2
Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝑥 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
= ∫ 𝑢6 (1 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
= ∫ 𝑢6 −𝑢8 𝑑𝑢
1 1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛7 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛9 𝑥 + 𝐶
7 9
CHAPTER 1 8
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3
1 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 − cos (2𝑥)) ( ) (1 + cos (2𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1
= ∫ 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4
1 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 − (1 + cos (4𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
4 2
1 1 1
= ∫ − cos(4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4 2 2
1 1 1
= ( 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(4𝑥)) + 𝐶
4 2 8
1 1
= 𝑥 − sin(4𝑥) + 𝐶
8 32
Sometimes in the process of reducing integrals in which both exponents are even
we will run across products of sine and cosine in which the arguments are
different. These will require one of the following formulas to reduce the products to
integrals that we can do.
1
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) + sin(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2
1
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) − cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2
1
cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) + cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2
CHAPTER 1 9
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 4
Evaluate ∫ cos(15𝑥) cos(4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1
∫ cos(15𝑥) cos(4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos(11𝑥) + cos(19𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1 1
= ( sin(11𝑥) + sin(19𝑥)) + 𝐶
2 11 19
Example 5
Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛6 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 1)𝑡𝑎𝑛6 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑢 = tan 𝑥
= ∫(𝑢2 + 1) 𝑢6 𝑑𝑢
= ∫ 𝑢8 + 𝑢6 𝑑𝑢
1 1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛9 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛7 𝑥 + 𝐶
9 7
1.4. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION
Logarithmic function is used to model population growth, cell growth, and

financial growth, as well as depreciation, radioactive decay, and resource consumption,
to name only a few applications. In this Section, we explore integration involving
Logarithmic function.
Integrating functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −1 result in the absolute value of
the natural log functions, as shown in the following rule. Integral formulas for other
CHAPTER 1 10
MODULE CALCULUS 2
logarithmic functions, such as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥, are also included in the
rule.
RULE: INTEGRATION FORMULAS INVOLVING LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTIONS
The following formulas can be used to evaluate integrals involving

logarithmic functions.
∫ 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛|𝑥| + 𝐶
∫ 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝑥(𝐼𝑛 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
𝑥
∫ log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝐼𝑛 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
𝐼𝑛 𝑎
Example 1
3
𝑥 − 10
Find the factor 3 outside the integral symbol. Then use the 𝑢−1 rule.
Thus,
3 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 10 𝑥 − 10
𝑑𝑢
= 3∫
𝑢
= 3 𝐼𝑛|𝑢| + 𝐶
= 3 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 − 10| + 𝐶
CHAPTER 1 11
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 2
Find ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥
− sin 𝑥
= −∫ 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥
= −𝐼𝑛|cos 𝑥| + 𝐶
1.5. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
Exponential function is used to model population growth, cell growth, and

financial growth, as well as depreciation, radioactive decay, and resource consumption,
to name only a few applications. In this Section, we explore integration involving
exponential function.
The exponential function is perhaps the most efficient function in terms of
the operations of calculus. The exponential function, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , is its own derivative and its
own integral.
If a is any positive number and x is any real number, then the

function f defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥
1.6.1 Definition
Is called the exponential function to the base a.
If a is any positive number and u is a differentiable function of x,

1.6.2 Theorem
𝐷𝑥 (𝑎𝑢 ) = 𝑎𝑢 𝐼𝑛 𝑎 𝐷𝑥 𝑢
If a is any positive number other than 1,

1.6.3 Theorem 𝑎𝑢
𝑢
∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶
𝐼𝑛 𝑎
CHAPTER 1 12
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 1
Evaluate ∫ 𝑒−𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Use substitution, setting 𝑢 = −𝑥 then 𝑑𝑢 = −1 𝑑𝑥. Multiply the 𝑑𝑢

equation by -1, so you now have −𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥. Then
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝐶 = −𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶
Example 2
Evaluate ∫ √103𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
Because √103𝑥 = 103𝑥⁄2, we apply Theorem 1.6.3 with 𝑢 = 2 𝑥. We have, then,
∫ √103𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 103𝑥⁄2 𝑑𝑥
2 3
= ∫ 103𝑥⁄2 ( 𝑑𝑥)
3 2
2 103𝑥⁄2
= ( )( )+𝐶
3 𝐼𝑛 10
2√103𝑥
= +𝐶
3 𝐼𝑛 10
Example 3
Draw sketches of the graphs of 𝑦 = 2−𝑥 on the same set of axes. Find the
area of the region bounded by these two graphs and the line 𝑥 = 2.
The required sketches are shown in Figure 1. The region is shaded in the figure.
If A square units is the desired area,
𝑛
𝐴 = lim ∑[2𝜀𝑖 − 2−𝜀𝑖 ] ∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
CHAPTER 1 13
MODULE CALCULUS 2
2
= ∫ (2𝑥 − 2−𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
0
2𝑥 2−𝑥 2
= + |
𝐼𝑛 2 𝐼𝑛 2 0
1
4 1 1
= + 4 − −
𝐼𝑛 2 𝐼𝑛 2 𝐼𝑛 2 𝐼𝑛 2
9
= ≈ 3.25
4 𝐼𝑛 2
FOR FURTHER UNDERSTANDING VISIT THE LINKS BELOW:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DffQa5SyMSE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nrt37LoaSxM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lTqnlihOC4o
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AIfYFURV2gs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-GNeURxL87o
REFERENCES

pp. 531-566 and 286-292. ISBN-971-08-4968-9
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calcii/integralswithtrig.aspx
https://www.mathbootcamps.com/power-rule-integrals/
CHAPTER 1 14
MODULE CALCULUS 2
CHAPTER 2
OTHER INTEGRATION CONCEPTS/FORMULAS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• evaluate integration in different concepts: inverse trigonometric
functions, hyperbolic function, general power formula, and constant of
integration; and
• evaluate definite integration.
2.1 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Introduction
In this section we focus on integrals that result in inverse trigonometric

functions. We have worked with these functions before. Recall, that
trigonometric functions are not one-to-one unless the domains are restricted.
When working with inverses of trigonometric functions, we always need to be
careful to take these restrictions into account. Also, we previously develop
formulas for derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions. The formulas
developed there give rise directly to integration formulas involving inverse
trigonometric functions.
The following integration formulas yield inverse trigonometric functions:

𝑑𝑢 𝑢
∫ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝐶
√𝑎2 − 𝑢2 𝑎
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
∫ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝐶
𝑎2 +𝑢 2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑢 1 |𝑢|
∫ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 ( ) + 𝐶
𝑢√𝑢2 − 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎
CHAPTER 2 1
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 1
𝑑𝑥
Evaluate ∫
√9 − 𝑥 2
Substitute 𝑢 = 𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 and we have
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
∫ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝐶
√9 − 𝑥 2 3
Example 2
𝑑𝑥
Evaluate ∫
√4 − 9𝑥 2
Substitute 𝑢 = 3𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑢 = 3 𝑑𝑥 and we have

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑢
∫ = ∫
√4 − 9𝑥 2 3 √4 − 𝑢2
Applying the formula with 𝑎 = 2, we obtain
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
∫ = ∫ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝐶
√4 − 9𝑥 2 3 √4 − 𝑢2 3 2
1 3𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝐶
3 2
Example 3
1
1 + 4𝑥 2
Comparing this problem with the formulas stated in the rule on integration
formula resulting in inverse trigonometric functions, the integrand looks similar to the
formula for 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑢 + 𝐶. So, we use substitution, letting 𝑢 = 2𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑑𝑥 and
1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥. Then, we have
2
1 1 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑢 + 𝐶
2 1+𝑢 2
1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (2𝑥) + 𝐶
2
CHAPTER 2 2
MODULE CALCULUS 2
2.2 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
The hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of the exponential functions
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = =
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 = =
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
1 2 1 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 = = 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥 = = 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥
The hyperbolic functions have identities that are similar to those of

trigonometric functions:
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 1 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ2 𝑥 − 1 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 2𝑥 = 2 sinh 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 2𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥
Since the hyperbolic functions are expressed in terms of 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑒 −𝑥 , we

can easily derive rules for their differentiation and integration:
(𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥)′ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥)′ = −𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥
∫ cosh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 + 𝐶
(𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥)′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 (𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥)′ = −𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥
CHAPTER 2 3
MODULE CALCULUS 2
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 + 𝐶
(𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥)′ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 (𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥)′ = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥 + 𝐶
In certain cases, the integrals of hyperbolic functions can be

evaluated using the substitution
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 , ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 𝑢, 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑢
Example 1
cosh 𝑥
2 + 3 sinh 𝑥
We have the substitution: 𝑢 = 2 + 3 sinh 𝑥, 𝑑𝑢 = 3 cosh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. Then

𝑑𝑢
cosh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = . Hence, the integral is
3
𝑑𝑢
cosh 𝑥 1 𝑑𝑢
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 = ∫
2 + 3 sinh 𝑥 𝑢 3 𝑢
1
= 𝐼𝑛|𝑢| + 𝐶
3
1
= 𝐼𝑛|2 + 3 sinh 𝑥| + 𝐶
3
Example 2
Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Combining the identities

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 1
cosh 2𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥
we write:
cosh 2𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥
= 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥
CHAPTER 2 4
MODULE CALCULUS 2
= 1 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥
So, we can use the following half-angle formula:

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = (cosh 2𝑥 − 1)
2
Then the integral becomes
1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(cosh 2𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
2
1 sinh 2𝑥
= ( − 𝑥) + 𝐶
2 2
1 𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 2𝑥 − + 𝐶
4 2
Example 3
Evaluate ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
As sinh 𝑥 = , we obtain
2
𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒−𝑥
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= ∫(𝑒 2𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1 2𝑥
= ( 𝑒 − 𝑥) + 𝐶
2 2
𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥
= − +𝐶
4 2
2.3 GENERAL POWER FORMULA
The general power rule of integration is another important formula of

integration, and this rule needs th derivative of the given function within the
problem.
The general power rule of integration is of the form
𝑛 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1
∫[𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑓 = +𝐶
𝑛+1
Now consider
CHAPTER 2 5
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑛+1 𝑛+1
𝑑 (𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑑 (𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑑
[ + 𝐶] = [ ]+ (𝐶)
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑑𝑥
𝑛+1
𝑑 (𝑓(𝑥))
⟹ [ + 𝐶]
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1
[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1 ′
= (𝑛 + 1) 𝑓 (𝑥) + 0
𝑛+1
𝑛+1
𝑑 (𝑓(𝑥))
⟹ [ + 𝐶] = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑛+1
𝑑 (𝑓(𝑥))
⟹ [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 ′ (𝑥)
𝑓 = [ + 𝐶]
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1
Example 1
5
1 1 3
Evaluate ∫ 3 (1 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 with respect to 𝑥.
𝑥 𝑥
5
1 1 3
𝐼 = ∫ 3 (1 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
1
Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + = 1 + 𝑥 −2 implies that
𝑥2
2
𝑓 ′(𝑥) = 1 − 2𝑥 −3 = − 3
𝑥
Multiplying and dividing the given integral by –2, we have
5 5
1 1 3 1 2 1 3
∫ 3 (1 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ − 3 (1 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥
Using the general power formula of integration, we have
5 5
1 1 3 1 1 1 3+1
∫ 3 (1 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = − (1 + 2 ) +𝐶
𝑥 𝑥 25 + 1 𝑥
3
5 5
1 1 3 3 1 3
⟹ ∫ 3 (1 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = (1 + 2 ) + 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥 16 𝑥
Example 2
Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛1⁄3 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Our options are either choose 𝑢 = sin 𝑥, 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛1⁄3 𝑥 or 𝑢 = cos 𝑥.
However, only the first one of these works in this problem.
CHAPTER 2 6
MODULE CALCULUS 2
So, we let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥.

Finding the differential: 𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Substituting these into the integral gives:
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛1⁄3 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢1⁄3 𝑑𝑢
3 𝑠𝑖𝑛4⁄3 𝑥
= +𝐶
4
2.4 CONSTANT OF INTEGRATION
In this section we need to address a couple of topics about the constant of

integration. Throughout most calculus classes we play pretty fast and loose with it and
because of that many students don’t really understand it or how it can be important.
First, let’s address how we play fast and loose with it. Recall that
technically hen we integrate a sum or difference we are actually doing multiple integrals.
For instance,
∫ 15𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 15𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 9𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
Upon evaluating each of these integrals we should get a constant of

integration for each integral since we really are doing two integrals.
∫ 15𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 15𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 9𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
= 3𝑥 5 + 𝑐 + 9𝑥 −1 + 𝑘
= 3𝑥 5 + 9𝑥 −1 + 𝑐 + 𝑘
Since there is no reason to think that the constants of integration will be the
same from each integral, we use different constants for each integral.
Now, both c and k are unknown constants and so the sum of two unknown
constants is just an unknown constant and we acknowledge that by simply writing the
sum as a c.
So, the integral is then,
∫ 15𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥 == 3𝑥 5 + 9𝑥 −1 + 𝑐
We also tend to play fast and loose with constants of integration in some
substitution rule problems. Consider the following problem,
CHAPTER 2 7
MODULE CALCULUS 2
1
∫ cos(1 + 2𝑥) + sin(1 + 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑢 + sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑢=1
2
Technically when we integrate, we should get,
1
∫ cos(1 + 2𝑥) + sin(1 + 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = (sin 𝑢 − cos 𝑢 + 𝑐)
2
1
Since the whole integral is multiplied by , the whole answer, including the
2
1 1
constant of integration, should be multiplied by . Upon multiplying the through the
2 2
answer we get,
1 1 𝑐
∫ cos(1 + 2𝑥) + sin(1 + 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑢 − cos 𝑢 +
2 2 2
However, since the constant of integration is an unknown constant dividing
it by 2 isn’t going to change that fact so we tend to just write the fraction as a c.
1 1
∫ cos(1 + 2𝑥) + sin(1 + 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑢 − cos 𝑢 + 𝑐
2 2
In general, we don’t really need to worry about how we’ve played fast and
loose with the constant of integration in either of the two examples above.
2.5 DEFINITE INTEGRALS
A definite Integral has start and end values: in other words, there is an
interval [𝑎, 𝑏].
a and b (called limits, bounds or boundaries) are put at the bottom and top
of the “S”, like this:
CHAPTER 2 8
MODULE CALCULUS 2
If ∆ is any partition of the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then

𝑛
2.5.1 Theorem
lim ∑ ∆𝑖 𝑥 = 𝑏 − 𝑎
‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
If f is defined on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], and if

𝑛
lim ∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
2.5.2 Theorem
Exists, where ∆ is any partition of [𝑎, 𝑏], then if k is any constant,
𝑛 𝑛
lim ∑ 𝑘𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑥 = 𝑘 lim ∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0 ‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
If k is any constant, then

𝑏
2.5.3 Theorem
∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘(𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝑎
If the function f is integrable on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], and

if k is any constant, then
2.5.4 Theorem
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
If the function f and g are integrable on [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑓 + 𝑔 is

integrable on [𝑎, 𝑏] and
2.5.5 Theorem
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ [𝑓1 (𝑥) ± 𝑓2 (𝑥) … ± 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑓2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ⋯ ± ∫ 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
CHAPTER 2 9
MODULE CALCULUS 2
If the function f is integrable on the closed interval

[𝑎, 𝑏], [𝑎, 𝑐], and [𝑐, 𝑏], then
2.5.6 Theorem
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐
where 𝑎 < 𝑏 < 𝑐.
If f is integrable on a closed interval containing the three

numbers a, b, and c, then
2.5.7 Theorem
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐
Regardless of the order of a, b, and c.
If the function f and g are integrable on the closed interval

[𝑎, 𝑏], and if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) for all x in [𝑎, 𝑏], then
2.5.8 Theorem
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≥ ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑐
Suppose that the function f is continuous on the

closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. If m and M are, respectively, the
absolute minimum and absolute maximum function values of
f on [𝑎, 𝑏] so that
2.5.9 Theorem 𝑚 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑀 for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏

then
𝑏
𝑚(𝑏 − 𝑎) ≤ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ≤ 𝑀(𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝑎
CHAPTER 2 10
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 1
5
Evaluate ∫ 4 𝑑𝑥
−3
5
∫ 4 𝑑𝑥 = 4[5 − (−3)] = 4(8)
−3
= 32
Example 2
3
Evaluate ∫ (3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑥
1
From properties of the definite integral,

3 3 3 3
∫ (3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
1 1 1 1
3 3
= 3 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 5 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2(3 − 1)
1 1
26
= 3 ( ) − 5(4) + 4
3
= 26 − 20 + 4
= 10
Example 3
Apply Theorem 1.11.9 to find a closed interval containing the value of

3𝜋⁄4
∫ √sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋⁄4
Solution
If 𝑓(𝑥) = √sin 𝑥, then
cos 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) =
2√sin 𝑥
CHAPTER 2 11
MODULE CALCULUS 2
1 3 1
For x in [4 𝜋, 𝜋], 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 when 𝑥 = 2 𝜋. Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 when
4
1 1 1 3
𝜋 < 𝑥 < 2 𝜋, and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 when 2 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 4 𝜋, it follows that f has a relative maximum
4
4
1 1 1
value at 2 𝜋; and 𝑓 (2 𝜋) = 1. Furthermore, 𝑓 (4 𝜋) = √2⁄ ≈ 0.841, and
√2
3 1 3
𝑓 (4 𝜋) ≈ 0.841. Thus, on [4 𝜋, 𝜋] the absolute minimum value of f is 0.841 and the
4
absolute maximum value is 1. So, with 𝑚 = 0.841 and 𝑀 = 1 in Theorem 1.11.9
3𝜋⁄4
3 1 3 1
0.841 [ 𝜋, 𝜋] ≤ ∫ √sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ≤ 1 [ 𝜋, 𝜋]
4 4 𝜋⁄4 4 4
3𝜋⁄4
0.402𝜋 ≤ ∫ √sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ≤ 0.5𝜋
𝜋⁄4
3𝜋⁄4
1.32 ≤ ∫ √sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ≤ 1.57
𝜋⁄4
The value of the definite integral is therefore in the closed interval

[1.32,1.57].
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rCWOdfQ3cwQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=grVKd3nN-1s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rpRFs7zuF8E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__2dEPn_GkA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4J7oitD56I
REFERENCES

pp.331-339. ISBN-971-08-4968-9
https://www.math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Calculus/Book%3A_Int
egrals_Resulting_in_Inverse_Trigonometric_Functions
https://www.math24.net/Integration-hyperbolic-functions-page-2/
https://www.emathzone.com/tutorials/calculus/general-power-rule-
of-integration.html
CHAPTER 2 12
MODULE CALCULUS 2
CHAPTER 3
INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• evaluate integration by parts, trigonometric integrals and substitution,
rational functions, and miscellaneous substitution.
Introduction
Techniques of integration involve an important computational aspect of
calculus. They are discussed in this chapter, which has been shortened to five
section. I have explained the theoretical background of each different method
after an introductory motivation. The mastery of integration techniques depends
upon the examples.
3.1. INTEGRATION BY PARTS
From the formula for the derivative of the product of two functions we
obtain a very useful method of integration called integration by parts. If f and g are
differentiable functions, then
𝐷[𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓′(𝑥)
⇔ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] − 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓′(𝑥)
Integrating on each of this equation we obtain
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑓′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑓′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 Formula for integration by

parts
For computational purposes a more convenient way of writing this

formula is obtained by letting
𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑥) Then 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑔′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑤 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
CHAPTER 3 1
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3.1.1
Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
To determine the substitutions for u and dv, bear in mind that to find v
we must be able to integrate dv. This suggests letting 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑢 = 𝐼𝑛 𝑥. Then
𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
𝑣= + 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑢 =
2 𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑥 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 ( + 𝐶1 ) − ∫ ( + 𝐶1 )
2 2 𝑥
𝑥2 1 𝑑𝑥
= 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐶1 ∫
2 2 𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥2
= 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 − − 𝐶1 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶2
2 4
1 2 1
= 𝑥 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶2
2 2
Example 3.1.2
2
Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
We use integration by parts with 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 . Then
1 𝑥2
𝑣= 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
2 1 2 1 2
∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 ( 𝑒 𝑥 ) − ∫ ( 𝑒 𝑥 ) 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 2 2
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
1 2 𝑥2 1 𝑥2
= 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑒 +𝐶
2 2
CHAPTER 3 2
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3.1.3
Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. Then

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
Example 3.1.4
Evaluate ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥. Then

𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 − ∫
1 + 𝑥2
1
= 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 − 𝐼𝑛(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶
2
3.2. TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS
There are four cases of indefinite integrals involving powers of sine

and cosine. Dependent on whether the powers are odd or even.
CASE 1 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑜𝑟 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢, where 𝑛 is an odd integer.
CASE 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , where atleast one of the exponents is odd.
CHAPTER 3 3
MODULE CALCULUS 2
CASE 3 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢, where 𝑛 is an even integer.
CASE 4 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , where both 𝑚 and 𝑛 are even.
Example 3.2.1
Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(1 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥) sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= − cos 𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥(− sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥(− sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
2 1
= − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 + 𝐶
3 5
Example 3.2.2
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥(sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
= ∫(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥(sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 7 𝑥 + 𝐶
5 7
CHAPTER 3 4
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3.2.3
We use the following identities from trigonometry:

1 − cos 2𝑥 1 + cos 2𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 =
2 2
Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 − cos 2𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1
= 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶
2 4
Example 3.2.4
2 4
1 − cos 2𝑥 1 + cos 2𝑥 2
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( )( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1 1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8 8 8 8
1 1 1 1 + cos 4𝑥 1
= 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑥) cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8 16 8 2 8
𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑥 sin 4𝑥 1 1
= + − − − ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8 16 16 64 8 8
𝑥 sin 2𝑥 sin 4𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥
= + − − + +𝐶
16 16 64 16 48
𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥 sin 4𝑥
= + − +𝐶
16 48 64
CHAPTER 3 5
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3.2.5
The next example involves another type of integral containing a product

of a sine and a cosine
Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 = sin(𝑚 − 𝑛) 𝑥 + sin(𝑚 + 𝑛) 𝑥
2 2
1 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( sin 𝑥 + sin 5𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1
= ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ sin 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1
= − cos 𝑥 − cos 5𝑥 + 𝐶
2 10
Recall the following integration formulas involving tangent, cotangent,

secant, and cosecant:
∫ tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐼𝑛 |sec 𝑢| + 𝐶 ∫ cot 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐼𝑛 |sin 𝑢| + 𝐶
∫ sec 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐼𝑛 |sec 𝑢 + tan 𝑢| + 𝐶 ∫ csc 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐼𝑛 |csc 𝑢 − cot 𝑢| + 𝐶
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = tan 𝑢 + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = −cot 𝑢 + 𝐶
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑢 + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑢 cot 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = −csc 𝑢 + 𝐶
With these formulas and the trigonometric identities

1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑢
we can evaluate integrals of the form
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑢 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 and ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑚 𝑢 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
where m and n are nonnegative integers.
CHAPTER 3 6
MODULE CALCULUS 2
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 or ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢, where 𝑛 is a positive integer .

CASE 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛−2 𝑢 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛−2 𝑢(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 − 1)
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑛 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑛−2 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑛−2 𝑢(𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑢 − 1)
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 or ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢, where 𝑛 is a positive even integer.

CASE 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛−2 𝑢 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 = (𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢 + 1)(𝑛−2)⁄2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑛−2 𝑢 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑢 = (𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑢 + 1)(𝑛−2)⁄2 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑢
CASE 3 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 or ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢, where 𝑛 is a positive odd integer.
CASE 4 ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑢 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 or ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑚 𝑢 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢, where 𝑛 is a positive even integer.
CASE 5 ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑢 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 or ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑚 𝑢 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢, where 𝑚 is a positive odd integer.
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑢 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 or ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑚 𝑢 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢, where 𝑚 is a positive even integer

CASE 6
and 𝑛 is a positive odd integer.
Example 3.2.6
Evaluate ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan 𝑥(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥
= ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛|cos 𝑥| + 𝐶
2
CHAPTER 3 7
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3.2.7
Evaluate ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 + 1)2 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 4 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 2
= − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 5 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 3 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 + 𝐶
5 3
Example 3.2.8
To integrate odd powers of the secant and cosecant we use integration by

parts. The process is illustrated in the following example.
Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
Let 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. Then
𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑣 = tan 𝑥
Therefore
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ sec 𝑥(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 2𝐶

1 1
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶
2 2
CHAPTER 3 8
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3.2.9
Evaluate ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝑥(𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 1)𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛7 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛8 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛6 𝑥 + 𝐶
8 6
Example 3.2.10
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 6 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 − 1)2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 6 𝑥(sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 10 𝑥 (sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) − 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 8 𝑥(sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) + ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 6 𝑥(sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
1 2 1
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 11 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 9 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 7 𝑥 + 𝐶
11 9 7
Example 3.2.11
The integrand can be expressed in terms of odd powers of secant or

cosecant.
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
To evaluate each of these integrals we use integration by parts, as

indicated in Case 3.
CHAPTER 3 9
MODULE CALCULUS 2
3.3. TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION
If the integrand contains an expression of the form

√𝑎2 − 𝑢2 , √𝑎2
+ 𝑢2 , or√𝑢2 − 𝑎2 , where 𝑎 > 0, it is often possible to perform the
integration by making a trigonometric substitution that results in an integral involving
trigonometric functions. We consider each form as a separate case.
The integrand contains an expression of the form √𝑎2 − 𝑢2 ,

CASE 1
where 𝑎 > 0.
1
We introduce a new variable 𝜃 by letting 𝑢 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃, where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2 𝜋 if
1
𝑢 ≥ 0 and − 2 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 < 0 if 𝑢 < 0. Then 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃, and
√𝑎2 − 𝑢2 = √𝑎2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
= √𝑎2 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)
= 𝑎√𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
1 1
Because − 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋, cos 𝜃 ≥ 0. Hence √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = cos 𝜃, and
2 2
√𝑎2 − 𝑢2 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝑢 1 1 𝑢
Because sin 𝜃 = 𝑎 and − 2 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2 𝜋, 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑎
Example 3.3.1
√9 − 𝑥 2
𝑥2
1 1
Let 𝑥 = 3 sin 𝜃, where 0 < 𝜃 ≤ 2 𝜋 if 𝑥 > 0 and − 2 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 < 0 if 𝑥 < 0. Then
𝑑𝑥 = 3 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 and
√9 − 𝑥 2 = √9 − 9 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
= 3√𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
= 3 cos 𝜃
CHAPTER 3 10
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Therefore
√9 − 𝑥 2 3 cos 𝜃
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (3 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃)
𝑥 9 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= ∫(𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1) 𝑑𝜃
= − cot 𝜃 − 𝜃 + 𝐶
1 1 1 1
Because sin 𝜃 = 3 𝑥 and − 2 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2 𝜋, 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 3 𝑥. To find cot 𝜃, refer
√9−𝑥 2
to Figure 1 (for 𝑥 > 0) and 2 (for 𝑥 < 0). Observe that in either case cot 𝜃 = .
𝑥
Therefore
√9 − 𝑥 2 √9 − 𝑥 2 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = − − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥 3
CASE 2 The integrand contains an expression of the form √𝑎2 + 𝑢2 ,

where 𝑎 > 0.
1
We introduce a new variable 𝜃 by letting 𝑢 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃, where 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 2 𝜋 if
1
𝑢 ≥ 0 and − 2 𝜋 < 𝜃 < 0 if 𝑢 < 0. Then 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃, and
√𝑎2 + 𝑢2 = √𝑎2 + 𝑎2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
= 𝑎√1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
= 𝑎√𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
1 1
Because − 2 < 𝜃 < 2 𝜋, sec 𝜃 ≥ 1. Thus √𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 = sec 𝜃, and
√𝑎2 + 𝑢2 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃
𝑢 1 1 𝑢
Because tan 𝜃 = 𝑎 and − 2 𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2 𝜋, 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎
CHAPTER 3 11
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3.3.2
Evaluate ∫ √𝑥 2 + 5 𝑑𝑥
1 1
Substitute 𝑥 = √5 tan 𝜃, where 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 2 𝜋 if 𝑥 ≥ 0 and − 2 𝜋 < 𝜃 < 0 if 𝑥 <
0. Then 𝑑𝑥 = √5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 and
√𝑥 2 + 5 = √5 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 5
= √5√𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
= √5 sec 𝜃
Therefore
∫ √𝑥 2 + 5 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √5 sec 𝜃 (√5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃)
= 5 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Using the result of Example 2.2.8 Section 2.2 we have

5 5
∫ √𝑥 2 + 5 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 + 𝐼𝑛|sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃| + 𝐶
2 2
We determine sec 𝜃 from figure 3 (for 𝑥 ≥ 0) and 4 (for 𝑥 < 0), where
𝑥 √𝑥 2 +5
tan 𝜃 = . We see in either case that sec 𝜃 = . Hence
√5 √5
5 √𝑥 2 + 5 𝑥 5 √𝑥 2 + 5 𝑥
∫ √𝑥 2 + 5 𝑑𝑥 = ( ) ( ) ( ) + 𝐼𝑛 | + |+𝐶
2 √5 √5 2 √5 √5
1 5 5
= 𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 5 + 𝐼𝑛 |√𝑥 2 + 5 + 𝑥| − 𝐼𝑛√5 + 𝐶
2 2 2
1 5
= 𝑥√𝑥 2 + 5 + 𝐼𝑛 (√𝑥 2 + 5 + 𝑥) + 𝐶1
2 2
5
Observe that we replaced − 2 𝐼𝑛√5 + 𝐶 by the arbitrary constant 𝐶1 .
Furthermore, because √𝑥 2 + 5 + 𝑥 > 0, we delete the absolute-value bars.
CHAPTER 3 12
MODULE CALCULUS 2
CASE 3 The integrand contains an expression of the form √𝑢2 −𝑎2 ,

where 𝑎 > 0.
1
We introduce a new variable by letting 𝑢 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃, where 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 2 𝜋 if
3
𝑢 ≥ 𝑎 and 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 < 2 𝜋 if 𝑢 ≤ −𝑎. Then 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃, and
√𝑢2 −𝑎2 = √𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 𝑎2
= √𝑎2 ( 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1)
= 𝑎√𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
1 3
Because either 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 2 𝜋 or π ≤ θ < 2 π, tan 𝜃 ≥ 0. Thus √𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = tan 𝜃,
and we have √𝑢2 −𝑎2 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃
𝑢 1 3 𝑢
Because sec 𝜃 = 𝑎 and 𝜃 is in [0, 2 𝜋) ∪ [𝜋, 2 𝜋), 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑎
Example 3.3.3
𝑑𝑥
Evaluate ∫
𝑥 3 √𝑥 2 − 9
1 3
Let 𝑥 = 3 sec 𝜃, where 0 < 𝜃 < 2 𝜋 if 𝑥 > 3 and 𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2 𝜋 if 𝑥 < −3. Then
𝑑𝑥 = 3 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 and
√𝑥 2 − 9 = √9 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 9
= 3√𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
= 3 tan 𝜃
Therefore
𝑑𝑥 3 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
∫ =∫
𝑥 3 √𝑥 2 − 9 27 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝜃 (3 tan 𝜃)
1
= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
27
1
= ∫(1 + cos 2 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
54
CHAPTER 3 13
MODULE CALCULUS 2
1 1
= (𝜃 + sin 2𝜃) + 𝐶
54 2
1
= (𝜃 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃) + 𝐶
54
1 1 3 1
Because sec 𝜃 = 3 𝑥 and 𝜃 is in (0, 2 𝜋) ∪ (𝜋, 2 𝜋), 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 3 𝑥. When
1
𝑥 > 3, 0 < 𝜃 < 2 𝜋, and we obtain 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 from Figure 5. When 𝑥 < −3,
3 √𝑥 2 −9
𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2 𝜋, and we obtain 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 from Figure 6. In either case sin 𝜃 = and
𝑥
3
cos 𝜃 = . Therefore
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 9 3
∫ = (𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 + ( )) + 𝐶
𝑥 3 √𝑥 2 − 9 54 3 𝑥 𝑥
1 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 9
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 + +𝐶
54 3 18𝑥 2
Example 3.3.4
2
𝑑𝑥
Evaluate ∫
1 (6 − 𝑥 2 )3⁄2
𝑑𝑥
To compute the indefinite integral ∫ we make the substitution
(6 − 𝑥 2 )3⁄2
1
𝑥 = √6 sin 𝜃. In this case we can restrict 𝜃 to the interval 0 < 𝜃 < 2 𝜋 because we are
evaluating a definite integral for which 𝑥 > 0 since x is in [1,2]. So 𝑥 = √6 sin 𝜃,
1
0 < 𝜃 < 2 𝜋, and 𝑑𝑥 = √6 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃. Furthermore,
(6 − 𝑥 2 )3⁄2 = (6 − 6 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)3⁄2
= 6√6(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)3⁄2
= 6√6(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)3⁄2
= 6√6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
Hence Figure 7
𝑑𝑥 √6 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
∫ 2 3⁄2
=∫
(6 − 𝑥 ) 6 √6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
CHAPTER 3 14
MODULE CALCULUS 2
1 𝑑𝜃
= ∫
6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
1
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
6
1
= tan 𝜃 + 𝐶
6
𝑥 1
We find tan 𝜃 from Figure 7, in which sin 𝜃 = and 0 < 𝜃 < 2 𝜋. Thus
√6
𝑥
tan 𝜃 = √6−𝑥2, and so
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
∫ = +𝐶
(6 − 𝑥 2 )3⁄2 6 √6 − 𝑥 2
Therefore
2 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
∫ = ]
1 (6 − 𝑥 2 )3⁄2 6 √6 − 𝑥 2 1
1 1
= −
3√2 6√5
√2 √5
= −
6 30
5√2 − √5
=
30
3.4. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL

FRACTIONS WHEN THE DENOMINATOR HAS
ONLY LINEAR FACTORS
𝑃(𝑥)
From the definition of a rational function, H is a rational if 𝐻(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥),
where 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials. We have seen that if the degree of the numerator
is not less than the degree of the denominator, we have an improper fraction, and in
that case, we divide the numerator by the denominator until we obtain the degree of the
denominator. For example
𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 3𝑥 − 23
2
= 𝑥2 − 6 + 2
𝑥 +4 𝑥 −4
If we wish to integrate
CHAPTER 3 15
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 4
The problem is reduced to integrating
3𝑥 − 23
∫(𝑥 2 − 6)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 4
In general, then, we are concerned with the integration of expressions of
the form
𝑃(𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑄(𝑥)
where the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) is less than the degree of 𝑄(𝑥).
𝑃(𝑥)
To do this it is often necessary to write as the sum of partial fractions.
𝑄(𝑥)
The denominators of the partial fractions are obtained by factoring 𝑄(𝑥) into a product
of linear and quadratic factors where the quadratic factors have no real zeros.
Sometimes it may be difficult to find these factors of 𝑄(𝑥); however, a theorem from
algebra states that theoretically this can always be done.
After 𝑄(𝑥) has been factored into products of linear and quadratic factors,
the method of determining the partial fractions depends on the nature of these factors.
We consider various cases separately. The results of algebra, which are not proved
here, provide us with the form of partial fractions in each case.
The factors of 𝑄(𝑥) are all linear, and none is repeated. That is,
𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )(𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ) … (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ) where no two of the factors
are identical. In this case we write
CASE 1
𝑃(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛
≡ + +⋯+
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛
where 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑛 are constants to be determined.
The factors of 𝑄(𝑥) are all linear, and some are repeated.
Suppose that (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 ) is a p-fold factor. Then corresponding to
this factor there will be the sum of p partial fractions
CASE 2 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑝−1 𝐴𝑝
+ + ⋯ + +
(𝑎𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑖 )𝑝 (𝑎𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑖 )𝑝−1 (𝑎𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑖 )2 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑖
where 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑝 are constants to be determined.
CHAPTER 3 16
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3.4.1 (𝑥 − 1)
𝑥3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
We factor the denominator and have
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
≡
𝑥3 2
− 𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)
So
𝑥−1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
≡ + + Equation 1
𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 1
Because it is an identity it must hold for all x except 0, 2, and –1. From (1),
𝑥 − 1 ≡ 𝐴(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶𝑥(𝑥 − 2) Equation 2
Equation (2) is an identity that is true for all values of x including 0, 2, and –1.
We wish to find the constants A, B, and C. Substituting 0 for x in (2) we obtain
1
−1 = −2𝐴 ⇔ 𝐴 =
2
Substituting 2 for x in (2) we get
1
1 = 6𝐵 ⇔ 𝐵 =
6
Substituting –1 for x in (2) we get
2
−2 = 3𝐶 ⇔ 𝐶 = −
3
There is another method for finding the values of A, B, and C. If on the right side
of (2) we combine terms,
𝑥 − 1 ≡ (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑥 2 + (−𝐴 + 𝐵 − 2𝐶)𝑥 − 2𝐴
Because we have an identity the coefficients on the left must equal the
corresponding coefficients on the right. Hence
𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 =0
−𝐴 + 𝐵 − 2𝐶 = 1
−2𝐴 = −1
1 1 2
Solving these equations simultaneously we get 𝐴 = 2, 𝐵 = 6, and 𝐶 = − 3.
Substituting these values in (1) we get
CHAPTER 3 17
MODULE CALCULUS 2
1 1 2
𝑥−1 −3
2
≡ + 6 +
𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 1
So, the given integral can be expressed as follows:
(𝑥 − 1) 1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ + ∫ − ∫
𝑥3 2
− 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑥 6 𝑥−2 3 𝑥+1
1 1 2 1
= 𝐼𝑛|𝑥| + 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 − 2| − 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐼𝑛 𝐶
2 6 3 6
1
= (3 𝐼𝑛|𝑥| + 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 − 2| − 4𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐼𝑛 𝐶)
6
1 𝐶𝑥 3 (𝑥 − 2)
= 𝐼𝑛 | |
6 (𝑥 + 1)4
Example 3.4.2
(𝑥 3 − 1)
𝑥 (𝑥 − 2)3
The fraction in the integrand is written as a sum of partial fractions as follows
𝑥3 − 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 𝐸 Equation 3
≡ + + + +
𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 2)3 𝑥 2 𝑥 (𝑥 − 2)3 (𝑥 − 2)3 𝑥 − 2
Multiplying on both sides of (3) by the lowest common denominator we get
𝑥 3 − 1 ≡ 𝐴(𝑥 − 2)3 (𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 − 2)3 + 𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 2) + 𝐸𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 2)3 Equation 4
We substitute 2 for x in (4) and obtain

7
7 = 4𝐶 ⇔ 𝐶 =
4
Substituting 0 for x in (4) we get
1
−1 = −8𝐴 ⇔ 𝐴 =
8
We substitute these values for A and C in (4) and expand the power of the
binomials, and we have
1 3 7
𝑥3 − 1 ≡ (𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 8) + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 8) + 𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 3 − 2𝐷𝑥 2 + 𝐸𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4)
8 4
CHAPTER 3 18
MODULE CALCULUS 2
1 3 7 3
𝑥 3 − 1 ≡ (𝐵 + 𝐸)𝑥 4 + ( − 6𝐵 + 𝐷 − 4𝐸) 𝑥 3 + (− + 12𝐵 + − 2𝐷 + 4𝐸) 𝑥 2 + ( − 8𝐵) 𝑥 − 1
8 4 4 2
Equating the coefficients of like powers of x we obtain

𝐵+𝐸 =0
1
− 6𝐵 + 𝐷 − 4𝐸 = 1
8
3 7
− + 12𝐵 + − 2𝐷 + 4𝐸 = 0
4 4
3
− 8𝐵 = 0
2
3 5 3
Solving we get 𝐵 = 16, 𝐷 = 4, and 𝐸 = − 16.
Therefore from (3)

1 3 7 5 3
𝑥3 − 1 − 16
≡ 8 + 16 + 4 + 4 +
𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 2)3 𝑥 2 𝑥 (𝑥 − 2)3 (𝑥 − 2)3 𝑥 − 2
Thus
(𝑥 3 − 1)
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 (𝑥 − 2)3
1 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 2+ ∫ + ∫ 3
+ ∫ 3
− ∫
8 𝑥 16 𝑥 4 (𝑥 − 2) 4 (𝑥 − 2) 16 𝑥 − 2
1 3 7 5 3
= + 𝐼𝑛|𝑥| − − − 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 − 2| + 𝐶
8𝑥 16 8(𝑥 − 2)2 4(𝑥 − 2) 16
−11𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 − 4 3 𝑥
= 2
+ 𝐼𝑛 | |+𝐶
8𝑥(𝑥 − 2) 16 𝑥−2
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL

FRACTIONS WHEN THE DENOMINATOR CONTAINS
QUADRATIC FACTORS
We continue our discussion of integration of rational functions by partial fractions

with the two cases where the denominator contains irreducible quadratic factors. Recall
from algebra that a factor 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is irreducible if the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
has no real roots, that is, 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0.
CHAPTER 3 19
MODULE CALCULUS 2
The factors of 𝑄(𝑥) are linear and quadratic, and none of the
quadratic factors is repeated. Corresponding to the quadratic factor
CASE 3 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 in the denominator is the partial fraction of the form
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝐶
Example 3.4.3
(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3)
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2)
We write the fraction in the integrand as a sum of partial fractions as
follows:
(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3) 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶
≡ 2 + Equation 1
2
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 1
Multiplying on both sides of (1) by the lowest common denominator we get
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 ≡ (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2) Equation 2
We compute C by substituting 1 for x in (2), and get
4
−4 = 5𝐶 ⇔ 𝐶 = −
5
4
We replace C by − 5 in (2) and multiply on the right side to
4 8 8
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 ≡ (𝐴 − ) 𝑥 2 + (𝐵 − 𝐴 − ) 𝑥 + (− − 𝐵)
5 5 5
Equating the coefficients of like powers of x we obtain
4
𝐴− =0
5
8
𝐵−𝐴− = −2
5
8
− − 𝐵 = −3
5
Therefore
9 7
𝐴= 𝐵=
5 5
Substituting the values of A, B, and C in (1) we have
CHAPTER 3 20
MODULE CALCULUS 2
9 7 4
(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3) 𝑥+ −
≡ 2 5 5 + 5
2
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 1
So
(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3)
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2)
9 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 2 + ∫ 2 − ∫ Equation 3
5 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 2 5 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 2 5 𝑥 − 1
To integrate
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫
𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 2
We see that the differential of the denominator is 2(𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥; so we add and
subtract 1 in the numerator. Thereby giving
9 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 9 (𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥 9 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2 = ∫ 2 − ∫ 2
5 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 2 5 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 2 5 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 2
Substituting from the equation into (3) and combining terms we get
(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3)
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2)
9 1 2(𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
= ( )∫ 2 − ∫ 2 − ∫
5 2 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 2 5 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 2 5 𝑥 − 1
9 2 𝑑𝑥 4
= 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2| − ∫ 2
− 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 − 1|
10 5 (𝑥 + 1) + 1 5
9 2 8 1
= 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2| − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 + 1) − 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 − 1| + 𝐼𝑛 + 𝐶
10 5 10 10
9 𝐶(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2)9 2
= 𝐼𝑛 | 8
| − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 + 1)
10 (𝑥 − 1) 5
The factors of 𝑄(𝑥) are linear and quadratic, and some of the
quadratic factors are repeated. If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is a p-fold quadratic
CASE 4 factor of 𝑄(𝑥), then corresponding to this factor (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑝 we
have the sum of the following p partial fractions:
𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝐴𝑃 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑃
+ + ⋯ +
(𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑝 (𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑝−1 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
CHAPTER 3 21
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3.4.4
(𝑥 − 2)
𝑥(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + +5)2
(𝑥 − 2) 𝐴 𝐵(2𝑥 − 4) + 𝐶 𝐵(2𝑥 − 4) + 𝐶
≡ + 2 + 2
𝑥(𝑥 2− 4𝑥 + 5) 2 𝑥 (𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 5) 2 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 5
Multiplying on both sides of this equation by the lowest common denominator we
get
𝑥 − 2 ≡ 𝐴(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + +5)2 + 𝑥(2𝐵𝑥 − 4𝐵 + 𝐶) + 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + +5)(2𝐷𝑥 − 4𝐷 + 𝐸) Equation 4
𝑥 − 2 ≡ 𝐴𝑥 4 + 16𝐴𝑥 2 + 25𝐴 − 8𝐴𝑥 3 + 10𝐴𝑥 2 − 40𝐴𝑥 + 2𝐵𝑥 2 − 4𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 + 2𝐷𝑥 4
− 12𝐷𝑥 3 + 𝐸𝑥 3 + 26𝐷𝑥 2 − 4𝐸𝑥 2 − 20𝐷𝑥 + 5𝐸𝑥
𝑥 − 2 ≡ (𝐴 + 2𝐷)𝑥 4 + (−8𝐴 − 12𝐷 + 𝐸)𝑥 3 + (26𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 26𝐷 − 4𝐸)𝑥 2 Equation 5
+ (−40𝐴 − 4𝐵 + 𝐶 − 20𝐷 + 5𝐸)𝑥 + 25𝐴
The value of A can be computed from (4) by substituting 0 for x. If we equate
coefficients in (5) and solve the resulting equations simultaneously, we obtain
2 1 1 1 4
𝐴=− 𝐵= 𝐶= 𝐷= 𝐸=−
25 5 5 25 25
Therefore
(𝑥 − 2)
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + +5)2
2 𝑑𝑥 1 (2𝑥 − 4)𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 1 (2𝑥 − 4)𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
=− ∫ + ∫ 2 2
+ ∫ 2 2
+ ∫ 2 − ∫ 2
25 𝑥 5 (𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 5) 5 (𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 5) 25 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 5 25 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 5
2 1
=− 𝐼𝑛|𝑥| − 2
25 5(𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 5) Equation 6
1 𝑑𝑥 1 4 𝑑𝑥
+ ∫ + 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5| − ∫ 2
5 [(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + 1]2 25 25 (𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 4) + 1
We evaluate separately the integrals in the third and fifth terms on the right side
of (6),
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ = ∫
[(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + 1]2 [(𝑥 − 2)2 + 1]2
1 1
Let 𝑥 − 2 = tan 𝜃, where 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 2 𝜋 if 𝑥 ≥ 2, and − 2 𝜋 < 𝜃 < 0 if 𝑥 < 2. Then
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 and (𝑥 − 2)2 + 1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 1. Hence
𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
∫ =∫
[(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + 1]2 (𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 1)2
CHAPTER 3 22
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
=∫
𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
=∫
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
2
𝜃 1
= + sin 2𝜃 + 𝐶1
2 4
𝜃 1
= + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝐶1
2 2
1 1
Because tan 𝜃 = 𝑥 − 2 and − 2 𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2 𝜋, 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 − 2). We find sin 𝜃 from
Figure 1 (if 𝑥 ≥ 2) and 2 (if 𝑥 < 2). In either case
𝑥−2 1
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 =
√𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 5 √𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 5
Thus
𝑑𝑥 1 −1 (𝑥
1 𝑥−2 1
∫ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 − 2) + ( ) ( ) ( ) + 𝐶1
[(𝑥 − 2)2 + 1]2 2 2 √𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 5 √𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥−2
∫ 2 2
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 − 2) + 2
+ 𝐶1 Equation 7
[(𝑥 − 2) + 1] 2 2(𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 5)
Now, considering the other integral on the right side of (6), we have
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫
(𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + 1 (𝑥 − 2)2 + 1
𝑑𝑥
∫ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶2
( 𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + 1
Substituting from this equation and (7) into (6) we get

(𝑥 − 2)
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5)2
2 1
=− 𝐼𝑛|𝑥| −
25 5(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5)
1 𝑥−2 1 4
+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 − 2) ∫ + 2
+ 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5| − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶
10 10(𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 5) 25 25
CHAPTER 3 23
MODULE CALCULUS 2
1 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 3 −1 (
𝑥−4
= 𝐼𝑛 | | − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 2 ) + +𝐶
25 𝑥2 10 10(𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 5)
3.5. MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTITUTIONS
If an integrand involves fractional powers of a variable x, the integrand can be

simplified by the substitution 𝑥 = 𝑧 𝑛 where n is the lowest common denominator of the
denominators of the exponents. This substitution is illustrated in the following example.
Example 2.5.1
√𝑥
1 + √𝑥
We let 𝑥 = 𝑧 6 ; then 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑧 5 𝑑𝑧. So,
𝑥 1⁄2 𝑑𝑥 𝑧 3 (6𝑧 5 𝑑𝑧) 𝑧8

∫ =∫ = 6∫ 2 𝑑𝑧
1 + 𝑥 1⁄3 1 + 𝑧2 𝑧 +1
Dividing the numerator by the denominator we have
𝑥 1⁄2 𝑑𝑥 6 4 2
1
∫ = 6 ∫ (𝑧 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 − 1 + ) 𝑑𝑧
1 + 𝑥 1⁄3 𝑧2 + 1
1 1 1
= 6 ( 𝑧 7 − 𝑧 5 + 𝑧 3 − 𝑧 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧) + 𝐶
7 5 3
6 7⁄6 6 5⁄6
= 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 1⁄2 − 6𝑥 1⁄6 + 6𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 1⁄6 + 𝐶
7 5
Theorem 3.5.1
1
If 𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑥, then
2𝑧 1 − 𝑧2 2 𝑑𝑧
sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 =
1 + 𝑧2 1 + 𝑧2 1 + 𝑧2
CHAPTER 3 24
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3.5.2
𝑑𝑥
Evaluate ∫
1 − sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
1
Let 𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝑥. Then from the formulas of Theorem 2.5.1 we
have
2 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑧2
∫ =∫
1 − sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 2𝑧 1 − 𝑧2
1− +
1+ 𝑧2 1 + 𝑧2
𝑑𝑧
= 2∫
(1 + 𝑧2 ) − 2𝑧 + (1 − 𝑧2 )
𝑑𝑧
= 2∫
1−𝑧
= −𝐼𝑛|1 − 𝑧| + 𝐶
1
= −𝐼𝑛 |1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥| + 𝐶
2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CkmnoSsA90w
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1mrPZJNWZe0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gJdeJ1CoFnU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PyLXFY3VkNE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tGu-764KHCk
REFERENCES

pp. 531-566. ISBN-971-08-4968-9
CHAPTER 3 25
MODULE CALCULUS 2
CHAPTER 4
IMPROPER INTEGRALS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• evaluate improper integrals.
Think About It!!
If we know the rate at which a pollutant is dumped into a stream, how can
we compute the total amount released given that the rate of dumping is
decreasing over time?
Introduction
1
Is the area between the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = and the x-axis over the
𝑥
interval [1, +∞) finite or infinite? If this same region is revolved about the x-axis, is the
volume finite or infinite? Surprisingly, the area of the region described is infinite, but the
volume of the solid obtained by revolving this region about the x-axis is finite.
In this section, we define integrals over an infinite interval as well as

integrals of functions containing a discontinuity on the interval. Integrals of these types
are called improper integrals. We examine several techniques for evaluating improper
integrals, all of which involve taking limits.
Integrating over an Infinite Interval
+∞
How should we go about defining an integral of the type ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥? We can
𝑡
integrate ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 for any value of t, so it is reasonable to look at the behavior of this
𝑡
integral as we substitute larger values of t. Figure shows that ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 may be
interpreted as area for various values of t. In other words, we may define an improper
integral as a limit, taken as one of the limits of integration increases or decreases
without bound.
CHAPTER 4 1
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Figure 1
Figure 1: To integrate a function over an infinite interval, we consider the limit of the
integral as the upper limit increases without bound.
Definition of Improper Integrals
1. Let 𝑓(𝑥) be continuous over an interval of the form [a,+∞). Then

+∞ 𝑡
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑡→+∞ 𝑎
provided this limit exists.
2. Let 𝑓(𝑥) be continuous over an interval of the form (−∞,b]. Then
𝑏 𝑏
−∞ 𝑡→+∞ 𝑡
provided this limit exists.
3. Let 𝑓(𝑥) be continuous over (−∞,+∞). Then
+∞ 0 +∞
−∞ −∞ 0
0 +∞
provided that ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 both converge. If either of these two
+∞
integrals diverge, then ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 diverges. (It can be shown that, in
+∞ 𝑎 +∞
fact, ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 for any value of a.).
In our first example, we return to the question we posed at the start of this
1
section: Is the area between the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = and the x-axis over the
𝑥
interval [1, +∞) finite or infinite?
CHAPTER 4 2
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 4.1
1
Determine whether the area between the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = and the x-axis
𝑥
over the interval [1,+∞) is finite or infinite.
Solution
We first do a quick sketch of the region in question, as shown in Figure 2
Figure 2
1
Figure 2: We can find the area between the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = and the x-axis on an
𝑥
infinite interval.
We can see that the area of this region is given by

∞
1
𝐴=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥
which can be evaluated using
∞
1
𝐴=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥
𝑡
1
= lim ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑡→∞ 1 𝑥
𝑡
= lim 𝐼𝑛|𝑥| |
𝑡→∞ 1
= lim (𝐼𝑛|𝑡| − 𝐼𝑛1)
𝑡→∞
= +∞
Since the improper integral diverges to +∞, the area of the region is infinite.
CHAPTER 4 3
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 4.2
Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving the region bounded by the
1
graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and the x-axis over the interval [1,+∞) about the x-axis.
Solution
The solid is shown in Figure 3. Using the disk method, we see that the
volume V is
+∞
1
𝑉 = 𝜋∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥2
Figure 3
Figure 3: The solid of revolution can be generated by rotating an infinite area about the
x-axis.
Then we have
∞
1
𝐴 = 𝜋∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥2
𝑡
1
= 𝜋 lim ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑡→∞ 1 𝑥2
1 𝑡
= 𝜋 lim − |
𝑡→∞ 𝑥 1
1
= 𝜋 lim (− + 1)
𝑡→∞ 𝑥
=𝜋
The improper integral converges to 𝜋. Therefore, the volume of the solid of revolution
is 𝜋.
CHAPTER 4 4
MODULE CALCULUS 2
In conclusion, although the area of the region between the x-axis and the
1
graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 over the interval [1, +∞) is infinite, the volume of the solid generated
by revolving this region about the x-axis is finite. The solid generated is known as
Gabriel’s Horn.
Note: Gabriel's horn (also called Torricelli's trumpet) is a geometric figure which
has infinite surface area, but finite volume. The name refers to the tradition identifying
the Archangel Gabriel as the angel who blows the horn to announce Judgment Day,
associating the divine, or infinite, with the finite. The properties of this figure were first
studied by Italian physicist and mathematician Evangelista Torricelli in the 17th century.
Example 4.3
Suppose that at a busy intersection, traffic accidents occur at an average rate of

one every three months. After residents complained, changes were made to the
traffic lights at the intersection. It has now been eight months since the changes
were made and there have been no accidents. Were the changes effective or is
the 8-month interval without an accident a result of chance?
Figure 4
Figure 4: (credit: modification of work by David McKelvey, Flickr)

Probability theory tells us that if the average time between events is k,
the probability that X, the time between events, is between a and b is given by
𝑏
(𝑃(𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏)) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
where
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑘𝑐 −𝑘𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
CHAPTER 4 5
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Thus, if accidents are occurring at a rate of one every 3 months, then the
probability that X, the time between accidents, is between a and b is given by
𝑏
(𝑃(𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏)) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
where
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑥) = {
3𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
To answer the question, we must compute
+∞
𝑃(𝑋 ≥ 8) = ∫ 3𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8
and decide whether it is likely that 8 months could have passed without an accident if
there had been no improvement in the traffic situation.
Solution
We need to calculate the probability as an improper integral:
+∞
𝑃(𝑋 ≥ 8) = ∫ 3𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8
+∞
= lim ∫ 3𝑒−3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑡→∞
8
𝑡
= lim − 𝑒−3𝑥 |
𝑡→∞ 8
= lim(−𝑒−3𝑡 + 𝑒−24 )
𝑡→∞
≈ 3.8𝑥10−11
The value 3.8𝑥10−11 represents the probability of no accidents in 8
months under the initial conditions. Since this value is very, very small, it is reasonable
to conclude the changes were effective.
CHAPTER 4 6
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 4.4
Evaluate
𝟎
𝟏
∫ 𝟐
𝒅𝒙
−∞ 𝒙 + 𝟒
State whether the improper integral converges or diverges.
Solution
Begin by rewriting
𝟎
𝟏
∫ 𝒅𝒙
−∞ 𝒙𝟐 +𝟒
as a limit using Equation from the definition. Thus,
𝟎 0
𝟏 𝟏
∫ 𝟐
𝒅𝒙 = lim ∫ 𝒅𝒙
−∞ 𝒙 + 𝟒 𝑡→∞ 𝑡 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒
𝑥 0
= lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 |
𝑡→∞ 2 𝑡
𝑥
= lim (𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 )
𝑡→∞ 2
𝜋
=
2
𝜋
The improper integral converges to 2
Example 4.5
Evaluate
+∞
∫ 𝒙𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
−∞
State whether the improper integral converges or diverges.
CHAPTER 4 7
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Solution
Start by splitting up the integral:

+∞ 0 +∞
𝑥 𝑥
∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 +
−∞ −∞ 0
If either
0 +∞
𝑥
∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥 𝑜𝑟 ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−∞ 0
Then
+∞
∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−∞
diverges. Compute each integral separately. For the first integral,

0 0
∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
−∞ 𝑡→∞ 𝑡
0
= lim (𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 ) |
𝑡→∞ 𝑡
= lim (−1 − 𝑡𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑡 )
𝑡→∞
= −1
Evaluate the limit. Note: lim 𝑡𝑒 𝑡 is indeterminate of the form 0⋅∞.Thus, lim 𝑡𝑒 𝑡 =
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞
𝑡 −1
𝑡
lim 𝑡𝑒 = lim = lim = lim −𝑒 = 0 byL’Hôpital’s Rule.
𝑡
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡→∞ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡→∞
The first improper integral converges. For the second integral,

+∞ 𝑡
∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑡→∞ −
𝑡
= lim (𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 ) |
𝑡→∞ 0
= lim (𝑡𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑒 𝑡 + 1)
𝑡→∞
= lim ((𝑡 − 1)𝑒 𝑡 + 1)

𝑡→∞
= +∞
CHAPTER 4 8
MODULE CALCULUS 2
+∞
Thus, ∫0 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 diverges. Since this integral diverges,
+∞
∫−∞ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 diverges as well.
Integrating a Discontinuous Integrand
Now let’s examine integrals of functions containing an infinite discontinuity in

the interval over which the integration occurs. Consider an integral of the
𝑏
form ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, where 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous over [a, b) and discontinuous at b. Since the
function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous over [a, t] for all values of t satisfying a < t < b, the
𝑡
integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is defined for all such values of t. Thus, it makes sense to consider
𝑡 𝑡
the values of ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 as t approaches b for a < t < b. That is, we define ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =
𝑡 𝑡
lim− ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, provided this limit exists. Figure illustrates ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 as areas of regions
𝑡→𝑏
for values of t approaching b
.
Figure 5
Figure 5: As t approaches b from the left, the value of the area from a to t approaches the area
from a to b.
𝑏
We use a similar approach to define ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, where 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous
over (a, b] and discontinuous at a. We now proceed with a formal definition.
1. Let 𝑓(𝑥) be continuous over [a, b). Then

𝑏 𝑡
𝑎 𝑡→𝑏 𝑎
2. Let 𝑓(𝑥) be continuous over (a, b]. Then
𝑏 𝑏
𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡
In each case, if the limit exists, then the improper integral is said to converge.
If the limit does not exist, then the improper integral is said to diverge.
CHAPTER 4 9
MODULE CALCULUS 2
3. Let 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous over [𝑎, 𝑏] except at a point c in (𝑎, 𝑏), then
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐
𝑐 𝑏
provided that ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 converge. If either of these two integrals
𝑏
of these diverge, then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 diverges
Example 4.6
Evaluate
4
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √4 − 𝑥
if possible. State whether the integral converges or diverges.
Solution
𝟏
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous over [0,4) and discontinuous at 4.
√𝟒−𝒙
Using Equation from the definition, rewrite
4 𝑡
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim− ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √4 − 𝑥 𝑡→4 0 √4 − 𝑥
𝑡
= lim− (−2√4 − 𝑥) |
𝑡→4 0
= lim−(−2√4 − 𝑡 + 4)
𝑡→4
=4
The improper integral converges.
CHAPTER 4 10
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 4.7
Evaluate
2
∫ 𝑥 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
State whether the integral converges or diverges.
Solution
Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 is continuous over (0,2] and is discontinuous at

zero, we can rewrite the integral in limit form using Equation:
2 2
∫ 𝑥 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑥 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑡→0 𝑡
1 1 2
= lim ( 𝑥 2 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) |
𝑡→0 2 4 𝑡
1 1
= lim (2𝐼𝑛 2 − 1 − 𝑡 2 𝐼𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 )
𝑡→0 2 4
= 2 𝐼𝑛 2 − 1
To evaluate it, rewrite as a quotient and apply L’Hôpital’s rule.
The improper integral converges.
FOR FURTHER UNDERSTANDING VISIT THE LINK BELOW:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d_CnAKmQOKE
REFERENCES
https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/Mount_Royal_University/MATH_2
200%3A_Calculus_for_Scientists_II/2%3A_Techniques_of_Integratio
n/2.6%3A_Improper_Integrals
Lial, M.; Greenwell, R.; Miller, C. Calculus with Applications. Sixth
Edition. pp. 450 – 453. ISBN-0-321-01631-9.
CHAPTER 4 11
MODULE CALCULUS 2
CHAPTER 5
APPLICATION OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• compute area of the region bounded by the curve; and
• compute the area between two curves with respect to the x and y-axes.
5.1 PLANE AREA
We defined the area of a plane region as the limit of a Riemann sum, and
we learned that such a limit is a definite integral. Now that we have techniques for
computing define integrals, we consider more problems involving areas of plane
regions.
In the examples that follow we first express the measure of the required
area as the limit of a Riemann sum to reinforce the procedure for setting up such sums
for future applications.
Example 1
Find the area of the region in the first quadrant bounded by the curve
𝑦 = 𝑥√𝑥 2 + 5
the x-axis, and the line 𝑥 = 2. Draw a sketch.
Solution
See Figure 1. The region is shown together with one of the rectangular
elements of area.
We take a partition of the interval [0,2]. The width of the ith rectangle is
∆𝑖 𝑥 units, and the altitude is 𝜀𝑖 √𝜀𝑖2 + 5 units, were 𝜀𝑖 is any number in the ith subinterval.
Therefore, the measure of the area of the rectangular element is 𝜀𝑖 √𝜀𝑖2 + 5 ∆𝑖 𝑥. The
sum of the measures of the areas of n such rectangles is
𝑛
∑ 𝜀𝑖 √𝜀𝑖2 + 5 ∆𝑖 𝑥
𝑖=1
CHAPTER 5 1
MODULE CALCULUS 2
which is a Riemann sum. The limit of this sum as ‖∆‖ approaches 0 gives the measure
of the desired area. The limit of the Riemann sum is a definite integral that we evaluate
by the second fundamental theorem of the calculus. Let A square units be the area of
the region: then
𝑛
𝐴 = lim ∑ 𝜀𝑖 √𝜀𝑖2 + 5 ∆𝑖 𝑥
‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
2
= ∫ 𝑥√𝑥 2 + 5 𝑑𝑥
0
1 2
= ∫ √𝑥 2 + 5 (2𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
2 0
1 2 2
= ( ) ( ) (𝑥 2 + 5)3⁄2 ]
2 3 0
1 1
= [(9)3⁄2 − (5)3⁄2 ] = (27 − 5√5)
3 3
≈ 5.27
1
Hence, the area is (27 − 5√5) square units, or approximately 5.27
3
square units.
Example 2
Find the area of the region bounded by the curve

𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
the x-axis, and the lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 3.
Solution
The region together with a rectangular element of area, is shown in

Figure 2.
We take a partition of the interval [1,3]; the width of the ith rectangle is
∆𝑖 𝑥. Because 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 < 0 on [1,3], the altitude of the ith rectangle is
−(𝜀𝑖2 − 4𝜀𝑖 ) = 4𝜀𝑖 − 𝜀𝑖2 . Hence the sum of the measures of the areas of n
rectangles is given by
𝑛
∑(4𝜀𝑖 − 𝜀𝑖2 ) ∆𝑖 𝑥
𝑖=1
The measure of the desired area is given by the limit of this sum as ‖∆‖
approaches 0; so, if A square units is the area of the region,
CHAPTER 5 2
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝐴 = lim ∑(4𝜀𝑖 − 𝜀𝑖2 ) ∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
3
= ∫ (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1
1 3
= 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 ]
3 1
22
=
3
22
Thus, the area of the region is square units.
3
Example 3
Find the area of the region bounded by the curve

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6
The x-axis, and the line 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 2.
Solution
The region appears in Figure 3. Let

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6
Because 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 when x is in the closed interval [−1,1] and 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0
when x is in the closed interval [1,2], we separate the region into two parts. Let 𝐴1 be
the number of square units in the area of the region when x is in [1,2]. Then
𝑛
𝐴1 = lim ∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 ) ∆𝑖 𝑥
‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
1
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−1
1
= ∫ (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6) 𝑑𝑥
−1
and
CHAPTER 5 3
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑛
𝐴2 = lim ∑ [−𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )] ∆𝑖 𝑥
‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
2
= ∫ (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6) 𝑑𝑥
1
If A square units is the area of the entire region, then
𝐴 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
1 2
= ∫ (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6) 𝑑𝑥
−1 1
1 2 5 1 1 2 5 2
= [ 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥] − [ 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥]
4 3 2 −1 4 3 2 1
1 2 5 1 2 5 16 1 2 5
= [( − − + 6) − ( + − − 6)] − [(4 − − 10 + 12) − ( − − + 6)]
4 3 2 4 3 2 3 4 3 2
32 29
= − (− )
3 12
157
=−
12
157
The area of the region is therefore − square units.
12
5.2 AREAS BETWEEN CURVES
In this section, we are going to look at finding the area between two
curves. There are actually two cases that we are going to be looking at.
CHAPTER 5 4
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Determine the area between 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) on the

CASE 1 interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. We are also going to assume that 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥). Take
a look at the following sketch to get an idea of what we’re initially
going to look at.
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (1)
𝑎
The second case is almost identical to the first case. Here

CASE 2 we are going to determine the area between 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) and 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)
on the interval [𝑐, 𝑑] with 𝑓(𝑦) ≥ 𝑔(𝑦).
In this case, the formula is,

𝑑
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 (2)
𝑐
Now (1) and (2) are perfectly serviceable formulas, however, it is

sometimes easy to forget that these always require the first function to be the larger of
the two functions. So, instead of these formulas we will instead use the following “word”
formulas to make sure that we remember that the area is always the “larger” function
minus the “smaller” function.
CHAPTER 5 5
MODULE CALCULUS 2
In the first case, we will use,
𝑏
𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐴=∫ ( )−( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
In the second case, we will use,
𝑑
𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝐴=∫ ( )−( ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The Area Between Two curves (with respect to the x-axis)
If and are two continuous functions on the interval and

for all values of in the interval, then the area of the region that is bounded by the two
functions is given by
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Example 1
Find the area of the region enclosed between and
CHAPTER 5 6
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Solution
We first make a sketch of the region and find the end points of the region.
To do so, we simply equate the two functions,
𝑥2 = 𝑥 + 6
and then solve for
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 = 0
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0
from which we get and
So the upper and lower boundaries intersect at points and
As you can see from the graph, and hence and

in the interval Applying the area formula,
Integrating,
So the area between the two curves and is
Sometimes it is possible to apply the area formula with respect to the

coordinates instead of the coordinates. In this case, the equations of the boundaries
will be written in such a way that is expressed explicitly as a function of .
CHAPTER 5 7
MODULE CALCULUS 2
The Area Between Two curves (with respect to the y-axis)
If and are two continuous functions on the interval and

for all values of in the interval, then the area of the region that is bounded by
on the left, on the right, below by and above by is given by
Example 2
Find the area of the region enclosed by and
Solution
The left boundary is and the right boundary is The region

extends over the interval However, we must express the equations in terms
of We rewrite
𝑥 = 𝑦2
𝑥 =𝑦+6
Thus
3
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑦 + 6 − 𝑦 2 ] 𝑑𝑦
−2
𝑦2 𝑦3 3
= ( + 6𝑦 − ) |
2 3 −2
125
=
6
CHAPTER 5 8
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3
Determine the area of the region enclosed by
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = √𝑥
Solution
In this case, most would probably say that 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is the upper function and
they would be right for the vast majority of the x’s. However, in this case it is the
lower of the two functions.
In this case, it’s pretty easy to see that they will intersect at
𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1, so, these are the limits of integration.
So, the integral that we’ll need to compute to find the area is,
𝑏
𝐴=∫ ( )−( ) 𝑑𝑥
1
= ∫ (√𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
0
2 1 1
= ( 𝑥 3⁄2 − 𝑥 3 )|
3 3 0
1
=
3
1
The area of the region is therefore square units.
3
CHAPTER 5 9
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 4
Determine the area of the region bounded by

2
𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 = 2, and the y-axis.
Solution
In this case, the last two pieces of information, 𝑥 = 2, and the y-axis, tell
us the right and left boundaries of the region. Also, recall that the y-axis is given by the
line 𝑥 = 0.
𝑏
𝐴=∫ ( )−( ) 𝑑𝑥
2
2
= ∫ (𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
0
1 1 2 2
= ( 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )|
2 2 0
7 𝑒 −4
= + ≈ 3.5092
2 2
The area of the region is approximately 3.5092 square units.
CHAPTER 5 10
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 5
Determine the area of the region bounded by

𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 10 and 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 16.
Solution
Note that for most of these problems you’ll not be able to accurately
identify the intersection points from the graph and so you’ll need to be able to determine
them by hand. In this case we can get the intersection points by setting the two
equations equal.
2𝑥 2 + 10 = 4𝑥 + 16
2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 = 0
2(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) = 0
So, it looks like the two curves will intersect at 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 3. If we
need them, we can get the y values corresponding to ach of these by plugging the
values back into either of the equations. We’ll leave it to you to verify that the
coordinates of the two intersection points on the graph are (−1, 12) and(3, 28).
With the graph we can now identify the upper and lower function and so
we can now find the enclosed area.
𝑏
𝐴=∫ ( )−( ) 𝑑𝑥
3
= ∫ 4𝑥 + 16 − (2𝑥 2 + 10) 𝑑𝑥
−1
CHAPTER 5 11
MODULE CALCULUS 2
3
= ∫ (−2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6) 𝑑𝑥
−1
2 3
= (− 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥)|
3 −1
64
=
3
64
The area of the region is square units.
3
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMTt4MhJgtE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VANx-R9o1m0
REFERENCES

pp. 352-355. ISBN-971-08-4968-9
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calci/areabetweencurves.aspx
CHAPTER 5 12
MODULE CALCULUS 2
CHAPTER 6
OTHER APPLICATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• apply and compute the volumes of various kinds of solids;
• compute integral work problems; and
• find the force caused by liquid pressure on a plate.
6.1. VOLUMES
In this section 5.1, we apply the definite integral to compute the volumes
of various kinds of solids. We use slicing, disks, washers, and cylindrical shells.
Volumes of solids by slicing, disks, and Washers
We led up to the definition of the definite integral by first defining the area
of a plane region. In the development we used the formula from plane geometry for the
area of a rectangle. We now use a similar process to obtain volumes of particular kinds
of solid.
Let S be a solid such that S lies between planes drawn

perpendicular to the x-axis at a and b. If the measure of the
6.1.1 Definition area of the plane section of S drawn perpendicular to the x-
axis at x is given by 𝐴(𝑥), where A is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏],
then the measure of the volume of S is given by
CHAPTER 6 1
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑉 = lim ∑ 𝐴(𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
𝑏
= ∫ 𝐴(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
The terminology slicing is used when applying Definition 5.1.1 to find the
volume of a solid. The process is similar to slicing a loaf of bread into very thin pieces
where all the pieces together make up the whole loaf.
Example 1
Use slicing to find the volume of a right pyramid whose altitude is h

units and whose base is a square of side s units.
Solution
Figure 6 shows the right pyramid and the coordinate axes chosen so that
the center of the base is at the origin and the altitude is measured along the positive
side of the y-axis. The plane section of the pyramid drawn perpendicular to the y-axis at
(0, 𝑦) is a square. If the length of a side of this square is z units, then by similar triangles
(see Figure 7)
1 1
2𝑧 = 2𝑠
ℎ−𝑦 ℎ
𝑠
𝑧 = (ℎ − 𝑦)
ℎ
Therefore, if 𝐴(𝑦) square units is the area of the plane section
𝑠2
𝐴(𝑦) = 2 (ℎ − 𝑦)2
ℎ
Figure 8 shows an element of volume which is a right cylinder of area

𝐴(𝜀𝑖 ) square units and a thickness of ∆𝑖 𝑦 units. Thus, if V cubic units is the volume of
the right pyramid
CHAPTER 6 2
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑉 = lim ∑ 𝐴(𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑦

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
ℎ
= ∫ 𝐴(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
0
ℎ
𝑠2
= ∫ 2 (ℎ − 𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦
0 ℎ
Figure 6
𝑠2 (ℎ − 𝑦)3 ℎ
= [− ]
ℎ2 3 0
Figure 8
𝑠2 ℎ3
= 2 [0 + ]
Figure 7 ℎ 3
1
= 𝑠2ℎ
3
We now show how Definition 5.1.1 can be applied to find the volume of a
solid of revolution, which is a solid obtained by revolving region in a plane about a line
in the plane, called the axis of revolution, which may or may not intersect the region.
For example, if the region bounded by a semicircle and its diameter is revolved about
the diameter, a sphere is generated (see Figure 9). A right-circular cone is generated if
the region bounded by a right triangle is revolved about one of its legs (see Figure 10).
Figure 9
Figure 10
CHAPTER 6 3
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Let the function f be continuous on the closed interval

[𝑎, 𝑏], and assume that 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all x in [𝑎, 𝑏]. If S is the
solid of revolution obtained by revolving about the x-axis the
region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the x-axis, and the
lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏, and if V cubic units is the volume of S,
then
6.1.2 Theorem
𝑛
𝑉 = lim ∑ 𝜋[𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )]2 ∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
𝑏
= 𝜋 ∫ [𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Example 2
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the line
𝑥 = 1 the region bounded by the curve
(𝑥 − 1)2 = 20 − 4𝑦
and the lines 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1, and 𝑦 = 3 and to the right of 𝑥 = 1.
Solution
The region and a rectangular element of area are shown in Figure 11. An
element of volume and the solid of revolution appear in Figure 12.
Figure 11 Figure 12
CHAPTER 6 4
MODULE CALCULUS 2
In the equation of the curve we solve for x and have

𝑥 = √20 − 4𝑦 + 1
Let 𝑔(𝑦) = √20 − 4𝑦 + 1. We take a partition of the interval [1, 3] on the y-
axis. Then if ∆𝑖 𝑉 cubic units is the volume of the ith disk,
∆𝑖 𝑉 = 𝜋[𝑔(𝜀𝑖 ) − 1]2 ∆𝑖 𝑦
2
= 𝜋[(√20 − 4𝜀𝑖 + 1) − 1] ∆𝑖 𝑦
= 𝜋(20 − 4𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑦
If V cubic units is the volume of the solid of revolution,
𝑛
𝑉 = lim ∑ 𝜋(20 − 4𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑦

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
3
= 𝜋 ∫ (20 − 4𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
1
3
= 𝜋[20𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 ]
1
= 𝜋[(60 − 18) − (20 − 2)]
= 24𝜋
The volume of the solid of revolution is therefore 24𝜋 cubic units.
Let the function f and g be continuous on the closed

interval [𝑎, 𝑏], and assume that 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all x in
[𝑎, 𝑏]. Then if V cubic units is the volume of the solid of
revolution generated by revolving about the x-axis the region
bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) and the lines
𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏,
6.1.3 Theorem
𝑛
𝑉 = lim ∑ 𝜋[𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )]2 − [𝑔(𝜀𝑖 )]2 ∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
𝑏
= 𝜋 ∫ [𝑓(𝑥)]2 − [𝑔(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
CHAPTER 6 5
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the x-axis
the region bounded by the parabola
𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 1
and the lines 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3
Solution
The points of intersection are (−1, 2) and (2, 5). Figure

13 shows the region and a rectangular element of area. An element of
volume and the solid of revolution are shown in Figure 14.
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1, the measure of the volume of the
circular ring is
∆𝑖 𝑉 = 𝜋([𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )]2 − [𝑔(𝜀𝑖 )]2 ) ∆𝑖 𝑥
If V cubic units is the volume of the solid, then
𝑛
𝑉 = lim ∑ 𝜋([𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )]2 − [𝑔(𝜀𝑖 )]2 ) ∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1 Figure 13
2
= 𝜋 ∫ 𝜋([𝑓(𝑥)]2 − [𝑔(𝑥)]2 ) 𝑑𝑥
−1
2
= 𝜋 ∫ [(𝑥 + 3)2 − (𝑥 2 + 1)2 ] 𝑑𝑥
−1
2
= 𝜋 ∫ [−𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8] 𝑑𝑥 Figure 14
−1
1 1 2
= 𝜋 [− 𝑥 5 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥]
5 3 −1
32 8 1 1
= [(− − + 12 + 16) − ( + + 3 − 8)]
5 3 5 3
117
= 𝜋
5
117
Therefore, the volume of the solid of revolution is 𝜋 cubic units.
5
CHAPTER 6 6
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Volumes of solids by Cylindrical Shells
The method involves taking the rectangular elements of area parallel to

the axis of revolution. Then when an element of area is revolved about the axis of
revolution, a cylindrical shell is obtained. A cylindrical shell is a solid contained
between two cylinders having the same center and axis. Such a cylindrical shell is
shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15
If the cylindrical shell has an inner radius 𝑟1 units, outer radius 𝑟2 units,
and altitude h units, then its volume V cubic units is given by
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟22 ℎ − 𝜋𝑟12 ℎ

[𝑎, 𝑏], where 𝑎 ≥ 0. Assume that 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all x in [𝑎, 𝑏]. If
R is the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the x-axis,
and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏, if S is the solid of revolution
6.1.4 Theorem obtained by revolving R about the y-axis, and if V cubic units
is the volume of S, then
𝑛 𝑏
𝑉 = lim ∑ 2𝜋𝑚𝑖 𝑓(𝑚𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑥 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1 𝑎
Example 4
The region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , the x-axis and the line 𝑥 = 2
is revolved about the y-axis. Find the volume of the solid generated.
Take the element of area parallel to the axis of revolution.
CHAPTER 6 7
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Solution
Figure 16 shows the region and a rectangular element of area. Figure 17 shows
the solid of revolution and the cylindrical shell obtained by revolving the rectangular
element of area about the y-axis.
The element of volume is a cylindrical shell the measure of whose volume is
∆𝑖 𝑥𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑚𝑖 (𝑚𝑖2 )∆𝑖 𝑥

= 2𝜋𝑚𝑖3 ∆𝑖 𝑥
Thus
𝑛
𝑉 = lim ∑ 2𝜋𝑚𝑖3 ∆𝑖 𝑥 Figure 16

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
2
= 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
0
1 2 Figure 17
= 2𝜋 ( 𝑥 4 ) |
4 0
= 8𝜋
Therefore, the volume of the solid of revolution is 8𝜋 cubic units.
Example 5
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the y-axis
the region bounded by the graph of 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 𝑥 3 , the y-axis, and the
line 𝑦 = 2.
Solution
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 𝑥 3 . Figure 18 shows the region and a rectangular element of

area parallel to the y-axis. The solid of revolution and a cylindrical shell element of
volume appear in Figure 19. The mean radius of the cylindrical shell is 𝑚𝑖 units, the
altitude is [2 − 𝑓(𝑚𝑖 )] units, and the thickness is ∆𝑖 𝑥 units. Therefore, if ∆𝑖 𝑉 cubic units
is the volume of the shell
∆𝑖 𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑚𝑖 [2 − 𝑓(𝑚𝑖 )] ∆𝑖 𝑥
Thus, if V cubic units is the volume of the solid of revolution
CHAPTER 6 8
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑉 = lim ∑ 2𝜋𝑚𝑖 [2 − 𝑓(𝑚𝑖 )] ∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
1
= 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥[2 − 𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
0
1
= 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥(2 − 3𝑥 + 𝑥 3 ) 𝑑𝑥 Figure 18
0
1
= 2𝜋 ∫ (2𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 4 ) 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑥5 1
= 2𝜋 (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 +)|
5 0
1 2
= 2𝜋 (1 − 1 + ) = 𝜋 Figure 19
5 5
2
Therefore, the volume is 𝜋 cubic units.
5
Example 6
The region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the lines 𝑦 = 1 and 𝑥 = 2

is revolved about the line 𝑦 = −3. Find the volume of the solid
generated by taking the rectangular elements of area parallel to the
axis of revolution.
Solution
The region and a rectangular element of area appear in Figure 20. The
equation of the curve is 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 . Solving for the x we obtain 𝑥 = ±√𝑦. Because 𝑥 > 0 for
the given, 𝑥 = √𝑦.
The solid of revolution and a cylindrical shell element of volume are shown
in Figure 21. The outer radius of the cylindrical shell is (𝑦𝑖 + 3) units and the inner
radius is (𝑦𝑖−1 + 3) units. Hence, the mean of the inner and outer radii are, respectively,
(2 − √𝑚𝑖 ) units and ∆𝑖 𝑦 units,
∆𝑖 𝑉 = 2𝜋(𝑚𝑖 + 3)(2 − √𝑚𝑖 ) ∆𝑖 𝑦
Thus, if V cubic units is the volume of the solid of revolution,
CHAPTER 6 9
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑛
Figure 21
𝑉 = lim ∑ 2𝜋(𝑚𝑖 + 3)(2 − √𝑚𝑖 ) ∆𝑖 𝑦
‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
4
= ∫ 2𝜋(𝑦 + 3)(2 − √𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
1
4
= 2𝜋 ∫ (−𝑦 3⁄2 + 2𝑦−3𝑦 1⁄2 + 6) 𝑑𝑦
1
2 4
= 2𝜋 (− 𝑦 5⁄2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 3⁄2 + 6𝑦) |
5 1
66
= 𝜋
5
66
Figure 20 Therefore, the volume is 𝜋 cubic units.
5
6.2. WORK
The work done by the force acting on an object is defined in physics as

“force times displacement.” For example, suppose that an object is moving on the right
along the x-axis from a point a to a point b, and a constant force of F lb is acting on the
object in the direction of motion. Then if the displacement is measured in feet, 𝑏 − 𝑎 is
the number of feet in the displacement. And if W is the number of foot-pounds of work
done by the force, W is defined by
𝑊 = 𝐹(𝑏 − 𝑎)

[𝑎, 𝑏], and 𝑓(𝑥) units be the force acting on an object at the
point x on the x-axis. Then if W units is the work done by the
force as the object moves from a and b,
6.2.1 Definition
𝑛 𝑏
𝑊 = lim ∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1 𝑎
CHAPTER 6 10
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 1
A particle is moving along the x-axis under the action of a force of 𝑓(𝑥)
pounds when the particle is x feet from the origin. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4, find
the work done as the particle moves from the point where 𝑥 = 2 to the
point where 𝑥 = 4
Solution
We take a partition of the closed interval [2,4]. If W foot-pounds is the

work done as the particle moves from the point where 𝑥 = 2 to the point where 𝑥 = 4,
then from Definition 5.2.1,
𝑛
𝑊 = lim ∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
4
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2
4
= ∫ (𝑥 2 + 4) 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑥3 4
= + 4𝑥 |
3 2
64 8
= + 16 − ( + 8)
3 3
2
= 26
3
2
Therefore, the work done is 26 3 ft-lb.
In the following example we use Hooke’s law, which states that if a spring
is stretched x units beyond its natural length, it is pulled back with a force equal
to kx units, where k is a constant depending on the material and size of the
spring.
CHAPTER 6 11
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 2
A spring has a natural length of 14cm. If a force of 500 dynes is

required to keep the spring stretch 2cm, how much work is done in
stretching the spring from its natural length to a length of 18cm?
Solution
Place the spring along the x-axis with the origin at the point where the
stretching starts. See Figure 1. Let 𝑓(𝑥) dynes be the force required to stretch the
spring x centimeters beyond its natural length. Then, by Hooke’s law
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥
Because 𝑓(2) = 500, we have
500 = (𝑘)(2)
𝑘 = 250
Thus
𝑓(𝑥) = 250𝑥
Because the spring is being stretched from 14cm to 18cm, we consider a
partition of the closed interval [0,4] on the x-axis. Let ∆𝑖 𝑥 centimeters be the length of
the ith subinterval and let 𝜀𝑖 be any point in that subinterval. If W ergs is the work done
in stretching the spring from 14cm to 18cm, then
𝑊 = lim ∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
4
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
4
= ∫ 250𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
250 2 4
= 𝑥 |
2 0
CHAPTER 6 12
MODULE CALCULUS 2
= 2000
Therefore, the work done in stretching the spring is 2000 ergs.
Example 3
As a water tank is being raised, water spills out at a constant rate of

2𝑓𝑡 3 per foot of rise. If the weight of the tank is 200lb and it originally
contains 1000𝑓𝑡 3 of water, find the work done in raising the tank 20ft.
Solution
Refer to Figure 2. Here we are taking the origin at the starting point of the
bottom of the tank and the positive x-axis is in the upward direction because the motion
is vertically upward from O. We consider a partition of the closed interval [0,20] on the
x-axis. Let 𝜀𝑖 be any point in the ith subinterval [𝑥𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑖 ]. When the bottom of the tank is
at 𝜀𝑖 , there is (1000 − 2𝜀𝑖 ) cubic feet of water in the tank. With the weight of 1𝑓𝑡 3 of
water as 62.5 lb the weight of the tank and its contents when it is at 𝜀𝑖 is
[200 + 62.5(1000 − 2𝜀𝑖 )] pounds or, equivalently, (62,700 − 125𝜀𝑖 ) pounds, which is the
force acting on the tank. The work done in raising the tank through the ith subinterval is
approximately (62,700 − 125𝜀𝑖 ) ∆𝑖 𝑥 foot-pounds. We use the terminology
“approximately” because we are assuming that the amount of water in the tank is
constant throughout the subinterval. If W foot-pounds is the total work done in raising
the tank 20ft,
𝑛
𝑊 = lim ∑(62,700 − 125𝜀𝑖 ) ∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
20
= ∫ (62,700 − 125𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
125 2 20
= 62,700𝑥 − 𝑥 |
2 0
= 1,229,000
Figure 2
Therefore, the work done is 1,229,000 ft-lb.
CHAPTER 6 13
MODULE CALCULUS 2
6.3. LIQUID PRESSURE
Another application of the definite integral in physics is to find the force

caused by liquid pressure on a plate submerged in the liquid or on a side of a container
holding the liquid. First suppose that a flat plate is inserted horizontally into a liquid in a
container. The weight of the liquid exerts a force on the plate. The force pre square unit
of are exerted by the liquid on the plate is called the pressure of the liquid.
Let p be the measure of the mass density of the liquid and h units be the
depth of a point below the surface of the liquid. If P is the measure of the pressure
exerted by the liquid at the point, then
𝑃 = 𝑝𝑔ℎ
Suppose that a flat plate is submerged vertically in a

liquid for which a measure of its mass density is p. The length
of the plate at a depth of x units below the surface of the
liquid is 𝑓(𝑥) units, where f is continuous on the closed
6.3.1 Definition interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then if F is the measure
of the force caused by liquid pressure on the plane
𝑛 𝑏
𝑊 = lim ∑ 𝑝𝑔𝜀𝑖 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑝𝑔𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1 𝑎
Example 1
A trough having a trapezoidal cross section is full of water. If the

trapezoid is 3ft wide at the top, 2ft wide at the bottom, and 2ft deep,
find the total force owing to water pressure on one end of the trough.
Solution
Figure 1 illustrates one end of the trough together with a rectangular

3 1 3 1
element of are. Because an equation of the line AB is 𝑦 = 2 − 4 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 − 4 𝑥. If we
rotate the rectangular element through 90°, the force on the element is 2𝑝𝑔𝜀𝑖 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑥
pounds. If F pounds is the total force on the side of the trough,
𝑛
𝐹 = lim ∑ 2𝑝𝑔𝜀𝑖 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
CHAPTER 6 14
MODULE CALCULUS 2
2
= 2𝑝𝑔 ∫ 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
2
3 1
= 2𝑝𝑔 ∫ 𝑥 ( − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 2 4
3 1 3 2
= 2𝑝𝑔 ( 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 )|
4 12 0
14 Figure 1
= 𝑝𝑔
3
Taking 𝑝𝑔 = 62.5, we find that the total force is 292 𝑙𝑏.
Example 2
The ends of a trough are semicircular regions, each with a radius of

2ft. Find the force caused by water pressure on one end if the trough is
full of water.
Solution
Figure 2 shows one end of the trough together with a rectangular element
of area. An equation of the semicircle is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4. Solving for y gives 𝑦 = √4 − 𝑥 2 .
The force on the rectangular element is 2𝑝𝑔𝜀𝑖 √4 − 𝜀𝑖2 ∆𝑖 𝑥 pounds. Therefore, if F
pounds is the total force on the side of the trough,
𝑛
𝐹 = lim ∑ 2𝑝𝑔𝜀𝑖 √4 − 𝜀𝑖2 ∆𝑖 𝑥

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
2
= 2𝑝𝑔 ∫ 𝑥√4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0
2 2
= − 𝑝𝑔(4 − 𝑥 2 )3⁄2 |
3 0
Figure 2
16
= 𝑝𝑔
3
With 𝑝𝑔 = 62.5, the total force is 333 𝑙𝑏.
CHAPTER 6 15
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3
A container in the shape of a right-circular cylinder having a base of

radius is 3m is on its side at the bottom of a tank full of water. The
depth of the tank is 13m. Find the total force due to water pressure on
one end of the container.
Solution
Figure 3 shows one end of the container in the tank and a rectangular
element of area. The coordinate system is chosen so that the origin is at the center of
the circle. An equation of the circle is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9. Solving for x gives 𝑥 = √9 − 𝑦 2 . The
number of newtons in the force on the rectangular element is
𝑝𝑔(10 − 𝜀𝑖 ) [2√9 − 𝜀𝑖2 ] ∆𝑖 𝑦
So, if F newtons is the total force on the end of the container, Figure 3
𝑛
𝐹 = lim ∑ 𝑝𝑔(10 − 𝜀𝑖 ) [2√9 − 𝜀𝑖2 ] ∆𝑖 𝑦

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
3
= 2𝑝𝑔 ∫ (10 − 𝑦)√9 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
−3
Because 𝑝𝑔 = 9810, we have

3 3
𝐹 = 196,200 ∫ √9 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 − 19,620 ∫ 𝑦√9 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
−3 −3
3
To evaluate ∫−3 √9 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 requires a technique of integration. At present
we determine its value by considering it as the measure of the area of the region
enclosed by a semicircle of radius 3. Therefore
3
9
∫ √9 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜋
−3 2
Substituting this value into
3 3
𝐹 = 196,200 ∫ √9 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑦 − 19,620 ∫ 𝑦√9 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
−3 −3
and evaluating the second integral we have
CHAPTER 6 16
MODULE CALCULUS 2
9 1 3
𝐹 = 196,200 ( 𝜋) + 19,620 [ (9 − 𝑦 2 )3⁄2 ] |
2 3 −3
= 882,900𝜋
Thus, the total force is 882,900𝜋 N.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gr5H4icS4CQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLw8xbmnY3c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q8c8Gs1OUgk
REFERENCES

pp. 374-387, 407-411, 413-417. ISBN-971-08-4968-9
CHAPTER 6 17
MODULE CALCULUS 2
CHAPTER 7
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• compute double and triple integral both definite and indefinite integral.
Introduction
We call an integral of a function of a single variable a single integral to

distinguish it from a multiple integral, which involves a function of several
variables. In the discussion of a single integral we required that the function
be defined on a closed interval in the set of real numbers R. For the double
integral of a function of two variables we require that the function be defined
on a closed region in 𝑅 2 .
In this chapter, when we refer to a region, it is assumed to be closed. The

simplest kind of closed region in 𝑅 2 is a closed rectangular region, which we proceed to
define. Consider two distinct points 𝐴(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) and 𝐵(𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ) such that 𝑎1 ≤ 𝑏1 and 𝑎2 ≤
𝑏2 . These two points determine a rectangle having sides parallel to the coordinates
axes. Refer to Figure 1. The two points, together with the points (𝑏1 , 𝑎2 ) and (𝑎1 , 𝑏2 ), are
called the vertices of the rectangle. The line segments joining consecutive vertices are
called the edges of the rectangle. The set of all points interior to the rectangle is called
an open rectangular region, and the set of all points in the open rectangle, together with
the points on the edges of the rectangle, is called a closed rectangular region.
CHAPTER 7 1
MODULE CALCULUS 2
7.1 DOUBLE INTEGRALS
Let f be a function defined on a closed rectangular region

R. The number L is said to be limit of sums of the form
𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 , 𝛾𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝐴
7.1.1. Definition 𝑖=1
is L satisfies the property that for any 𝜀 > 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0
such that for every partition ∆ for which ‖∆‖ < 𝛿 and for all
possible selections of the point (𝜀𝑖 , 𝛾𝑖 ) in the ith rectangle,
𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛,
|∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 , 𝛾𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝐴 − 𝐿| < 𝜀

𝑖=1
If such a number L exists, we write

𝑛
lim ∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 , 𝛾𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝐴 = 𝐿

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
A function f of two variables is said to be integrable on a

closed rectangular region R if f is defined on R and the number L
of Definition 6.1.1 exists. The number L is called the double
7.1.2. Definition integral of f on R, and we write.
𝑛
lim ∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 , 𝛾𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝐴 = ∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝐴

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
R
7.1.3. Theorem If a function of two variables is continuous on a closed

rectangular region R, then it is integrable on R.
CHAPTER 7 2
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 1
Find an approximate value of the double integral
∬ 𝑓(3𝑦 − 2𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝐴
R
Where R is the rectangular region having vertices (−1,1) and (2,3). Take a
partition of R formed by the lines 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 2 and take (𝜀𝑖 , 𝛾𝑖 ) at the
center of the ith subregion.
Solution
Refer to Figure 2, which shows the region
R partitioned into six subregions that are squares having sides
one unit in length. So, for each i, ∆𝑖 𝐴 = 1. In each of the
subregions the point (𝜀𝑖 , 𝛾𝑖 ) is at the center of the square. With
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3𝑦 − 2𝑥 2 , an approximation to the given double integral
is given by
∬ 𝑓(3𝑦 − 2𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝐴
R ≈ 𝑓(−0.5, 1.5)(1) + 𝑓(0.5, 1.5)(1) + 𝑓(1.5, 1.5)(1)
+ 𝑓(1.5, 2.5)(1) + 𝑓(0.5, 2.5)(1)_𝑓(−0.5, 2.5)(1)
= (4)(1) + (4)(1) + (0)(1) + (3)(1) + (7)(1) + (7)(1)
= 25
If c is a constant and the function f is integrable on a

closed region R, then cf is integrable on R and
7.1.4. Theorem
∬ 𝑐𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴 = 𝑐 ∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴
R R
If the function f and g are integrable on a closed region R,

then the function 𝑓 + 𝑔 is integrable on R and
7.1.5. Theorem
∬[𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦)]𝑑𝐴 = ∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴 + ∬ 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴
R R R
CHAPTER 7 3
MODULE CALCULUS 2
If the function f and g are integrable on a closed region R

and furthermore 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) for all (𝑥, 𝑦) in R, then
7.1.6. Theorem
∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴 ≥ ∬ 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴
R R
Let the function f be integrable on a closed region R, and

suppose that m and M are two numbers such that
7.1.7. Theorem 𝑚 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑀 for all (𝑥, 𝑦) in R. Then if A is the measure of
the area of region R.
𝑚𝐴 ≤ ∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴 ≤ 𝑀𝐴
R
Suppose that the function f is continuous on the closed

region R and that region R is composed of the two subregions
7.1.8. Theorem 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 that have no points in common except for points on
parts of their boundaries. Then
∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴 = ∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴 + ∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴

R 𝑅1 𝑅2
Example 2
Find each indefinite integral.
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑏) ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
Solution
(a) Multiply 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 + 𝑦. Then (because of the dx) integrate each term
with x as the variable and y as a constant.
∫ 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑦) 𝑑𝑥
CHAPTER 7 4
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑥4 𝑥2
= + 𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑦)
4 2
1 4 1 2
= 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑦)
4 2
(b) Since y is the variable and x is held constant,
∫ 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
1
= 𝑥 3 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑔(𝑥)
2
The analogy to integration of functions of one variable can be

continued for evaluating definite integrals. We do this by holding one
variable constant and using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
with the other variable.
Example 3
Find each definite integral.
5
(𝑎) ∫ (6𝑥𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑦) 𝑑𝑥
3
2
(𝑏) ∫ (6𝑥𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
1
Solution
(a) First, find an antiderivative:

∫(6𝑥𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 3 𝑦 + 4𝑥𝑦 + ℎ(𝑦)
Now, replace each x with5, and then with 3, and subtract the results.
5
[3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 3 𝑦 + 4𝑥𝑦 + ℎ(𝑦)] |
3
= [(3)(52 )(𝑦 2 ) + (4)(53 )(𝑦) + (4)(5)(𝑦) + ℎ(𝑦)]
−[(3)(32 )(𝑦 2 ) + (4)(33 )(𝑦) + (4)(3)(𝑦) + ℎ(𝑦)]
= 75𝑦 2 + 500𝑦 + 20𝑦 + ℎ(𝑦) − [27𝑦 2 + 108𝑦 + 12𝑦 + ℎ(𝑦)]
= 48𝑦 2 + 400𝑦
The “function of integration,” h(y), drops out, just as the constant of
integration does with definite integrals of functions of one variable.
CHAPTER 7 5
MODULE CALCULUS 2
(b) Integrate with respect to y; then substitute 1 and 1 for ; then substitute
1 and 1 for y and subtract.
2
2
∫ (6𝑥𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = (2𝑥𝑦 3 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 2 ) |
1 1
= [(2𝑥)(2 ) + (6𝑥 )(2 ) + (2)(2 )] − [(2𝑥)(1 ) + (6𝑥 )(1 ) + (2)(12 )]
3 2 2 2 3 2 2
= 16𝑥 + 24𝑥 2 + 8 − (2𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 + 2)

= 14𝑥 + 18𝑥 2 + 6
Example 4
Evaluate each integral.
2 5
(𝑎) ∫ [∫ (6𝑥𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑦) 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑦
1 3
5 2
(𝑏) ∫ [∫ (6𝑥𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑦) 𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑥
3 1
Solution
(a) In Example 3(a), we found the quantity in brackets to be 48𝑦 2 + 400𝑦.

Thus,
2 5 2
∫ [∫ (6𝑥𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑦) 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ (48𝑦 2 + 400𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
1 3 1
2
= (16𝑦 3 + 200𝑦 2 ) |
1
3) 2) 3)
= (16)(2 + (200)(2 − [(16)(1 + (200)(12 )]
= 128 + 800 − (16 + 200)
= 712
(b) This is the same integrand, with the same limits of integration as in part
(a), but the order of integration is reversed. Use the result from
Example 3(b).
5 2 5
∫ [∫ (6𝑥𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑦) 𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (14𝑥 + 18𝑥 2 + 6) 𝑑𝑥
3 1 3
5
= (7𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 3 + 6𝑥) |
3
= (7)(52 ) + (6)(53 ) + (6)(5) − [(7)(32 ) + (6)(33 ) + (6)(3)]
= 175 + 750 + 30 − (63 + 162 + 18)
= 712
CHAPTER 7 6
MODULE CALCULUS 2
EVALUATION OF DOUBLE INTEGRALS AND ITERATED

INTEGRALS
Let f be a function that is integrable on a

closed rectangular region R in the xy plane bounded by
the line 𝑥 = 𝑎1 , 𝑥 = 𝑏1 , 𝑦 = 𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑏2 . Assume that
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 for all (𝑥, 𝑦) in R. Refer to Figure 3, showing a
sketch of the graph of the equation 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) when (𝑥, 𝑦)
is in R. The number that represents the value of the
double integral
∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴 Figure 3

R
is the measure of the volume of the solid between the surface and the region R. This
number can be found by slicing, discussed in previous chapter, as we now do.
Let y be a number in [𝑎2 , 𝑏2 ]. Consider the plane parallel to the xz plane
through the point (0, 𝑦, 0). Let 𝐴(𝑦) square units be the area of the plane region of
intersection of this plane with the solid. The measure of the volume of the solid is
expressed by
𝑏2
∫ 𝐴(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝑎2
Because the volume of the solid also is determined by the double integral,
𝑏2
∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐴(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 (1)
𝑎2
R
Thus, we can find the value of the double integral of the function f on R by evaluating a
single integral of 𝐴(𝑦). We must now find 𝐴(𝑦) when y is given. Because 𝐴(𝑦) square
units is the area of a plane region, we can find it by integration. In figure 1,notice that
the upper boundary of the plane region is the graph of the equation 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) when x
is in [𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ]. Therefore
𝑏1
𝐴(𝑦) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎1
CHAPTER 7 7
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑏2 𝑏1
(2)
∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴 = ∫ [∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑦
𝑎2 𝑎1
R
That integral is called an iterated integral. Because the brackets are

usually omitted when writing an iterated integral, (2) can be written as
𝑏2 𝑏1
∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴 = ∫ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑎2 𝑎1
Example 4
Evaluate the double integral
∬(3𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 )𝑑𝐴
R
If R is the region consisting of all points (𝑥, 𝑦) for which −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
and 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 3
Solution
With 𝑎1 = −1, 𝑏1 = 2, 𝑎2 = 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏2 = 3, we have from (3)
3 2
∬(3𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 )𝑑𝐴 = ∫ ∫ (3𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
1 −1
R
3 2
= ∫ [∫ (3𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑦
1 −1
3
2 2
= ∫ (3𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 3 ) | 𝑑𝑦
1 3 −1
3
= ∫ (9𝑦 − 6) 𝑑𝑦
1
9 2 3
= 𝑦 − 6𝑦 |
2 1
= 24
CHAPTER 7 8
MODULE CALCULUS 2
7.2 TRIPLE INTEGRALS
The extension of the double integral to the triple integral is analogous to

the extension of the single integral to the double integral. The simplest type of region in
𝑅 3 is a rectangular parallelepiped that is bounded by six planes: 𝑥 = 𝑎1 , 𝑥 = 𝑎2 ,
𝑦 = 𝑏1 , 𝑦 = 𝑏2 , 𝑦 = 𝑏1 , 𝑧 = 𝑐1 , and 𝑧 = 𝑐2, with 𝑎1 < 𝑎2 , 𝑏1 < 𝑏2 , and 𝑐1 < 𝑐2 . Let f be a
function of three variables and suppose that f is continuous on such a region S. A
partition of this region is formed by dividing S into rectangular boxes by drawing planes
parallel to the coordinate planes. Denote such a partition by ∆ and suppose that n is the
number of boxes. Let ∆𝑖 𝑉 cubic units be the volume of the ith box. We choose an
arbitrary point (𝜀𝑖 , 𝛾𝑖 , 𝜇𝑖 ) in the ith box and form the sum
𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 , 𝛾𝑖 , 𝜇𝑖 ) ∆𝑖 𝑉
𝑖=1
Refer on Figure 1, which shows the rectangular

parallelepiped together with the ith box. The norm ‖∆‖ of the
partition is the length of the longest diagonal of the boxes. If
the sums of form (1) approach a limit as ‖∆‖ approaches zero
for any choices of the points (𝜀𝑖 , 𝛾𝑖 , 𝜇𝑖 ), then we call this limit
the triple integral of f on S and write
lim ∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖 , 𝛾𝑖 , 𝜇𝑖 ) ∆𝑖 𝑉 = ∭ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑉

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1 R
A sufficient condition for the triple integral of f on S to exist is that f be

continuous on S.
Analogous to a double integral being equal to a twice-iterated integral, the
triple integral is equal to a thrice-iterated integral. When S is the rectangular
parallelepiped described above, and f is continuous on S, then
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
∭ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑐1 𝑏1 𝑐1
R
CHAPTER 7 9
MODULE CALCULUS 2
STEPS IN EVALUATING TRIPLE INTEGRALS
All we need to do is to integrate following the given order and recall that
just like with double integrals we start with the “inside” integral and work our
way out.
Also note that the fact that one of the limits is not a constant is not a
problem. There is nothing that says that triple integrals set up as this is must
only have constants as limits.
1. First, do the x integration. Remember that triple integration is just like
double integration and all the variables other than one we are integrating
with respect to are considered to be constants. So, for the x integration
the y’s and z’s are all considered to be constant.
2. Next, we’ll do the y integration.
3. Finally, we’ll do the z integration.
You may do first the z integration upon the given problem.
Example 1
Evaluate the triple integral
∭ 𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑉
R
1
if S is the rectangular parallelepiped bounded by the planes 𝑥 = 𝜋, 𝑦 = 2 𝜋,
1
𝑧 = 3 𝜋, and the coordinate planes.
Solution
𝜋 𝜋⁄2 𝜋⁄3
∭ 𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0
R
𝜋 𝜋⁄2
𝜋⁄3
=∫ ∫ (−𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑧) | 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0
𝜋 𝜋⁄2
1
=∫ ∫ 𝑥 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 0 3
𝜋
3 1 𝜋⁄2
= ∫ 𝑥 (𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋𝑦) | 𝑑𝑥
0 𝜋 3 0
CHAPTER 7 10
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝜋
𝜋 3 𝜋2
= ∫ 𝑥 ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑑𝑥
0 2 𝜋 6
𝑥2 𝜋 3 𝜋2 𝜋
= ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) |
2 2 𝜋 6 0
𝜋 2 𝜋2
= (𝜋 − 6 𝑠𝑖𝑛 )
4 6
Example 2
3 4 0
∫ ∫ ∫ 4𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2 −1 1
Solution
3 4 0 3 4
1 0
∫ ∫ ∫ 4𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ∫ (4𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑧 4 ) | 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2 3
2 −1 1 2 −1 4 1
3 4
1
=∫ ∫ − 4𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2 −1 4
3
1 4
= ∫ ( 𝑦 − 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) | 𝑑𝑥
2 4 −1
3
5
=∫ − 30𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2 4
5 3
= ( 𝑥 − 10𝑥 3 ) |
4 2
755
=−
4
CHAPTER 7 11
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3
1 𝑧2 3
∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑧 5 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
0 0 0
Solution
1 𝑧2 3 1 𝑧2
5)
3
∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ ∫ (𝑦 cos(𝑧 5 )𝑥) | 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 𝑧2
= ∫ ∫ 3𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑧 5 ) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
0 0
1
3 𝑧2
= ∫ ( 𝑦 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑧 5 )) | 𝑑𝑧
0 2 0
1
3 4
=∫ 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑧 5 ) 𝑑𝑧
0 2
3 1
= ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑧 5 )) |
10 0
3
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(1)
10
= 0.2524
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ffS_C4IvCR8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BJ_0FURo9RE
REFERENCES
pp. 1014-1021. ISBN-971-08-4968-9
CHAPTER 7 12
MODULE CALCULUS 2
CHAPTER 8
SURFACE TRACING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Identify the different surface tracing;
• find an equation of the plane through the points; and
• sketch the graph of an equation and name the surface.
In order to sketch the graph of a surface, it is useful to determine the

curves of intersection of the surface with planes parallel to the coordinate planes.
These curves are called traces (or cross-sections) of the surface
8.1 PLANES
The graph of an equation in two variables, x and y, is a curve in the xy

plane. The simplest kind of curve in two-dimensional space is a line, and the general
equation of a line is of the form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0,which is an equation of the first degree.
In three-dimensional space the graph of an equation in three variables x, y, and z, is a
surface. The simplest kind of surface is a plane, and we shall see that an equation of a
plane is an equation of the first degree in three variables.
If N is a given nonzero vector and 𝑃0 is a given point,

then the set of all points P for which 𝑉(𝑃0 𝑃) and N are
8.1.1 Definition orthogonal is defined to be a plane through 𝑃0 having N as a
normal vector
If 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) is a point in a plane and 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 is a

normal vector to the plane then an equation of the plane is
8.1.2 Theorem
𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑏(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝑐(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0
CHAPTER 8 1
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 1
Find an equation of the plane containing the point (2,1,3) and
having 3𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 𝑘 as a normal vector.
Solution
Using Theorem 7.1.2 where the point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) is (2,1,3)
and the vector 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 is 〈3, −4,1〉, we have as an equation of the required plane
3(𝑥 − 2) − 4(𝑦 − 1) + (𝑧 − 3) = 0
3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 𝑧 − 5 = 0
If a, b, and c are not all zero, the graph of an equation of

the form
8.1.3 Theorem
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0
Is a plane and 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 is a normal vector to the plane.
Example 2
Find an equation of the plane through the points 𝑃(1,3,2),
𝑄(3, −2,2) and 𝑅(2,1,3).
Solution
From Theorem 7.1.3 the graph of the linear equation

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 (2)
is a plane. If this equation is satisfied by the coordinates of points P, Q, and R, the plane
will contain the points. Replacing x, y, and z in (2) by the coordinates of the three points
we have the equations
𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0
3𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0
2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 3𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0
CHAPTER 8 2
MODULE CALCULUS 2
We solve this system of equations for a, b, and c in terms of d, and we

obtain
5 2 1
𝑎=− 𝑑 𝑏=− 𝑑 𝑐= 𝑑
9 9 9
Replacing a, b, and c in (2) by these values, we have
5 2 1
− 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0
9 9 9
9
Multiplying on both sides of this equation by − we get
𝑑
5𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 − 9 = 0
which is the required equation.
To draw a sketch of a plane from its equation it is convenient to find the
points at which the plane intersects each of the coordinate axes. The x coordinate of the
point at which the plane intersects the x-axis is called the x-intercept of the plane; the y
coordinate of the point at which the plane intersects the y axis is called the y-intercept of
the plane; and the z intercept of the plane is the z coordinate of the point at which the
plane intersects the z axis.
8.2 CYLINDERS AND SURFACES OF REVOLUTION
The graph of an equation in three variables is a surface. A surface is

represented by an equation if the coordinates of every point on the surface satisfy the
equation and if every point whose coordinates satisfy the equation lies on the surface.
A cylinder is a surface that is generated by a line

moving along a given plane curve in such a way that it always
remains parallel to a fixed line not lying in the plane of the given
curve. The moving line is called a generator of the cylinder and
8.2.1 Definition
the given plane curve is called a directrix of the cylinder. Any
position of a generator is called a ruling of the cylinder.
In three-dimensional space. The graph of an equation in

two of the three variables x, y, and z is a cylinder whose rulings
8.2.2 Theorem are parallel to the axis associated with the missing variable and
whose directrix is a curve in the plane associated with the two
variables appearing in the equation.
CHAPTER 8 3
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Illustration 1
It follows from Theorem 7.2.2 that an equation of the
parabolic cylinder of Figure 1 is 𝑦 2 = 8𝑥, considered as an equation in 𝑅 3 . Similarly,
equations of the elliptic cylinder of Figure 2 and the hyperbolic cylinder of Figure 3 are,
respectively,
9𝑥 2 + 16𝑦 2 = 144 𝑎𝑛𝑑 25𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 = 100
both considered as equation in 𝑅 3 .
A cross section of a surface in a plane is the set of all points of the

surface that lie in the given plane. If a plane is parallel to the plane of the directrix of a
cylinder, the cross section of the cylinder is the same as the directrix. For example, the
cross section of the elliptic cylinder of Figure 2 in any plane parallel to the y-plane is an
ellipse
Example 1
Draw a sketch of the graph of the equation
𝑧 = 𝑥2
and name the surface.
Solution
Notice that the equation of the graph, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 , doesn’t involve y.

This means that any vertical plane with equation 𝑦 = 𝑘 (parallel to the xz-
plane) intersects the graph in a curve with equation 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 .
So, these vertical traces are parabolas.
CHAPTER 8 4
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Figure 4 shows how the graph is formed by taking the parabola 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 in

the xz-plane and moving it in the direction of the y-axis.
Figure 4
The graph is a surface, called a parabolic cylinder, made up of infinitely

many shifted copies of the same parabola. Here the rulings of the cylinder are parallel to
the y-axis.
If a plane curve is revolved about a fixed line lying in the

plane of the curve, the surface generated is called a surface of
8.2.3 Theorem revolution. The fixed line is called the axis of the surface of
revolution, and the plane curve is called the generating curve.
Figure 5 shows a surface of revolution whose generating curve is the

curve C in the yz plane and whose axis is the z axis. A sphere is a particular example of
a surface of revolution because a sphere can be generated by revolving a semicircle
about a diameter.
Figure 5 Figure 6
CHAPTER 8 5
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Figure 7
Illustration 2
Figure 6 shows a sphere that can be generated

by revolving the semicircle 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 , 𝑧 ≥ 0, about the y
axis. Another example of a surface of revolution is a right-
circular cylinder for which the generating curve and the axis
are parallel straight lines. If the generating curve is the line 𝑧 =
𝑘 in the xz plane and the axis is the x axis, we obtain the right-
circular cylinder shown in Figure 7.
Example 2
Find an equation of the surface of revolution generated by
revolving the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 in the xy plane about the x axis. Draw a
sketch of the graph of the surface.
Solution
In the equation of the parabola we replace y by ±√𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 and obtain
𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 4𝑥
Figure 8 shows a sketch of the graph. The same surface is generated if
the parabola 𝑧 2 = 4𝑥 in the xz plane is revolved about the x axis.
Figure 8
The surface obtained in Example 2 is called a paraboloid of revolution. If an ellipse is

revolved about one of its axes, the surface obtained is called an ellipsoid of
revolution. A hyperboloid of revolution is obtained when a hyperbola is revolved
about an axis.
CHAPTER 8 6
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 3
Draw a sketch of the surface 𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 − 4𝑦 2 = 0, if 𝑦 ≥ 0.
Solution
The given equation is of the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 = [𝐹(𝑦)]2 ; so, its graph is
a surface of revolution having the y axis as axis. Solving the given equation for y, we
obtain 2𝑦 = ±√𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2
Hence, the generating curve can be either the line 2𝑦 = 𝑥 in the xy plane
or the line 2𝑦 = 𝑧 in the yz plane. By drawing sketches of the two possible generating
curves and using the fact that cross sections of the surface in planes perpendicular to
the y axis are circles having centers on the y axis, we obtain the surface shown in
Figure 9 (note that because 𝑦 ≥ 0 there is only one nappe of the cone).
Figure 9
The surface obtained in Example 3 is called a right-circular cone.
8.3 QUADRIC SURFACES
The graph of a second-degree equation is three variables x, y, and z,
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 2 + 𝐷𝑥𝑦 + 𝐸𝑦𝑧 + 𝐹𝑦𝑧 + 𝐺𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 + 𝐼𝑧 + 𝐽 = 0 (1)
is called a quadric surface. The simplest types of quadric surfaces are the parabolic,
elliptic, and hyperbolic cylinders. There are six other types of quadric surfaces that we
now consider . We choose the coordinate axes so the equations are in their simplest
form. In the discussion of each of these surfaces we refer to the cross sections of the
surfaces in planes parallel to the coordinate planes. These cross sections help to
visualize the surface.
CHAPTER 8 7
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐬𝐨𝐢𝐝
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 (2)
+ + =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐 2
where a, b, and c are positive (see Figure 1).
If in(2) z replaced by zero, we obtain the cross section of the ellipsoid in

the xy plane, which is the ellipse
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2
To obtain the cross sections of the surface with the planes 𝑧 = 𝑘, ewe
replace z by k in the equation of the ellipsoid and get
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑘2
+ = 1 −
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐2
If|𝑘| < 𝑐, the cross section is an ellipse and the lengths of the semiaxes
decrease to zero as |𝑘| increase to the value c. If |𝑘| = 𝑐, the intersection of a plane
𝑧 = 𝑘 with the ellipsoid is the single point (0,0, 𝑘). If |𝑘| > 𝑐, there is no intersection. The
discussion is similar if we consider cross sections formed by planes parallel to either of
the other coordinate planes.
The numbers a, b, and c are the lengths of the semiaxes of the ellipsoid. If
any two of these three numbers are equal, we have an ellipsoid of revolution, which is
called a spheroid. A spheroid for which the third number is greater than the two equal
numbers is said to be prolate . A prolate spheroid is shaped like a football. An oblate
spheroid is obtained if the third number is less than the two equal numbers. If all three
numbers, a, b, and c in the equation of an ellipsoid are equal, the ellipsoid is a sphere.
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐡𝐲𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐥𝐨𝐢𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐭

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 (3)
+ − =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐 2
CHAPTER 8 8
MODULE CALCULUS 2
The cross sections in the plane 𝑧 = 𝑘 are the ellipses

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑘2
+ = 1 +
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐2
Where 𝑘 = 0, the lengths of the semiaxes of the ellipse are smallest, and
these lengths increase as |𝑘| increase. The cross sections in the planes 𝑥 = 𝑘 are the
hyperbolas
𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑘2
− = 1 −
𝑏2 𝑐 2 𝑎2
If |𝑘| < 𝑎, the transverse axis of the hyperbola is parallel to the y-axis, and
if |𝑘| > 𝑎, the transverse axis is parallel to the z-axis. If |𝑘| = 𝑎, the hyperbola
degenerates into two lines:
𝑦 𝑧 𝑦 𝑧
− = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 + = 0
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
In an analogous manner, the cross sections in the 𝑦 = 𝑘 are also
hyperbolas. The axis of this hyperboloid is the z-axis.
If 𝑎 = 𝑏, the surface is a hyperboloid of revolution for which the axis is the
line containing the conjugate axis.
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐡𝐲𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐥𝐨𝐢𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐰𝐨 𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐭𝐬

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 (4)
+ − =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐 2
CHAPTER 8 9
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Replacing z by k in (4) we obtain

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑘2
+ = −1
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐 2
If |𝑘| < 𝑐, there is no intersection of the plane 𝑧 =
𝑘 with the surface; hence there are no points of the surface
between the planes 𝑧 = −𝑐 and 𝑧 = 𝑐. If |𝑘| = 𝑐, the intersection
of the plane 𝑧 = 𝑘 with the surface is the single point (0,0, 𝑘).
When |𝑘| > 𝑐, the cross section of the surface in the plane 𝑧 = 𝑘
is an ellipse, and the lengths of the semiaxes of the ellipse
increase as |𝑘| increase.
The cross sections of the surface in the planes 𝑥 =
𝑘 are the hyperbolas
𝑧2 𝑦2 𝑘2
− = 1 +
𝑐 2 𝑏2 𝑎2
whose transverse axes are parallel to the z-axis. In a similar fashion, the cross sections
in the planes 𝑦 = 𝑘 are the hyperbolas
𝑧2 𝑦2 𝑘2
− = 1 +
𝑐 2 𝑎2 𝑏2
for which the transverse axes are also parallel to the z-axis.
If 𝑎 = 𝑏, the surface is a hyperboloid of revolution in which thew axis is
the line containing the transverse axis of the hyperbola.
Each of the above three quadric surfaces is symmetric with respect to
each of the coordinate planes and symmetric with respect to the origin. Their graphs are
called central quadrics and their center is at the origin. The graph of any equation of
the form
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
± 2± 2± 2=1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
where a, b, and c are positive, is a central quadric.
Example 1
4𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 25𝑧 2 = 100
CHAPTER 8 10
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Solution
We divide both sides of the equation by 100 and obtain

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
− + =1
25 100 4
which is of the form (3) with y and z interchanged. Hence, the surface is an elliptic
hyperboloid of one sheet whose axis is the y-axis. The cross sections in the planes
𝑦 = 𝑘 are the ellipses
𝑥2 𝑧2 𝑘2
+ =1+
25 4 100
The cross sections in the planes 𝑥 = 𝑘 are the hyperbolas
𝑧2 𝑦2 𝑘2
− =1−
4 100 25
and the cross sections in the plane 𝑧 = 𝑘 are the hyperbolas
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑘2
− =1−
25 100 4
A sketch of the surface appears in Figure 4.
Example 2
4𝑥 2 − 25𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 = 100
Solution
By dividing on both sides by 100 we can write the given equation as
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
− − =1
25 4 100
which is of the form (4) with x and z interchanged. Hence, the surface is an elliptic
hyperboloid of the two sheets whose axis is the x-axis. The cross sections in the planes
𝑥 = 𝑘, where |𝑘| > 5, are the ellipses
𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑘2
+ = −1
4 100 25
CHAPTER 8 11
MODULE CALCULUS 2
The plane 𝑥 = 𝑘, where |𝑘| < 5, do not intersect

the surface. The cross sections in the planes 𝑦 = 𝑘 are the
hyperbolas
𝑥2 𝑧2 𝑘2
− =1+
25 100 4
and the cross sections in the plane 𝑧 = 𝑘 are the hyperbolas
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑘2
− = 1+
25 4 100
The required sketch is shown in Figure 5.
The next two surfaces are called noncentral quadrics
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐥𝐨𝐢𝐝

(5)
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧
+ =
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐
where a and b are positive and 𝑐 ≠ 0. Figure 6 shows the surface if 𝑐 > 0.
Substituting k for z in (5) we obtain

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑘
+ =
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐
When 𝑘 = 0, this equation becomes 𝑏 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑦 2 = 0, which represents a
single point, the origin. If 𝑘 ≠ 0 and k and c have the same sign, the equation is that of
an ellipse. So, we conclude that cross sections of the surface in the planes 𝑧 = 𝑘, where
k and c have the same sign, are ellipses and the lengths of the semiaxes increase as
|𝑘| increase. If k and c have opposite signs, the planes 𝑧 = 𝑘 do not intersect the
CHAPTER 8 12
MODULE CALCULUS 2
surface. The cross sections of the surface with the plane 𝑥 = 𝑘 and 𝑦 = 𝑘 are
parabolas. When 𝑐 > 0, the parabolas open upward, as shown in Figure 6; when 𝑐 < 0,
the parabolas open downward.
If 𝑎 = 𝑏, the surface is a paraboloid of revolution.
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐡𝐲𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐥𝐨𝐢𝐝

(6)
𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑧
− =
𝑏 2 𝑎2 𝑐
where a and b are positive and 𝑐 ≠ 0. The surface appears in Figure 7 for 𝑐 > 0.
The cross sections of the surface in the planes 𝑧 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 ≠ 0, are

hyperbolas having their transverse axes parallel to the y-axis if k and c have the same
sign and parallel to the x-axis if k and c have opposite signs. The cross section of the
surface in the plane 𝑧 = 0 consists of two straight line through the origin. The cross
sections in the planes 𝑥 = 𝑘 are parabolas opening upward if 𝑐 > 0 and opening
downward if 𝑐 < 0. The cross sections in the planes 𝑦 = 𝑘 are parabolas opening
downward if 𝑐 > 0 and opening upward if 𝑐 < 0.
Example 3
3𝑦 2 + 12𝑧 2 = 16𝑥
Solution
The given equation can be written as
CHAPTER 8 13
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑥
+ =
16 4 3
which is of the form of (5) with x and z interchanged. Hence, the graph of the equation is
an ellipse paraboloid whose axis is the x-axis. The cross sections in the planes 𝑥 = 𝑘,
where 𝑘 > 0, are the ellipses
𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑘
+ =
16 4 3
The planes 𝑥 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 < 0, do not
intersect the surface. The cross sections in the planes
𝑦 = 𝑘 are the parabolas 12𝑧 2 = 16𝑥−3𝑘 2 , and the
cross sections in the planes 𝑧 = 𝑘 are the parabolas
3𝑦 2 = 16𝑥−12𝑘 2 . Figure 8 shows a sketch of the
elliptic paraboloid.
Example 4
3𝑦 2 − 12𝑧 2 = 16𝑥
Solution
If the given equation is written as
𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑥
− =
16 4 3
it is of the form of (6) with x and z interchanged. The surface is therefore a hyperbolic
paraboloid. The cross sections in the planes 𝑥 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 ≠ 0, are the hyperbolas
𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑘
− =
16 4 3
The cross section in the yz plane consists
of the two lines 𝑦 = 2𝑧 and 𝑦 = −2𝑧. In the planes
𝑧 = 𝑘 the cross sections are the parabolas 3𝑦 2 =
16𝑥+12𝑘 2 ; in the planes 𝑦 = 𝑘 the cross sections are
the parabolas 12𝑧 2 = 12𝑘 2 − 16𝑥. A sketch of the
hyperbolic paraboloid appears in Figure 9.
CHAPTER 8 14
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐞

(7)
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
+ − =0
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐 2
The intersection of the plane 𝑧 = 0 with the surface is a point, the origin.
The cross sections of the surface in the planes 𝑧 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 ≠ 0, are ellipses, and the
lengths of the semiaxes increase as k increases. Cross sections in the planes 𝑥 = 0 and
𝑦 = 0 are pairs of intersecting lines. In the planes 𝑥 = 𝑘 and 𝑦 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 ≠ 0, the
cross sections are hyperbolas.
Example 5
4𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 25𝑧 2 = 0
Solution
We can write the given equation as
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
− + =0
25 100 4
which is of the form of (7) with y and z interchanged. Therefore, the surface is an elliptic
cone having the y-axis as its axis. The surface intersects the plane 𝑦 = 0 at the origin
only. The intersection of the surface with the plane 𝑥 = 0 is the pair of intersecting lines
CHAPTER 8 15
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑦 = ±5𝑧, and the intersection with the plane 𝑧 = 0 is the pair of intersecting lines
𝑦 = ±2𝑥. The cross sections in the planes 𝑦 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 ≠ 0, are the ellipses
𝑥2 𝑧2 𝑘2
+ =
25 4 100
In the planes 𝑥 = 𝑘 and 𝑧 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 ≠ 0, the cross sections are,
respectively, the hyperbolas
𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑘2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑘2
− = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − =
100 4 25 100 25 4
Figure 11 shows a sketch of the surface.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UWbEd-9yfD0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eK2hs4nEYGc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xlaRFC9bOs
REFERENCES

pp. 861 – 863, 883 – 893. ISBN-971-08-4968-9
CHAPTER 8 16
MODULE CALCULUS 2
CHAPTER 9
DOUBLE INTEGRALS AS VOLUME
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• compute double integrals as volume.
Introduction
In this chapter, this idea is extended and used to find volume. We found
partial derivatives of functions of two or more variables at the beginning of this
chapter by holding constant all variables except one. A similar process is used
in this section to find antiderivatives of functions of two or more variables.
9.1 DOUBLE INTEGRALS AS VOLUME
Double integrals are used to find the

volume under a surface. Figure 1 shows that portion of
a surface 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) directly over a rectangle R in the xy-
plane. Just as areas were approximated by a large
number of small rectangles, volume could be
approximated b adding the volumes of a large number
of properly drawn small boxes. The height of a typical
box would be 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) with the length and width given by
𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑦. The formula for the volume of a box would Figure 1
then suggest the following result.
Let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) be a function that is never negative on the

rectangular region R defined by 𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑑, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑏. The volume
9.1.1. Definition of the solid under the graph of f and over the region R is
∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
R
CHAPTER 9 1
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Example 1
Find the volume under the surface 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2. Show in Figure 2
Solution
By the results given above, the volume is
∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
R
where 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 and R is the region 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 4. By definition
4 4
∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ∫ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
0 0
R
4
1 4
= ∫ ( 𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑦 2 ) | 𝑑𝑦
0 3 0
4
64 64 4 4
=∫ ( + 4𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 = ( 𝑦 + 𝑦 3 ) |
0 3 3 3 0
64 4
=( ) (4) + ( ) (43 ) − 0
3 3
Figure 2 512
=
3
512
Therefore, the volume under 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 is .
3
Example 2
A product design consultant for a cosmetics company has been asked to

design a bottle for the company’s newest perfume. The thickness of the glass is to
vary so that the outside of the bottle has straight sides and the inside has curved
sides, with flat ends shaped like parabolas on the 4cm sides, as shown in Figure 3.
Before presenting the design to management, the consultant needs to make a
reasonably accurate estimate of the amount each bottle will hold. If the base of the
bottle is to be a parabola of the form 𝑧 = −𝑦 2 + 4𝑦, what is its internal volume?
CHAPTER 9 2
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Solution
The interior of the bottle can be graphed in three-dimensional space,

as shown in Figure 4, where 𝑧 = 0 corresponds to the base of the bottle. Its volume is
simply the volume above the region R in the xy-plane and below the graph of
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝑦 2 + 4𝑦. This volume is given by the double integral
3 4 3
2
−𝑦 3 4𝑦 2 4
∫ ∫ (−𝑦 + 4𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( + ) | 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0 3 2 0
3
−64
=∫ ( + 32 − 0) 𝑑𝑥
0 3
32 3
= 𝑥|
3 0 Figure 4
= 32 − 0
= 32
Figure 3
The bottle holds 32 cubic centimeters.
Double Integrals Over Other Regions
In the work in this section, we found double integrals over rectangular

regions by evaluating iterated integrals with constant limits of integration. We can also
evaluate iterated integrals with variable limits of integration. (Notice in the following
examples that the variable limits always go on the inner integral sign.)
The use of variable limits of integration permits evaluation of double
integrals over the types of regions shown in Figure 5. Double integrals over more
complicated regions are discussed in more advanced books. Integration over regions
such as those of Figure 5 is done with the results of the following theorem.
Figure 5(a)
Figure 5(b)
CHAPTER 9 3
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) be a function of two variables.

If R is the region (in Figure 5(a)) defined by 𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑑 and 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑦 ≤ ℎ(𝑥),
then
𝑑 ℎ(𝑥)
∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑥
𝑐 𝑔(𝑥)
R
If R is the region (in Figure 5(b)) defined by 𝑔(𝑦) ≤ 𝑦 ≤ ℎ(𝑦) and 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏,
then
𝑏 ℎ(𝑦)
∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ [∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑔(𝑦)
R
Example 3
2 𝑦2
Evaluate ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
1 𝑦
Solution
The region of integration is shown in Figure 6. Integrate first with
respect to x, then with respect to y.
2 𝑦2 2 𝑦2
∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ [∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑦
1 𝑦 1 𝑦
2
1 𝑦2
= ∫ ( 𝑥 2 𝑦) | 𝑑𝑦
1 2 𝑦
Replace x first with 𝑦 2 and then with y, and subtract.

2 𝑦2 2
1 1
∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ [ (𝑦 2 )2 𝑦 − (𝑦 2 )2 𝑦] 𝑑𝑦
1 𝑦 1 2 2
2
1 1
= ∫ ( 𝑦 5 − 𝑦 3 ) 𝑑𝑦
1 2 2
1 6 1 4 2
=( 𝑦 − 𝑦 )|
12 8 1
1 1 1 1
Figure 6 = [( ) (26 ) − ( ) (24 )] − [( ) (16 ) − ( ) (14 )]
12 8 12 8
CHAPTER 9 4
MODULE CALCULUS 2
64 16 1 1
= − − +
12 8 12 8
27
=
8
Example 4
Let R be the shaded region in Figure 7, and evaluate
∬(𝑥 + 2𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
R
Solution
Region R is bounded by ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , with 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.
By the first result in the theorem above,
2 2𝑥
∬(𝑥 + 2𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ∫ (𝑥 + 2𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥2
R
2
2𝑥
= ∫ (𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) | 2 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥
2
= ∫ (𝑥(2𝑥) + (2𝑥)2 − [(𝑥)(𝑥 2 ) + (𝑥 2 )2 ]) 𝑑𝑥
0
2
= ∫ [2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 2 − (𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 )] 𝑑𝑥
Figure 7 0
2
= ∫ (6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 4 ) 𝑑𝑥
0
1 1 2
= (2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 5 ) |
4 5 0
1 1
= (2)(23 ) − ( ) (24 ) − ( ) (25 ) − 0
4 5
32 28
= 16 − 4 − =
5 5
In Example 4, the same result would be found if we evaluated the double

integral first with respect to x, and then with respect to y. In that case, we would need to
CHAPTER 9 5
MODULE CALCULUS 2
define the equations of the boundaries in terms of y rather than x, so R would be

defined by
𝑦
≤ 𝑥 ≤ √𝑦, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 4
2
The resulting integral is
4 √𝑦 4
𝑥2 √𝑦
∫ ∫ (𝑥 + 2𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ( + 2𝑥𝑦) | 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑦⁄2 0 2 𝑦⁄2
4
𝑦 𝑦2 𝑦
= ∫ [( + 2𝑦√𝑦) − ( + 2 ( ) 𝑦)] 𝑑𝑦
0 2 8 2
4
𝑦 9
= ∫ ( + 2𝑦 3⁄2 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑦
0 2 8
𝑦2 4 3 4
= ( + 𝑦 5⁄2 − 𝑦 3 ) |
4 5 8 0
4
= (4 + ) (45⁄2 − 24)
5
28
=
5
Interchanging Limits of Integration
Sometimes it is easier to integrate first with respect to x, and then y, while

with other integrals the reverse process is easier. The limits of integration can be
reversed whenever the region R is like the region in Figure 7, which has the property
that it can be viewed as either type of region shown in Figure 5. The next example
shows how this process works.
Example 5
Interchange the limits of integration in

16 4
∫ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
0 √𝑦
CHAPTER 9 6
MODULE CALCULUS 2
Solution
For this integral, region R is given by √𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 16. A graph of R

is shown in Figure 8.
The same region R can be written in an alternate
way. As Figure 8 shows, one boundary of R is 𝑥 = √𝑦. Solving
for y gives 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 . Also, Figure 9 shows that 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.
Since R can be written as 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4, the double
integral above can be written
4 𝑥2
∫ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 0
Figure 8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4luC4YhcvnA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=76F6BefgDg0
REFERENCES

Edition. pp. 508 – 513. ISBN-0-321-01631-9.
pp. 1041 –1049. ISBN-971-08-4968-9
CHAPTER 9 7
MODULE CALCULUS 2
CHAPTER 10
TRIPLE INTEGRALS AS VOLUME
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• compute and triple integrals as volume.
Introduction
In this chapter, this idea is extended and used to find volume. We found
partial derivatives of functions of two or more variables at the beginning of this
chapter by holding constant all variables except one. A similar process is used
in this section to find antiderivatives of functions of two or more variables.
10.1 TRIPLE INTEGRALS AS VOLUME
The extension of the double integral to the triple integral is analogous to

the extension of the single integral to the double integral. The simplest type of region in
𝑅 3 is a rectangular parallelepiped that is bounded by six planes: 𝑥 = 𝑎1 , 𝑥 = 𝑎2 , 𝑦 = 𝑏1 ,
𝑦 = 𝑏2 , 𝑧 = 𝑐1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 𝑐2 , with 𝑎1 < 𝑎2 , 𝑏1 < 𝑏2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐1 < 𝑐2 . Let f be a function of three
variables and suppose that f is continuous on such a region S. A partition of this region
is formed by dividing S into rectangular boxes by drawing planes parallel to the
coordinate planes. Denote such a partition by ∆ and suppose that n is the number of
boxes. Let ∆𝑖 𝑉 cubic units be the volume of the ith box. We choose an arbitrary point
(𝜀𝑖, 𝛾𝑖 , 𝜇𝑖 ) in the ith box and form the sum
𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖, 𝛾𝑖 , 𝜇𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑉
𝑖=1
Refer to Figure 1, which shows the rectangular

parallelepiped together with the ith box. The norm ‖∆‖ of the
partition is the length of the longest diagonal of the boxes. If the
sums of form (1) approach a limit as ‖∆‖ approaches zero for
any choices of the points (𝜀𝑖, 𝛾𝑖 , 𝜇𝑖 ), then we call this limit the
triple integral of f on S and write
CHAPTER 10 1
MODULE CALCULUS 2
lim ∑ 𝑓(𝜀𝑖, 𝛾𝑖 , 𝜇𝑖 )∆𝑖 𝑉 = ∭ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑉

‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1 R
A sufficient condition for the triple integral of y on S to exist is that f be

continuous on S.
Analogous to a double integral being equal to a twice-iterated integral, the
triple integral is equal to a thrice-iterated integral. When S is the rectangular
parallelepiped described above, and f is continuous on S, then
𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑐2
∭ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑐1 𝑏1 𝑐1
R
Example 1
∭ 𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑉
R 1
if S is the rectangular parallelepiped bounded by the planes 𝑥 = 𝜋, 𝑦 = 2 𝜋,
1
𝑧 = 3 𝜋, and the coordinate planes.
Solution
𝜋 𝜋⁄2 𝜋⁄3
∭ 𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0
R
𝜋 𝜋⁄2
𝜋⁄3
=∫ ∫ (−𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑧) | 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0
𝜋 𝜋⁄2
1
=∫ ∫ 𝑥 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 0 3
𝜋
3 1 𝜋⁄2
= ∫ 𝑥 (𝑦 − sin 𝜋𝑦) | 𝑑𝑥
0 𝜋 3 0
𝜋
𝜋 3 𝜋2
= ∫ 𝑥 ( − sin ) 𝑑𝑥
0 2 𝜋 6
CHAPTER 10 2
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝑥2 𝜋 3 𝜋2 𝜋
= ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) |
2 2 𝜋 6 0
𝜋 2 𝜋2
= (𝜋 − 6 𝑠𝑖𝑛 )
4 6
Example 2
Find the volume of the solid bounded by the cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25, the plane
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 8 and the xy plane.
Solution
The solid is shown in Figure 2. The z limits for the iterated integral are
from 0 to 8 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 (the value of z on the plane). The y limits are obtained from the
boundary region in the xy plane, which is the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25. Hence the y limits are
from −√25 − 𝑥 2 to √25 − 𝑥 2 . The x limits are from −5 to 5. If V cubic units is the
required volume,
𝑛
𝑉 = lim ∑ ∆𝑖 𝑉
‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
= ∭ 𝑑𝑉
S
5 √25−𝑥2 8−𝑥−𝑦
=∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
−5 −√25−𝑥 2 0
5 √25−𝑥 2
=∫ ∫ (8 − 𝑥 − 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
−5 −√25−𝑥 2
5
1 2 √25 − 𝑥 2
Figure 2 = ∫ [(8 − 𝑥)𝑦 − 𝑦 ] |
−5 2 −√25 − 𝑥 2
5
= 2 ∫ (8 − 𝑥)√25 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
−5
5 5
= 16 ∫ √25 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ √25 − 𝑥 2 (−2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−5 −5
1 25 1 2 5
= 16 ( 𝑥√25 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥) + (25 − 𝑥 2 )3⁄2 |
2 2 5 3 −5
CHAPTER 10 3
MODULE CALCULUS 2
= 200𝜋
The volume is therefore 200𝜋 cubic units.
Example 3
Find the mass of the solid above the xy plane bounded by the cone
9𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑦 2 and the plane 𝑦 = 9 if the measure of the volume density at
any point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in the solid is proportional to the measure of the distance of the
point from the xy plane. The volume density is measured in kilograms per cubic
meter.
Solution
Figure 3 shows the solid. Let M kilograms be the mass of the solid. The
volume density at any point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in the solid is kz kilograms per cubic meter, where k
is a constant. Then if (𝜀𝑖, 𝛾𝑖 , 𝜇𝑖 ) is any point in the ith rectangular parallelepiped of the
partition,
𝑛
𝑀 = lim ∑ ∆𝑖 𝑉
‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
= ∭ 𝑘𝑧 𝑑𝑉
S
9 𝑦⁄3 √𝑦 2 −9𝑥 2
= 2𝑘 ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
0 0 0
9 𝑦⁄3
1 √𝑦 2 − 9𝑥 2
= 2𝑘 ∫ ∫ [ 𝑧2] | 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
0 0 2 0
9 𝑦⁄3
= 𝑘∫ ∫ (𝑦 2 − 9𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
0 0
Figure 3
9
2
= 𝑘 ∫ 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦
9 0
729
= 𝑘
2
729
The mass is therefore 𝑘 kilograms.
2
CHAPTER 10 4
MODULE CALCULUS 2
THE TRIPLE INTEGRAL IN CYLINDRICAL AND

SPHERICAL COORDINATES
To define the triple integral in cylindrical coordinates we construct a

partition of the region S by drawing planes through the z-axis, planes perpendicular to
the z-axis, and right-circular cylinders having the z-axis as axis.
lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑟̅,𝑖 𝜃̅𝑖 , 𝑧̅)

𝑖 ∆𝑖 𝑉 = ∭ 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧)𝑑𝑉
‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1
S
𝑛
⇔ lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑟̅𝑖 , 𝜃̅𝑖 , 𝑧̅𝑖 )𝑟̅𝑖 , ∆𝑖 𝑟, ∆𝑖 𝜃, ∆𝑖 𝑧 = ∭ 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧)𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑟
‖∆‖→0
𝑖=1 R
Example 4
A homogeneous solid in the shape of a right-circular cylinder has a radius of

2m and an altitude of 4m, Find the moment of inertia of the solid with respect to its
axis.
Solution
Choose the coordinate planes so
that the xy plane is the plane of the base of the solid and
the z-axis is the axis of the solid. Figure 4 shows the
portion of the solid in the first octant together with the ith
subregion of a cylindrical partition. Using cylindrical
coordinates and taking the point (𝑟̅,𝑖 𝜃̅𝑖 , 𝑧̅)
𝑖 in the ith
subregion with k kilograms per cubic meter as the
volume density at any point, then if 𝐼𝑧 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2 is the
moment of inertia of the solid with respect to the z-axis,
𝑛
𝐼𝑧 = lim ∑ ̅̅̅
𝑟𝑖2 𝑘∆𝑖 𝑉
‖∆‖→→0
𝑖=1 S Figure 4
= ∭ 𝑘𝑟 2 𝑑𝑉
There are six different possible orders of integration. Figure 4 shows the
order 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃. Using this order, we have
𝐼𝑧 = ∭ 𝑘𝑟 2 𝑑𝑧 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
S
CHAPTER 10 5
MODULE CALCULUS 2
𝜋⁄2 2 4
= 4𝑘 ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
0 0 0
In the first integration the blocks are summed from 𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 4; the

blocks become a column. In the second integration the columns are summed from 𝑟 = 0
to 𝑟 = 2; the columns become a wedge-shaped slice of the cylinder. In the third
1
integration the wedge-shaped slice is rotated from 𝜃 = 0 to 𝜃 = 2 𝜋; this sweeps the
wedge about the entire three-dimensional region in the first octant. We multiply by 4 to
obtain the entire volume. Performing the integration, we obtain
𝜋⁄2 2
𝐼𝑧 = 16𝑘 ∫ ∫ 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
0 0
𝜋⁄2
= 64𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝜃
0
= 32𝑘𝜋
Hence, the moment of inertia is 32𝑘𝜋 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2
Example 5
Find the mass of a solid hemisphere of radius a meters if the volume density
at any point is proportional to the distance of the point from the axis of the solid and
is measured in kilograms per cubic meter.
Solution
If we choose the coordinate planes so
that the origin is at the center of the sphere and the z-
axis is the axis of the solid, then an equation of the
hemispherical surface above the xy plane is 𝑧 =
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 . Figure 5 shows this surface and the solid
together with the ith subregion of a cylindrical partition.
An equation of the hemisphere in cylindrical coordinates Figure 5
is 𝑧 = √𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 . If (𝑟̅,𝑖 𝜃̅𝑖 , 𝑧̅)
𝑖 is a point in the ith subregion,
the volume density at this point is ̅̅̅̅ 𝑘 𝑟𝑖 kilograms per
cubic meter, where k is a constant; and if M kilograms is the mass of the solid, then
𝑛
𝑉 = lim ∑ ̅̅̅̅
𝑘 𝑟𝑖 ∆𝑖 𝑉
‖∆‖→0
S 𝑖=1
CHAPTER 10 6
MODULE CALCULUS 2
= ∭ 𝑘𝑟 𝑑𝑉
2𝜋 𝑎 √𝑎2 −𝑟 2
= 𝑘∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
0 0 0
2𝜋 𝑎
= 𝑘∫ ∫ 𝑟 2 √𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
0 0
2𝜋
1 1 1 𝑟 𝑎
= 𝑘∫ [− 𝑟(𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 )3⁄2 + 𝑎2 𝑟√𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 + 𝑎4 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ] | 𝑑𝜃
0 4 8 8 𝑎 0
2𝜋
1 4
= 𝑘𝑎 𝜋 ∫ 𝑑𝜃
16 0
1
= 𝑘𝑎4 𝜋 2
8
The mass of the solid hemisphere is
1
therefore 𝑘𝑎4 𝜋 2 kilograms.
8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4luC4YhcvnA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=76F6BefgDg0
REFERENCES

Edition. pp. 508 – 513. ISBN-0-321-01631-9.
pp. 1041 –1049. ISBN-971-08-4968-9
CHAPTER 10 7

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MODULE CALCULUS 1 WITH ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

1.1 REPRESENTATION OF THE REAL LINE

• Classify a real number as a natural, whole, integer, rational, or irrational

where 𝒃−𝟏 denotes the reciprocal of b such that b ∙ 𝒃−𝟏 = 𝟏

Method of Writing Set

LET’S RECALL ABOUT THE OPERATIONS ON SET

Example of Union Set

Example of Intersection Set

For further understanding visit these links

1.2. INEQUALITIES AND INTERVALS

The statement 𝑎 < 𝑏, 𝑎 > 𝑏, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏, and 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏 are called inequalities. In particular,

(i) If 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0, then 𝑎 + 𝑏 > 0.

(i) If 𝑎 > 0 if and only if a is positive;

Transitive Property of order

Solution: The following inequalities are equivalent

For further understanding visit these links

1.3. ABSOLUTE VALUES

• Graph an absolute value function.

The absolute value of x, denoted by |x|, is defined by

DEFINITION 1.3.2 |𝑥| < 𝑎 ↔ −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 where 𝑎 > 0

DEFINITION 1.3.3 |𝑥| < 𝑎 ↔ 𝑥 > 𝑎 or 𝑥 < −𝑎 where 𝑎 > 0

Solution: This equation will be satisfied if either

Solution: The given inequality is equivalent to 3𝑥 + 2 > 5 or 3𝑥 + 2 < −5

For further understanding visit these links

Winston S. Sirug. (2014). College Algebra. Revised Edition.

2.1. GRAPH OF EQUATIONS

Horizontal Lines: y=b

METHOD 1: CONSTRUCT A TABLE OF VALUES

To graph equations of the form y=mx and y=mx+b,

Example 1: Graph 𝑦 = −2𝑥 − 3

METHOD 2: FIND THE X AND Y-INTERCEPTS

Example 3: Graph −2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 8

1) To graph the equation, find the x and y-intercepts.

Graphing Horizontal and Vertical Lines

First, solve the equation for x to write it in the form x=a.

METHOD 3: USE THE SLOPE AND Y-INTERCEPT

To graph an equation using the slope and y-intercept,

For further understanding visit these links

2.2. GRAPH OF INEQUALITIES

Graphing inequalities is similar to graphing equations except for a few minor

• If the graph consists of > 𝑜𝑟 <, the line is dotted.

Using the Symbols to Decide Where to Shade

1. Make sure the line(s) is in one of the following forms

Note: For vertical inequalities of the form

Example: Graph the solution set of 𝑦 < 3𝑥 − 2; 𝑦 ≥ −2𝑥 + 4

Using Test Point to Decide Where to Shade

First Graph the lines

From the graph, we can

3 > 2, which is true

For further understanding visit these links

Winston S. Sirug. (2014). College Algebra. Revised Edition.

3.1. SLOPE OF A LINE

• Solve for the slope of a line.

For further understanding visit these links

3.2. STANDARD AND GENERAL EQUATIONS OF A LINE

• Solve for the standard and general equation of a line.

Used the two – point slope form

For further understanding visit these links

3.3. PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

• Solve for parallel and perpendicular line.

To find the slope, write 5𝑥 − 𝑦 = 4 in slope–intercept form:

For further understanding visit these links

3.4. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES