Hbsc3203 Chemistry II Full Version Reading Brick

READING BRICK
HBSC3203
CHEMISTRY II

Table of Content

Reading List i

TOPIC 1 : THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US 1

TOPIC 2 : METALS ............................................................................ 41

TOPIC 3 : ELECTROLYSIS... 66

TOPIC 4 : OXIDATION AND REDUCTION 85

Appendix 1
Appendix 2

TOPIC 5 : SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS . 137

TOPIC 6 : HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS I . 172

TOPIC 7 : HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS II 238

Appendix 3
Appendix 4

TOPIC 8 : NATURAL MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED OR
MANMADE MATERIALS 275

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READING LIST FOR HBSC3203 CHEMISTRY II

TOPIC 1: THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

TOPIC 2: METALS

TOPIC 3: ELECTROLYSIS

TOPIC 4: OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Rao, C. N. R.. Understanding Chemistry. World Scientific Publishing Co.,

TOPIC 5: SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

TOPIC 6: HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS I

TOPIC 7: HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS II

Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E.,Peck,M.L and Stanley, GG. (2008). Chemistry
(Ninth Edition). 2010 Brooks/Cole.

TOPIC 8: NATURAL MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED OR
MAN MADE MATERIALS

TOPIC 1:
THE AIR AND
RESOURCES AROUND US

T
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o
p
p
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1
1
TheAirand
Resources
AroundUs
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe the composition of air;
2. Explain the percentage of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air;
3. Examine the properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide using water and
sodium hydroxide;
4. Discuss the importance of oxygen in respiration and combustion;
5. Describe air pollution, its sources, effects, and steps to control and prevent
air pollution;
6. Examine the different resources on earth and their importance; and
7. Describe the agencies involved in environmental protection and their
approach.
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TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

2
INTRODUCTION

Do you know this song? If you are not familiar with it, this lovely song was sung by Jordin
Sparks, the 2007 American Idol winner. The lyrics describe how important it is to have
someone that you care around you, as important as it is to have air around you.

Air is all around us, wherever we are. We know that even though we cannot see it. In fact,
there is a huge layer of air surrounding the earth. We call this the atmosphere. We use the air
in the atmosphere for a lot of things. Breathing is one of them. Can you name other uses?

Have you ever flown a kite or seen anyone doing so? How does the kite manage to sway in
the sky? The reason is there is air which maintains the kites position. The moving air makes
it possible to fly a kite. We will discuss the air further as we study the composition of air and
the properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

ACTIVITY 1.1
Tilt the mouth of an empty bottle in a basin of water.
Answer the following:
(a) Do you see bubbles coming out of the bottle?
(b) Do you hear any bubble sound?
(c) Can you guess what is in the bottle?
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COMPOSITION OF AIR

Before we learn about the composition of air, let us do this activity. Put out your hand in front
of your face and breathe in deeply. Then, gently blow outward towards your fingers. What do
you feel? Do your fingers feel cool and tingly? I am sure you felt something blowing past
your fingertips. This is commonly referred to as the air.

Our earth is surrounded by a thick layer of air which we call atmosphere. The air is held
around the earth by the force of gravity. This gravity pulls the gas particles towards the earth.
Do you know the composition of the air that we breathe in? In ancient times, people thought
that air was only one substance. Now, we know that the air is actually a mixture of gases.
These gases are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and inert gases. The inert gases in the air
include argon, neon, helium, krypton, xenon and methane. Let us look at Table 1.1, which
illustrates the composition of air.

Table 1.1: Composition of Air

Name Symbol Per Cent by Volume
Nitrogen N
2
78.084%
Oxygen O
2
20.9476%
Argon Ar 0.934%
Carbon Dioxide CO
2
0.0351%
Neon Ne 0.001818%
Helium He 0.000524%
Methane CH
4
0.0002%
Krypton Kr 0.000114%
Hydrogen H
2
0.00005%
Xenon Xe 0.0000087%

Source: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics

1.1
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PERCENTAGE OF GASES IN THE AIR
What are the characteristics of air? Air is colourless, tasteless and odourless. Air supplies the
oxygen necessary for life. Air is also a mixture of gases nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
dioxide. Do you know that the most abundant gases found in our atmosphere are nitrogen and
oxygen? This is true as nitrogen makes up around 78% of the total atmosphere, oxygen 21%
and carbon dioxide 0.035%. This means when you inhale, you breathe in 78% nitrogen, 21%
oxygen, and 1% argon, with trace amounts of other gases, such as methane, hydrogen,
helium, neon, krypton and carbon dioxide. These percentages of gases are shown in Figure
1.1.

Figure 1.1: Composition of our atmosphere

ACTIVITY 1.2

Try these activities to show your students that there is
air around us.
(a) Ask two students to run along the corridor.
(b) Next, ask them to run again along the same
Corridor, holding a large sheet of card in front of them.

So, which was easier running with the card or without it? Ask your students to
explain.
1.2
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However, this does not mean nitrogen will keep on increasing in the atmosphere. It is
constantly being removed or cleansed from the atmosphere. A small amount of nitrogen is
removed by living organisms. Rain and snow also wash nitrogen out of the atmosphere.

As we learnt before, plants consume carbon dioxide. Plants use carbon dioxide in the air for
photosynthesis and release oxygen during the process. This oxygen is later removed from the
air by animals and other life forms. Oxygen is the most important gas in our atmosphere due
to its strong relation with human and animal life. Without it, each of us, and most of the
animals on earth would perish in a matter of minutes. Now, let us conduct an experiment to
find out how much oxygen is in the air. The following is an experiment to find the
percentage of oxygen in the air.

Experiment1.1
Objective:
To find out how much oxygen is in the air.
Procedure:
Start by pushing in completely one gas syringe.
Heat up the copper turnings strongly.
As they are heated, air is passed over them by pushing in one syringe first
and then the other.
As the reaction happens, you will notice the copper turnings becoming black.
This is because they have reacted with the oxygen from the air.
What do you think is the name of this black compound?
Continue heating until no more copper turnings turns black and the amount of air
in the syringes stays the same.
Result:
You will find that the amount of air left in the syringes at the end is 79cm
3
. How
much air has been used up? You will find that this is the amount of oxygen in
100cm
3
of air. As you can see, nearly one-fifth of the air is filled with oxygen.
Next, let us do an activity to calculate the exact percentage of oxygen in the air.

Let us start!

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ACTIVITY 1.3
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Air is a mixture of gases. State two reasons to support this statement.
2. State the percentage of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air.
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PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE

We know that oxygen and carbon dioxide are two of the most important gases in the air. The
amount of carbon dioxide is very small, about three parts in ten thousand. However, oxygen
comprises 20.94% of the air. We are now going to look into the properties of oxygen and
carbon dioxide. We will look into three matters:

(a) Their solubility in water;
(b) Their reactions with sodium hydroxide; and
(c) The tests for oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Before we discuss further, let us look at the general properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide
first (Table 1.2).

Table 1.2: Seven General Properties of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Properties Carbon Dioxide Oxygen
Features Colourless and odourless Colourless and odourless
Solubility in water More soluble than oxygen Slightly soluble
Solubility in sodium
hydroxide solution

Very soluble
Not soluble
Solubility in alkaline
pyrogallol solution

Not soluble
Soluble

Lime water reaction

Turns cloudy
No effect

Combustion
Does not support and does not
burn
Supports but does not burn
pH Acidic Neutral

1.3
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1.3.1 Solublity in Water
We have just learnt the properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide in Table 1.2. Now, let us
look at the difference of solubility of these gases by doing Experiment 1.2.
Experiment 1.2

Objective:
To show the solubility of oxygen and carbon dioxide in water.

Procedure:

Invert two test tubes containing oxygen and carbon dioxide in a beaker of water.
Watch the rise in the water level. What can you conclude about this experiment?

Result:

You will notice that in the test tube containing oxygen, a little water enters the test
tube (Figure a). This shows that oxygen dissolves slightly in water.
However, in the test tube containing carbon dioxide, more water enters the test
tube (Figure b). This shows that carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than
oxygen.

(a) (b)

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1.3.2 Reaction with Sodium Hydroxide
What are the reactions of oxygen and carbon dioxide with sodium hydroxide?
Let us find out by doing Experiment 1.3.

Experiment 1.3

Objective:
To show the reactions of oxygen and carbon dioxide to sodium hydroxide.

Procedure:
Invert a test tube of oxygen into abeaker of sodium hydroxide solution

(Figurea).
Removethestopperandshakethetesttubegently.
Observetheflowofsodiumhydroxidesolutionintothetesttube.
Repeattheexperimentusingatesttubecontainingcarbondioxide(Figureb).

(a) (b)
Result:
Sodium hydroxide solution does not rise in the test tube containing oxygen. This
shows that oxygen is not soluble in sodium hydroxide solution.
Sodium hydroxide solution rises rapidly in the test tube containing carbon dioxide.
This indicates that carbon dioxide is very soluble in sodium hydroxide solution.

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1.3.3 Tests for Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
We can test the presence of oxygen by testing it with a burning splinter. As for carbon
dioxide, we will test it with lime water. Look at Experiments 1.4 and 1.5 on how to conduct
these tests.
Experiment 1.4

Objective:
To test the presence of oxygen.

Procedure:

Light up a burning splinter.
Insert the burning splinter into a test tube containing oxygen (Figure a).

What can you see?

Result
You will see that the burning splinter will light up (Figure b). The
splinter glows because oxygen supports combustion.
(a)
(b)
Burning splinter
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Experiment 1.5

Objective:
To test the presence of carbon dioxide.

Procedure:
Put lime water into a test tube that has been filled with carbon dioxide gas.
Close the test tube with a cork. Shake the test tube for a while. What can you see
after that?

Result:

The lime water will turn cloudy in the presence of carbon dioxide. Carbon
dioxide reacts with lime water to form calcium carbonate, which is insoluble in
water.

ACTIVITY 1.1

Look at the diagram.

1. Which candle in the diagram takes a longer time to extinguish?
2. What conclusion can you arrive at from this observation?
SELF- CHECK 1.2

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IMPORTANCE OF OXYGEN

As mentioned earlier, oxygen is a basic element in life. How about its features? It is
colourless, highly reactive and is said to come from water vapour. It turns into a bluish liquid
at a temperature of -183C.

We are aware that oxygen plays an important role in our lives. Can you name some of its
uses? It is used for breathing, decomposition of organic wastes, the support of aquatic life in
the form of oxygen dissolved by water and creation of energy in living cells.
1.4.1 Respiration
Why do you think oxygen is needed in respiration? Let us find out!

All organisms require energy to carry out all living processes such as growth, reproduction,
response, movement, breathing, digestion and excretion. Energy is stored in the form of
chemical energy in organic substances such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. It needs to
be converted into a form of energy which can be readily used by cells. This calls for
respiration as respiration is the chemical breakdown of food to release the energy which is
essential for all living things.

Do you know that respiration is divided into two stages? Let us look at what these two stages
are as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Two stages of respiration

1.4
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Now, let us look at the definition of external respiration.

Can you imagine how this process works? Look at Figure 1.3. During breathing or external
respiration, oxygen is inhaled and carbon dioxide is released

Figure 1.3: Breathing or external respiration
How about internal respiration? Internal respiration occurs inside the cells and tissues of the
body. Thus, it is often called cell respiration, or tissue respiration. To respire, we need a
constant supply of oxygen. When this oxygen reaches the cells, it combines with glucose (a
sugar which comes from food that has been converted). Energy is then released, together with
waste products of carbon dioxide and water. Respiration, which uses oxygen, is called
aerobic respiration. However, under certain circumstances, energy can be released from food
without oxygen. This process is called anaerobic respiration.

External respiration is a mechanical process of
inhalation and exhalation of air through the
respiratory system.
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As a conclusion, we have learnt that the products of respiration are energy, carbon dioxide
and water vapour (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: The products of cellular respiration

This chemical reaction can be written as:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water
SELF-CHECK 6.1

The following statements are false. Rewrite them to make them true.
1. Respiration and breathing are the same process.
2. Only animals carry out respiration.
3. Acrobatic respiration is the process where energy is made from sugar in the
presence of oxygen.
4. The reactants used in respiration are water and carbon dioxide.
5. The only gas we breathe in is oxygen.

SELF-CHECK 1.3
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1.4.2 Combustion
What is combustion? Let us look at what combustion stands for.

Here is a simple principle behind combustion. For combustion to occur, fuel, oxygen (air) and
heat must be present together. In other words, combustion takes place when chemicals mix
together and give off heat and light in the form of fire. For example, the charcoal in a
barbecue grill burns because it mixes with oxygen in the air. In Figure 1.5, the fire goes out if
the grill is closed because air cannot reach the coals. Figure 1.6 shows us materials containing
chemicals that burn easily when heated

Figure 1.5: Charcoal burning in a barbecue grill
Source: World Book Illustration

Combustion is the process of burning.
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Figure 1.6: Materials containing chemicals that burn easily
Source: World Book Illustration
Now that you have understood what combustion is, let us carry out an experiment. What gas
do you think is needed for combustion to occur? Yes, oxygen is needed for combustion. So,
how do we conduct an experiment to show that oxygen is needed for combustion? Let us do
Experiment 1.6.

Experiment 1.6

Objective:

To show that oxygen is needed for combustion.

Procedure:
You need to do this experiment in pairs.
Get two glass jars of different sizes.
Light two candles and put each in a jar.
Mount the candle on a thick cardboard.
Then seal the jar to ensure that the supply of oxygen is cut off. Observe the flame.
Result:
As the flames consume the oxygen in the jars, the flames will go out. The
candle flame in the bigger jar (A) will burn out last.
Can you explain what made the flame burn out? The flame uses up oxygen as it burns and
when enough has been used up, the flame goes out.

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1. Define combustion.
2. List three conditions necessary for combustion to occur.

AIR POLLUTION

Let us look at Figures 1.7 and 1.8. What do both pictures have in common?

Figure 1.7: Burning forest Figure 1.8: Burning building
The trees and buildings are on fire. We call this process combustion. Can you name the
products of combustion? In the pictures, you can see smoke, dirt and damage to trees and
buildings. In fact, smoke and dust cause pollution to the environment.

When we talk about air pollution, the images conjured in our minds would be those of smog,
acid rain, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other forms of outdoor air pollution. However,
pollution also happens inside our homes and other buildings. Every year, the health of many
people is affected by chemical substances found in the air within buildings.

Let us learn more about air pollution. In this subtopic, we will discuss the definition of air
pollution, its sources and effects. We will then discuss the importance of clean air and how to
keep the air clean in order to control and prevent further air pollution. Let us start the topic
with Activity 1.4.

1.5
SELF-CHECK 1.4
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Let us find out how dirty or clean the air in your classroom is. You will need three sheets
of white paper or cardboard and petroleum jelly. This is how you do it:
Smear one side of two sheets of paper with petroleum jelly.
Put the sheets next to each other, with the smeared side up, on a windowsill and
clamp the sheets in place with the closed window.
Take in one of the sheets at the end of one week and see how dirty it looks (compare
it to a clean sheet of paper).
What can you conclude about this?

What is air pollution? Do you know that our earth is the only planet we know that has air and
water? That is why (as far as we know) only earth can cater to living creatures. Without air
and water, the earth would be unable to sustain life. We have a diverse community of plants
and animals and they have thrived on this planet for millions of years, sustained by the sun
and supported by the soil, water and air.

We breathe in air which supplies us with oxygen. Oxygen is essential for our body systems to
function. Air consists of 99.9% nitrogen, oxygen, water vapour and inert gases. Our activities
can release substances into the air. Some of these substances can cause problems for humans,
plants and animals. One of the problems is air pollution. How does it occur?
1.5.1 Sources of Air Pollution
Now, let us find out what the sources of air pollution are. As we learnt before, air pollution
occurs when the air contains pollutants. Air pollutants are substances that are released into the
environment. These substances are harmful to us and other living things. There are seven
sources of air pollution as described in Table 1.3.

ACTIVITY 1.4
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Table 1.3: Seven Sources of Air Pollution

Source Description
1. Natural Sources There are many natural sources of air pollution such as eruption of
volcanoes, biological decay and forest fires caused by lightning strikes.
2. Industrial Activities Our economy is mainly based on manufacturing (especially electronics),
chemical and rubber industries. In order to increase output, industries
increase their normal production. This leads to higher emissions of
organic and inorganic gases, chemicals and dust. Different industries
emit different pollutants. For example, the chemical industry releases
emissions that contain many nitrogen and sulphur compounds while
refineries discharge sulphur dioxide and hydrocarbons. The metal
working industry is partially responsible for the emissions of sulphur
dioxide and large amounts of toxic dust.
3. Development
Activities
Unplanned and uncontrolled development of industrial premises or
zones leads to noise pollution and vibration disturbance. The use of
conventional piling methods and the sound of exhaust fans in factories
are some of the common activities that generate a high sound level.
4. Motor Vehicles Modern societies rely heavily on motorised transportation such as cars,
trucks and railways. Automobiles rely mostly on the burning of fossil
fuels. They not only cause emissions of smoke and dust but are also
responsible for the increase in noise. In 2004, nearly 14 million vehicles
were registered in Malaysia, almost double the number from a decade
earlier. The number will increase in the next few years due to higher
disposable incomes, rural-urban migration and the lack of an efficient
public transport system.
5. Power Generation Most of the energy produced in conventional power plants is by burning
fossil fuels like natural gas, oil and coal. The burning of fossil fuels will
result in the emission of smoke and dust.
6. Everyday Routines Households contribute to air pollution mainly through the use of energy
that is required to run machines and electrical appliances such as
refrigerators. Refrigerators and air conditioners not only consume
energy but also pollute the environment when their coolant fluids
release CFCs into the atmosphere. Chemicals used in houses and
gardens are also sources of pollution as well as toxic waste.
7. Open Burning Some countries practise open burning of older plantations as a method
for re-planting. This results in large amounts of soot particles. These
soot particles can be blown over long distances and are mainly
responsible for the haze that often covers the sky above Malaysia. These
fires can also destroy the rich habitat of flora and fauna.

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Do you realise that even our homes contribute to air pollutants? Find out the causes of air
pollution from our homes (Figure 1.9) and the outdoors (Figure 1.10).

Figure 1.9: Air pollutants inside and outside a house

Figure 1.10: Outdoor air pollutants

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1.5.2 Effects of Air Pollution
There are thousands of air pollutants. However, we are going to focus only on a few
pollutants, including their sources and effects on our health. Let us refer to Table 1.4.

Table 1.4: Pollutants, Their Sources and Effects on Human Health

Pollutant Source Human Health Effect
Particles - Air Particle
Index (API)
Internal combustion
engines (e.g. cars and
trucks)
Industry (e.g. factories)
Burning wood
Cigarette smoke
Bush fires
Long-term exposure is
linked to health problems
such as
Lung cancer
Heart disease
Lung disease
Asthma attacks
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Motor vehicles are the
biggest contributors
Other combustion
processes
Exposure to high levels of
NO
2
may lead to:
Lung damage
Respiratory disease
Asthma and respiratory
problems
Increased mortality
Sulphur Dioxide
Burning of coal and
petroleum in factories and
power-generating stations
Breathing
difficulties
Bronchitis
Acid rain occurs when
sulphur dioxide
dissolves in rainwater
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Burning of hydrocarbon
Exhaust gases from
motor vehicles
Cigarette smoke
Dizziness and headache
Can cause death if a
large amount is inhaled
Lead (Pb) Vehicle exhaust fumes
Other atmospheric
sources of lead include
waste incineration and
renovation of old
houses (from leaded
paint)
Affects childrens learning and
development of their
nervous system
Affects almost every
organ in the body,
whether it is inhaled or
ingested. Young
children are particularly
susceptible
Smoke Soot Dust Burning of waste and
fuels by factories
Forest fires
Cigarette smoke
Smoke from vehicles
exhaust
Pollutes the environment
Slows down
photosynthesis
Damages respiratory
system
Can cause cancer
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Carbon Dioxide Burning of rubbish and
fuels
Causes greenhouse
effect (increase in
temperature on earth)
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Aerosol cans,
refrigerators, air
conditioners
Depletion of the ozone layer
Diseases related to
ozone layer depletion
(e.g. cataract, skin cancer)

Ask your students to explain the effects of the following pollutants on our health:
Transportation
Factories
Agricultural activities

Present the findings in class.
Air pollution has consequences to the environment. There are three main consequences of air
pollution to the environment as presented in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5: Three Main Consequences of Air Pollution to the Environment

Consequence Description
Acidrain
Acid rain happens when sulphur and nitrogen pollution
from industrial smokestacks combine with moisture in the
atmosphere (see Figure 1.11). The resulting rain is acidic
which destroys natural ecosystems and buildings.
Greenhouseeffect
The planets temperature increases as heat energy from
sunlight is trapped by the gaseous atmosphere. Excess
carbon dioxide and water vapour increase this global
warming effect.
Thinningoftheozonelayer
The ozone in the ozone layer is destroyed due to the
presence of chlorine from manmade CFCs and other forces.
The layer is thinning because the ozone is destroyed faster
than it is regenerated by natural forces.

ACTIVITY 1.5
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Now, let us look at Figure 1.11, which shows the cycle of acid rain.

Figure 1.11: Acid rain cycle

Source: www.newint.org
How about the greenhouse effect and depletion of ozone layer? Let us refer to
Figures 1.12 and 1.13.

Figure 1.12: Greenhouse effect
Source: www.coolmob.org
Figure 1.13: Depletion of ozone layer

Source: www.scienceclarified.com
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What causes the thinning of the ozone layer? What effects does it have on us?
List five things we use in our everyday life which contribute to the thinning of the
ozone layer.
1.5.3 Step to Prevent Air Pollution

In order to prevent or control air pollution, we have to keep the air clean. Let us look at the
steps to keep the air clean.
After discussing how important the air is to us and learning the effects of air pollution, let us
think of the ways to keep the air clean. Remember, everybody has the power to make a
difference to the quality of the air and environment. All of us, whether we realise it or not,
contribute to air pollution in one way or another. In order to improve the quality of the air we
breathe in, we must be aware of the activities that can contribute to pollution and take action
against it. We can take action personally, at home or at school, or by doing something with
others in the community.

Now, what actions can we take to keep the air clean? Let us refer to Table 1.6.

Table 1.6: Ways to Keep the Air Clean
Way Suggestion
Make a difference on the road Walk or ride your bike instead of getting a lift in a car.
Where possible, use public transport instead of riding in
your parents car.
When running errands, combine trips so that you do not use
your car for single purpose trips.
Drive wisely and do not idle. Save petrol by switching off
the engine even when you are stationary for a while.
Use non-ozone depleting refrigerant for your cars air
conditioning system.
Use unleaded petrol to reduce the amount of lead particles in
the air.
Make a difference at home Use household and garden chemicals wisely. Avoid using
CFC-based products.
Be sure to read labels for proper use and disposal of
products.
If you purchase a new air conditioning system or heat pump,
purchase one that uses a non-ozone depleting refrigerant.
Practise wise waste management. Recycle aluminium cans,
glass bottles, plastics, cardboards and newspapers. This will
SELF-CHECK 1.5
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reduce waste and conserve natural resources.
Buy products made of recycled content.
Stop practising open burning.
Take part in tree-planting activities.
Industrial sectors can make a
difference
Practise cleaner production technology.
Use energy-saving products.
Carry proper servicing and maintenance on equipment and
machinery used.
Stop open burning.
Practice Zero Burning Technique (agricultural sector).
Reduce the use of pesticides that are non-environmental
friendly (agricultural sector).
Lastly, let us look at the steps needed to control and prevent air pollution. Preventing and
controlling air pollution require the efforts of people from all walks of life. Previously, we
mentioned what we and also industrial sectors can do to keep the air clean. Now, we will
discuss the steps required by the relevant authorities to control and prevent air pollution.

The steps are:

(a) Implementation of law: Malaysia has implemented the Environmental Quality Act
(EQA) 1974. This Act was enacted to prevent, abate, control pollution and enhance
the quality of the environment.

(b) Inspection and enforcement visits. These are carried out to industrial premises to
ensure that industrial sectors comply with the Environmental Quality Act 1974.

(c) Conducting roadside inspections on motor vehicles.

(d) Conducting aerial and ground surveillance on pollution sources.

(e) Daily monitoring of air quality.

(f) Conducting awareness programmes to educate public on the need to protect the
environment.

Do you know that there is a simple way to measure the air pollution level? The simple way is
the Air Pollution Index (API). This index describes the air pollution levels to provide timely
information about air pollution to the public. Table 1.7 shows the API status indicator used in
Malaysia.

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1. What is air pollution? Name five air pollutants.
2. List the pollutants which affect the environment. Describe one pollutant
and what it does to the environment.
3. Name three pollutants from a factor which affects a persons health.
4. Why must we keep our air clean? How do we know the air is clean?
5. Name two substances which can cause acid rain. State the effects of acid
rain to our health.
Table 1.7: Malaysian API Status Indicator

API Status
050 Good
51100 Moderate
101200 Unhealthy
201300 Veryunhealthy
301500 Hazardous
Above500 Emergency
You can get more on the daily readings of the API by visiting
http://www.doe.gov.my/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&
Itemid=370&lang=en

Let us conduct an activity to reduce air pollution in your school.

Hold a class discussion on air pollution. Discuss the main sources of air
pollution in the school area. Suggest possible ways and activities to
reduce air pollution in your school. Carry out the activities suggested.

ACTIVITY 1.6
SELF-CHECK 1.6
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VARIETY OF RESOURCES ON EARTH

The Carson Fall in Mount Kinabalu, Malaysia is an
example of undisturbed natural earths resource.
Waterfalls provide spring water for humans, animals
and plants for survival and also a habitat for hydro
organisms. The water current can be used to turn
turbines for hydroelectric generation.

Figure 1.14: The Carson Fall in Mount Kinabalu

Source: http:/ www. Google.wikipedia.com
1.6.1 Different Resources on Earth
Who need resources? Why do we need resouces? What types of resources do we have?
Human beings, animals and plants need food, water, air and shelter in order to survive. The
earth has the resources needed to sustain life. The resources are air, water, soil, minerals,
fossil fuels and living things.
1.6.2 Important of Earths Resources
The earth is rich in natural resources that we use daily. These resources are any valuable
material of geologic origin that can be extracted from the earth. It is nearly impossible to
cease consuming natural or geologic resources altogether. Here are just a few examples of
things you commonly use, but probably do not think about:
A pencil uses zinc and copper (to make the brass), petroleum for the eraser, iron (in
the machinery to make the pencil), pigments, clay and graphite. The only renewable
resource in your pencil is the wood!
Your jeans, although they may be almost all cotton, are usually blended with
petroleum-based synthetic fibres to cut down on shrinking.
Eye glasses and windows are made of quartz sand and petroleum.
Dental fillings are made of mercury and silver.
Videotapes are made of vinyl, iron and chromium.
1.6
27

28
Please refer to Table 1.8 to learn more about the impotance of earths resources.

Table 1.8: The Importance of Earths Resources

Types of
Earth
Resources
The Importance of Earths Resources
Air Air is needed by all living things to survive.
The atmosphere is a layer of air that envelops the earth.
Air is a mixture of gases. Air contains gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and
carbon dioxide.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are two very important gases that support life
on earth.
a. Oxygen
i. Used for respiration by living things
ii. Used in combustion of materials
iii. Used in industries
iv. Released during photosynthesis.
b. Carbon dioxide
i. Used by green plants to carry out photosynthesis
ii. Used in fire extinguishers
iii. Released during respiration and combustion
Water Water covers a total of about three quarters of the earth.
The sources of water are oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, rainfall and ground
water.
Importance of water

a. To animals/humans
i. It provides a medium for chemical process and body
metabolism;
ii. It is the main component of the blood;
iii. It transports nutrients to all cells in the body;
iv. It carries excretory products to the kidneys for excretion; and
v. It helps to control the body temperature.
b. To plants
i. It helps to maintain the turgidity of plant cells;
ii. It is used in photosynthesis;
iii. Need for the germination of seeds;
iv. Dissolves minerals slats in the ground for absorption by the roots of
plants;
v. Helps to support aquatic plants; and
vi. Cools down the plants (transpiration).
28
29
Soil Soil refers to the outer layer of the earth.
Soil contains mineral matter, organic matter, air and water.
The soil organic matter includes:
Organic litter such as fallen leaves, twigs, fruit, animal dropping, etc.
Humus formed from the composition of organic litter.
Microorganisms living in the soil.
Air and water are found in pore spaces between the soil particles.
The presence of air and water in the soil makes it a natural habitat for
various types of plants and animals.
Importance of soil:
Source of minerals and fossil fuels;
Source of clay for making pottery;
Source of sand for making glass and cement;
Base for agricultural activities; and
Foundation for construction of houses, buildings, roads and other
structures.
Living
Things
i. Flora and fauna (plants and animals) are also natural resources that
sustain life.
ii. Plants and animals are resources needed by human beings.
iii. We can obtain food, fuel, materials for making clothes and building
materials from plants and animals.
iv. Green plants can make their own food by carrying out photosynthesis.
v. Animals are not able to make their own food.
vi. Some animals such as giraffes and elephants feed on plants.
vii. Some animals such as tigers and snakes feed on other animals.
viii. Aquatic plants and animals are also important resources for sustaining
life.
Mineral
i. Minerals are inorganic substances found naturally on land and in seas
or oceans.
ii. Examples of minerals are feldspar, quartz, iron, zinc, aluminium, tin,
silver and gold.
iii. Some minerals such as aluminium and iron are mined because they
can be used as raw materials in various industries.

There are two types of earths resources renewable and non-renewable resources.

Earths resources that can be replaced and reused by nature are termed renewable. Natural
resources that cannot be replaced are termed non-renewable. Renewable resources are
replaced through natural processes at a rate that is equal to or greater than the rate at which
they are used, and depletion is usually not a worry.

Some common examples include:
Air (wind);
Fresh water;
Soil;

29

30
Living organisms (trees); and
Sunlight.

Non-renewable resources are exhaustible and are extracted faster than the rate at which they
formed. Some common examples are:

Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas);
Diamonds and other precious gems and minerals; and
Types of metals and ores.
1.6.3 Preservation and Conservation of Earths Resources
With the increased use of virtually all natural earths resources, there is concern that
resources will be exhausted and that others will not be able to use them in the future. Can you
imagine a world without clean water, clean air, sustainable land or living oceans?

Our natural resources exist in a delicate balance and are vulnerable to environmental changes.
That is why it is important that we all do our part to conserve, preserve and care for the
earths resources and protect the environment that sustains us with food, fuel, shelter and
medicine.

Because of the severe impact that we impose on the land, air, and water, preservation and
conservation has become increasingly important. Let us check the meaning of preservation
and conservation.

Conservation is to spend or use sparingly
Preservation is to keep and maintain what you have
30
31

1.6.4 Recycling of Materials

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Figure 1.15: Reduce, Reuse and Recycle

The symbol and the phrase above are very common. Do you know its meaning?

Reduce : Do not use a resource if there is an alternative (walking versus driving).

Reuse : Use a resource again without changing it or reprocessing it; use glassware
as opposed to paper plates and Styrofoam.

Recycle : Reprocess a resource so that the materials can be used in another item.
People can recycle just about anything from cardboard to old shoes!
Discuss in a group of four to find out the meaning of preservation and

conservation in terms of natural earths resources. Please visit the following
websites to get more information.
http://www.ecoca.ro/meteo/tutorial/Sustainability/Older/Conservation_and_Pre
servation.html
http://feelfriendly.com/information-preservation-conservation.html
ACTIVITY 1.7
31

32
Waste
Products
Solid Waste Medical
Waste
Hazardous
Waste
WASTE PRODUCTS

Wastes are substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be

disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law

Source: http://wikipedia.google.com

1.7.1 Sources and Types of Waste Products

Figure 1.16: Three types of waste
Source: Von ( 2004)

There are various sources of waste such as domestic sources, commercial sources, industrial
sources, clinic or biomedical sources, mineral sources, agricultural sources and nuclear
sources. Table 1.9 shows a breakdown of common waste types and its sources.

Please observe the picture given.
Identify the materials that can be
recycled.
1.7
SELF-CHECK 1.7
32
33
Table 1.9: Common Sources and Types of Waste Products

Source Typical Waste Generators Types of Solid Wastes
Residential
Single and multi-family
dwellings
Food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics,
textiles, leather, yard wastes, wood,
glass, metals, ashes, special wastes (e.g.
bulky items, consumer electronics, white
goods, batteries, oil, tyres), and
household hazardous wastes
Industrial
Light and heavy
manufacturing fabrication,
construction sites, power and
chemical plants
Housekeeping wastes, packaging, food
wastes, construction and demolition
materials, hazardous wastes, ashes,
special wastes
Commercial
Stores, hotels, restaurants,
markets, office buildings, etc
Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food
wastes, glass, metals, special wastes,
hazardous wastes
Institutional
Schools, hospitals, prisons,
government centres
Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food
wastes, glass, metals, special wastes,
hazardous wastes
Construction
and
Demolition
New construction sites, road
repair, renovation sites,
demolition of buildings
Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc
Municipal
Services
Street cleaning, landscaping,
parks, beaches , other
recreational areas, water
and wastewater treatment
plants
Street sweepings, landscape and tree
trimmings, general wastes from parks,
beaches, and other recreational areas,
sludge
Process
Heavy and light
manufacturing, refineries,
chemical plants, power
plants, mineral extraction
and processing
Industrial process wastes, scrap
materials, off specification products,
slag, tailings
Agriculture
Crops, orchards, vineyards,
dairies, feedlots, farms
Spoiled food wastes, agricultural wastes,
hazardous wastes (e.g. pesticides)

33

34
1.7.2 Pollution Caused by Waste Products
Figure1.17:Deadfishcausedbywaterpollution
Source: Image Google.com

Many things can cause water pollution but most water pollution is caused by waste products
from humans. Types of waste products that can pollute our water are sewage drainage into
our water cycle, oil from vehicles, oil spills, fertilisers from crops. Rubbish dumps also can
run into our water system when it rains.
Figure 1.18: Water Pollution

Source: http://google.image.com
Do you think why all the

fish in Figure 1.17 were
dead?
34
35

Do You Know?

Waste products (Figure 1.19) also can cause land pollution and air pollution. Land
pollution is caused by an excessive amount of trash going into our landfills. When too
much trash is in our landfills, it can cause water pollution over time by getting in our
water cycle. Another form of land pollution is littering.

Figure 1.19: Solid waste products
Source: http://google.image.com

1.7.3 Environmental Protection
Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual,
organisational or governmental levels, for the benefit of both the natural environment and
humans. Discussion concerning environmental protection often focuses on the role of
government, legislation and law enforcement. Protecting the environment is a responsibility
of all people.

SELF-CHECK 1.8
Observe Figure 1.18.
Identify the types of waste products that cause water pollution.
35

36
(a) Government Organisations Involvement
i. Environmental Quality Act, 1974 (Act 127)
An Act relating to the prevention, abatement, control of pollution and enhancement
of the environment:
Part IV Prohibition and control of pollution
Section 22: Restrictions on pollution of the atmosphere
Section 23: Restrictions on noise pollution
Section 24: Restrictions on pollution of the soil
Section 25: Restrictions on pollution of inland waters
Section 27: Prohibition of discharge of oil into Malaysian waters
Section 29: Prohibition of discharge of wastes into Malaysian waters
Section 34: Report on impact on environment resulting from prescribed
activities

ii. Incorporate Department of Environment (DOE) within the Ministry of Science,
Technology and Environment (MOSTE)
In charge with environmental administration

iii. Incorporate an environmental policy aimed at integrating environmental concerns
into development planning. For example:
The Seventh Malaysian Plan (1996-2000) states that the objectives of
Malaysias national environmental policies are to achieve a clean, safe and
healthy living environment for current and future generation and to promote
lifestyles and modes of production and consumption consistent with the
principles of sustainable development.

(b) Non-governmental Organisations Involvement
Dissemination of environmental information through the Environmental
Management and Research Association of Malaysia (ENSEARCH)
(c) Environmental Education in the School Syllabus
Environmental education will make our citizens aware of the environmental
problems and equip us with knowledge to overcome the problems.

SELF-CHECK 1.9
Find out the involvement of international agencies in
Malaysias environmental protection.
36
37
The air is actually a mixture of gases. These gases are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and inert gases. The inert gases in the air include argon, neon, helium,
krypton, xenon, methane and xenon.

Under properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide, we look into three matters, namely,
the solubility in water, reactions with sodium hydroxide and the tests for oxygen and
carbon dioxide.

Oxygen plays an important role in our lives. We use oxygen for breathing,
decomposition of organic wastes, supporting aquatic life in the form of oxygen
dissolved by water and creation of energy in living cells.

Air pollution affects our health and the environment. Air pollution occurs
whentheaircontainsgases,dust,fumesorodourinharmfulamounts.

Our natural resources include air, water, soil, minerals, fossil fuels, plants and
animals. Each of these resources is important to us in their own ways.

Conservation is the sustainable use of our natural resources. Preservation is keeping
natural resources in their current state, untouched by humans.

Recycle is the process of reprocess a resource so that the materials can be
usedinanotheritem.
Wastearesubstancesorobjects,whicharedisposedoforareintendedtobe
disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national
law. It can be divided into three, solid waste, medical waste and hazardous
waste.

Environmentalprotectioncanbedonebythegovernment,nongovernmental
organisations, international agencies and national citizens through
introducingenvironmentaleducationintheschoolsyllabus.
37

38
Air
Air Pollution Index (API)
Carbon dioxide
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
Combustion
Conservation
Environment
External respiration
Global warming
Greenhouse effect

Internal respiration
Land pollution
Natural resources
Oxygen
Preservation
Products
Recycle
Respiration
Waste product
Water pollution

Conoley, C., & Hills, P. (2002). Collins advance science chemistry (2nd ed.). UK: Collins
Educational.
Environmental Quality Act 127. (1974). Retrieved from
https://www.elaw.org/system/files/MalaysiaEQA1974_0.pdf
Gallagher, R. M. (1997). Complete chemistry. UK: Oxford University Press.
Milner, B., Martin, J., & Mills, J. (2002). Core chemistry. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Nivaldo, J. T. (2000). Chemistry in focus (2nd ed.). USA: Thomson.
South Carolina Geological Survey. (2005). Earths natural resources and human impacts.
Retrieved from ftp://ftpdata.dnr.sc.gov/geology/Education
Von, L. L. (2004). Case study on the management of waste materials in Malaysia. Forum
Geokol, 15(2), 7.
Zumdahl, S. S. (2004). Introductory chemistry: A foundation (5th ed.). New York: Houghton
Mifflin.

38

TOPIC 2: METALS

INTRODUCTION

Figure 2.1: Gold and copper coins
Source: editmentor.wordpress.com
T
T
o
o
p
p
i
i
c
c
2
2
Metals
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Bytheendofthistopic,youshouldbeableto:
1. Describethephysicalpropertiesofmetals;
2. Differentiatethestructuresofmetalsandalloys;
3. Describethechemicalreactionsofmetals;
4. Identifytheorderofreactivityofmetals;
5. Describethemethodofextractionofironandaluminium;and
6. Discusstheusesofmetals.
41
TOPIC 2 METALS

2
2.1
Have you ever seen coins such as the ones in Figure 2.1? Gold and copper were the
first metals discovered in the earth, since 6,000BC. Gold and copper coins have been
used since ancient civilisation. Gold articles were found extensively in antiquity
mainly as jewellery such as bracelets and rings. The symbol for gold is Au from the
latin aurum meaning shining dawn. The use of copper in antiquity was of more
significance than gold as the first tools, implements and weapons were made from
copper. The symbol for copper is Cu and comes from the latin cuprum meaning from
the island of Cyprus.

Currently, there are 86 known metals. Scientists have categorised metals into three
groups alkali metals, alkali earth metals and transition elements. You can explore the
names and symbols of all known metals in the Periodic Table of the Elements.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
Metals consist of positive ions embedded in moving clouds of electrons (Figure 2.2).
The negatively charged electrons attract all the positive metal ions and bond them
together with strong electrostatic forces of attraction as a single unit called metallic
bond.

Figure 2.2: Metals consist of positive ions surrounded by a cloud of electrons

SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. Name three metals in a group of alkali metals.
2. Name two metals in a group of alkali earth metals.
3. Name two common metals in transition elements.
42
TOPIC 2 METALS
3
2.1.1 Structures of Metals and Alloys
Pure metals have the following properties;
They usually have high melting and boiling points. This is due to the strong
attraction between the positive metal ions and the mobile clouds of electrons.
They conduct electricity due to the mobile electrons (electrons cloud) within
the metal structure. When a metal is connected in a circuit, the electrons move
towards the positive terminal.
They are malleable and ductile. If a force is applied to a metal, rows of ions
can slide over one another. They reposition themselves and the strong bonds
re-form as shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: The positions of the positive ions in a metal before and after a
force has been applied
[Source:http://www.chemis
try.org/materi_kimia/struktur_atom_dan_ikatan/jenis_struktur_atom/s
truktur_logam/]

They have high densities, as the atoms are arranged in order and closely
packed together as can be seen in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Arrangement of ions in a metal
[Source: http://martinmm.wiki.manheimcentral.org/84]

43
TOPIC 2 METALS

4
Different metals show different types of packing and in doing so they produce the
arrangement of atoms shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Relating different structures to the density of metal

[Source:
http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=metals_crystal_structure]

Alloys are a mixture of;
Two or more metals (for example, brass is an alloy of zinc and copper); or
A metal and non-metal (for example, steel is an alloy of iron and carbon).

Figure 2.6 shows the alloy structure. The blue circles represent atoms of metal A and
the white circles are atoms of metal B which is added to make the alloy. These
different atoms give the alloy different physical properties from that of the pure metal.
Figure2.6:Structureofanalloy
[Source:http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/surfaces/scc/scat6_4.htm]

Atom of metal A
Atom of metal B
44
TOPIC 2 METALS
5
2.2
Alloys are formed by mixing the molten substances thoroughly. But why make alloys?
The reasons why alloys are made are:

(a) To increase the strength and hardness of a pure metal. The presence of the
atoms of other elements disrupts the orderly arrangement of the pure metal.
The layers of metal atoms are prevented from sliding over one another easily.
This makes alloys stronger and harder than pure metals.
(b) To increase the resistance to corrosion of a pure metal. Alloying can prevent
metals from corrosion. This is because alloying helps to prevent the formation
of oxide layer on the surface of the metal (We will discuss the reaction of
metals in subtopic 2.2).
(c) To improve the appearance of a pure metal. Alloying helps to keep the metal
maintain the glossy nature of the surface as it prevents the formation of the
metal oxide.

Table 2.1 shows some of the more common alloys with their composition.
Table 2.1: Composition of common alloys

[Source: Ryan (2001)]
Alloy Composition
Brass 65% copper, 35% zinc
Bronze 90% copper, 10% tin
Cupro-nickel 30% copper, 70% nickel
Duralumin 95% aluminium, 4% copper,1% magnesium, manganese and
iron
Magnalium 70% aluminium, 30% magnesium
Pewter 30% lead, 70% tin, a small amount of antimony
Solder 70% lead, 30% tin
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
The metals in ores are chemically bonded to other elements. So how can we extract
the metals? To answer this, we must understand the Reactivity Series of metals. In
the Reactivity Series, the most reactive metals are at the top. The less reactive ones are
at the bottom. We can start putting the metals in order by looking at their actions with
heat, water and dilute hydrochloric acid.

45
TOPIC 2 METALS

6
2.2.1 Chemical Reaction of Metals with Heat
Conduct Experiments 2.1 and 2.2 to judge the reactivity by putting the metals into
competition with each other. In these two experiments, the metals will fight each
other to win their prize which is oxygen. The more reactive metal will win the
fight.

Copper starts off with the oxygen in copper oxide. However, iron is more reactive, so
it takes the oxygen away from copper. We say that iron has displaced (kicked out)
the copper.

Copper oxide + iron iron oxide + copper

CuO(s) + Fe(s) CuO(s) + Cu(s)

This is a displacement reaction. It shows us that iron is more reactive than copper.

There actually will not be a reaction between iron oxide and copper because copper is
less reactive than iron.

Experiment 2.1

1. Mix a spatula of iron fillings and copper oxide
in a test tube. Heat the mixture strongly
Is there a reaction? Look for a red glow
spreading through the mixture.

2. When the tube has cooled, empty it into a dish.
Can you see any brown copper metal left?

SELF CHECK 2.2
In Experiment 2.1, what do you expect will happen if we change:
copper oxide with iron; and
iron with copper?
Will there be any reaction? Why?

46
TOPIC 2 METALS
7

You can now try some other displacement reactions as in Experiment 2.2.

2.2.2 Chemical Reaction of Metals with Water
You have already seen how the action of heat with metals in the displacement
reaction. Now, you can arrange the order of the reactivity of metals iron, zinc, copper
and magnesium:
i. Magnesium
ii. Zinc
iii. Iron
iv. Copper

We can also judge reactivity by observing the metals reaction with water. Let us look
at the reaction of lithium, sodium and potassium with water.

From Experiment 2.3, you can observe that lithium moves slowly on the surface of the
water, while sodium melts to become a small sphere, move rapidly and randomly on
Experiment 2.2

Try heating the mixtures of metals and oxide
shown in the table:
Look for any signs of reaction. Tick () in the
Reaction Table if there is a reaction.
(Be careful when looking for signs of reaction.
Zinc oxide turns yellow when you heat it by
itself. It turns white again when it cools down).
Write word equations for the reactions you
have ticked)

Metal/
Metal
oxide
Zinc
oxide
Iron
oxide
Copper
oxide
Zinc
Iron
Copper
Magnesium
Reaction Table
Experiment 2.3

1. Put water in three different glass basins.
2. Drop small pieces of
Lithium in basin 1
Sodium in basin 2
Potassium in basin 3
3. Collect the gas given off as shown;
Test the gas with a lighted splint
4. Test the solution formed with red litmus
paper.
Is the solution left acidic or alkaline?

47
TOPIC 2 METALS

8
the water surface with a hissing sound as it reacts. Potassium gets so hot that it lights
the hydrogen gas that water gives off. It burns with a lilac flame, move very rapidly
and randomly on the water surface with a hissing and popping sound. The colourless
solution formed turns red litmus paper to blue.

The chemical equation for the reaction of lithium with water is as follows:

Lithium + Water Lithium hydroxide + Hydrogen

2Li(s) + 2H
2
O (l) 2LiOH (aq) + H
2
(g)

In the case of magnesium, this metal normally reacts slowly with water. But we
can speed up the reaction by heating up the water to make steam as in Experiment
2.4.

The magnesium reacts strongly with the steam. It leaves white magnesium oxide in
the test tube. Hydrogen gas is given off.

Experiment 2.4

1. Heat the magnesium strongly.
Every now and again, switch the
flame briefly to the ceramic wool
to make a steam.
2. As the reaction starts, the gas
given off can be lit at the end of
the tube.
Can you name the gas?

When red litmus paper turns to blue,
the solution formed is an alkaline!
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Write the word and symbol equations for sodium and potassium
reacting to water.
48
TOPIC 2 METALS
9
Magnesium + Steam Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen

Mg (s) + H
2
O (g) MgO(s) + H
2
(g)

The oxygen atom in H
2
O has swapped partner! It start off with hydrogen, but ends
up with magnesium.

Table 2.2 gives the different observations when metals react with water and steam.

Table 2.2: Reaction of metals with water and steam
T
a
b
l
e

2
.
2

2.2.3 Chemical Reaction of Metals with Diluted
Hydrochloric Acid
Another simple way to judge the reactivity of metals is to compare the reaction with
diluted acid. Metals will react quicker with diluted acid compared to water especially
the metals below calcium in Table 2.2.

Conduct Experiment 2.5 to compare the reactivity of metals when react with dilute
hydrochloric acid.

Notice that copper does not react with hydrochloric acid. However, the other metals
tested do react. For example, magnesium:
Metals Reaction with Water Reaction with Steam
Potassium
Sodium
Lithium
Calcium
Fizz, giving off hydrogen gas and
leaving an alkaline (hydroxide)
solution.
Explode
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Very slow reaction.
(Aluminium is protected by a layer
of aluminium oxide on its surface).
React, giving off hydrogen gas and
forming the metal oxide.
Experiment 2.5

1. Clean the metals with sand-paper.
2. Set up the boiling tube as shown:
Can you see bubbles?
(If you see no bubbles, you can warm the
tube gently in a beaker of hot water)
3. Record your results in a table.
(Do your results agree with the order in
Table 2.3 ?)
49
TOPIC 2 METALS

10

Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen

Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl
2
(aq) + H
2
(g)

Table 2.3: Reaction of metals with dilute hydrochloric acid
Metals Reaction with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid

Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron

Fizz, giving off hydrogen gas.
(Aluminium is protected by a tough layer of oxide on
its surface)

Tin
Lead

Gives off hydrogen very slowly .
(The acid needs to be warmed up)

Copper

No reaction.

2.2.1 Order of Reactivity of Metals
Now, we can form the Reactivity Series of metals according to the reactivity of metals
based on the metals reaction to heat, reaction to water and reaction to diluted
hydrochloric acid (Figure 2.7).

SELF CHECK 2.4
Write word equations for the reactions of calcium, aluminium, zinc,
iron, tin and lead with dilute hydrochloric acid.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Discuss why we never add potassium, sodium or lithium to acid.

50
TOPIC 2 METALS
11

Figure 2.7: Reactivity series of metals

K Potassium
Na Sodium
Li Lithium
Ca Calcium
Mg Magnesium
Al Aluminium
Zn Zinc
Fe Iron
Sn Tin
Pb Lead
Cu Copper
Ag Silver
Au Gold
Pt Platinum
Most reactive
Least reactive
Figure shown is a message from
the Lonely Hearts section of the
Zoo of the World. Can you come
up with your own mnemonic
sentence to help you remember
the Reactivity Series?
ACTIVITY 2.2
51
TOPIC 2 METALS

12
2.3

EXTRACTION OF IRON AND ALUMINIUM
In the earlier sub-topic, we learned about the Reactivity Series. We will now look at
how to get metals from their ores. This includes iron, which is the most widely used of
all metals. Figures 2.8 and 2.9 show iron ore and the mining of iron ore.
2.3.1 Extraction of Iron

Figure 2.8: Iron ore, haematite
[Source: http://www.e-rocks.com/Products.aspx?action=showproduct&id=107003]

Figure 2.9: Mining of iron ore in Karnataka
[Source: http://khanija.kar.ncode.in/SitePages/EAuctionData.aspx]

52
TOPIC 2 METALS
13
Carbon is important in the extraction of iron. Carbon is a non-metal, but we can put it
into our Reactivity Series of metals. It is placed in between aluminium and zinc. This
means that carbon can displace any metal below aluminium in the Reactivity Series
(Figure 2.10).

Figure2.10:ThepositionofcarbonintheReactivitySeries
We get carbon from coal. Coal is cheap and there is plenty of it at present. We use
coke (a cheap form of carbon which is made from coal) as one of the raw materials
besides iron ore (mainly haematite- iron(III) oxide) and limestone (to get rid of sandy
waste) in the process of extracting iron. We use blast furnace to get the iron from its
ore. Figure 2.11 shows the diagram of blast furnace used to extract iron.

Reactions in the blast furnace
The coke (carbon) reacts with oxygen in the hot air to make carbon oxide.
C(s) + O
2
(g) CO
2
(g)

This carbon dioxide reacts with more hot coke to produce carbon monoxide
gas.
CO
2
(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
K Potassium
Na Sodium
Li Lithium
Ca Calcium
Mg Magnesium
Al Aluminium
Zn Zinc
Fe Iron
Sn Tin
Pb Lead
Cu Copper
Ag Silver
Au Gold
Pt Platinum
CARBON
Carbon cannot be used to
extract the more reactive
metals
These metals can be
extracted using carbon
53
TOPIC 2 METALS

14
The carbon monoxide then reacts with iron oxide to get iron.
Fe
2
O
3
(s) + 3CO(g) 2 Fe(l) (s) + 3CO
2
(g)

At the high temperature (up to 1900C) in the furnace, the iron is in molten form
(liquid). So, it sinks to the bottom of the furnace. The iron then will run off into
mould. The molten slag floats to the top of the iron. The slag is tapped off, cooled and
used for making roads.

Figure 2.11: The blast furnace
[Source: http://images.yourdictionary.com/blastfurnace]

2.3.2 Extraction of Aluminium

Figure 2.12: Aluminium ore, bauxite
[Source: http://www.greener
industry.org.uk/pages/aluminium/aluminium_4PMsummary.htm]

54
TOPIC 2 METALS
15
As shown in the Reactivity Series (refer Figure 2.10), the position of aluminium is
before carbon. This means aluminium is more reactive than carbon, so carbon cannot
be used to extract aluminium. So, how do we extract aluminium from its ore, bauxite,
which contains aluminium oxide, Al
2
O
3
?

2.3.3 Extraction of Aluminium Electrolysis of Aluminium

Oxide
Figure 2.13 shows the electrolytic cell used for the extraction of aluminium.

Figure 2.13: Extraction of aluminium
[Source: http://www.meritnation.com/askanswer/question/explainthe
processofextractionofaluminiun/metalsandnonmetals/2230314]

Aluminium oxide is mixed with cryolite, Na3AlF6, to lower the melting
pointofaluminiumoxide(2045C)toabout900C.
Blocksofcarbonactastheanodewhilethecarbonliningofthecellactsas
thecathode.
At the cathode, the aluminium ions are discharged to form aluminium
metal.
Al
3+
(l)+3eAl(l)
Liquid aluminium is denser than the electrolyte and will be collected at
thebottomofthecell.
Attheanode,theoxideionsaredischargedtoformoxygengas.
2O
2
(l)O2(g)+4e
Reactive metals can only be extracted from
their ores by electrolysis!
55
TOPIC 2 METALS

16
2.4
Theoverallchemicalreactionis:
2Al2O3(l)4Al(l)+3O2(g)
Theoxygenliberatedattheanodewillreactwiththecarbonelectrode
toproducecarbondioxidegas.
C(s)+O2(g)CO2(g)
Consequently, the anode is corroded slowly and must be replaced
fromtimetotime.

THE USES OF METALS
Steel is used more than any other metal. It is important in the building industry. It is
used for girders and for the rods inside reinforced concrete. Steel tubes, called scaffold,
are used when buildings are made or repaired.

Steel is made mainly from iron. It has a small amount of carbon in it. The amount of
carbon affects its properties as can be seen in Table 2.4

Table 2.4: Types of Steel

Type of Steel Amount of Carbon Hardness Uses
Mild steel 0.2% Can be easily shaped Car bodies, wires,
pipe, bicycles
Medium steel 0.3% to 0.6% Hard Girders, springs
High-carbon
steel
0.6% to 1.5 % Very hard Drills, hammers,
other tools

Unfortunately, iron and steel rust. Is there a way to prevent this? You have learned about
alloy. How to make steel alloy?
However,stainlesssteelisexpensive.Ithasmainlybeenusedformakingsmall
items,suchasknivesandspoons.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Name20itemsthataremadeofstainlesssteel.
If chromium and nickel are added to steel, you will
get stainless steel, a steel which does not rust!
56
TOPIC 2 METALS
17
Another metal that has many useful properties is aluminium. It conducts heat and
electricity well. It has low density for a metal. It does not corrode.

Platinum is used in catalytic converters, fitted to car exhausts. It cuts down the
amount of pollution from cars.

A radioactive isotope of cobalt is used to treat patients with cancer.

Figure 2.14 shows some uses of common metals around the home.

Figure 2.14: Some uses of metals at home

ACTIVITY 2.4
Look at the compund of your school. Name the metals and
the uses of metals at your school.
57
TOPIC 2 METALS

18
Metal consists of atoms which are arranged very closely packed in an

orderlymanner.
The atoms in metal bond with strong electrostatic force called metallic
bond.
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. They are shiny,
malleable(canbehammeredintoshapes)andductile(canbedrawnout
intowires).Mostmetalsarehard,denseandhavehighmeltingpoints.
Thepropertiesofmetalscanbeimprovedwithalloying.
Alloyisamixtureoftwoormoremetalsorametalandanonmetal.
Generally,alloyingproducesametallicsubstancewhichhasmoreuseful
propertiesthantheoriginalpuremetalitwasmadefrom.
TheReactivitySerieslistsmetalsinorderofreactivity.
WecanusetheReactivitySeriestomakepredictionsaboutreactions.
A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its
compound.
CarbonisplacedbetweenaluminiumandzincintheReactivitySeries.
Extraction of metal from its ore depends on its place in the Reactivity
Series.Themorereactiveametal,theharderitistoextract.
ThemetalsplacedabovecarbonintheReactivitySeriescanbeextracted
by electrolysis (potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium and
aluminium).
ThemetalsplacedbelowcarbonintheReactivitySeriescanbeextracted
byusingcarbonasanoxidisingagent(zinc,iron,tinandlead).
Metalshaveawiderangeofuses.Metalsareusedinbuildingindustries,
householdproducts,medicine,agriculture,etc.
Blastfurnace
Carbon
Dilutedhydrochloricacid
Displacementreaction
Electrolysis
Heat
Metal
Metallicbond
Reactivityseries
Stainlesssteel
Steel
Water
58
TOPIC 2 METALS
19
Earl, B., & Wilford, D. (2009). IGCSE chemistry. United Kingdom: Hodder
Education.
Eng, N. H., & Lim, Y. C. (2007). Focus Super Chemistry. Bangi: Penerbitan
Pelangi.
Farndon,J.(2003).Theelements:Aluminium.Malaysia:FederalPublications.
Ryan,L.(2001).Chemistryforyou.UnitedKingdom:StanleyThornes.
Sparrow,G.(2003).Theelements:Iron.Malaysia:FederalPublications.

59

TOPIC 3: ELECTROLYSIS

TOPIC 4: OXIDATION AND
REDUCTION

TOPIC3 : MATERIAL WORLD

TOPIC 4: OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Readings

Rose Marie Gallgher (1997). Complete Chemistry, Oxford Universiti Press, UK.
Ralph A. Burns (2003). Fundamentals of Chemistry, Prentice Hall, Ney Jersey
Bryan Milner, Jean Martin, John Mills (2002). Core Chemistry, Cambridge Universiti Press
J. G. R. Briggs (2003). Chemistry Insight, Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd. Singapore
J.G. R. Briggs (2003). Science in Focus Chemistryfor GCE O Level, Pearson Education Asia
Pte.Ltd. Singapore.
Bahagian Pendidikan Guru, KementerianPendidikan Malaysia. (1995) BukuSumber Pengajaran
Pembelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, Jilid 3:Strategi Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Sains.
Projek PIER Bahagian Pendidikan Guru serta dan Bahagian Perancangan dan
Penyelidikan Dasar Pendidikan, Kuala Lumpur.
Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E.,Peck,M.L and Stanley, GG. (2008). Chemistry (Ninth Edition).2010
Brooks/Cole.

Keywords

- oxidation
- reduction
- oxygen
- ozone
- nonmetal oxides
- metal oxides

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Topic, the learner will be able to;

1. Define oxidation and reduction.
2. Explain the meaning of redox and giving examples.
63
3. Demonstrate the ability to write balanced formula and the ability to identify oxidizing
agents and reducing from given oxidation-reduction reactions.
4. Ability to differentiate oxygen and ozone.
5. Demonstrate the ability to compare and contrite the properties of oxygen and
hydrogen.
6. Describing with examples the reactions Group 1A and Group 2A with oxygen.
7. Describing what happens to the oxides of Group 1A and Group 2A when it dissolve in
water.
8. Ability to summarize the reactions of O2 with nonmetals ,reactions of nonmetal oxides
with water and the reactions of metal oxides with nonmetal oxides.

Study Questions

Task 1 : Read the definition of oxidation and reduction on Page 225 (highlighted in yellow). In
your own words, describe oxidation and reduction.

Task 2 : It is said that oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and are referred to as
oxidation-reduction reactions or redox. Read 6-5 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions :
Introduction (pg 225). In your own words explain what redox mean and give examples
in your explanation.

Task 3 : Read Example 6-4 Redox Reactions. After going through and understanding the
section, do the following

(a) write balanced formula unit equations for the following redox reactions:

(i) nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia

(ii) aluminum reacts with sulfuric acid to produce aluminum sulfate and hydrogen

(iii) zinc sulfide reacts with oxygen to form zinc oxide and sulfur dioxide

(iv) carbon reacts with nitric acid to produce nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide and
water
64

(b) identify the oxidizing agents and reducing agents in the above oxidation-reduction reactions.

Task 4 : Read 5-9 Oxygen and the oxides (pg 198).Can you differentiate between oxygen and
ozone?
Task 5 : Read 5-8 Hydrogen and hydrides (pg 194) and 5-9 Oxygen and oxides (pg 198). In
your own words, compare and contrast the properties of oxygen with those of
hydrogen.
Task 6 : Read Reactions of O2 with metals on page 198-199. Describe in your own words and
with examples, what happens when Group 1A and Group 2A react with oxygen.
Task 7 : Refer to Page 200, Reactions of Metal Oxides with water. Describe what happens to
the oxides of Group 1A and Group 2A when it dissolve in water.
Task 8 : With reference to page 201-203, write a summary of the following reactions:

(v) Reactions of O2 with nonmetals

(vi) Reactions of nonmetal oxides with water

(vii) Reactions of metal oxides with nonmetal oxides.
65

INTRODUCTION
This topic is to teach students about food. As an introduction, you should explain the
importance of food to us. Food is very important to all living beings: humans, animals
and plants. They need food for energy. The energy will be used for growth, development,
repair damaged cells and tissues, reproduction, and maintain general health. In humans
and animals, energy is also used for movement and activity for their everyday life. For
instance, the body cells that are destroyed need to be repaired.

The process of which living organisms obtains food for growing and repairing body cells
is called nutrition. Nutrition is obtained from food. Food provide nutrients. Nutrients
are chemical substances needed in order for us to live and stay healthy. Hence, the energy
is obtained from nutrition in foods utilised to carry out our everyday activities.

T
T
o
o
p
p
i
i
c
c

3
3

Material
World III
1. Explain to students the classes of food and its importance;
2. Conduct a suitable experiment to identify the area of the tongue for different
tastes;
3. Debate about rusty objects; and
4. Conduct suitable experiment to determine the conditions for iron to become
rusty.
LEARNING
66
TOPIC 3 MATERIAL WORLD III
34
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
3.1.1 Classes of Food
To teach the classes of food, you can use the explanation strategy. Firstly, the teacher
should explain the seven classes of food. The basic nutrients we get from foods are
categorised into seven major classes or categories based on their properties. They are:
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Fats
Vitamins
Minerals
Fibres
Water

Then the teacher can continue the explanation with the functions for every classes of
food. Human and animal bodies need all types of foods to carry out different functions.
The correct proportions of food we consume contain all sources of food. This is called
diet. Diet is the kinds of food we consume and drink regularly.

As mentioned earlier, good diet means we eat food and water at the correct proportions. A
balanced diet should contain about 60% carbohydrates, 20% proteins and 20% fats
coming from food groups. The food will supply nutrients, energy necessary to sustain the
body, for growth and repair and maintain health. The functions of these food are:
(a) Carbohydrates are to supply energy.
(b) Proteins are to provide materials for body growth and repair.
(c) Fats are to supply energy and store excess food.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Testing for the presence of carbohydrate.

The presence of carbohydrate in our food can be tested in the lab. Using tapioca
flour, potato, rice, bread and other samples of food requested by the science
teacher, students may conduct the experiment using iodine solution. Divide your
classroom into several groups for this experiment. Discuss your results.

3.1
67
TOPIC 3 MATERIAL WORLD III 35
(d) Vitamins are to provide maintenance and healthy body.
(e) Mineral salts are for healthy teeth, bones, muscles and other parts of the body.
(f) Fibres are to help intestines to function properly.
(g) Water is to process all chemicals in the body and transport substances in the blood.

Lastly, you should explain the importance of the right proportion of the food consumed
everyday. We should eat the right types and amount of food daily to get all the energy
needed. This is called a balanced diet. In order to do this, the relative amounts of different
kinds of food eaten by a person has to be considered. The type of foods consumed can be
illustrated in the form of a Food Pyramid as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Food Pyramid
Source: www.lifeclinic.com/foods/nutrition/foodpyramid.asp
68
36

3.1.2 Taste of Foods
To teach this lesson, you can use the experiment strategy. Before we do the experiment,
the teacher should explain about the taste of foods. We eat all kinds of food. Food have
different tastes. Food can be categorised into different tastes: sweet, sour, bitter and salty.
Other kinds of tastes are the combinations of these four major tastes. The taste of food
can be detected only by a sensory organ in our mouth called the tongue. The tongue is the
sensory organ that has sensitive cells on the surface. These cells are called taste buds
which contain many taste receptors. These receptors detect the different type of tastes of
our foods. However, the taste of foods can only be detected at different areas on the
tongue (Figure 3.2)

Figure 3.2: Area of the tongue responding to different tastes
Source: http://library.thinkquest.org/3750/taste/taste.html

After explaining the different areas on the tongue that can detect different tastes, you can
use the following experiment to give your students the experience of different types of
taste.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Balanced diet
Balanced diets provide all essential nutrients in the correct amount and
proportion of food. It should contain all the seven classes of food. Adults,
adolescents and children need diet with different proportion. Divide your
classroom into seven groups to represent each class of food. In your assigned
group, discuss the factors that determine a persons balanced diet. List all
factors and present the findings to the class.
69

3.1.3 Acids and Alkalis
Food are grouped based on their tastes. They are sweet, sour, bitter and salty. Foods that
are sour belong to the acid group. The word acid is from the Latin word acidus which
means sour. Many sour fruits, especially those which are not ripe, contain acid. All acids
are not of the same strength; some are strong and some are weak. Other food or fruits that
are bitter fall in the alkali group. There are also strong and weak alkalis (see Figure 3.3).
ACTIVITY 3.3
Taste areas of the tongue
This is a lab activity. Work in pairs of two. Blindfold your partner. Pour little
amount of solutions of different tastes: salty (salt solution); sweet (sugar
solution); sour (lime juice); and bitter (coffee). Ask your partner to rinse his
tongue with distilled water. Using a straw, place a drop of salt solution onto the
tip of his tongue. Ask him to identify the taste without pulling his/her tongue.
Record your results using a table whether your partner is right (/) or wrong (x).
Repeat the steps on four other areas (tastes) of his tongue but make sure that he
rinses the tongue using the distilled water before each solution is repeated.
70
38
Figure 3.3: Acidic and alkaline foods and fruits

Source: http://buywaterfilter.my

Using a specific procedure in the lab, you can use a litmus or pH paper to test the
presence of acid or alkali in the substances you select. Most of the time, materials
containing acid will turn the blue litmus or pH paper to red colour. On the other hand,
alkali will turn the red litmus or pH paper to blue. (Figure 3.4). Can you list at least two
substances in your everyday life in both groups of acid and alkali?

Figure 3.4: pH scale ranges from 1 to 14 to indicate the strength of an acid or alkali
Source: dtc.prima.edu/~biology/.../lesson2d.htm
71

3.1.4 Household Products
You can also explain further the use of acid and alkali for cleaning purposes. Different
objects in the house will require different types of cleaning products; hence, we need to
use the products that have specific functions. The household products can be categorised
into two groups: acidic or alkaline. Most of the household products like alkaline are
sodium hydroxide (for making soap and detergent); ammonia (household cleaner,
drainage opener, sink opener), lime (to raise the pH value of acidic soil for healthy
growth of plants); magnesium hydroxide (used in antacid to ease stomachache due to
excessive acid); toothpaste; baking soda solution; bleach; and many more.

The other group of household products like nitric acid (to make fertiliser and dye); citric
acid and tartaric acid (to make fruit salt); acetic acid (to make synthetic fibre); boric acid
(an eyewash); benzoic acid (to preserve food); carbonic acid (in carbonated drinks);
lemon juice (for drinks); vinegar; and sulfuric acid (liquid from car battery); are some
example of uses of acids. I believe, you can find and name more of the household
products surrounding you from the departmental store during your shopping, as compared
to browsing through the Internet! Then you can use this example to explain or discuss
with your students.

ACTIVITY 3.4
Identification of substances: acidic or alkaline
You can ask your students to bring anything from home like fruit (lemon, lime,
mango, guava, papaya, banana, etc.) carbonated drink, toothpaste, detergent,
soap, shampoo, hair conditioner, milk, vinegar, distilled water or others by your
science teacher. In the laboratory, you will be conducting an experiment to
identify those substances whether they are acid or alkali. Use the litmus or pH
paper to indicate the presence of acid and alkali.

Source: dtc.prima.edu/~biology/.../lesson2d.htm

72
40

RUSTING
3.2.1 Investigate Material that can Rust Up
Start this lesson by asking student these questions; when you walk at the children
playground, can you trace which objects can become rusty and which ones cannot? Can
you differentiate the properties of the objects that can rust and which one cannot? (Figure
3.5)

Figure 3.5: Playground
Source: http://boston.about.com/od/walkingtours/ss/bcWalkingTour_6.htm

Objects that are made from iron and steel can become rusty. These objects have a
reddish-brown stuff formed on their surface when rusty. The mass of the objects will
increase when the rust formed on the surface. This process of rust formation is known as
rusting. However, not all objects can become rusty. Objects made from clay, wood, fibre,
3.2
ACTIVITY 3.5
Browse through the Internet. Find out on how to make:
1. Soap (using alkali)
2. Salt (using alkali and acid)

Write your report and present them to the class according to groups.

73
plastic and glass are the few examples of non-rusty objects. Find and list more examples
about rusty and non-rusty objects. To make the teaching process more interesting, you
can ask students to do the activity below:

3.2.2 Why do Objects Rust?
Before this, we have learned that objects made of iron and steel can become rusty. For
example, a nail, can become rusty. When you compare a nail in your house and the nail
outside the house, why is the nail outside the house often rusty? Can you explain this
phenomenon? Is it possible for us to infer why that one nail has become rusty, but others
still look gray and shiny? Why do objects like nails rust? To understand this behaviour,
we need to learn some chemical reactions which underlies the process of rusting. Perhaps
you have never heard of oxidation reactions. Yet, this type of reaction has many
important applications in our everyday life. When you see a rusty nail, you are actually
observing a process of oxidation.

Historically, the term oxidation was used for reactions of the elements with oxygen to
form oxides. All metals exhibit a tendency to be oxidised, some more easily than others.
Metals used in building materials, such as iron, eventually oxidise, which causes
deterioration of the metal. Known as corrosion, this process results in rust and other
corrosion on cars, bridges, ships and underground pipes.

ACTIVITY 3.6
Should we replace all rusty objects with non-rusty objects? Form your own
group and make your stand whether you are for or against this motion.

74
42

Figure 3.6: An abandoned rusty car
Source: http://www.nsls.bnl.gov/about/everyday/corrosion.html
3.2.3 Factors Needed for Iron to Rust
Now we know that iron can become rusty through the process of oxidation. What is the
meaning of oxidation? To understand this, we should identify the determining factors
needed for iron to rust. Then ask your students to do the experiment below:
75

ACTIVITY 3.7
Experiment 1: Rusting
Students will conduct experiment to determine what conditions are necessary
for iron to change into the iron oxide compound.
Materials:
Test tubes (4)
Stopper
Test tube rack
100ml graduated cylinder
250ml cylinder
Few pieces of nails
Salt
Pencil

Procedure:
1. Students work in groups of four.
2. Students hypothesise which nail will rust.
3. Students will be given data table.
4. Label the test tubes W, X, Y, and Z.
5. Measure 50ml of vegetable oil and pour into a 100ml beaker.
6. Measure 50ml of water and pour into a second 100ml beaker.
7. Measure 50ml of water and pour into third 100ml beaker. Add salt until
no more salt will dissolve.
8. Place one piece of nail into each of the three 100ml beakers. Drop the
fourth nail into the test tube W. Put a stopper on the test tube and place
in the test tube rack.
9. Use forceps to remove the nail from the oil and place into the bottom of
test tube X. Place in the rack.
10. Repeat the process for the nail from both water and salt solutions and
place into test tubes Y and Z.
11. Students work in groups of four.

76
44

12. Students hypothesise which nail will rust.
13. Students will be given data table.
14. Label the test tubes W, X, Y, and Z.
15. Measure 50ml of vegetable oil and pour into a 100ml beaker.
16. Measure 50ml of water and pour into a second 100 ml beaker.
17. Measure 50ml of water and pour into third 100ml beaker. Add salt until
no more salt will dissolve.
18. Place one piece of nail into each of the three 100ml beakers. Drop the
fourth nail into the test tube W. Put a stopper on the test tube and place
in the test tube rack.
19. Use forceps to remove the nail from the oil and place into the bottom
of test tube X. Place in the rack.
20. Repeat the process for the nail from both water and salt solutions and
place into test tubes Y and Z.
21. Measure 100ml of water into the 250ml beaker. Tape the four test tubes
together and invert them into the beaker and support them.
22. Record your observations in the data table everyday for three days.

Data and observation
Test tube Day one Day two Day three
W The nail still looks
gray and shiny
The nail still looks
gray and shiny
gray and shiny
X The nail still looks
gray and shiny
gray and shiny
gray and shiny
Y A reddish-brown stuff
appears on the surface
of the nail
A reddish-brown
stuff appears on the
surface of the nail
A reddish-brown
surface of the nail
Z More reddish-brown
surface of the nail
compared to Y
More reddish-brown
surface of the nail
compared to Y
More reddish-brown
surface of the nail
compared to Y

77

Here are some tips that you can give to your students when they are doing a science
project or experiment.

Tips

To do science project systematically, you may follow the following steps. First, you
must realise the purpose of doing this science project (Are you testing different
substance that are able to prevent rust from forming? Or, to determine which rust
remover was more efficient in removing rust from iron?).

Secondly, you should determine the hypothesis of this experiment. You can create your
hypothesis creatively, but I suggest you to consider substance that you believe to be the
most effective in preventing the act of rust.

Questions:
1. In which test tubes did the nail change into the compound iron oxide?
2. Why didn't the nails rust in the other test tubes?
3. What factor increased the rate of the reaction? Why?
4. What was the purpose of test tube W?
5. What is necessary for the formation of the compound iron oxide?

Answers:
1. In test tubes Y and Z
2. Either oxygen or water was not in contact with the nail. In test tube W,
the lack of water prevented the iron from oxidising. In test tube X, the
vegetable oil protected the nail from rusting
3. Salt increased the rate of chemical change. The salt solution cleaned the
surface of the nail
4. Control
5. Iron, oxygen and water
78
46

Thirdly, you should design your experiment in order to test your hypothesis. You
should recognise which variable is constant, how you can manipulate certain variable
and observe or measure the effect of this manipulated variable on certain independent
variable. You may discuss with your friends about the variable which is to be held
constant for this experiment However, it is suggested that different kind of rust
inhibitor as the manipulated variable. Rust inhibitor is defined as a substance to prevent
the act of rust from occurring. Paints are used on cars, bridges and many other items
that are usually exposed to damp air. In car radiators, anti-freeze is used since is has a
high boiling point, allowing the car to run at a high temperature without boiling away
the coolant and contains chemicals that can inhibit waters tendency to rust. Tinplate is
used for manufacturing cans and protects the steel from rusting and corrosion. Waxes
are used in manufacturing as rust preventatives. Well, now we have already determined
which element act as manipulated variable. How about the dependent or responding
variable? Can you find any material around your house to be used as the responding
variable? Maybe you can use a nail, since it is cheap and easy to obtain.

After you have collected all the relevant materials, the fourth step you should do is to
conduct the experiment. The rust inhibitors which act as manipulated variable in this
experiment are the paint, the paraffin wax and the car polish. Therefore, we can decide
that there are three experimental groups in this study and one control group. Following
are the detail of each group.

Group Characteristic
Experiment 1 A nail coated with paraffin wax
Experiment 2 A nail coated with paint
Experiment 3 A nail coated with car polish
Control Does not have any rust inhibitor applied on it

Let all the nails dry overnight. After you have let the nails dry, sprinkle them with tap
water on the morning, afternoon and evening. Do this for a week. After a week, can
you discover which nail has a lot of rust and which nail doesnt? After you have the
result, what can you conclude?

At the end of this lesson, you can ask students to make conclusion. What can they
conclude from this experiment? Let us read more to relate with the findings. Three things
are required for iron to turn into iron oxide. These things are water, oxygen and iron
itself. When a drop of water strikes an iron object, two things begin to occur almost
instantaneously. First, the water, a good electrolyte, combines with carbon dioxide in the
air to form a weak carbonic acid, an even better electrolyte. As the acid is formed and the
iron dissolved, some of the water will begin to break down into its component, that is
hydrogen and oxygen. The free oxygen and dissolved iron bond into iron oxide, in the
79
process of freeing the electrons. The electrons liberated from the anode portion of the iron
flow to the cathode, which may be a piece of a metal less electrically reactive than iron,
or another point on the piece of iron itself.

The chemical compounds found in liquids like acid rain and seawater, make them better
electrolytes than pure water. This allows their presence to speed up the process of rusting
on iron and other forms of corrosion on other metals. The type of metal also plays a big
role in the rate at which corrosion occurs. For example, chromium corrodes much slower
than iron. Other valuable metals like sterling silver, platinum and gold are hardly
corroded at all. The environment also plays a role in corrosion. Metals corrode faster in
hot humid climates and slower in cold dry ones.

Another way to understand how the process of rusting happens is through several
chemical equations. The process of rusting requires an anode and cathode in different
places on the surface of a piece of iron. In one area of the iron (Fe) surface, called the
anode region, the oxidation half reaction takes places.

Anode (oxidation): Fe(s) Fe
2+
(aq) + 2e
-
or 2Fe(s) 2Fe
2+
(aq) + 4e
-

The electrons move through the iron metal from anode to an area called the cathode
region where oxygen (O
2
) dissolved in water is reduced to water (H
2
O).
Cathode (reduction): O
2
(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e
-
2H
2
O(l)

By combining the half reactions that occur in the anode and cathode regions, we can write
the overall oxidation-reduction process.

2Fe(s) + O
2
(g) + 4H
+
(aq) 2Fe
2+
(aq) + 2H
2
O(l)

The formation of rust occurs as Fe
2+
ions move out of the anode region and come in
contract with dissolved oxygen (O
2
). The Fe
2+
oxidises to give Fe
3+
, which reacts with
oxygen to form of rust.

4Fe
2+
(aq) + O
2
(g) + 4H
2
O(l) 2Fe
2
O
3
+ 8H
+
(aq)

We can write the formation of rust starting with solid Fe reacting with O
2
as follows.
There is no H
+
in the overall equation because H
+
is produced in equal quantities.

Corrosion of iron

4Fe(s) + 3O
2
(g) 2Fe
2
O
3

Rust
80
48
3.2.4 Protection Against Rust
Rusty objects look unattractive and old. They become brittle and corrode slowly.
Basically, we can prevent rusting by preventing the iron objects from coming into contact
with air and water. This can be done by coating the objects with non-rusting material like
paint, oil, grease or any non-rusting materials. Iron objects also can be galvanised to
prevent the iron from rusting.

Other than that, we can also remove rust by using electrolysis (see Figure 3.7). In doing
this, you need a plastic bucket, battery charger, baking soda and electrode. It can be done
by providing a flow of electrical current and the rust will move with the electrical current.
To get the current flow, fill your plastic bucket with water. Add about a tablespoon of
baking soda per gallon to the water. Once the current is started, adding more soda will not
make the process go faster. Put the object into the water with the NEGATIVE lead on it.
Now, put in your electrode which could be a nail, screw, or any piece of metal. Stainless
steel works the best. Then, attach the POSITIVE lead to the electrode. Now switch
ON the battery charger and observe the rust going away.

Figure 3.7: The process of electrolysis
Source: http://www.thepontiactransampage.com/rust.html
3.2.5 The Benefits of Protection against Rust
The problem associated with rusting can be associated with utilities, transportation and
infrastructure. Therefore, it is important to prevent metals around us, especially iron, from
rusting. An old iron object need not be replaced if we can prevent it from rusting.
Therefore, it will save cost. Iron objects which are not rusty look shiny and new
compared to iron objects which have become rusty. Look at Figure 3.8. It shows a
photograph of a badly corroded truck after many years of marine atmospheric exposure.
81

Figure 3.8: A badly corroded truck after many years of marine atmospheric exposure
Source: http://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/spr/spr06/spr06_p24-26.pdf

The teacher also can give students a group work assignment and science project as
activity below so that they can understand better.

ACTIVITY 3.8
There are so many mega structures in Malaysia. Yet, our country has a climate
that is humid and hot. Based on this circumstance, it is possible that rusting is
one of the problems which are faced by us in Malaysia when maintaining those
mega structures. Can you find information to show an example about how to
maintain one of the mega structures in Malaysia which is associated with
rusting? Do some presentation in front of the class to report about your work.

ACTIVITY 3.9
Conduct a science project to investigate the most effective way to protect iron
object against rust. Do some demonstrations to compare several methods which
are used to prevent materials from rusting.
82
50

Food can be categorised into seven classes: carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, fats,
minerals, fibres and water.
Food have different tastes. They are sour, sweet, bitter and salty.
Food are also classified into two groups. They are acid and alkali.
Acid changes the blue litmus paper to red. While, alkali turns the red litmus paper to
blue.
Household products are also divided by the characteristics of being acidic and
alkaline.
Materials can be divided into rusty and non-rusty objects.
Rusting process is due to the presence of water, oxygen and iron. This process is
called oxidation.
Rust can be prevented by certain methods like painting, galvanising and electrolysis
of the metals.
There are benefits through the prevention against rust. Some metals can stay longer
and have a good looking appearence because of the prevention from rusting.

Acid
Alkali
Bitter
Corrosion
Iron
Oxidation
Oxygen
Rust
Salty
Sour
Sweet
Water

83

Burns, R. A. (1992). Fundamentals of chemistry (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Hazen, R. M. , & Trefil, J. (1997). The physical sciences: an integrated approach. New
York, NY: John Wiley & Son, Inc.
Kotz, J. C., Treichel, P. M. & Weaver, G.C. (2006) Chemistry and chemical reactivity
(6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.
Milner, B., Martin, J., & Mills, J. (2002). Core chemistry. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Timberlake, K. C. (2005). Basic chemistry. San Francisco, CA: Pearson
Education Co.
Abandoned rusty car (n.d). http://www.nsls.bnl.gov/about/everyday/ corrosion.html
Retrieved July 6, 2007.
Area of tongue (n.d). http://greenfield.fortunecity.com/rattler/46/upali2.htm Retrieved
July 7, 2007.
Badly corroded truck. (n.d). http://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/spr/
spr06/spr06_p24-26.pdf Retrieved July 6, 2007.
Food Pyramid. (n.d). www.lifeclinic.com/foods/nutrition/foodpyramid.asp Retrieved July
7, 2007.
Household products. (n.d). http://images.search.yahoo.com/search/images/
householdproducts Retrieved July 7, 2007.
pH scale. (n.d). dtc.prima.edu/~biology/.../lesson2d.htm Retrieved July 7, 2007
The process of electrolysis (n.d). http://www.thepontiactransampage. com/rust.html
Retrieved July 6, 2007.

84
Rao, C. N. R.. Understanding Chemistry.
: World Scientific Publishing Co., . p 238
http://site.ebrary.com/id/10422534?ppg=238
Copyright World Scientific Publishing Co.. . All rights reserved.
May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher,
except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
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87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
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111
112
113
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130
131
132
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134

TOPIC 5:

SPEED OF CHEMICAL
REACTIONS

INTRODUCTION
If there is a running competition between a rabbit and a tortoise, which
animalwillwin?Surelytheanswerwillbetherabbit(iftherabbitdoesnot
fallasleepduringthecompetition,thatis).Rabbitsrunfasterthantortoises.
The tortoise will get to thefinish line eventually, but will probably reach
there muchlater.This means that the rabbit runs ata greater speed than the
tortoise.
In everyday life, if you put granulated sugar and fine sugar in different
glasses of water with the same volume and temperature, which sugar will
dissolvefirst?
T
T
o
o
p
p
i
i
c
c
5
5

SpeedOf
Chemical
Reactions
Yes! fine sugar will dissolvefirst. It is because fine sugar
has a larger surface area that comes in contact with water.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the speed of chemical reaction;
2. Calculate the speed of a chemical reaction;
3. Distinguish the effects of particle size, concentration, pressure,
temperature and catalysts on the speed of chemical reaction; and
4. Evaluate the effect of activation energy on the speed of a reaction.
137
T

2
Whencoo
ordinary
refrigerato
everyday

The speed
changein
products
rateatwh
5.1.1 C
What are
physical c
matter.Fo
or becom
substance
substance
What hap
powder?
5.1
A
Wh
Put
exp
An

TOPIC5 SPEE
okingmeat,it
pot. Ever wo
or take longe
occurrences
DEFINI
d of reaction
nconcentratio
per unit time
hichthereacta
ChemicalR
e chemical re
changes. Phy
orexample,w
mes gasses if
e is formed.
esformed.
ppens when
ACTIVITY 5.1
hich metal disso
t magnesium p
periment by repl
nswer the follow
Which form o
Did you see a
Can you state
ED OF CHEMIC
tisbettertou
ondered why?
er to go rott
areactuallyth
ITIONO
n for a given
onofthereact
e (Odufalu, C
antsofachem
Reaction
eactions? In
ysical changes
waterturnsin
f the tempe
However, in
you put ma
1
olves faster in an
powder in a te
lacing the magn
wing questions:
of magnesium (t
any bubble relea
e what type of g
CAL REACTIO
useapressure
? Why do ve
ten? Do you
heresultofch
OFSPEED
chemical rea
tantsorthech
Chacha, Mud
micalreaction
previous top
s are related t
ntoicewhen
rature is hig
n chemical c
agnet to a m
n acid? Find out
st tube contain
esium powder w
the powder or th
ased?
as was released?
NS
ecookerrathe
getables that
realise that
hemicalreact
DOFRE
action is the
hangeinconc
dda, Iskandar
nformthepro
pics, we hav
to the change
thetemperatu
gher than 1
changes, ther
mixture of sul
through this acti
ning hydrochlor
with a magnesium
he strip) will dis
?
erthanusing
are kept in t
these commo
tions?
EACTION
measure of t
centrationoft
r, n.d.). It is t
oducts.
ve learnt abo
e of the state
urereaches0
00C. No ne
re will be ne
lphur and ir
ivity!
ric acid. Repea
m strip.
solve faster?

an
the
on,
N
the
the
the
out
of
0C
ew
ew
ron
at the
138

[Source
Iron pow
powder
youheat
Thechem
Iron(s)
Figur
e:http://halya
wder will be
from the sulp
tthemixture?
micalequation
+Sulphur(s)
ACTIVITY 5
The mixture is
a chemical reac
have now becom
Mix sulphur a
mixture. Put th
the mixture is
TOPIC
re5.2:Mixture
angyuhao.blo
field
attracted to
phur. But, do
?
nforthisreac
)Ironsul
.2
not attracted to th
ction has occured
me iron sulphide.
and iron powde
he magnet nea
heated. What
5 SPEED OF
ofsulphurand
ogspot.com/p/
dand.html]
the magnet,
o you think t
ctionis:,
lphide(s)
he magnet anymo
d in which iron an
er. Then, heat t
r the substance
will happen?
CHEMICAL R
dironpowder
/term2labex
so we can s
the same thin
re because
nd sulphur
he
e after
REACTIONS
r
xperimentsla
separate the i
ng will happe
3
ab
iron
en if

139
TOPIC5 SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

4
5.1.2 NatureofChemicalReactants
In order for a reaction to occur, there must be a collision between the
reactants at the reactive site of the molecule with correct orientation and it
has to achieve activation energy. This will lead to effective collision and
chemicalreactionwilloccur.
Figure5.3:Particlesshowingtheeffectiveandineffectivecollision
[Source:http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/principlesofgeneral
chemistryv1.0m/s1807thecollisionmodelofchemica.html]
Particles might be atoms, molecules or ions. Before we can get a chemical

reaction, particles must crash together. They must collide. This is called the
collisiontheory.
Figure5.4:Collisionbetweenparticles
[Source:http://minhaji.net/classes/3107]
140
TOPIC 5 SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS 5
5.1.3 SpeedofChemicalReaction
Theareaofchemistryconcernedwiththespeedorratesatwhichachemical
reaction occurs is called chemical kinetics. The word kinetic suggests
motion.Here,kineticsreferstothespeedofareaction,orthereactionspeed,
whichisthechangeoftheconcentrationofreactantorproductwithtime.
Letuslookatthegeneralequation:
ReactantsProducts
This equation tells us that, during the course of a reaction, reactant

moleculesareconsumedwhileproductmoleculesareformed.Twoobvious
changeswilloccur,namely:
i. Thedecreaseinthequantityofareactantwithtime;and
ii. Theincreaseinthequantityofaproductwithtime.
Asaresult,wecanfollowtheprogressofareactionbymonitoring:
i. Either the decrease in concentration of the reactants or the
increaseinconcentrationoftheproducts;
ii. Decrease in the mass of reactant or increase in the mass of
product;
iii. Increaseinthevolumeofgasreleased;
iv. Formationofprecipitateasaproduct;or
v. ChangeinpH,temperatureorelectricalconductivity.
Forreactionsthatoccurrapidly,thespeedofreactionishigh.Conversely,for
areactionthatoccursslowly,thespeedofreactionislow.Thetimetakenfor
afastreactionisshort,whereasthetimetakenforaslowreactionislong.
Howdowemeasurethespeedofchemicalreaction?
Speed of chemical reaction is the speed at which reactants
are converted into the products in a chemical reaction.
141
T

6
Toseeho
alookatt
5.2
S
Des
liber
Experime
1. Fillthe
theme
2. Weigh
flask.
3. Measu
andpo
4. Immed
Startth
5. Record
second
6. Plot th
samea
7. Calcul
therat
TOPIC5 SPEE
MEAS
CHEM
wthespeedo
thefollowing
SELF-CHECK
cribe one oth
ratedfromEx
ent5.1(TheRe
ebasinandbu
eniscusat50cm
ht6gofmedium
ure50cmof0.1
ouritintothec
diately,covert
hestopwatcha
d the volume
ds.
he graph of th
axisasinExper
late the averag
teofreactionin
Figure 5.5: W
ED OF CHEMIC
SURING
MICALR
ofachemical
example:
CTI
K 5.1
her method
xperiment5.1
eactionbetwee
rettewithwat
m(Figure5.4).
mmarblechips
1moldmhy
conicalflask.
theconicalflas
atthesametim
of gas collect
he volume of c
riment5.1
ge rate of react
nthesecondm
Water displaceme
CAL REACTIO
GTHESP
REACTIO
lreactionisac
IVITY5.3
that can be
1
enMarbleChip
er.Inverttheb
s(inexcess)an
drochloricacid
skwitharubb
me.
ted in the bur
carbon dioxide
tion, the rate o
minutesforthis
ent method to co
NS
PEEDOF
ON
ctuallymeasu
used to colle
psandHydroc
buretteintothe
ndputthechip
dusingtheme
erstopperand
rette every 30
e released aga
of reaction at 5
experiment.
ollect carbon dio
F
ured,letusta
ect the gas
chloricAcid)
ebasinandma
psintotheconic
easuringcylind
dshaketheflas
seconds for 3
ainst time on t
50 secondsand
oxide gas

ake
ark
cal
der
sk.
360
the
in
142
The chemical equation for the reaction between marble chip (calcium
carbonate,CaCO3)andhydrochloricacidis:
CaCO3(s)+HCl(aq)CaCl2(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l)
Figure 5.6 shows the volume of carbon dioxide gas released measured at
certainintervalsplottedagainsttime.
Figure5.6:Thevolumeofcarbondioxidegasliberatedagainsttime
How fast areaction progresses over an interval of time is the average speed
ofreaction.Itiscalculatedasfollows:
Averagespeed=Thechangeintheamountofreactantorproduct
Thetimetakenforthechangetohappen
FromthegraphinFigure5.6,wecancalculatetheaveragespeedofchemical
reactionbetweenmarblechipandhydrochloricacid.

VolumeofCO2gas/cm
3
Time/min
143

8
Averagespeedofreaction=Thetotalvolumeofcarbondioxidegasreleased
Timetakenforthetotalcarbondioxidegasrelease
=94.00cm
3
4.5min
=20.90cm
3
min
1
Canyoucalculatethespeedofreactionatanygiventime?
Letustakealookatthenextexample:
Based on the graph of volume of carbon dioxide gas liberated against time
(Figure5.6),youcanalso:
a. Calculatetheaveragerateofreactioninthefirstoneminute;

Figure5.7:Theaveragerateofreactioninthefirstoneminute
Theexactspeedofreactionatanygiventimeis
calledtheinstantaneousspeedofreaction.

Volume of CO
2
gas/ cm
3

Time/min
144
Theaveragerateofreactioninthefirstoneminute
=TotalvolumeofCO2collectedinthefirst1minute
Timetaken
=54.00cm
3
1min
=54.00cm
3
min
1
b. Calculatetheaveragerateofreactionfrom1minuteto2minutes;and
Figure5.8:Theaveragerateofreactionfrom1minuteto2minute
Theaveragerateofreactionfrom1minuteto2minutes
=TotalvolumeofCO2collectedfrom1minuteto2minutes
Timetaken
=(77.0054.00)cm
3
(21)min
=23.00cm
3

1min
=23.00cm
3
min
1

Volume of CO
2
gas/ cm
3

Time/min
145

10
c. Calculate the average speed of reaction atthe 2 minutespoint by

drawingatangentatthecurvepoint.
Figure5.9:Theaveragespeedofreactioncalculatedbydrawingatangentline
atthecurvepoint
Thespeedofreactionatthe2ndminute=Thegradientofthetangentofthe
graphatthesecondminute
Thespeedofreactionatthe2ndminute =100.0050.00cm
3
3.30.4min
=50.00cm
3
2.9min
=17.24cm
3
min
1

Volume of CO
2
gas/ cm
3

Time/min
ACTIVITY 5.3
From the graph in Figure 5.8, calculate:
The average speed of reaction in 3 minutes.
The average speed of reaction from 3 minutes to 4 minutes.
The average speed of reaction from 2 minutes to 4.5 minutes.

Tangentline
146

Another
reaction
formicac
Afterwe
wewilln
In aque
(HCOOH
Molecula
progress
monitore
withasp
thereact
Theaver
concentr
Wh
incr
Mg
rate
S
A
Fro
At
examplewe
is actually m
cid.
ehaveseenho
nowlearntow
ous solution
H)asfollows:
Br(aq)+H
ar bromine
ses, the conce
ed easily by
pectrometer.
tants.
ragerateofth
rationoverac
hen magnesiu
rease of volum
.Which obser
eofreaction?
SELF-CHECK
ACTIVITY 5.
omthegraph
Theinstan
Theinstan
Theinstan
whichtimeis
TOPIC
canlookatto
measured is
owthespeed
writespeede
ns, molecular
:
HCOOH(aq)
has a distin
entration of B
measuring t
Notethattim
hereactionca
certaintimein
um (Mg) react
me inhydrog
rvable change
Explainwhy
K 5.2
4
inFigure5.9,
ntaneousspee
ntaneousspee
ntaneousspee
sthereactian
5 SPEED OF
ounderstand
the reaction
ofreactionis
expressionsus
r bromine (B
2Br
(aq)
nctivered bro
Br steadily d
the molecular
mezeroisthe
anbedefined
nterval.That
ts with dilute
en gas (H2) a
e would you
y.
,calculate;
dofreaction
dofreaction
dofreaction
thefastest?A
CHEMICAL R
dhowthespe
n of molecula
measuredvia
singtheexpe
Br2) reacts w
+2H
+
(aq)+C
own colour.
decreases. Thi
r fading of b
etimejustaft
dasthechang
is,
ed acid, we c
and the decre
u measure to

at1minute,
at3minutes,
at4minutes.
At1,2,3or4m
REACTIONS
eedofachem
ar bromine w
aExperiment
rimentaldata
with formic a
CO(g)
As the react
is change can
bromines col
terthemixing
geinthereac
can observe a
ease in mass
determine th
minutes?
11
mical
with
5.1,
a.
acid
tion
n be
lour
gof
tant
an
of
he
147
T

12
Where
concentra
quantity.
isneeded
Someche
tospeedu
Thereare
(a) Part
(b) Con
(c) Pres
(d) Tem
(e) Cata
Thev
asfo
Time
Volu
i. D
ii. C
m
SEL
5.3
TOPIC5 SPEE
A
[Br] = [Br
ationofBrde
Butthespeed
inthespeed
FACTO
AREA
emicalreactio
uptheslowo
severalfacto
ticlesizeofth
ncentrationof
ssureofgaseo
mperature;an
alysts.
volumeofO2g
llows:
e(min) 0
ume(cm
3
) 0
Drawagrapho
Calculatethea
minute.
LF-CHECK 5.
ED OF CHEMIC
Averagerate=
=
]final [Br]in
ecreasesduri
dofthereacti
expressionto
ORSAFF
ACTION
nsarefast;o
onesandslow
orsthataffect
hereactants;
fthereactants
ousreactants;
d
gasproducedd
0 2
0 60
ofthevolumeo
averagerateof
.3
CAL REACTIO
=[Br]final[B
tfinaltin
[Br]
t
nitial and t
ingthetimei
ionisapositi
omakethera
FECTING
thersareslow
wdownthefas
thespeedofa
s;
;
duetothedeco
4
78
oftheO2gasa
reactionandt
NS
Br]initial
nitial
= tfinal tiniti
interval,[Br
ivequantity,s
tepositive.
GTHES
w.Sometimes
stones.
areaction:
ompositionofH
6 8
82 84
gainsttime.
therateofreac
ial. Because t
r]isanegati
soaminussi
SPEEDO
schemistswa
H2O2isrecorded
10
4 84
ctionatthethir

the
ive
ign
OF
ant
d
rd
148
If you want to produce as much of a product as possible with the shortest
amountoftimeviaachemicalreaction,youmustconsiderthekineticsofthe
reaction.
5.3.1 EffectofParticleSizeofChemicalReactants
Reaction depends on collisions. The more surface area on which collisions
canoccur,thefasterthereaction.
You can hold a burning match to a large chunk of coal and nothing will
happen. But if you take that same piece of coal, grind it up very, very fine,
throwitup intotheair,andstrikeamatch,youllgetanexplosionbecause
oftheincreasedsurfaceareaofthecoal.
We find that small pieces of solids, especially powders, react faster than
largerpieces.Itislikefryingtwopansofchips!Onehasthepotatocutinto
small,thinchips.Theotherpanhasbigger,thickerchips(Figure5.10).Which
chipsdoyouthinkwillbecookedfirst?Whichchipshavethelargersurface
area?
Surfaceareaisameasureofhowmuchsurfaceisexposed.Soforthesame
massofpotato,smallchipshavealargersurfaceareathanbigchips.
Figure5.10:Smallchipswithlargersurfacearea
149

14
LetuscarryoutExperiment5.2toseehowparticlesizecanaffectthespeed
ofchemicalreaction.
Now, can you explain how the particle size of chemical reactants can affect
the speed of reaction?Observe Figure 5.11 to help you with your
explanation.
From the figure given,
Which size of marble
chips has the largest
surface area?
What would the graph
look like if we use the
same mass of powdered
calcium carbonate?
Explain why.
Experiment5.2
1. Repeat Experiment 5.1 but replace medium marble chips with

smallmarblechips.
2. Themassofsmallmarblechips,thevolumeandconcentrationof
hydrochloricacidusedarethesame.
3. Plot the graph of the volume of carbon dioxide released against
timeonthegraphpaperasinExperiment5.1.
4. Calculatetheaveragespeedofreactionandintherateofreaction
inthesecondminuteforthisexperiment.
5. Repeat Experiment 5.1 once again but at this time replace
mediummarblechipswithlargemarblechips.
SELF-CHECK 5.4
150
Figure5.11:(a)Biggersizedreactant;(b)Smallersizedreactant
The smaller the size of reactant, the larger is the surface area exposed. This
translatestoanincreasetothespeedofchemicalreaction.
5.3.2EffectofConcentrationofChemicalReactants
Increasingthenumberofcollisionswillspeedupthereactionrate.Themore
reactantmoleculestherearecolliding,thefasterthereactionwillbe.Asthe
concentrationbecomeshigher,thenumberofmoleculesperunitvolumealso
increases(Figure5.12).Forexample,awoodsplintburnsmoderatelyinthe
air(20percentoxygen),butitburnsmuchfasterinpureoxygen.
(a) (b)
Pour800mlofwaterintwodifferentpots.Put1kgofwholechicken
without cutting it into the first potand inanother pot putanother
1kg of chiken that had been cut in eight.Which pot of chicken will
bedonefirst?Explainwhy.
ACTIVITY 5.4
151

16
Figure5.12:(a)Lowconcentration;(b)Highconcentrationofreactant
Inmostsimplecases,increasingtheconcentrationofthereactantsincreases
thespeedofreaction.However,ifthereactioniscomplexandhasacomplex
mechanism (series of steps in the reaction), this may not be the case.
Determining the concentration effect on the speed of reaction can give you
cluesasto whichreactantisinvolvedintherate,thusdeterminingthestep
ofthemechanism.
You can do this by testingthe reaction withseveral different concentrations
andobservingtheeffectonthespeedofreactionasinExperiment5.3.
(a) (b)
152
Experiment5.3
1. Usingapencil,markanXonapieceofwhitepaper,asfollows:
2. Usingthe50cmmeasuringcylinder,measure50cmof0.2moldm
sodium thiosulphate solution and pour it into a conical flask. Place
theflaskontheXmarkonthewhitepaper.
3. Measure5cmof1moldmsulphuricacidwitha10cmmeasuring
cylinder.
4. Immediately, pour the sulphuric acid into the conical flask
containing 50cm of sodium thiosulphate solution and shake the
flask.Atthesametime,startthestopwatch.
5. Observe the yellow precipitate of sulphur at the top part of the
conical flask. Record the time when the X mark on the white
paperisnolongervisible.
6. Repeat the experiment using 50cm of the 0.4 mol dm, 0.6mol
dm, 0.8 mol dm and 1.0 mol dmsodium thiosulphate
solution.The volume and concentration of the sulphuric acid used
arethesame.
7. Plottwographs:
a) Graphofconcentrationofsodiumthiosulphatesolutionagainst
time.
b) Graph of the concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution
against1Time
8. Calculatetheaveragespeedofreactionforalltheexperiment.What
canberepresentedby1Time?
153
T

18
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154
b) Graphofconcentrationofsodiumthiosulphatesolutionagainsttime
Figure5.15:Graphofconcentrationofsodiumthiosulphatesolutionagainst
time
FromExperiment5.3,thetimetakenfortheformationofafixedquantityof
sulphurtocoverthemarkXuntilitdisappearsfromsightcanbeusedto
measurethespeedofreaction.
Speedofreactionisdirectlyproportionalto:
1
timetakenforthemarkXtodisappearfromsight
Concentration
of sodium
thiosulphate
solution
(mol/dm
3
)
1
Time
(s
-1
)
155

20
5.3.3 EffectofPressureofGaseousReactants
The pressure of gaseous reactants has basically the same effect as
concentration. The higher the reactant pressure, the higher the reaction
speed.Thisisduetotheincreasednumberofcollisions(Figure5.16).

Figure5.16:(a)Lowpressure;(b)Highpressure

5.3.4 EffectofTemperature
Increasing the temperature causes molecules to move faster, so there is an
increased chance of them colliding with each other and reacting. But
increasing the temperature also increases the average kinetic energy of the
molecules.
Figure 5.17shows anexample of how increasing the temperature affects the
kineticenergyofthereactantsandincreasesthereactionspeed.
156
Figure5.17:Theeffectoftemperatureonthekineticenergyofreactants
Atanygiventemperature,notallofthemoleculesaremovingwiththesame
kinetic energy. A small number of molecules are moving very slow (low
kinetic energy), while a few are moving very fast (high kinetic energy). A
vast majority of the molecules are somewhere in between these two
extremes.
In fact, temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules. As you can see in Figure 5.17, increasing the temperature
increasestheaveragekineticenergyofthereactants,essentiallyshiftingthe
curvetotherighttowardshigherkineticenergies.
But also notice the minimum amount of kinetic energy needed by the
reactants to provide the activation energy (the energy required to get a
reactiongoing)duringcollision.Thereactantshavetocollideatthereactive
site,buttheyalsohavetotransferenoughenergytobreakthebondssothat
new bonds can be formed. If the reactants do not have enough energy, a
reactionwillnotoccurevenifthereactantsdocollideatthereactivesite.
Notice that at the lower temperature, very few of the reactant molecules
have the minimum amount of kinetic energy needed to provide the
activationenergy.Atthehighertemperature,manymoremoleculespossess
157

22
the minimum amount of kinetic energy needed, which means a lot more
collisionswillbeenergeticenoughtoleadtoreaction.
Increasing the temperature not only increases the number of collisions but
also increases the number of collisions that are effective that transfer
enoughenergytocauseareactiontotakeplace(Figure5.18).
Figure5.18:EffectoftemperatureonthereactionbetweenparticleAandparticleB
Design and carry out an experiment to study the effect of

temperature on the rate of reaction. The various temperatures that
are suggested for this experiment are 30C, 35C, 40C, 45C and
50C. The materials and apparatus supplied are as shown in the
following:
Materials: 1 mol dm sulphuric acid, H2SO4, 0.2 mol dm sodium
thiosulphatesolution,Na2S2O4,whitepaper.
Apparatus: 100cm conical flask, 50cm measuring cylinders,
stopwatch,Bunsenburner,wiregauze,tripodstand,thermometer.
Calculatetherateofreactionatthethirdminute.
ACTIVITY 5.5
158

5.3.5
Catalysts
changed
speedby
Figure 5
provide
thatmore
reaction
Catalysts
i. P
ii. P
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159

24
The catalyst may react to form an intermediate, but it is regenerated in a
subsequent step of the reaction. In the laboratory preparation of molecular
oxygen, a sample of potassium chlorate is heated, as shown in Figure 5.19,
andthereactionisnotedasfollows:
2KCIO(s)2KCI(s)+3O(g)
However, this thermal decomposition will occurvery slowly in the absence
of a catalyst. The rate of decomposition can be increased dramatically by
addingasmallamountofthecatalystmanganese(MnO),apowderyblack
substance.AlloftheMnOcanberecoveredattheendofthereaction,justas
alloftheiodineions,I
,remainfollowingHOdecomposition.
Regardlessofitsnature,acatalystspeedsupareactionbyprovidingasetof
elementarystepswithamorefavourablekineticsthanthosethatexistinits
absence.Thesmallertheactivationenergy,E,thegreatertherate.Inmany
cases, a catalyst increases the rate by lowering the activation energy for the
reaction.
LetuscarryoutExperiment5.4tostudytheeffectofcatalystonthespeedof
reaction.
160
Experiment5.4
1. Fillthebasinandsmallmeasuringcylinderwithwater.Invertthe
measuringcylinderintothebasinthatisfilledwithwater(Figure
5.20).
2. Measure50cmof20volumeofhydrogenperoxidesolutionusing
ameasuringcylinderandpouritintotheconicalflask.
3. Put a weighing bottle containing a half spatulamanganese (IV)
oxidepowderintothehydrogenperoxidesolution.
4. Immediately cover the conical flask with the rubber stopper and
shaketheflaskslowly.Startthestopwatchatthesametime.
5. Record the volume of oxygen released every 30 seconds for 300
seconds(5minutes).
6. Repeat the experiment by adding a spatula of manganese (IV)
oxidepowder.
7. Thevolumeandconcentrationofthehydrogenperoxidesolution
usedarethesame.
8. Then, plot two graphs of the volume of gas against time with
differentamountofcatalyst,onthesamegraphpaper.
9. Calculate the average rate of reaction for each experiment. Does
theamountofcatalystincreasetherateofreaction?
Figure5.20:SetupoftheapparatusforExperiment5.4
161

26
The graph obtained from Experiment 5.4 should be as shown in the
following:
Figure5.21:Theeffectofcatalystonthespeedofreactionofhydrogenperoxide
solution
SELF-CHECK 5.5
European regulations state that all new
cars have to be fitted with catalytic
convertersaspartoftheirexhaustsystem.
UsingtheInternetand/orotherresources,
explain how catalytic converters work.In
your explanation, state the name of
catalystused.
Thefollowingtwosetsofexperimentsarecarriedout:
Set I 1g of granulated zinc is added to 30cm
3
of 0.5 mol/dm
3
hydrochloricacid
Set II 1g of granulated zinc is added to 30cm
3
of 0.5 mol/dm
3
hydrochloric acid and 2cm

3
of 1 mol/dm
3
copper(II) sulphate
solution.
Explainwhytheinitial rateofsetIIishigherthanthatofsetIusing
thecollisiontheory.
ACTIVITY 5.6
162
THEEFFECTOFACTIVATION
ENERGYONTHESPEEDOFA
REACTION
Allmoleculespossessacertainminimumamountofenergy.Theenergycan
be in the form of kinetic energy and/or potential energy. When molecules
collide,thekineticenergyofthemoleculescanbeusedtostretch,bendand
ultimatelybreakthebonds,leadingtochemicalreactions.
If molecules are moving too slowly with little kinetic energy, or collided
withanimproperorientation,theywillnotreactandsimplybounceoffeach
other.However,ifthemoleculesaremovingatafastenoughvelocitywitha
proper collision orientation, such as the kinetic energy upon collision is
greater than the minimum energy barrier, then a reaction will occur. The
minimumenergybarrierthatmustbemetforachemicalreactiontohappen
is called the activation energy, Ea.It can be represented by trying to push a
stonetotheothersideasshowninFigure5.22.
Figure5.23:ThemanistryingtopushthestonefrompointAtopointB
[Source:http://sites.tenafly.k12.nj.us/~shilfstein/demo_notes.htm]
The reaction pathway can be observed in Figure 5.23. In order to get the
product to react, the reactant has to overcome the activation energy, or a
new product cannot be achieved if it does not have the same amount of
energy.
5.4
163
T

28
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2.
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165
T

30
Atkins,P.
Chang,R.

Earl,B.,&

Eng, N. H
Pela

Moore,J.T
Odufalu,
Retrieved
http://che
eaction_R
TOPIC5 SPEE
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.(1989).Chem
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angi.
T.Chemistryfo
F., Chacha,
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Rate
ED OF CHEMIC
ysicalchemistr
mistry.NewY
(2009).IGCS
Y. C. (2007).
ordummies.Riv
P., Mudda,
vis.edu/Physic
CAL REACTIO
ry.Oxford:O
York:McGraw
Echemistry.U
Focus super
verStHobok
G. & Iskan
cal_Chemistry
NS
xfordUnivers
wHill.
UK:HodderE
chemistry. Ba
ken,NJ:Wiley
dar A. (n.d.)
y/Kinetics/Re
sityPress.
Education.
angi: Penerbit
y.
). Reaction ra
eaction_Rates

tan
ate.
/R
166

TOPIC 6:

HYDROCARBON
COMPOUNDS I

TOPIC 7:

HYDROCARBON
COMPOUNDS II

TOPIC 6: HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS I

TOPIC 7: HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS II
Readings
Rose Marie Gallgher (1997). Complete Chemistry, Oxford Universiti Press, UK.
Ralph A. Burns (2003). Fundamentals of Chemistry, Prentice Hall, Ney Jersey
Bryan Milner, Jean Martin, John Mills (2002). Core Chemistry, Cambridge
Universiti Press
J. G. R. Briggs (2003). Chemistry Insight, Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
Singapore
J.G. R. Briggs (2003). Science in Focus Chemistryfor GCE O Level,
Pearson Education Asia Pte.Ltd. Singapore.
Bahagian Pendidikan Guru, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (1995) Buku
Sumber Pengajaran Pembelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, Jilid 3: Strategi
Pengajarandan Pembelajaran Sains. Projek PIER Bahagian Pendidikan Guru
sertadan Bahagian Perancangan dan Penyelidikan Dasar Pendidikan, Kuala
Lumpur
Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E.,Peck,M.L and Stanley, GG. (2008). Chemistry
(Ninth Edition).2010 Brooks/Cole.

Keywords
. alcohols and phenols
. primary, secondary and tertiary
. polymerization
. polymers
. condensation reaction
. condensation polymerizations
. nylon
. carboxylic acids

169
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this Topic, the learner will be able to;
1. Ability to differentiate between alcohols and phenols.
2. Ability to differentiate between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols.
Illustrate by writing names and formulas for three alcohols of each type.
3. Explain the trends in boiling points and solubilities of alcohols in water.
4. Describe the physical properties of alcohol.
5. Describe some uses of alcohol.
6. Describe polymerization, write equations for three polymerization reactions,
explain two classes of polymers and naming three polymers commonly found
in the classroom and give their uses or functions.
7. Give an example of a condensation reaction. Name the essential feature of
monomers used in the condensation polymerizations.
8. Define nylon? Describe in your own words how nylon is prepared.
9. Define carboxylic acids. Write structural formals for five carboxylic acids.
10. Define esters. Write structural formulas for four esters.

Study Questions
Task 1 : Read section 27-9 Alcohols and phenols and answer questions 1 3
(a) What do you understand about alcohols and phenols?
(b) How do they differ?
(c ) Why are alcohols and phenols be viewed as derivatives of
hydrocarbons?
Task 2 : Can you differentiate between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols?
Illustrate by writing names and formulas for three alcohols of each type.
Task 3 : Refer to Table 27-8. Explain the trends in boiling points and solubilities
of alcohols in water.
170
Task 4 : Describe the physical properties of alcohol. Refer to Page 998-999.
Task 5 : Describe some uses of alcohol. Refer to Page 999 for the information.
Task 6 : Refer to page 1020-1024 for questions 6 - 8. In your own words,
(i) describe polymerization.
(ii) write equations for three polymerization reactions.
(iii) explain two classes of polymers.
(iv) Name three polymers commonly found in the classroom and
give their uses or functions.
Task 7 : Give an example of a condensation reaction. Name the essential feature
of monomers used in the condensation polymerizations.
Task 8 : What is nylon? Describe in your own words how nylon is prepared.
Task 9 : Refer to section 27-13 Carboxylic acids for questions 9 - 10. Define
carboxylic acids. Write structural formals for five carboxylic acids.
Task 10 : Define esters. Write structural formulas for four esters.
171
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271

TOPIC 8:

NATURAL MATERIALS
AND MANUFACTURED OR
MANMADE MATERIALS

T
T
o
o
p
p
i
i
c
c
8
8

Natural
Materials and
Manufactured
or Man-made
Materials
Bytheendofthistopic,youshouldbeableto:
1. Definematerial;
2. Describeeachtypeofmaterials;
3. Explainthepropertiesofmaterials;
4. Statetheimportanceofmaterials;
5. Comparenaturalmaterialsandmanufacturedmaterials;
6. Describehowtopreserveournaturalmaterials;
7. Describecompositematerials;and
8. Discuss the materials in industry in the context of soap, natural and
syntheticrubber,naturalandsyntheticfibreandplastics.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
275
TOPIC 8 NATURAL MATERIALS & MANUFACTURED OR MAN-MADE MATERIALS

71
INTRODUCTION

Materialsarethethingsthatyoucanobserveallaroundyou.Fromfallingrain
to plants and human beings, from window curtains to floor mats and from
computers to printing materials, these are all materials. The air that you
breatheinandoutisalsoamaterial.
Materialsareveryusefultohumanbeingsfortheirsurvival.Theynotonlyuse
naturalmaterialsbutalsocreatenewmaterialsinordertofulfiltheirneeds.

DEFINITION, PROPERTIES AND
IMPORTANCE OF MATERIALS
Acloudisseenasabulkofmovingobjectintheair.Whenitisveryheavy,it
starts to drop tiny droplets of water. When the sun shines on the water
droplets,itturnstovapour.Haveyoueverthoughtoftheprocessesthatoccur
inthisevent?
Thiseventisjustoneinathousandofeventsthatinvolvematerials.Materials
are the things all around you. Materials have mass and occupy space. Gases,
woods,plastics,foods,animalsandwaterareallexamplesofmaterials.
According to the ancient Greek, there should be four things to make up a

substance.Thesefourthingsareearth,fire,airandwater.TheGreeksbelieved
that these four things mix together in different amounts to make different
materials.

8.1.1 Definition of Materials

Whatismaterial?Materialisdefinedasfollows.
8.1
Material is made up of thousands of small particles, not visible to the
nakedeye,calledatoms.Thecompositionofatomsinthematerialmakesit
differentfromoneanother.
276

72
Based on these compositions of atom, material can be divided into three
categories:element,compoundandmixture.

(i) Element
An element is the simplest substance of a material. It cannot be broken

down or separated by chemical or physical methods into any simpler
components. An element is made up of only one type of atom. Some
elements have atoms of the same types, which are combined to form
molecules.Thereare112typesofelements,inwhich92oftheseelements
occurnaturallyintheearthand20arecreatedbyscientists.
Elements can be grouped into metals and nonmetals. Gold, zinc, iron,
aluminium, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen are examples of
elements.
Figure 8.1 shows the atom of an element with its nucleus at the centre
andelectronsmovingaroundthenucleus.

Figure8.1:Theatomofanelement

277

73
(b) CombinedElements
Therearetwotypesofcombinedelementscompoundsandmixtures.
(i) Compound
Twoormoreelementscanbecombinedtogetherchemicallytoform
a new material called a compound. A molecule is the smallest
particle in a compound. Water is an example of a compound. A
water molecule is made up of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen
atoms,whicharecombinedchemically(seeFigure8.2).

Figure8.2:Watermolecule

Table8.1showsseveraltypesofcompoundsanditselements.
Oxygen atom
Hydrogen
atoms
ACTIVITY 8.1
Lookoutsideyourlaboratory.Identifytheobjectsandlistdownthe
objects. They are made of different types of materials. Most of the
materialsaremadefromacombinationofelements.Somearemade
of only one type of element. Can you guess which objects are made
ofonlyoneelement?Canyounametheelementineachcase?Write
downyourfindings.
278

74
ACTIVITY 8.2
Table8.1:SeveralTypesofCompounds
Compound Elements
Carbon dioxide One carbon atom, two oxygen atoms
Sodium chloride One sodium atom, one chloride atom
Benzene Six carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms
Ammonia One nitrogen atom, three hydrogen atom
Water One oxygen atom, two hydrogen atoms
The components of a compound cannot be separated by physical methods

such as crushing or by magnetic force. Components of a compound can be
separated by chemical methods. For example, pure water can be broken
down into its elements that are oxygen and hydrogen by using electrolysis.

Compounds can be prepared by a chemical reaction. Heat energy is released
or absorbed when a compound is formed. This will form a new substance
that is different from its early substances. The characteristics of a
combination of elements which are combined by specific ratios are different
from each of the origin element.

(ii) Mixtures
Materialthatismadeupofacombinationoftwoormoresubstances
thatarecombinedphysicallyiscalledamixture.Thismeansthatthe
mixture can be separated by physical methods such as filtration,
evaporation, distillation, chromatography, extraction, precipitation,
magnetic forces, sieving and heating or evaporation processes. By
theseseparationmethods,thechemicalstructureofthecomponentis
notchangedbecausethesubstanceinamixturedoesnotunite.

ACTIVITY 8.2
Have you ever burnt a magnesium ribbon? Magnesium and
oxygencanbecombinedtomakeacompound.Holdasmallpiece
of magnesium ribbon by using a tong and move it slowly into a
flame. Observe the appearance of magnesium and oxygen before
andafteritwasburnt.Identifytheendproductoftheexperiment.
279

75
Therearetwotypesofmixturehomogenousandheterogeneous.A
homogenous mixture is formed when its substances are mixed
evenlyandtheidentityofeachsubstancecannotbeidentifiedeasily.
A heterogeneous mixture is formed when its substance can be
identified easily. When sugar is put in a glass of hot drink, it
becomes a homogenous mixture. A mixture of sulphur with iron
fillings and air are examples of a heterogeneous mixture (see Table
8.2).
Table8.2:SeveralTypesofMixtures
Mixture Components
Air Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, inert
gases,microorganismsandwatervapour
Soil Water,clay,loam,sand,humus,gravel
Seawater Sodium chloride, water, magnesium, plumbum,
oxygen
Chocolate
cake
Flour,water,oil,egg,chocolatepowder
Blood Blood cells, hormones, minerals, water, plasma,
oxygen

During the formation of a mixture, heat energy is not absorbed or
released.Thereisalsonocombinationofelementsinaspecific ratio
andeachcomponentretainsitsoriginalproperty.Thecomponentsof
amixturecanbeeasilyidentified.

SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Whatisamaterial?
2. Nameafewexamplesofmaterials.
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(c) Making New Materials

Some materials around us are natural while others are man-made. Wool from
sheep and wood from trees are natural materials. All these materials are made
from elements.

Scientists sometimes combine elements in new ways. This is a way to make
useful man-made materials. Synthetic materials are an example of man-made
materials.

8.1.2 Properties of Materials

What are the physical properties of materials? Matter is the general word for
all materials. Therefore, specific matter such as wood, stone and paper are
called material. We know that materials can be divided into two types
natural materials and synthetic materials. Natural materials are made from
organicmateriallikepaperorinorganicmateriallikesandandlava.Humans
cannot create natural materials. However, scientists have managed to make
syntheticmaterials.Plasticsandceramicsaretwotypesofsyntheticmaterials.
Each material has its unique physical properties, which means different
materialshavedifferentproperties.Someoftheimportantphysicalproperties
of materials are elasticity, shine, buoyancy, water absorbency, electrical
conductivity, heat conductivity and magnetism. Other physical properties of
materials are hardness, toughness and brittleness, strength, flexibility,
solubilityandwaterproof.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Statethetypesofcombiningelements.

ACTIVITY 8.3
Do you know how to separate gases in the air? What are the
proceduresthatshouldbetakentoturnitintoliquid?Discusswith
yourcoursemates.
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Scientists distinguish material properties according to their interesting
contextualfactors.Amongthesepropertiesare:
(a) Mechanicalpropertieslikeelasticity;
(b) Thermodynamicpropertieslikespecificheatcapacityandmeltingpoint;
(c) Electromagnetic properties like specific magnetic susceptibility and
specificelectricconductivity;
(d) Chemical properties like the capacity for oxidation or the solubility in a
certainliquid;
(e) Biological or biochemical properties like LD50, antibiotic or anaesthetic
effect;
(f) Ecological properties like ozone depletion potential, greenhouse effect
factor;and
(g) Mixed material properties (two or more interesting factors are
combined) like photochemical, thermoelectrical, thermoelectro
chemical.
Letusnowtakealookatthetypesofmaterialproperties.
(a) Elasticity
Whatiselasticity?
Materials that are able to return to their old shape when force is no
longer applied are called elastic materials. However, materials which
retaintheirnewshapeswhenforceisnolongerappliedarecalledplastic
materialsornonelasticmaterials.Somematerialssuchasrubberbands,
balloons and gloves are elastic materials but some materials such as
plastic, wood and belt are nonelastic materials. To determine whether
materials are elastic or nonelastic, you may need to carry out some
activity.

Elasticityistheabilityofamaterialtoreturntoitsoriginalshapeand
sizeafterbeingbent,twisted,stretchedandsqueezed.
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Scientists spend a lot of their time investigating the properties of
materials mainly to find out how they behave in a variety of situations.
The most important property is how a particular material responds to
forces. When an elastic material is pulled, it stretches and increases in
length.However,theincreaseinlengthwillstopwhenitreachesapoint
where the material no longer returns to its original shape. This pull is
also known as the elastic limit of the material. If the pull still increases,
thematerialmaybreakdown(pleaserefertoFigure8.3).

Figure8.3:Effectofforceonmaterials
(i) ElasticChange
When enough force is applied to an object, it deforms. However,
when the force is removed, the material will often return to its
originalshape.
(ii) PlasticChange
Whenalargerforceisapplied,amaterialmaycontinuetodeform.
However,whentheforceisremoved,itwillstayinthisnewshape.
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(iii) Break
If enough force is applied to a material, it will become brittle and
eventuallybreakorfracture.

Somematerialsthatexhibitelasticbehaviourare:
(i) Rubber: Large deformation if warm, then fracture or small
deformationandfractureifcold;
(ii) Metals:Smalldeformation,thenpermanentlydeform;
(iii) Ceramics:Smalldeformation,thenfracture;
(iv) Electronicmaterials:Smalldeformation,thenfractureordeform;
(v) Glass:Smalldeformation,thenfracture.
(vi) Humanskin:Largedeformations.
(vii) Polymers:Temperaturedependent.
(viii) Liquidsunderuniformhydrostaticpressure.
(b) Shiny

Whenitcomestomaterialproperties,whatdoesshinymean?
Shineisimportantinmakingjewelleryandaccessories.Inrelationtothis
shiny property of materials, some materials allow light to pass through
thembutsomedonot.Materialssuchasglassandplasticallowlightto
pass through them. On the other hand, materials such as wood and
metal do not allow light to pass through them. According to the ability
of materials to allow light to pass through them, materials can also be
SELF-CHECK 8.3
1. Statetheimportanceofphysicalpropertiesofmaterials.
2. Giveanexampleofamaterialforeachphysicalproperty.
Some materials are shiny and some are not. Shiny materials can
reflectthelightsuchassometypesofmetalsandglasses.
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divided into three types. There are transparent materials, translucent
materials and opaque materials. Figure 8.4 shows objects made of
transparent,translucentandopaquematerials.
Figure8.4:Objectsmadeoftransparent,translucentandopaque
materials
Transparentmaterials
If the materials allow most of the light to pass through them, it is
known as transparent materials. Examples of this type are glass,
plain plastic, air, water, aquariums, some doors and walls of
buildings made from clear glass. We can clearly see objects behind
thesematerials.
Translucentmaterials
If the materials allow some of the light to pass through them, it is
known as translucent materials. Objects behind a translucent
material cannot be seen clearly. It will appear blurred. Examples of
these materials are tissue paper, wrapping plastic, some window
panes,bulbs,foodcontainersandsunglasses.
Opaquematerials
Opaquematerialsarematerialswhichcannotallowanylighttopass
through them. We cannot see anything behind opaque materials.
Metals, woods, rubber, bricks, roofs, walls, bags, hats and paper
boxesareexamplesofthesematerials.

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(c) Buoyancy

How do we define buoyancy? Let us take a look at the following
definition.

Why do some things float? Dense objects sink and light objects float.
Therefore, buoyancy is also related to density. Density is mass per unit of
volume.

Floatingisrelatedtothevolumeofliquiddisplacedbyanobject.Theliquidis
pushedasidewhenanobjectisplacedinit.Therefore,ourbodydisplacesthe
water. When an object floats in water, only a part of it displaces the water.
Theotherpartoftheobjectremainsabovethewater.Theobjectsfloataftera
definiteamountofwaterisdisplaced.AccordingtoArchimedes,theancient
Greekphysicist,whenthemassofthedisplacedliquidisequaltothemassof
the objects, the objects will float. Plastic, wood and rubber are examples of
floatingmaterials.Figure8.5showsfloatingmaterialsandliquidsofdifferent
densities.
Figure8.5:Floatingmaterialsandliquidsofdifferentdensities
Buoyancyistheabilityofmaterialstofloatinliquid.
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(d) WaterAbsorbency

Materialswhichcanabsorbwaterareknownasabsorbentmaterialsand
materials which cannot absorb water are known as nonabsorbent
materials.Thematerialsthatareabletoabsorbwaterbecomecompletely
wet.Examplesofabsorbentmaterialsarewood,paperandcottoncloth.
Raincoats, umbrellas, plastic and hats are examples of nonabsorbent
materials.
(e) ElectricalConductivity
A material that allows electricity to pass through it is a material that
conductselectricity.Almostalltypesofmetalsuchaszinc,copper,brass
andgoldarematerialsthatconductelectricity.Nonmetalssuchasglass,
wood,plastic,cottonwoolandleatherarematerialsthatdonotconduct
electricity.Electricalconductivityisameasureoftheeasewithwhichan
electricalcurrentcanmoveinamaterial.Itmaybeinferredbylookingat
their resistivity, which refers to its ability to resist the passage of an
electricalcurrent.Figure8.6showsthetestofelectricalconduction.
ACTIVITY 8.4
ACTIVITY 8.4
Your friends child is asking you about absorbent materials. How do
you explain to your friends child to test absorbent and non-absorbent
materials? Discuss in pairs.
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Figure8.6:Testofelectricalconduction

Table8.3summarisestheelectricalresistivityofsomecommonmaterials.
Table8.3:ElectricalResistivityofSomeCommonMaterials
Materials ElectricalResistivity(108ohms/m)
Copper 1.67
Aluminium 2.65
Iron 9.71
Steel 12.0
Pyrexglass 105
Concrete 0.1
Nylon 1016
Rubber
Softwood
ACTIVITY 8.5
How do you test for electrical conduction? Arrange equipment to find
out which materials are electrical conductors and which are electrical
insulators. Figure 8.6 will help you do the test. Place the material
betweenthebatteryandthebulbtobetested.Seewhathappenstothe
lightbulb. Test several types of samples such as pencil, flower, soil,
waterandspoon.
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(f) HeatConductivity

Whatisheatconductivity?
Metals can conduct heat while nonmetals cannot conduct heat. Each
materialconductsheatinitsownspecialway.Agoodconductorwould
beusedinradiatorswhereasapoorconductorwouldbeusedtoinsulate
extremeheat.

Scientists have a way of measuring the value of how well heat is
conducted.Ifthevalueofamaterialislarger,itisabetterheatconductor
compared to materials with small values. Table 8.4 shows the values of
heat conduction of some materials. A piece of copper with a heat
conduction value of about 8000 is a better heat conductor than foamed
plastic with a heat conduction value of about 1 because copper ranks
higherthanplastic.
Table8.4:ValuesofHeatConductionofSomeMaterials
Materials ValuesofHeatConduction(Relative)
Copper
8000
Aluminium
4000
Brass
2500
Steel
1100
Pyrexglass
24
Concrete 2
Solidplastic 6
Rubber 2
FoamedPlastic 1
Amaterialthatallowsheattopassthroughiteasilyisamaterialthat
conductsheat.
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(g) Magnetism

Magnetismisthepropertyofmaterialstoattractiron,forexample,iron
oxide, cobalt, nickel and certain types of alloy. Actually, it is quite
difficult to explain the definition of magnetism; however, it is much
easier to explain what magnets do. Some of the characteristics of
magnetismareasfollows.
(i) Magneticmaterialscanbeattractedbymagnets;
(ii) Attractionmayhappenfromadistance;
(iii) Everymagnethastwopoles:northandsouthpoles;
(iv) Differentpoleswillbeattractedbutsimilarpoleswillberepelled;
(v) Theregionaroundamagnetisknownasamagneticfield;
(vi) Bringing iron into close contact with a magnet will produce a
temporarymagnet;
(vii) Bringing steel into close contact with a magnet will produce a
permanentmagnet;and
(viii) Magnetismisreducedbyheatingorhammeringamagnet.
(h) OtherPropertiesofMaterials
Other properties of materials are hardness, toughness and brittleness,
strength, flexibility, solubility and waterproof. Table 8.5 summarises
theseproperties.
Table8.5:OtherPropertiesofMaterials
Properties Explanation
Hardness The shape of a hard material is difficult to change. It will
dent or scratch a softer material. It can also withstand
impactwithoutchanging.
Toughness
and
brittleness
Resistance to breaking by cracking. It is the opposite of
brittle. It may be dented by the impact but it is difficult to
break.
Strength The material is difficult to break by applying force.
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Materials may have tensile strength and compressive
strength. Tensile strength means resistance to stretching
such as squeezing and pulling on the rope. It depends on
its crosssectional area. Compressive strength means
resistance to pressure, meaning it is hard to break by
crushing.
Flexibility The material, which is easy to bend without breaking, has
bothtensilestrengthandcompressivestrength.
Solubility The solubility is the concentration of solute in a saturated
solution.Itisstatedasthemassingramsofthesolutethat
willsaturate100gramsofsolventatacertaintemperature.
Waterproof Resistancetoliquids.Repelswater.

8.1.3 Importance of Materials
Materials play a pivotal role in our life, particularly in the areas of living
environment,health,communication,consumergoodsandtransport.Pressing
environmentalconcernsforceustousematerialsmoreefficiently.Itwillhelp
in the long run if we develop new energy generation technologies, more
energy efficient devices, and easily recyclable, less toxic materials. As far as
consumer goods are concerned, we need to emphasise not only on the
material products but also on the way they are handled such as packaging,
fasterproductionandhigherqualitygoods.

In health, materials are important to help us overcome disease and provide
worldwide medical care. In transport, we need durable, highperformance
materials that make travelling faster, safer and more comfortable. In
ACTIVITY 8.6
Go on the Internet and find out more on materials and their uses
based on their properties. Discuss your findings with you
coursemates.
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communication, the development of new electronic inventions is very
importantandrequiresopticalandmagneticmaterials.Withoutdevelopment
ofmaterialsinallareas,wemayfacemanydifficulties.
(a) ImportanceofPhysicalPropertiesofMaterials
Knowledgeaboutthepropertiesofmaterialsisveryimportant,especially
in choosing suitable materials to make various objects. Sometimes these
objects need more than one type of physical property. For thousands of
years, people only used natural properties of natural materials. However,
scientists have now developed many new materials, influencing its
propertiesintheprocess.
(b) UseofPropertiesofMaterialsinEverydayLife
Humanshaveexploitedphysicalpropertiesofmaterialsfortheirownuse
in everyday life. We use materials that conduct electricity to produce
conductors and insulators. We use materials that allow light to pass
through them to produce transparent, translucent and opaque objects.
Table 8.6 shows other uses of properties of materials in producing some
everydayobjects.
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Table8.6:OtherUsesofPropertiesofMaterialsinProducingSomeEveryday
Objects
Property Materials Uses
Strength
Metals
Structuralcomponents
E.g.,rolledsteeljoints
Malleability Waterpipes
Thermal
conductivity
Radiators,saucepans,ovens
Electrical
conductivity
Electricalcables
Hardness Drillbits,hammerheads
Strength
Ceramics
Brick,concrete
Heatresistance Ovenware
Abrasion
resistance
Crockery
Thermal
insulation
Glass Loft,cavitywallinsulation
Transparency Windows
Flexibility
Plastics
Mouldeditems
Electrical
insulation
Sheathingofelectricalcables
Thermal
insulation
Saucepanhandles
Lightness and
strength
Construction,windowframes
Lightness and
strength
Wood
Construction, doors, window
frames,
furniture
Flexibility,
insulation
Fabrics
Curtains,clothing,furnishing
Adapted from: Farrow, S. (1996). The really useful science book: A
frameworkofknowledgeforprimaryteachers.London:FalmerPress.
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NATURAL MATERIALS
Alllivingthingsandnonlivingthingsaresourcesofmaterials.Materialsthat
are originated from nature such as living organisms, plants and animals are
classifiedasbioticorbiologicalderivednaturalmaterial.Materialsoriginated
from soil, petroleum or metals are classified as abiotic or nonbiological
naturalmaterials.Weneedthesematerialstosupportourdailyneeds.
Naturalmaterialsaremadenaturallyafteralongperiodoftime.Forexample,
a rubber tree may take many years to become mature and ready for cutting
down to make furniture, papers and insulators. Chemistry has enabled us to
synthesise new materials, which have desired properties, thus making them
evenbetterthannaturalmaterialsinashorterperiodoftime.
(a) IdentifyingNaturalMaterials
Materials that are classified as natural materials originated from soil,
rocks,water,plants,animalsorminerals.Airisamixtureofgases,which
make up the earths atmosphere and has an abundance of components.
PartsoftheirusescanbeseeninTable8.7.
Table8.7:GasesandTheirUses
Gas %Present
inAir
Uses
Nitrogen 78.0 Nitratesinsoil,useinammoniaproduction.
Oxygen 21.0 Respiration,oxidation,medicalapplication
Carbondioxide 0.04 Photosynthesis,dryice
Neon Trace Lighting
Argon Trace Domesticlightbulb
Helium Trace Airships
Krypton Trace Hightemperaturelightbulb
Xenon Trace Hightemperaturelightbulb

8.2
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Waterisacolourless,odourlessliquid,whichisoriginallyderivedfrom
theearthsatmosphere.Itisrecycledfromtheatmospheretothecrustof
theearth.Itisimportantbecauseitsupportslifeontheplanet,asalmost
all the significant reactions at cellular level depend on the aqueous
solutions.

Wood,metal,leather,cotton,rubberandsilkarematerialsthataremade
of natural materials. These materials are considered valuable in their
relativelyunmodified(natural)form.

(b) ObjectsfromNaturalMaterials
Materials from natural materials vary in their use. Table 8.8 shows
naturalmaterialsandtheiruses.
Table8.8:NaturalMaterialsandTheirUses
NaturalMaterial Uses
Rubber Latex
Wood Timber
Paraffinwaxandstearicacid Candles
Carbonblackandwateroroil Ink
Vegetablefibre Woodpulp
Vegetablewaxes,oilandsap Carnaubawax,linseedoil
Animalfibre Wool,alpaca
Animalproduct Leather,tallow,lard

(c) SourceofRawMaterials
Rawmaterialsarematerialsthatareextractedfromtheearth.Processed
rawmaterialsarecalledsemifinishedmaterials.Whenitistransferred
intoanewcycleofproduction,theendproductisreadyforuse.

Theearthisthemainsourceofraw materials.Bioticmaterialsandnon
biotic materials are the types of sources of raw materials. Wood, straw,
humus, spider silk, and bone are examples of biotic materials. Biotic
materials are usually biodegradable, renewable and processing has
minimal impact on the environment. Somehow, in certain cases,
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processing produces carbon emission. Polylactic acid, cornstarch and
bioplastic are examples of nonbiodegradable biotic materials. Non
biotic materials are materials that do not originate from plants and
animals. Water, soil, coal, crude oil, natural gas, rocks and air are
examplesofnonbioticrawmaterials.
Anotherexampleiscotton.Cottonisproducedfromamaturedflowerof
a cotton tree. It is harvested by plucking from a matured cotton tree
flower. The fluffy white material is then brought to the factory and
processedtoproducecottonthread.
MANUFACTURED MATERIALS
Manufactured materials are made from a mixture of natural materials
through chemical processes. These materials are also called manmade
materials. These materials are processed in factories with a combination of a
fewdifferenttypesofmaterialsorfromonetypeofnaturalmaterial.
(a) IdentifyingManufacturedMaterials
Basic manufacturing processes frequently used in the production of
manufactured materials are relatively simple, often involving
irreversiblechemicalreactions.Thesereactionsareimportantinorderto
provide further raw materials for more complicated secondary
processes.

The physical process of raw materials would include the refining of
metals from ores, the firing of ceramic from clays and the making of
glassfromsandandminerals.
SELF-CHECK 8.3
1. Whatisanaturalmaterial?
2. Statesomeobjectsthataremadefromnaturalmaterials.
3. Giveasmanyexamplesasyoucanofrawmaterialsthatcanbefound
inyoursurroundings.
8.3
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Thesawingoftimber,theproductionofpaperfromwoodpulpandthe
production of latex from rubber are examples of basic manufacturing
processes that involve biological raw materials. Secondary industries
involve the production of plastics (including synthetic fibres such as
nylon and terylene) from crude oil derivatives, detergents, paint and
perfumefromcoal,andothers.
Manufactured materials usually have better properties compared to the

naturalmaterialsfromwhichtheycomefrom.Theyareusuallydesigned
forspecificneeds,liketyresaremadeoflatexandsulphur.Metals,glass,
ceramics, plastics (including rubber), paper and fabrics are examples of
manufacturedmaterials.

(b) ObjectsfromManufacturedMaterials
Table 8.9 lists a few examples of objects from manufactured materials

andtheiruses.Youcanlistyourownexamplesthatareusedinourdaily
life.
Table8.9:ObjectsfromManufacturedMaterials
Manufactured
Material
Synthetic
Polymer
Uses
Synthetic
rubber
Styrenebutadiene
rubber(SBR)
Tyres,shoesoles
Neoprenerubber Waterpipes,handgloves
Butylrubber Tyres,shoesoles,hoses
Metals
Stainlesssteel Cookingutensil,
Bronze Medals,
Duralumin Cookingutensil
ACTIVITY 8.7
Search the Internet for manufactured materials. Find out the
propertiesofmanufacturedmaterials.
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Glass
Pyrex
Laboratory apparatus, cooking
utensil
Crystal Cookingutensil
Ceramic
Brick Building
Tiles Building
Pottery Decoration
Fabric Nylon Cloth
Plastic
Polyvinylchloride
Electrical insulators, music records,
pipes,bottles
Nylon Synthetictextile,string,parachutes
Polythene Plasticbags,foodcontainers,pails
Polystyrene
Packagingmaterials,heatinsulators,
toys
Melamine Plates,cups
Epoxyglue Glue,electricalinsulators

SELF-CHECK 8.4
1. Explainwhatmanufacturedmaterialsare.
2. State the processes that are applied to produce manufactured
materials.
3. Giveexamplesofobjectsfrommanufacturedmaterials.
ACTIVITY 8.8
You are given a sample of two materials. One is a natural
material and the other one is a manufactured material. In your
group, plan an investigation to compare the materials by
choosingasuitablecharacteristic.Makeaprediction.Thenplana
fairtest.
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PRESERVATION OF NATURAL
MATERIALS

Aboutacenturyago,almosttheentirecountrywascoveredwithforests.Wild
cuttingofforestsduringtheearlysettlementcausedvastareasofbaredland.
This phenomenon of cutting down plants for timber and development
continuestoday.
Preservationreferstotheefforttomaintainnaturalresourcesintheiroriginal
state or in good condition. Generally, preservation is related to conservation.
Conservation refers to the sustainable use and management of natural
materialstopreventloss,wastageordamage.
The importance of preservation is to ensure a continuous supply of natural

resources, reduce environmental pollution, maintain balance in nature,
prevent extinction of living organisms, prevent loss of habitats and keep the
environmentcleanandconduciveforhealthyliving.
Preservationshouldbepractised.Someoftheactionsthatshouldbetakento
preservenaturalmaterialsare:
(a) PreventingForestFires
Forest fires are wildly destructive. Plants and wildlife are killed. Forest
fires are caused by lightning (natural cause) and peoples carelessness
(accidentalcause).

(b) ImprovementCutting
Unwanted trees in a forest are removed from the stand. Crooked, aged
anddiseasedtreesaswellastreesoflessdesirablespeciesarecut.Inthis
way, space is provided for the growth of healthy, more valuable trees.
Thispracticeincreaseslumberyieldandimprovesitsquality.

(c) EnforcementofLawsandRegulation
This action is taken to protect endangered species and to prevent them
from becoming extinct. Examples of protected endangered species are
the Malayan tiger, Sumatran rhinoceros, leatherback turtle, orang utan
(seeFigure8.7)anddeer.
8.4
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Figure8.7:Thegovernmenttodayhasenforcedlawsandregulationtoprotect
theorangutanandtheirhabitat
COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composite materials are those that combine the properties of two or more
constituents in order to get the exact properties needed for a particular job.
The examples of material usually used are metals, alloys, glass, ceramics,
plasticsandpolymers.Acompositematerialhaspropertiesthataresuperior
tothoseoftheoriginalcomponents.
There are many examples of composites in nature. A tree can grow to great
heights and support heavy branches because it is a composite of flexible
8.5
SELF-CHECK 8.5
Whatactionsshouldwetaketopreserveournaturalmaterials?

ACTIVITY 8.9
1. Whatnaturalresourcesaredestroyedbyforestfire?
2. In a group, discuss what action should be taken to prevent forest
fire.
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cellulosefibresinaligninmatrix(seeFigure8.8).Seashellsandlimestoneare
both made of calcium carbonate, but seashells are much harder because they
are composites of crystalline calcium carbonate with embedded polypeptide
fibres.
Figure8.8:Thecombinationofcellulosefibresandligninmakethecellwall
strong
Thecompositeindustrywaslaunchedintheearly1960swiththedevelopment
of fibreglass or glassreinforced plastic. It is made by embedding short fibres
ofglassinamatrixofplastic.Theglassfibresgivetheplasticextrastrengthso
that it does not break when it is bent or moulded into shape. The finished
producthasthelightnessofplasticaswellasthestrengthandflexibilityofthe
glass fibres. They have found in many marine, housing, construction, sports
and industrial applications. Figure 8.9 shows the use of glassreinforced
plasticinmakingthebodyoftheboat.
Figure8.9:Theglassreinforcedplasticusedtomakeboats
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Anothercompositematerialwhichisusuallyusedfortheconstructionoflarge
structures like highrise buildings, bridges and oil platforms are reinforced
concrete (see Figure 8.10). Concrete is a composite material that consists of a
mixture of stones, chips and sand bound together by cement. It is strong but
brittle and weak in tensile strength. To overcome this weakness, the concrete
can be reinforced with steel wire netting or steel rod, which results to a very
tough material with high tensile strength. Reinforced concrete is relatively
cheapandcanbemouldedintoanyshape.
Figure8.10:Thereinforcedconcretewithsteelwirenettingandsteelrods
Thestrongestnewcompositearetheadvancedcomposites,inwhichfibresare
alignedorinterwovenbeforebeingsetwithintheresin.Advancedcomposites
have extraordinary strength in the direction of the aligned fibres and are
relativelyweakintheperpendiculardirection.Weaknessinonedirectioncan
beovercomebylaminatinglayerstogetheratdifferentangles,asinplywood,
afamiliarcomposite.Strengthinalldirectionscanbeachievedbyweavingthe
fibres into a threedimensional network. Besides strength, advanced
compositesarealsoknownfortheirlightness,whichmakethemidealforcar
parts, sporting goods and artificial limbs. Advanced composites tend to be
expensive, however because much of their production is still done by hand.
Aeroplane parts, and even whole aeroplane, are now being fabricated out of
lightweightadvancedcompositesinordertosavefuel.In1986,thefirstplane
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built with all advanced composites material is Voyager, which can fly
aroundtheworldwithoutrefuelling(seeFigure8.11).
Figure8.11:ThealladvancedcompositeVoyageraeroplane
MATERIALS IN INDUSTRY

Letusnowlearnonthematerialsinindustry.

8.6.1 Soap
Millions of tonnes of soaps are manufactured worldwide every year (see

Figure 8.12). Soap is manufactured by heating natural fats and oils of either
plantsoranimalswithastrongalkali.Thesefatsandoils,calledtriglycerides,
are complicated ester molecules. Pioneers prepared their soap by boiling
animalfatwithanalkalinesolutionobtainedfromtheashesofhardwood.The
resultinglyesoapcouldbesaltedoutbyaddingsodiumchoride,because
soapislesssolubleinasaltsolutionthaninwater.
8.6
ACTIVITY 8.10
1. What is a composite and what are some examples found in nature other
than given in the text?
2. Where are you most likely to find composites in the marketplace today?
3. Why are composites an ideal material for aircraft?
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Figure8.12:Soapismanufacturedbyheatingnaturalfatsandoilwithastrong
alkali
Nowadays, fat is boiled with aqueous sodium hydroxide to form soap. The
esters are broken down in the presence of waterhydrolysed. This type of
reaction is called saponification. The equation given below is that for the
saponificationofglycerylstearate(afat)(seeFigure8.13).
Figure8.13:Saponificationreaction
glyceryl stearate + sodium hydroxide sodium stearate + glycerol

(soap)
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The cleaning properties of the soap depend on its structure and bonding.
Sodium stearate consists of a long hydrocarbon chain which is hydrophobic
(waterhating)attachedtoanionicheadwhichishydrophilic(waterloving)
(seeFigure8.14).
Figure8.14:Simplifieddiagramofasoapmolecule
Covalent compounds are generally insoluble in water but they are more
solubleinorganicsolvents.Ioniccompoundsaregenerallywatersolublebut
tend to be insoluble in organic solvents. When soap is put into water which
hasagreasydish(oragreasycloth)init,thehydrophobichydrocarbonchain
oneachsoapmoleculebecomeattractedtothegreaseandbecomeembedded
init(Figure8.15).
Figure8.15:Howsoapswork
with
agitation
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On the other hand, the hydrophilic ionic head group is not attracted to the
grease/dirt/oilbutisstronglyattractedtothewatermolecules.Whenthewater
is stirred, the grease/dirt/oil is slowly released and is completely surrounded
by the soap molecules. The soap is able to remove the grease/dirt/oil because
ofthecombinationofthecovalentandionicbondspresent.
8.6.2 Natural and Synthetic Rubber

In the 1930s, more than 90 per cent of the natural rubber used in the United
States came from Malaysia. In the days after Pearl Harbour was attacked in
December 1941 and the United States entered World War II, Japan had
captured Malaysia. As a result, the United Stated faced its first natural
resource crisis. The military implications were devastating because without
rubberfortyres,militaryaeroplanesandjeepswereuseless.Petroleumbased
synthetic rubber had been developed in 1930 by DuPont chemist Wallace
Carothersbutwasnotwidelyusedbecauseitwasmuchmoreexpensivethan
naturalrubber.Withtheongoingwar,however,costwasnolongeranissue.
Synthetic rubber factories were constructed across the nation, and within a
fewyears,theannualproductionofsyntheticrubberrosefrom2,000tonnesto
about800,000tonnes.
Naturalrubberisapolymerwithitsmonomerunit,isoprene(seeFigure8.16).
Duringpolymerisation,thousandsofisopreneunitswilljointogethertoform
poly(isoprene)ornaturalrubber(seeFigure8.17).
Figure8.16:Isopreneunit
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102
Figure8.17:Polyisoprene(naturalrubber)
Natural rubber commonly has highly elasticity but is unstable to heat and oxidation.
When it is warmed above 50C, it softens and becomes sticky and will decompose if
weheatittoatemperatureabove200C.Thepresenceofdoublebondsinthepolymer
chainmakesitsusceptibletooxidationandbreaksupthepolymerchains.
VulcanisationisamanufacturingprocessdiscoveredbyCharlesGoodyearin1939to
convertnaturalrubberintoatoughusefulproduct.Inthisprocess,about1%to3%by
weightofsulphurisaddedtorawrubberandthemixtureiscarefullyheated.Sulphur
atoms form crosslinks between adjacent chains of rubber polymer at the carbon
carbondoublebonds(seeFigure8.18).

Figure8.18:Vulcanisedrubbershowingdisulfidecrosslinks

Synthetic rubber is any type of artificial elastomer mainly synthesised from
petroleum by products. An elastomer is a material with the mechanical (or
material) property that it can undergo much more elastic deformation under
stress than most materials and still return to its previous size without
permanentdeformation.Syntheticrubber,likenaturalrubber,hasusesinthe
automotive industry for door and window profiles, hoses (see Figure 8.19),
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103
belts, matting, flooring and dampeners (antivibration mounts). Table 8.10
showsthedifferencesbetweensyntheticrubberandnaturalrubber.
Table8.10:ComparisonofPropertiesbetweenManufacturedMaterials
(SyntheticRubber)andNaturalMaterials(NaturalRubber)
SyntheticRubber Properties NaturalRubber
Synthetic Typeofpolymer Natural
Abletowithstand
hightemperature
Hightemperatureeffect
Decomposesand
becomeliquid
Verypermeableto
gasandwater
Permeabilitytogasand
water
Notpermeabletogas
andwater
Doesnotreactto
acidandalkali
Abilitytowithstand
actionsofacidand
alkali
Reacttoacidand
alkali
Lowability
Abilitytoabsorb
pressure,vibrationand
sound
Highability
Canbevulcanised Vulcanisation Easilyvulcanised
Figure8.19:Productfromsyntheticrubber

308

104
8.6.3 Natural and Synthetic Fibres

Natural fibres can be defined as substances produced by plants and animals
that can be spun into filament, thread or rope and in a next step be woven,
knitted, matted or bound. The oldest fibres used by mankind are cotton
(5,000BC)andsilk(2,700BC),butevenjuteandcoirhavebeencultivatedsince
antiquity. The main reasons for the popularity of biocomposites or natural
fibrecompositesaretheavailabilityandconsistentqualityofawiderangeof
fibres, and their environmental friendliness. Moreover, new production
processes,suchasinjectedmouldedcomponents,makeitpossibletousethese
materialsforindustrialproducts.
Additional key advantages of natural fibres are their high strength and
stiffness per weight along with benefits such as acoustic isolation, safety
management, rapid production and potentially low cost. The most viable
structural fibres typically derive from specifically grown textile plants and
fruit trees. There are two categories of natural fibres, vegetable fibres and
animalfibres.Vegetablefibresaresubdividedintobastfibres(flax,hemp,jute
and kenaf) leaf fibres (sisal, pineapples and henequen), grass fibres (bamboo
and miscanthus), straw fibres (corn and wheat), seed fibres (cotton and
capok), wood fibres (pinewood) and fruit fibres (coconut), whereas animal
fibresaresilk,avian,hairandwool(seeFigure8.20).Figure8.21showskenaf
plantswhichisfromthebastfibrescategory.

Figure8.20:Twocategoriesofnaturalfibres
309

105
Figure8.21:Kenafplantsisasourceofnaturalfibre
Syntheticfibresaremadefromsynthesisedpolymersorsmallmolecules.The
compounds thatare used to makethese fibres come from raw materials such
as petroleum based chemicals or petrochemicals. These materials are
polymerise into a long, linear chemical that bond two adjacent carbon atoms.
Different chemical compounds will be used to produce different types of
fibres. Although there are several different synthetic fibres, they generally
have the same common properties. Synthetic fibres are commonly very heat
sensitive,resistanttomostchemicals,insect,fungiandrot.Ithaslowmoisture
absorbency,flameresistant,lowmeltingtemperature.Syntheticfibresarealso
very easy to wash and maintain and the main thing is that it is often less
expensivethannaturalfibres.
Thefirstsyntheticfibreknownasnylonwasdiscoveredin1931.Itsnoveluse
asamaterialforwomensstockingovershadowedmorepracticaluses,suchas
a replacement for the silk in parachutes and other military uses. Other
common synthetic fibres are modacrylic, olefin, acrylic, polyester and carbon
fibre. Specialty synthetic fibres include vinyon, saran, spandex, vinolon,
aramids, modal, sulfar, orlon, zylon, vecran, derclon and rayon. Figure 8.22
showstwoexamplesofsyntheticfibres.
310

106
Figure8.22:Nylonandpolyester
8.6.4 Plastics
With a record of wartime successes, plastics were readily embraced in the

postwaryears.Inthe1950s,Dacronpolyesterwasintroducedasasubstitute
for wool. The 1950s was also the decade during which the entrepreneur Earl
Tupper created a line of polyethylene food containers known as Tupperware
(seeFigure8.23).
ACTIVITY 8.11
1. Compareandcontrastnaturalfibresandsyntheticfibres.
2. Find out the uses of all common natural and synthetic fibre
giveninthetext
311

107

Figure8.23:Tupperware,polyethylenefoodcontainer

A plastic material is any material of a wide range of synthetic or semi
synthetic organic solids that are mouldable. Plastics are typically organic
polymers of high molecular mass, but they often contain other substances
knownasadditives.Theyareusuallysynthetic,mostcommonlyderivedfrom
petrochemicals,butmanyarepartiallynatural.Theamountofadditivesrange
from zero percentage for polymers used to wrap foods to more than 50% for
certainelectronicapplications.Exampleofadditiveisfillerswhichfunctionto
improve performance and/or reduce production costs. Stabilising additives
includefireretardantstolowertheflammabilityofthematerial.
Plastics are usually classified by their chemical structure of the polymers

backbone and side chains. Some important groups of these classifications are
the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes and halogenated plastics.
Other type of classification is based on the chemical reaction toward heat.
Examplesarethermoplasticsandthermosettingpolymers.Thermoplasticsare
the plastics that do not undergo chemical change in their composition when
heated and can be moulded again and again. This type of plastics includes
polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinylchloride.
Thermosetting polymers can melt and take shape once. After they have
solidified, they stay solid because in the thermosetting process, a chemical
reaction occurs that is irreversible. An example is the vulcanised rubber.
Otherclassificationsarebasedonqualitiesthatarerelevantformanufacturing
andalsoonthephysicalproperties.
312

108
By the 1960s, a decade of environmental awakening, many people began to
recognise the negative attribution of plastics. Being cheap, disposable, and
nonbiodegradable, plastic readily accumulated as litter and as landfill. With
petroleumsoreadilyavailableandinexpensive,however,andwithagrowing
population of plasticdependent baby boomers, little stood in the way of an
everexpanding array of plastic consumer products. By 1977, environmental
concernsstartedtogrow,andin1980splasticsrecyclingprogrammesbeganto
appear. Researches to produce biodegradable plastics have been done
progressively.Anexampleistheuseofstarchpowdermixedwithplasticsasa
filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but it still does not lead to complete
breakdown of the plastic. Some researchers have actually genetically
engineeredbacteriathatsynthesiseacompletelybiodegradableplastic.
Physical properties of materials include elasticity, shininess, buoyancy,

waterabsorbency,electricalconductivityandheatconductivity.
Other physical properties of materials include hardness, toughness and
brittleness,strength,flexibilityandsolubility.
Elasticityistheabilityofamaterialtoreturntoitsoriginalshapeandsize
afterbeingbent,twisted,stretchedandsqueezed.Materialsthatareableto
returntotheiroldshapewhenforceisnolongerappliedarecalledelastic
materials.
Somematerialsareshinyandsomearenot.
Materials can also be divided into three types according to its ability to
allowlighttopassthroughit.Thesearetransparentmaterials,translucent
materialsandopaquematerials.
Buoyancyistheabilityofmaterialstofloatinliquid.
SELF CHECK 8.6
Search from the Internet or other resource on research/products of
biodegradableplasticsthathasbeendoneinMalaysia.
313

109
Materials which can absorb water are known as absorbent materials and
materials which cannot absorb water are known as nonabsorbent
materials.
A material that allows electricity to pass through it is a material that
conductselectricity.
A material that allows heat to pass through it easily is a material that
conductsheat.
Magnetism is the property of materials to attract iron, for example, iron
oxide,cobalt,nickelandcertaintypesofalloy.
Knowledgeaboutthepropertiesofmaterialsisveryimportant,especially
inchoosingsuitablematerialstomakevariousobjects.
Thepropertiesofmaterialshavemanyusefulapplicationsinourdailylife.
Materialsaremadeofthousandsofsmallparticlescalledatoms.
Materials can be divided into three categories according to their
componentsofatom:element,compoundandmixture.
Materials can be classified into two types according to their use: natural
materialsandmanmadematerialsormanufacturedmaterials.
Natural materials originate from soil, rocks, water, plant, animal or
minerals.
Manufactured materials are made from a mixture of natural materials
throughchemicalprocesses.
Manufacturedmaterialsaredesignedaccordingtotheneedsofthemarket.
Preservation refers to the effort to maintain natural resources in their
originalstateoringoodcondition.
Conservation refers to the sustainable use and management of natural
materialstopreventloss,wastageordamage.
Composite materials are the materials which combine the properties of
twosubstancesinordertogettheexactpropertiesrequiredforaparticular
job.
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110
Saponificationistheprocessofmakingsoapbyheatingnaturalfatsandoil
withastrongalkali.
Polymerisation is the process of isoprene units join together to form

poly(isoprene)ornaturalrubber.
Synthetic rubber is any type of artificial elastomer mainly synthesised
frompetroleumbyproductswithbetterqualitythannaturalrubber.
Natural fibres is substances produced by plants and animals that can be
spun into filament, thread or rope and in a next step be woven, knitted,
matted or bound, while synthetic fibre are made from synthesised
polymersorsmallmolecules.
A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic
organic solids that are mouldable. All plastics are polymers but not all
polymersareplastics.
Abiotic
Biotic
Component
Compositematerials
Conservation
Element
Fibre
Manufacturedmaterial
Material
Mixture
Naturalmaterial
Plastics
Preservation
Rawmaterial
Rubber
Soap
Synthetic
315

111
Alias Abdullah, Faujan Ahmad, & Nur Huda Faujan. (2007). Total ProUPSR:
ScienceYear4,5and6.PetalingJaya:Sasbadi.
Earl,B.,&Wilford,D.(2009).IGCSEchemistry.UK:HodderEducation.

Eng,N.H.,&Lim.,Y.C.(2007).Focussuperchemistry.Bangi:PenerbitanPelangi.
Farrow, S. (1996). The really useful science book: A framework of knowledge for
primaryteacher.London:FalmerPress.
Heimler, C. H., & Neal, C. D. (1979). Principles of science (4th ed.). Ohio:
CharlesE.MerrillPublishingCo.
Joesten, M., & Hogg, J. (2011). Chem in your world (Student ed.). USA: Brooks
ColeCengageLearning
Johnson,K.,Admson,S.,&Williams,G.(2000).Spotlightscience7.Cheltenham:
NelsonThornes.
Knapp, B. (1996). Science in our world: Materials. London: Regency Publishing
Group.
Ramsden, E. (2001). Key science: Chemistry (3rd ed.). Cheltenham: Nelson
Thornes.
Siti Sarah Shahrel. (2007). UPSR bilingual science: Year 4. Shah Alam: Arah
Pendidikan.
Suchocki,J.(2007).Conceptualchemistry(3rded.).NewJersey:Pearson.
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READING BRICK

Invert a test tube of oxygen into abeaker of sodium hydroxide solution

SELF- CHECK 1.2

Figure 1.2: Two stages of respiration

Figure 1.11: Acid rain cycle

Figure 1.13: Depletion of ozone layer

1.5.3 Step to Prevent Air Pollution

Figure 1.14: The Carson Fall in Mount Kinabalu

Discuss in a group of four to find out the meaning of preservation and

Wastes are substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be

Figure 1.18: Water Pollution

Do you think why all the

Figure 2.2: Metals consist of positive ions surrounded by a cloud of electrons

Figure 2.5: Relating different structures to the density of metal

Table 2.1: Composition of common alloys

Figure 2.7: Reactivity series of metals

2.3.3 Extraction of Aluminium Electrolysis of Aluminium

Metal consists of atoms which are arranged very closely packed in an

Figure 3.3: Acidic and alkaline foods and fruits

Particles might be atoms, molecules or ions. Before we can get a chemical

This equation tells us that, during the course of a reaction, reactant

c. Calculate the average speed of reaction atthe 2 minutespoint by

1. Repeat Experiment 5.1 but replace medium marble chips with

Design and carry out an experiment to study the effect of

hydrochloric acid and 2cm

According to the ancient Greek, there should be four things to make up a

An element is the simplest substance of a material. It cannot be broken

The components of a compound cannot be separated by physical methods

Manufactured materials usually have better properties compared to the

Table 8.9 lists a few examples of objects from manufactured materials

The importance of preservation is to ensure a continuous supply of natural

Millions of tonnes of soaps are manufactured worldwide every year (see

glyceryl stearate + sodium hydroxide sodium stearate + glycerol

8.6.2 Natural and Synthetic Rubber

With a record of wartime successes, plastics were readily embraced in the

Plastics are usually classified by their chemical structure of the polymers

Physical properties of materials include elasticity, shininess, buoyancy,

Polymerisation is the process of isoprene units join together to form

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