Fang, S.J.; Roy, S. and Kramer, J.

Transmission Structures
Structural Engineering Handbook
Ed. Chen Wai-Fah
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999
Transmi ssi on Structures
Shu-ji n Fang, Subi r Roy, and
Jacob Kramer
Sargent & Lundy, Chicago, I L
15.1 Introduction and Application
Application

Structure Conguration and Material

Con-
structibility

MaintenanceConsiderations

StructureFami-
lies

Stateof theArt Review

15.2 Loadson Transmission Structures
General

Calculation of LoadsUsing NESCCode

Calcula-
tion of LoadsUsing theASCEGuide

Special Loads

Secu-
rity Loads

Construction and MaintenanceLoads

Loadson
Structure

Vertical Loads

TransverseLoads

Longitudinal
Loading
15.3 Design of Steel LatticeTower
Tower Geometry

AnalysisandDesign Methodology

Allow-
ableStresses

Connections

DetailingConsiderations

Tower
Testing
15.4 Transmission Poles
General

StressAnalysis

Tubular Steel Poles

Wood Poles

ConcretePoles

Guyed Poles
15.5 Transmission Tower Foundations
Geotechnical Parameters

Foundation TypesSelection and

Design

Anchorage

ConstructionandOther Considerations

Safety Marginsfor Foundation Design

Foundation Move-
ments

Foundation Testing

Design Examples
15.6 DeningTerms
References
15.1 IntroductionandApplication
Transmission structuressupport thephaseconductorsand shield wiresof atransmission line. The
structurescommonlyused on transmission linesareeither latticetypeor poletypeand areshown in
Figure15.1. Latticestructuresareusually composed of steel anglesections. Polescan bewood, steel,
or concrete. Each structuretypecan also beself-supporting or guyed. Structuresmay haveoneof
thethreebasic congurations: horizontal, vertical, or delta, depending on thearrangement of the
phaseconductors.
15.1.1 Application
Poletypestructuresaregenerallyused for voltagesof 345-kVor less, whilelatticesteel structurescan
beusedfor thehighest of voltagelevels. Woodpolestructurescan beeconomicallyusedfor relatively
shorter spansand lower voltages. In areaswith severeclimatic loadsand/or on higher voltagelines
with multiple subconductors per phase, designing wood or concrete structures to meet the large
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FIGURE15.1: Transmission linestructures.
loadscan beuneconomical. In such cases, steel structuresbecomethecost-effectiveoption. Also,
if greater longitudinal loadsareincluded in thedesign criteriato cover variousunbalanced loading
contingencies, H-framestructuresarelessefcient at withstandingtheseloads. Steel latticetowers
can bedesigned efcientlyfor anymagnitudeor orientation of load. Thegreater complexityof these
towerstypically requiresthat full-scaleload testsbeperformed on newtower typesand at least the
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tangent tower toensurethat all membersandconnectionshavebeen properlydesignedanddetailed.
For guyedstructures, it maybenecessarytoproof-test all anchorsduringconstruction toensurethat
they meet therequired holdingcapacity.
15.1.2 StructureCongurationandMaterial
Structure cost usually accounts for 30 to 40% of the total cost of a transmission line. Therefore,
selectingan optimumstructurebecomesan integral part of acost-effectivetransmission linedesign.
A structurestudy usually isperformed to determinethemost suitablestructureconguration and
material basedoncost, construction, andmaintenanceconsiderationsandelectricandmagneticeld
effects. Somekey factorsto consider when evaluatingthestructureconguration are:
A horizontal phaseconguration usually resultsin thelowest structurecost.
If right-of-way costs are high, or the width of the right-of-way is restricted or the line
closely parallelsother lines, avertical conguration may belower in total cost.
Inadditiontoawider right-of-way, horizontal congurationsgenerallyrequiremoretree
clearingthan vertical congurations.
Although vertical congurationsarenarrower than horizontal congurations, they are
also taller, which may beobjectionablefroman aestheticpoint of view.
Whereelectric and magnetic eld strength isaconcern, thephaseconguration iscon-
sidered asameansof reducingtheseelds. In general, vertical congurationswill have
lower eld strengthsat theedgeof theright-of-way than horizontal congurations, and
deltacongurationswill havethelowest single-circuit eldstrengthsandadouble-circuit
with reverseor low-reactancephasingwill havethelowest possibleeld strength.
Selection of the structure type and material depends on the design loads. For a single circuit
230-kVline, costswereestimatedfor single-poleandH-framestructuresin wood, steel, andconcrete
over arangeof design span lengths. For thisexample, wood H-frameswerefound to havethelowest
installed cost, and adesign span of 1000 ft resulted in thelowest cost per mile. Asdesign loadsand
other parameterschange, therelativecostsof thevariousstructuretypesand materialschange.
15.1.3 Constructibility
Accessibility for construction of the line should be considered when evaluating structure types.
Mountainous terrain or swampy conditions can make access difcult and use of helicopter may
become necessary. If permanent access roads are to be built to all structure locations for future
maintenancepurposes, all siteswill beaccessiblefor construction.
To minimize environmental impacts, some lines are constructed without building permanent
accessroads. Most construction equipment can traversemoderately swampy terrain by useof wide-
track vehiclesor temporary mats. Transporting concretefor foundationsto remotesites, however,
increasesconstruction costs.
Steel latticetowers, which aretypically set on concreteshaft foundations, would requirethemost
concreteat each tower site. Grillagefoundations can also beused for thesetowers. However, the
cost of excavation, backll and compaction for thesefoundationsisoften higher than thecost of a
drilled shaft. Unlesssubsurfaceconditionsarepoor, most polestructurescan bedirectly embedded.
However, if unguyed polestructuresareused at medium to largelineangles, it may benecessary to
usedrilled shaft foundations.
Guyed structurescan also createconstruction difcultiesin that awider areamust beaccessed at
each structuresiteto install theguysand anchors. Also, careful coordination isrequired to ensure
that all guysaretensioned equally and that thestructureisplumb.
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Haulingthestructurematerialsto thesitemust also beconsidered in evaluatingconstructibility.
Transportingconcretestructures, whichweighat least vetimesasmuchasother typesof structures,
will bedifcult and will increasetheconstruction cost of theline. Heavier equipment, moretrips
to transport materials, and morematting or temporary roadwork will berequired to handlethese
heavy poles.
15.1.4 MaintenanceConsiderations
Maintenanceof thelineisgenerallyafunctionof thestructurematerial. Steel andconcretestructures
should requirevery littlemaintenance, although themaintenancerequirementsfor steel structures
depends on the type of nish applied. Tubular steel structures are usually galvanized or made of
weatheringsteel. Latticestructuresaregalvanized. Galvanizedor paintedstructuresrequireperiodic
inspection and touch-up or reapplication of the nish while weathering steel structures should
haverelatively low maintenance. Wood structures, however, requiremorefrequent and thorough
inspections to evaluate the condition of the poles. Wood structures would also generally require
morefrequent repair and/or replacement than steel or concretestructures. If thelineisin aremote
location and lacks permanent access roads, this can be an important consideration in selecting
structurematerial.
15.1.5 StructureFamilies
Once the basic structure type has been established, a family of structures is designed, based on
thelinerouteand thetypeof terrain it crosses, to accommodatethevariousloading conditionsas
economically aspossible. Thestructuresconsist of tangent, angle, and deadend structures.
Tangent structures are used when the line is straight or has a very small lineangle, usually not
exceeding3

. Thelineangleisdened asthedeection angleof thelineintoadjacent spans. Usually

onetangent typedesignissufcient whereterrainisat andthespanlengthsareapproximatelyequal.
However, inrollingandmountainousterrain, spanscanvarygreatly. Somespans, for example, across
alongvalley, maybeconsiderablylarger thanthenormal span. Insuchcases, asecondtangent design
for longspansmay proveto bemoreeconomical. Tangent structuresusually comprise80to 90%of
thestructuresin atransmission line.
Angletowersareused wherethelinechangesdirection. Thepoint at which thedirection change
occursisgenerallyreferredtoasthepoint of intersection(P.I.) location. Angletowersareplacedat the
P.I. locationssuch that thetransverseaxisof thecrossarmbisectstheangleformedbytheconductor,
thusequalizingthelongitudinal pullsof theconductorsin theadjacent spans. On lineswherelarge
numbersof P.I. locationsoccur with varyingdegreesof lineangles, it may proveeconomical to have
morethan oneanglestructuredesign: onefor smaller anglesand theother for larger angles.
When the line angle exceeds 30

, the usual practice is to use a deadend type design. Deadend

structuresaredesigned to resist wirepullson oneside. In addition to their usefor largeangles, the
deadendstructuresareusedasterminal structuresor for sectionalizingalonglineconsistingof tangent
structures. Sectionalizingprovidesalongitudinal strength to thelineand isgenerally recommended
every10miles. Deadend structuresmayalsobeused for resistinguplift loads. Alternately, aseparate
strain structuredesign with deadend insulator assembliesmay proveto bemoreeconomical when
thereisalargenumber of structureswith small lineanglesubjected to uplift. Thesestructuresare
not required to resist thedeadend wirepull on oneside.
15.1.6 Stateof theArt Review
A major development in the last 20 years has been in the area of new analysis and design tools.
Theseincludesoftwarepackagesand design guidelines[ 12, 6, 3, 21, 17, 14, 9, 8] , which havegreatly
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improved design efciency and have resulted in more economical structures. A number of these
toolshavebeen developed based on test results, and manynewtestsareongoingin an effort torene
thecurrent procedures. Another areaisthedevelopment of thereliability based design concept [6] .
Thismethodology offersauniform procedurein theindustry for calculation of structureloadsand
strength, and providesaquantied measureof reliability for thedesign of varioustransmission line
components.
Asidefromcontinuedrenementsindesignandanalysis, signicant progresshasbeenmadeinthe
manufacturingtechnology in thelast two decades. Theadvancein thisareahasled to theincreasing
usageof cold formed shapes, structureswith mixed construction such assteel poleswith latticearms
or steel towerswith FRPcomponents, and prestressed concretepoles[ 7] .
15.2 LoadsonTransmissionStructures
15.2.1 General
Prevailingpracticeand most statelawsrequirethat transmission linesbedesigned, asaminimum,
to meet therequirementsof thecurrent edition of theNational Electrical Safety Code(NESC) [ 5] .
NESCs rules for the selection of loads and overload capacity factors are specied to establish a
minimum acceptable level of safety. The ASCEGuide for Electrical Transmission Line Structural
Loading (ASCE Guide) [ 6] provides loading guidelines for extreme ice and wind loads as well as
security and safety loads. Theseguidelinesusereliability based proceduresand allow thedesign of
transmissionlinestructurestoincorporatespeciedlevelsof reliabilitydependingontheimportance
of thestructure.
15.2.2 Calculationof LoadsUsingNESC Code
NESC code [ 5] recognizes three loading districts for ice and wind loads which are designated as
heavy, medium, and light loading. Theradial thicknessof iceand thewind pressuresspecied for
the loading districts are shown in Table 15.1. Ice build-up is considered only on conductors and
shield wires, and isusually ignored on thestructure. Iceisassumed to weigh 57 lb/ft
3
. Thewind
pressure applies to cylindrical surfaces such as conductors. On the at surface of a lattice tower
member, thewind pressurevaluesaremultiplied by aforcecoefcient of 1.6. Wind forceisapplied
on both thewindward and leeward facesof alatticetower.
TABLE15.1 Ice, Wind, and Temperature
Loadingdistricts
Heavy Medium Light
Radial thickness
of ice(in.) 0.50 0.25 0
Horizontal wind
pressure(lb/ft
2
) 4 4 9
Temperature(

F) 0 +15 +30
NESCalso requiresstructuresto bedesigned for extremewind loadingcorrespondingto 50 year
fastest milewind speed with noiceloadsconsidered. Thisprovision appliestoall structureswithout
conductors, and structuresover 60ft supportingconductors. Theextremewind speed variesfroma
basicspeed of 70mph to 110mph in thecoastal areas.
In addition, NESC requires that the basic loads be multiplied by overload capacity factors to
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determinethedesignloadsonstructures. Overloadcapacityfactorsmakeit possibletoassignrelative
importance to the loads instead of using various allowable stresses for different load conditions.
Overload capacity factorsspecied in NESChavealarger valuefor wood structuresthan thosefor
steel and prestressed concretestructures. Thisisdueto thewidevariation found in wood strengths
andtheagingeffect of woodcausedbydecayandinsect damage. Inthe1990edition, NESCintroduced
an alternativemethod, wherethesameoverload factorsareused for all thematerialsbut astrength
reduction factor isused for wood.
15.2.3 Calculationof LoadsUsingtheASCE Guide
TheASCEGuide[ 6] speciesextremeiceand extremewind loads, based on a50-year return period,
which areassigned areliability factor of 1. Theseloadscan beincreased if an engineer wantsto use
ahigher reliability factor for an important line, for examplealongline, or alinewhich providesthe
only sourceof load. Theload factorsused to increasetheASCEloadsfor different reliability factors
aregiven in Table15.2.
TABLE15.2 Load Factor to Adjust LineReliability
Linereliability factor, LRF 1 2 4 8
Load return period, RP 50 100 200 400
Correspondingload factor, a 1.0 1.15 1.3 1.4
In calculatingwind loads, theeffectsof terrain, structureheight, wind gust, and structureshape
areincluded. Theseeffectsareexplained in detail in theASCEGuide. ASCEalso recommendsthat
theiceloadsbecombined with awind load equal to 40%of theextremewind load.
15.2.4 Special Loads
In addition to theweather related loads, transmission linestructuresaredesigned for special loads
that consider security and safety aspects of the line. These include security loads for preventing
cascadingtypefailuresof thestructuresand construction and maintenanceloadsthat arerelated to
personnel safety.
15.2.5 SecurityLoads
Longitudinal loadsmay occur on thestructuresdueto accidental eventssuch asbroken conductors,
broken insulators, or collapse of an adjacent structure in the line due to an environmental event
such asa tornado. Regardlessof thetriggering event, it isimportant that a linesupport structure
be designed for a suitable longitudinal loading condition to provide adequate resistance against
cascading typefailuresin which a larger number of structuresfail sequentially in thelongitudinal
direction or parallel to theline. For thisreason, longitudinal loadingsaresometimesreferred to as
anticascading, failurecontainment, or security loads.
Therearetwo basicmethodsfor reducingtherisk of cascadingfailures, dependingon thetypeof
structure, and on local conditions and practices. Thesemethods are: (1) design all structures for
broken wireloadsand (2) install stop structuresor guysat specied intervals.
Designfor BrokenConductors
Certain typesof structuressuch assquare-based latticetowers, 4-guyed structures, and single
shaft steel poles haveinherent longitudinal strength. For linesusing thesetypesof structures, the
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recommended practice is to design every structure for one broken conductor. This provides the
additional longitudinal strength for preventingcascadingfailuresat arelatively lowcost.
Anchor Structures
When singlepolewood structuresor H-framestructureshavinglowlongitudinal strength are
used on a line, designing every structurefor longitudinal strength can bevery expensive. In such
cases, stopor anchor structureswith adequatelongitudinal strength areprovidedat specicintervals
tolimit thecascadingeffect. TheRural ElectricationAdministration[ 19] recommendsamaximum
interval of 5to 10milesbetween structureswith adequatelongitudinal capacity.
15.2.6 ConstructionandMaintenanceLoads
Constructionandmaintenance(C&M) loadsare, toalargeextent, controllableandaredirectlyrelated
to construction and maintenancemethods. Adetailed discussion on thesetypesof loadsisincluded
in theASCELoadingGuide, and Occupation Safety and Health Act (OSHA) documents. It should
be emphasized, however, that workers can be seriously injured as a result of structure overstress
duringC&M operations; therefore, personnel safetyshouldbeaparamount factor when establishing
C&M loads. Accordingly, theASCELoading Guiderecommendsthat thespecied C&M loadsbe
multiplied by aminimum load factor of 1.5 in caseswheretheloadsarestatic and well dened;
and by aload factor of 2.0when theloadsaredynamic, such asthoseassociated with movingwires
duringstringingoperations.
15.2.7 LoadsonStructure
Loadsarecalculated on thestructuresin threedirections: vertical, transverse, and longitudinal. The
transverseload isperpendicular to thelineand thelongitudinal loadsact parallel to theline.
15.2.8 Vertical Loads
Thevertical load on supportingstructuresconsistsof theweight of thestructureplusthesuperim-
posed weight, includingall wires, icecoated wherespecied.
Vertical load of wireV
w
in. (lb/ft) isgiven by thefollowingequations:
V
w
= wt. of barewire (lb/f t ) +1.24(d +I)I (15.1)
where
d = diameter of wire(in.)
I = icethickness(in.)
Vertical wireload on structure(lb)
= Vw vertical design span load factor (15.2)
Vertical design span isthedistancebetween lowpointsof adjacent spansand isindicated
in Figure15.2.
15.2.9 TransverseLoads
Transverseloadsarecaused by wind pressureon wiresand structure, and thetransversecomponent
of thelinetension at angles.
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FIGURE15.2: Vertical and horizontal design spans.
WindLoadonWires
Thetransverseload dueto wind on thewireisgiven by thefollowingequations:
W
h
= p d/12 Horizontal Span OCF (without ice) (15.3)
= p (d +2I)/12 Horizontal Span OCF (with ice) (15.4)
where
W
h
= transversewind load on wirein lb
p = wind pressurein lb/ft
2
d = diameter of wirein in.
I = radial thicknessof icein in.
OCF = Overload Capacity Factor
Horizontal span isthedistancebetween midpointsof adjacent spansand isshown in Figure15.2.
TransverseLoadDuetoLineAngle
Where a line changes direction, the total transverse load on the structure is the sum of the
transversewind load and thetransversecomponent of thewiretension. Thetransversecomponent
of thetension may beof signicant magnitude, especially for largeanglestructures. To calculatethe
total load, awind direction should beused which will givethemaximumresultant load considering
theeffectson thewiresand structure.
Thetransversecomponent of wiretension on thestructureisgiven by thefollowingequation:
H = 2T sin /2 (15.5)
where
H = transverseload dueto wiretension in pounds
T = wiretension in pounds
= Lineanglein degrees
WindLoadonStructures
In addition tothewireload, structuresaresubjected towind loadsactingon theexposed areas
of thestructure. Thewind forcecoefcientson latticetowersdepend on shapesof member sections,
solidity ratio, angleof incidenceof wind (face-on wind or diagonal wind), and shielding. Methods
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for calculatingwind loadson transmission structuresaregiven in theASCEGuideaswell theNESC
code.
15.2.10 Longitudinal Loading
Thereareseveral conditionsunder which astructureissubjected to longitudinal loading:
DeadendStructuresThesestructuresarecapableof withstandingthefull tension of theconductors
and shield wiresor combinationsthereof, on onesideof thestructure.
Stringing Longitudinal load may occur at any onephaseor shield wiredueto a hang-up in the
blocksduringstringing. Thelongitudinal loadistakenasthestringingtensionfor thecompletephase
(i.e., all subconductorsstrungsimultaneously) or ashield wire. In order to avoid any prestressingof
theconductors, stringing tension istypically limited to theminimum tension required to keep the
conductor fromtouchingthegroundor anyobstructions. Basedon common practiceandaccording
to the IEEEGuide to the Installation of Overhead Transmission Line Conductors [ 4] , stringing
tension isgenerally about one-half of thesaggingtension. Therefore, thelongitudinal stringingload
isequal to 50%of theinitial, unloaded tension at 60

F.
Longitudinal Unbalanced LoadLongitudinal unbalanced forcescan develop at thestructuresdue
to various conditions on the line. In rugged terrain, large differentials in adjacent span lengths,
combinedwithinclinedspans, couldresult in signicant longitudinal unbalancedloadunder iceand
wind conditions. Non-uniformloadingof adjacent spanscan also producelongitudinal unbalanced
loads. Thisloadisbasedonanicesheddingconditionwhereiceisdroppedfromonespanandnot the
adjacent spans. Reference[ 12] includesasoftwarethat iscommonlyusedfor calculatingunbalanced
loadson thestructure.
EXAMPLE15.1: Problem
Determinethewireloadson asmall anglestructurein accordancewith thedatagiven below. Use
NESCmediumdistrict loadingand assumeall intact conditions.
GivenData:
Conductor: 954kcm45/7ACSR
Diameter = 1.165 in.
Weight = 1.075 lb/ft
Wiretension for NESCmediumloading = 8020 lb
Shield Wire: 3No.6Alumoweld
Diameter = 0.349 in.
Weight = 0.1781 lb/ft
Wiretension for NESCmediumloading = 2400 lb
Wind Span = 1500 ft
Weight Span = 1800 ft
Lineangle = 5

Insulator weight = 170 lb

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Solution
NESCMediumDistrict Loading
4psf wind, 1/4-in. ice
Ground WireIced Diameter = 0.349 +2 0.25 = 0.849 in.
Conductor IceDiameter = 1.165 +2 0.25 = 1.665 in.
OverloadCapacityFactorsfor Steel
TransverseWind = 2.5
WireTension = 1.65
Vertical = 1.5
Conductor LoadsOnTower
Transverse
Wind = 4psf 1.665"/12 1500 2.5 = 2080 lb
LineAngle = 2 8020 sin 2.5

1.65 = 1150 lb
Total = 3230 lb
Vertical
BareWire = 1.075 1800 1.5 = 2910 lb
Ice = {1.24(d +I)I}1800 1.5 = 1.24(1.165 +.25).25
1800 1.5 = 1185 lb
Insulator = 170 1.5 = 255 lb
Total = 4350 lb
GroundWireLoadsonTower
Transverse
Wind = 4psf 0.849/12 1500 2.5 = 1060 lb
LineAngle = 2 2400 sin 2.5 1.65 = 350 lb
Total = 1410 lb
15.3 Designof Steel LatticeTower
15.3.1 Tower Geometry
Atypical singlecircuit, horizontal conguration, self-supportedlatticetower isshown in Figure15.3.
Thedesign of asteel latticetower beginswith thedevelopment of aconceptual design, which estab-
lishesthegeometryof thestructure. Indevelopingthegeometry, structuredimensionsareestablished
for thetower window, crossarmsand bridge, shield wirepeak, bracingpanels, and theslopeof the
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FIGURE15.3: Singlecircuit latticetower.
tower legbelowthewaist. Themost important criteriafor determiningstructuregeometry arethe
minimum phaseto phaseand phaseto steel clearancerequirements, which arefunctionsof theline
voltage. Spacingof phaseconductorsmay sometimesbedictated by conductor gallopingconsidera-
tions. Height of thetower peak abovethecrossarmisbasedon shieldingconsiderationsfor lightning
protection. Thewidth of thetower basedependson theslopeof thetower legbelowthewaist . The
overall structureheight isgoverned by thespan length of theconductorsbetween structures.
Thelatticetower ismadeup of abasicbody, body extension, and legextensions. Standard designs
aredeveloped for thesecomponentsfor agiven tower type. Thebasicbody isused for all thetowers
regardlessof theheight. Body and legextensionsareadded to thebasic body to achievethedesired
tower height.
Theprimary members of a tower aretheleg and thebracing members which carry thevertical
and shear loadson thetower and transfer themto thefoundation. Secondary or redundant bracing
membersareusedtoprovideintermediatesupport totheprimarymemberstoreducetheir unbraced
length and increasetheir load carryingcapacity. Theslopeof thetower legfromthewaist down has
asignicant inuenceon thetower weight and should beoptimized to achievean economical tower
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design. A atter sloperesultsin awider tower basewhich reducestheleg sizeand thefoundation
size, but will increasethesizeof thebracing. Typical legslopesused for towersrangefrom3/4in. 12
for light tangent towersto 21/2in. 12for heavy deadend towers.
Theminimum included anglebetween two intersecting members is an important factor for
proper forcedistribution. Reference[ 3] recommendsaminimum included angleof 15

, intended
to develop atrussaction for load transfer and to minimizemoment in themember. However, asthe
tower loadsincrease, thepreferred practiceisto increasetheincluded angleto 20

for angletowers
and 25

for deadend towers[ 23] .

Bracingmembersbelowthewaist can bedesignedasatension onlyor tension compression system
asshown in Figure15.4. In atension only system shown in (a), thebracingmembersaredesigned
FIGURE15.4: Bracingsystems.
to carry tension forces only, the compression forces being carried by the horizontal strut. In a
tension/compression systemshown in (b) and (c), thebracesaredesigned to carry both tension and
compression. A tension only system may proveto beeconomical for lighter tangent towers. But for
heavier towers, atension/compression system isrecommended asit distributestheload equally to
thetower legs.
Astaggered bracingpattern issometimesused on theadjacent facesof atower for easeof connec-
tionsand to reducethenumber of bolt holesat asection. Tests[ 23] haveshown that staggeringof
mainbracingmembersmayproducesignicant moment inthemembersespeciallyfor heavilyloaded
towers. For heavily loaded towers, thepreferred method isto stagger redundant bracing members
and connect themain bracingmemberson theadjacent facesat acommon panel point.
15.3.2 AnalysisandDesignMethodology
TheASCEGuidefor Designof Steel TransmissionTowers[3] istheindustrydocument governingthe
analysisanddesign of latticesteel towers. Alatticetower isanalyzedasaspacetruss. Eachmember of
thetower isassumedpin-connectedat itsjointscarryingonlyaxial loadandnomoment. Today, nite
element computer programs[ 12, 21, 17] arethetypical toolsfor theanalysisof towersfor ultimate
design loads. In the analytical model the tower geometry is broken down into a discrete number
of joints(nodes) and members(elements). User input consistsof nodal coordinates, member end
incidencesand properties, and thetower loads. For symmetrictowers, most programscan generate
thecompletegeometryfromapart of theinput. Loadsappliedon thetower areultimateloadswhich
include overload capacity factors discussed in Section 15.2. Tower members are then designed to
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theyield strength or thebucklingstrength of themember. Tower memberstypically consist of steel
angle sections, which allow ease of connection. Both single- and double-angle sections are used.
Aluminum towersareseldom used today dueto thehigh cost of aluminum. Steel typescommonly
used on towersareASTM A-36 (Fy = 36 ksi) or A-572 (Fy = 50 ksi). Themost common nish
for steel towersishot-dipped galvanizing. Self-weatheringsteel isno longer used for towersdueto
thepack-out problemsexperienced in thepast resultingin damaged connections.
Tower members are designed to carry axial compressive and tensile forces. Allowable stress in
compression isusually governed by buckling, which causesthemember to fail at astresswell below
theyield strength of thematerial. Buckling of a member occurs about its weakest axis, which for
a singleanglesection isat an inclination to thegeometric axes. Astheunsupported length of the
member increases, theallowablestressin bucklingisreduced.
Allowablestressin atension member isthefull yield stressof thematerial and doesnot depend
on themember length. Thestress is resisted by a net cross-section, thearea of which is thegross
areaminustheareaof thebolt holesat agiven section. Tension capacity of an anglemember may
beaffected by thetypeof end connection [3] . For example, when onelegof theangleisconnected,
thetension capacity isreduced by 10%. A further reduction takesplacewhen only theshort legof
an unequal angleisconnected.
15.3.3 AllowableStresses
CompressionMember
Theallowablecompressivestressin bucklingon thegrosscross-sectional areaof axiallyloaded
compression membersisgiven by thefollowingequations[3] :
Fa =

1 (KL/R)
2
/(2Cc
2
)

Fy if KL/R = Cc or less (15.6)

Fa = 286000/(kl/r)
2
if KL/R > Cc (15.7)
Cc = (3.14)(2E/Fy)
1/2
(15.8)
where
Fa = allowablecompressivestress(ksi)
Fy = yield strength (ksi)
E = modulusof elasticity (ksi)
L/R = maximumslendernessratio = unbraced length /radiusof gyration
K = effectivelength co-efcient
The angle member must also be checked for local buckling considerations. If the ratio of the
angleeffectivewidth to anglethickness(w/t ) exceeds80/(Fy)
1/2
, thevalueof Fa will bereduced
in accordancewith theprovisionsof Reference[ 3] .
Theaboveformulasindicatethat theallowablebucklingstressislargelydependent on theeffective
slenderness ratio (kl/r) and thematerial yield strength (Fy). It may benoted, however, that Fy
inuencesthebucklingcapacity for short membersonly (kl/r < Cc). For longmembers(kl/r >
Cc), theallowablebucklingstressisunaffected by thematerial strength.
Theslendernessratio iscalculated for different axesof bucklingand themaximum valueisused
for thecalculation of allowablebucklingstress. In somecases, acompression member may havean
intermediatelateral support inoneplaneonly. Thissupport preventsweakaxisandin-planebuckling
but not theout-of-planebuckling. In such cases, theslendernessratioin themember geometricaxis
will begreater than in themember weak axis, and will control thedesign of themember.
Theeffectivelength coefcient K adjuststhemember slendernessratio for different conditions
of framing eccentricity and therestraint against rotation provided at theconnection. Valuesof K
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for six different end conditions, curves onethrough six, havebeen dened in Reference[ 3] . This
referencealso speciesmaximumslendernessratiosof tower members, which areasfollows:
Typeof Member Maximum KL/R
Leg 150
Bracing 200
Redundant 250
Testshaveshownthat memberswithverylowL/Raresubjectedtosubstantial bendingmoment in
addition to axial load. Thisisespecially truefor heavily loaded towerswheremembersarerelatively
stiff and multiple bolted rigid joints are used [ 22] . A minimum L/R of 50 is recommended for
compression members.
TensionMembers
Theallowabletensileforceon thenet cross-sectional areaof amember isgiven bythefollowing
equation [ 3] :
P
t
= Fy An K (15.9)
where
P
t
= allowabletensileforce(kips)
Fy = yield strength of thematerial (ksi)
An = net cross-sectional areaof theangleafter deductingfor bolt holes(in.
2
). For unequal angles,
if theshort legisconnected, An iscalculated by consideringtheunconnected legto bethe
samesizeastheconnected leg
K = 1.0if both legsof theangleconnected
= 0.9if onelegconnected
Theallowabletensileforcemust alsomeet theblock shear criteriaat theconnection in accordance
with theprovisionsof Reference[ 3] .
Although theallowableforcein atension member doesnot depend on themember length, Refer-
ence[ 3] speciesamaximumL/Rof 375for thesemembers. Thislimit minimizesmember vibration
under everyday steady statewind, and reducestherisk of fatiguein theconnection.
15.3.4 Connections
Transmission towerstypically usebearing typebolted connections. Commonly used bolt sizesare
5/8", 3/4", and 7/8" in diameter. Bolts are tightened to a snug tight condition with torque values
rangingfrom 80 to 120 ft-lb. Thesetorquesaremuch smaller than thetorqueused in friction type
connectionsin steel buildings. Thesnug tight torqueensuresthat theboltswill not slip back and
forth under everyday wind loadsthusminimizingtherisk of fatiguein theconnection. Under full
design loads, thebolts would slip adding exibility to thejoint, which is consistent with thetruss
assumption.
Loadcarryingcapacityof theboltedconnectionsdependson theshear strengthof thebolt andthe
bearing strength of theconnected plate. Themost commonly used bolt for transmission towersis
A-394, Type0bolt with an allowableshear stressof 55.2ksi acrossthethreaded part. Themaximum
allowablestressin bearing is1.5 timestheminimum tensilestrength of theconnected part or the
bolt. Useof themaximum bearingstressrequiresthat theedgedistancefrom thecenter of thebolt
holetotheedgeof theconnected part bechecked in accordancewith theprovisionsof Reference[3] .
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15.3.5 DetailingConsiderations
Bolted connectionsaredetailed to minimizeeccentricity asmuch aspossible. Eccentricconnections
giveriseto abendingmoment causingadditional shear forcein thebolts. Sometimessmall eccen-
tricitiesmay beunavoidableand should beaccounted for in thedesign. Thedetailingspecication
should clearly specify theacceptableconditionsof eccentricity.
Figure15.5 showstwo connections, onewith no eccentricity and thesecond with asmall eccen-
tricity. In therst casethelinesof forcepassingthrough thecenter of gravity (c.g.) of themembers
FIGURE15.5: Bracedetails.
intersect at acommon point. Thisisthemost desired condition producing no eccentricity. In the
secondcase, thelinesof forceof thetwobracingmembersdonot intersect withthat of thelegmember
thusproducinganeccentricityintheconnection. It iscommonpracticetoaccept asmall eccentricity
aslongastheintersection of thelinesof forceof thebracingmembersdoesnot fall outsidethewidth
of thelegmember. In somecasesit maybenecessarytoaddgusset platestoavoidlargeeccentricities.
In detailingdoubleanglemembers, careshould betaken to avoid alargegap between theangles
that aretypically attached together by stitch boltsat specied intervals. Tests[ 23] haveshown that
a doubleanglemember with a largegap between theanglesdoesnot act asa compositemember.
This results in one of the two angles carrying signicantly more load than the other angle. It is
recommended that thegap between thetwo anglesof adoubleanglemember belimited to 1/2in.
Theminimumsizeof amember issometimesdictated bythesizeof thebolt on theconnected leg.
Theminimumwidth of membersthat can accommodateasinglerowof boltsisasfollows:
Bolt diameter Minimumwidth of member
5/8" 13/4"
3/4" 2"
7/8" 21/2"
Tension membersaredetailed with drawtofacilitateerection. Members15ft in length, or less, are
detailed 1/8in. short, plus1/16in. for each additional 10ft. Tension membersshould haveat least
two boltson oneend to facilitatethedraw.
15.3.6 Tower Testing
Full scaleload testsareconducted on newtower designsand at least thetangent tower to verify the
adequacy of the tower members and connections to withstand the design loads specied for that
structure. Towers arerequired to pass thetests at 100% of theultimatedesign loads. Tower tests
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also provideinsight into actual stressdistribution in members, t-up verication and action of the
structurein deected positions. Detailed proceduresof tower testingaregiven in Reference[ 3] .
EXAMPLE15.2:
Description
Check theadequacy of thefollowingtower componentsshown in Figure15.3.
Member 1(compressivelegof thelegextension)
Member force = 132 kips(compression)
Anglesize = L5 5 3/8"
F
y
= 50 ksi
Member 2(tension member)
Tensileforce = 22 kips
Anglesize = L2 1/2 2 3/16 (longlegconnected)
Fy = 36 ksi
Boltsat thespliceconnectionof Member 1
Number of 5/8" bolts = 6 (Butt Splice)
Typeof bolt = A-394, TypeO
Solution
Member 1
Member force = 132 kips(compression)
Anglesize = L5 5 3/8"
F
y
= 50 ksi
Find maximumL/R
Propertiesof L 5 5 3/8"
Area = 3.61 in.
2
r
x
= r
y
= 1.56 in.
r
z
= 0.99 in.
Member 1hasthesamebracingpattern in adjacent planes. Thus, theunsupportedlengthisthesame
in theweak (z z) axisand thegeometricaxes(x x and y y).
l
z
= l
x
= l
y
= 61"
MaximumL/R =61/0.99=61.6
AllowableCompressiveStress:
UsingCurve1for legmember (no framingeccentricity), per Reference[3] , k =1.0
KL/R = L/R = 61.6
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Cc = (3.14)(2E/Fy)
1/2
= (3.14)(2 29000/50)
1/2
= 107.0 which is > KL/R
Fa =

1 (KL/R)
2
/(2Cc
2
)

Fy
=

1 (61.6)
2
/(2 107.0
2
)

50.0
= 41.7 ksi
Allowablecompressiveload =41.7ksi 3.61in.
= 150.6 kips > 132 kips O.K.
Check local buckling:
w/t = (5.0 7/8)/(3/8) = 11.0
80/(Fy)
1/2
= 80/(50)
1/2
= 11.3 > 11.0 O.K.
Member 2
Tensileforce = 22 kips
Anglesize = L 21/22 3/16
Area = 0.81 in.
2
Fy = 36 ksi
Find tension capacity
P
t
= Fy An K
Diameter of bolt hole = 5/8" +1/16" = 11/16"
Assumingonebolt holededuction in 21/2" legwidth,
Areaof bolt hole = angleth. holediam.
= (3/16)(11/16) = 0.128 in.
2
An = grossareabolt holearea
= 0.81 0.128 = 0.68 in.
2
K = 0.9, sincemember end isconnected by oneleg
P
t
= (36)(0.68)(0.9) = 22.1 kips> 22.0 kips, O.K.
Boltsfor Member 1
Number of 5/8" bolts = 6 (Butt Splice)
Typeof bolt = A-394, TypeO
Shear Strength Fv = 55.2 ksi
Root areathru threads = 0.202 in.
2
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Shear capacity of bolts:
Boltsact in doubleshear at butt splice
Shear capacity of 6boltsin doubleshear
= 2 (Root area) 55.2 ksi 6
= 133.8 kips > 132 kips O.K.
Bearingcapacity of connected part:
Thicknessof connected angle = 3/8"
F
y
of angle = 50 ksi
Capacity of bolt in bearing
= 1.5 Fu th. of angle dia. of bolt
Fu of 50 ksi material = 65 ksi
Capacity of 6boltsin bearing = 1.5 65 3/8 5/8 6
= 137.1 kips > 132 kips, O.K.
15.4 TransmissionPoles
15.4.1 General
Transmission polesmadeof wood, steel, or concreteareused on transmission linesat voltagesup to
345-kv. Woodpolescan beeconomicallyusedfor relativelyshorter spansandlower voltageswhereas
steel polesand concretepoleshavegreater strength and areused for higher voltages. For areaswhere
severeclimaticloadsareencountered, steel polesareoften themost cost-effectivechoice.
Polestructureshavetwo basiccongurations: singlepoleand H-frame(Figure15.1). Singlepole
structures are used for lower voltages and shorter spans. H-frame structures consist of two poles
connected by a framing comprised of the cross arm, the V-braces, and the X-braces. The use of
X-bracessignicantly increasestheload carryingcapacity of H-framestructures.
At lineanglesor deadendconditions, guyingisusedtodecreasepoledeectionsandtoincreasetheir
transverseor longitudinal structural strength. Guysalso help prevent uplift on H-framestructures.
Largedeectionswould beahindrancein stringingoperations.
15.4.2 StressAnalysis
Transmission polesareexiblestructuresand may undergo relatively largelateral deectionsunder
design loads. A secondary moment (or P effect) will develop in the poles due to the lateral
deections at the load points. This secondary moment can be a signicant percent of the total
moment. In addition, large deections of poles can affect the magnitude and direction of loads
caused by thelinetension and stringingoperations. Therefore, theeffectsof poledeectionsshould
beincluded in theanalysisand design of singleand multi-poletransmission structures.
To properly analyzeand design transmission structures, thestandard industry practicetoday isto
usenonlinear niteelement computer programs. Thesecomputer programsallowefcient evaluation
of polestructuresconsidering geometric and/or material nonlinearities. For wood poles, thereare
several popular computer softwareprogramsavailablefromEPRI [ 15] . Theyarespeciallydeveloped
for design and analysisof wood polestructures. Other general purposecommercial programsauch
asSAP-90and STAAD [ 20, 10] areavailablefor performingsmall displacement P analysis.
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15.4.3 Tubular Steel Poles
Steel transmission poles are fabricated from uniformly tapered hollow steel sections. The cross-
sectionsof thepolesvary from round to 16-sided polygonal with the12-sided dodecagonal asthe
most common shape. Thepolesareformed into design cross-sectionsby braking, rolling, or stretch
bending.
For these structures the usual industry practice is that the analysis, design, and detailing are
performedbythesteel polesupplier. Thisfacilitatesthedesigntobemorecompatiblewithfabrication
practiceand availableequipment.
Design of tubular steel poles is governed by the ASCE Manual # 72 [ 9] . The Manual provides
detailed design criteria including allowable stresses for pole masts and connections and stability
considerationsfor global andlocal buckling. It alsodenestherequirementsfor fabrication, erection,
load testing, and quality assurance.
It should be noted that steel transmission pole structures have several unique design features
as compared to other tubular steel structures. First, they are designed for ultimate, or maximum
anticipated loads. Thus, stresslimitsof theManual #72arenot established for workingloadsbut for
ultimateloads.
Second, Manual #72 requiresthat stability beprovided for thestructureasawholeand for each
structural element. In other words, theeffectsof deected structural shapeon structural stability
should beconsidered in theevaluation of thewholestructureaswell astheindividual element. It
reliesontheuseof thelargedisplacement nonlinear computer analysistoaccount for theP effect
and check for stability. To prevent excessivedeection effects, thelateral deection under factored
loadsisusually limited to 5 to 10%of thepoleheight. Pre-camberingof polesmay beused to help
meet theimposed deection limitation on anglestructures.
Lastly, due to its polygonal cross-sections combined with thin material, special considerations
must begiven to calculation of member section propertiesand assessment of local buckling.
To ensureapolygonal tubular member can reach yieldingon itsextremebersunder combined
axial and bendingcompression, local bucklingmust beprevented. Thiscan bemet by limitingthe
width to thicknessratio, w/t , to 240/(Fy)
1/2
for tubeswith 12or fewer sidesand 215/(Fy)
1/2
for
hexdecagonal tubes. If theaxial stressis1ksi or less, thew/t limit may beincreased to 260/(Fy)
1/2
for tubeswith 8or fewer sides[ 9] .
Special considerations should be given in the selection of the pole materials where poles are to
besubjected to subzero temperatures. To mitigatepotential brittlefracture, useof steel with good
impact toughnessin thelongitudinal direction of thepoleisnecessary. Sincethemajority of pole
structuresaremanufacturedfromsteelsof ayieldstrengthof 50to65ksi (i.e., ASTMA871andA572),
it isadvantageousto specify aminimum Charpy-V-notch impact energy of 15 ft-lb at 0

Ffor plate
thicknessof 1/2 in. or lessand 15 ft-lb at 20

Ffor thicker plates. Likewise, high strength anchor

bolts madeof ASTM A615-87 Gr.75 steel should havea minimum Charpy V-notch of 15 ft-lbs at
20

F.
Corrosion protection must be considered for steel poles. Selection of a specic coating or use
of weathering steel depends on weather exposure, past experience, appearance, and economics.
Weatheringsteel isbest suitedfor environmentsinvolvingproper wettinganddryingcycles. Surfaces
that arewet for prolonged periodswill corrodeat arapid rate. Aprotectivecoatingisrequired when
such conditionsexist. When weatheringsteel isused, polesshould also bedetailed to providegood
drainageand avoid water retention. Also, polesshould either besealed or well ventilated to assure
theproper protection of theinterior surfaceof thepole. Hot-dip galvanizingisan excellent alternate
meansfor corrosion protection of steel polesabovegrade. Galvanized coatingshould comply with
ASTM A123for itsoverall quality and for weight/thicknessrequirements.
Polesectionsarenormally joined by telescoping or slip splicesto transfer shearsand moments.
Theyaredetailedtohavealaplengthnolessthan1.5timesthelargest insidediameter. It isimportant
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
to haveatight t in slip joint to allowload transfer by friction between sections. Lockingdevicesor
anged jointswill beneeded if thespliceissubjected to uplift forces.
15.4.4 WoodPoles
Wood polesareavailablein different species. Most commonly used areDouglasFir and Southern
YellowPine, witharupturebendingstressof 8000psi, andWesternRedCedar witharupturebending
stressof 6000psi. Thepolesareusually treated with apreservative(pentachlorophenol or creosote).
Framingmaterialsfor crossarmand bracesareusuallymadeof DouglasFir or Southern YellowPine.
Crossarmsaretypically designed for arupturebendingstressof 7400psi.
Wood poles are grouped into a wide range of classes and heights. The classication is based
on minimum circumference requirements specied by the American National Standard (ANSI)
specication 05.1 for each species, each class, and each height [ 2] . Themost commonly used pole
classes are class 1, 2, 3, and H-1. Table 15.3 lists the moment capacities at groundline for these
common classes of wood poles. Poles of the same class and length have approximately the same
capacity regardlessof thespecies.
TABLE15.3 Moment Capacity at Ground Linefor 8000psi
DouglasFir and Southern PinePoles
Class H-1 1 2 3
Minimumcircumferenceat top (in.) 29 27 25 23
Ground line
Length of distancefrom
pole(ft) butt (ft) Ultimatemoment capacity, ft-lb
50 7 220.3 187.2 152.1 121.7
55 7.5 246.4 204.2 167.1 134.7
60 8 266.8 222.3 183.0 148.7
65 8.5 288.4 241.5 200.0 163.5
70 9 311.2 261.9 218.1 179.4
75 9.5 335.3 283.4 230.3 190.2
80 10 360.6 306.2 250.2 201.5
85 10.5 387.2 321.5 263.7 213.3
90 11 405.2 337.5 285.5 225.5
95 11 438.0 357.3 303.2
100 11 461.5 387.3 321.5
105 12 461.5 387.3 321.5
110 12 514.2 424.1 354.1
Thebasicdesign principlefor wood poles, asin steel poles, isto assurethat theapplied loadswith
appropriateoverload capacity factorsdo not exceed thespecied stresslimits.
In thedesign of asingleunguyed wood polestructure, thegoverningcriteriaistokeep theapplied
momentsbelowthemoment capacityof woodpoles, whichareassumedtohaveroundsolidsections.
Theoretically themaximumstressfor singleunguyed polesunder lateral load doesnot alwaysoccur
at the ground line. Because all data have been adjusted to the ground line per ANSI 05.1 pole
dimensions, only thestressor moment at theground lineneed to bechecked against themoment
capacity. Thetotal ground linemoment isthesum of themoment dueto transversewireloads, the
moment duetowind on pole, and thesecondarymoment. Themoment duetotheeccentricvertical
load should also beincluded if theconductorsarenot symmetrically arranged.
Design guidelinesfor wood polestructuresaregiven in theREA (Rural Electrication Adminis-
tration) Bulletin 62-1 [ 18] and IEEEWood Transmission Structural Design Guide[ 15] . Becauseof
theuseof high overload factors, theREA and NESCdo not requiretheconsideration of secondary
momentsinthedesignof woodpolesunlessthepoleisveryexible. It alsopermitstheuseof rupture
stress. In contrast, IEEErequiresthesecondarymomentsbeincludedin thedesign andrecommends
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
lower overload factorsand useof reduction factorsfor computingallowablestresses. Designerscan
use either of the two standards to evaluate the allowable horizontal span for a given wood pole.
Conversely, awood polecan beselected for agiven span and poleconguration.
For H-frameswithX-braces, maximummomentsmaynot occur at groundline. Sectionsat braced
location of polesshould also bechecked for combined momentsand axial loads.
15.4.5 ConcretePoles
Prestressed concrete poles are more durable than wood or steel poles and they are aesthetically
pleasing. Thereinforcing of polesconsistsof aspiral wirecageto prevent longitudinal cracksand
high strength longitudinal strandsfor prestressing. Thepoleisspinned toachieveadequateconcrete
compaction and adensesmooth nish. Theconcretepoletypically utilizesahigh strength concrete
(around 12000 psi) and 270 ksi prestressingstrands. Concretepolesarenormally designed by pole
manufacturers. Theguidelinefor designof concretepolesisgiveninReference[8] . Standardconcrete
polesarelimited by their ground linemoment capacity.
Concretepolesare, however, muchheavier thansteel or woodpoles. Their greater weight increases
transportation and handlingcosts. Thus, concretepolesareused most cost-effectively when thereis
amanufacturingplant near theproject site.
15.4.6 GuyedPoles
At lineanglesand deadends, singlepolesand H-framesareguyed in order to carry largetransverse
loadsor longitudinal loads. It isacommon practicetousebisector guysfor lineanglesup to30

and
in-lineguysfor structuresat deadendsor larger angles. Thelargeguytensionandweight of conductors
and insulatorscan exert signicant vertical compression forceon poles. Stability isthereforeamain
design consideration for guyed polestructures.
Structural Stability
The overall stability of guyed poles under combined axial compression and bending can be
assessed by either a large displacement nonlinear nite element stress analysis or by the use of
simplied approximatemethods.
Therigorousstabilityanalysisiscommonlyusedbysteel andconcretepoledesigners. Thecomputer
programs used are capable of assessing the structural stability of the guyed poles considering the
effectsof thestress-dependent structural stiffnessand largedisplacements. But, in most cases, guys
aremodeled astension-only trusselementsinstead of geometrically nonlinear cableelements. The
effect of initial tension in guysisneglected in theanalysis.
Thesimplied stability method istypically used in thedesign of guyed wood poles. Thepoleis
treatedasastrut carryingaxial loadsonlyandguysaretocarrythelateral loads. Thecritical buckling
load for atapered guyed polemay beestimated by theGereand Carter method [ 13] .
Pcr = P(Dg/Da)
e
(15.10)
whereP istheEuler bucklingload for apolewith aconstant diameter of Da at guy attachment and
isequal to 9.87 EI/(kl)
2
; Dg isthepolediameter at groundline; kl istheeffectivecolumn length
depending on end condition; e isan exponent constant equal to 2.7 for xed-freeendsand 2.0 for
other end conditions. It should benoted that theexact end condition at theguyed attachment is
difcult to evaluate. Common practiceisto assumeahinged-hinged condition with k equal to 1.0.
A higher k valueshould bechosen when thereisonly asingleback guy.
For apoleguyed at multiplelevels, thecolumn stability may bechecked asfollowsby comparing
themaximumaxial compression against thecritical bucklingload, Pcr, at thelowest bracedlocation
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
of thepole[ 15] :
[P1 +P2 +P3 + ] /Pcr < 1/OCF (15.11)
whereOCF istheoverload capacity factor and P1, P2, and P3 areaxial loadsat variousguy levels.
Designof Guys
Guysaremadeof strandsof cableattached to thepoleand anchor by shackles, thimbles, clips,
or other ttings. In thetall microwavetowers, initial tension in theguysisnormally set between 8to
15%of therated breakingstrength (RBS) of thecable. However, thereisno standard initial tension
specied for guyed transmission poles. Guysareinstalled beforeconductorsand ground wiresare
strungand should betightened to removeslack without causingnoticeablepoledeections. Initial
tension in guys are normally in the range of 5 to 10% of RBS. For design of guys, the maximum
tension under factored loadsper NESC shall not exceed 90% of thecablebreaking strength. Note
that for failurecontainment (brokenconductors) theguytensionmaybelimitedto0.85RBS. Alower
allowableof 65% of RBSwould beneeded if a linear load-deformation behavior of guyed polesis
desired for extremewind and iceconditionsper ASCEManual #72.
Considerationsshould begiven totherangeof ambient temperaturesat thesite. Alargetempera-
turedrop may induceasignicant increaseof guy tension. Guyswith an initial tension greater than
15%of RBSof theguy strand may besubjected to aeolian vibrations.
EXAMPLE15.3:
Description
Select aDouglasFir poleunguyed tangent structureshown below to withstand theNESCheavy
district loads. Usean OCF of 2.5for wind and 1.5for vertical loadsand astrength reduction factor
of 0.65. Horizontal load span is400ft and vertical load span is500ft. Examineboth caseswith and
without theP effect. TheNESCheavy loadingis0.5in. ice, 4psf wind, and 0

F.
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Ground WireLoads
H1 = 0.453#/ft V1 = 0.807#/ft
Conductor Loads
H2 = H3 = H4 = 0.732#/ft
V2 = V3 = V4 = 2.284#/ft
Horizontal Span = 400 ft
Vertical Span = 500 ft
LineAngle = 0

Solution A 75-ft class1poleisselected astherst trial. Thepolewill havealength of 9.5

ft buried belowthegroundline. Thediameter of thepoleis9.59 in. at thetop (Dt ) and 16.3 in. at
thegroudline(Dg). Moment at groundlinedueto transversewind on wireloadsis
Mh = (0.732)(2.5)(400)(58 +53.5 +49) +(0.453)(2.5)(400)(65) = 146930 ft-lbs
Moment at groundlinedueto vertical wireloads
Mv = (2.284)(1.5)(500)(8 +7 7) = 13700 ft-lbs
Moment dueto 4psf wind on pole
Mw = (wind pressure) (OCF)H
2
(Dg +2Dt )/72
= (4)(2.5)(65.5)
2
(16.3 +9.59 2)/72 = 21140 ft-lbs
Thetotal moment at groundline
Mt = 146930 +13700 +21140 = 181770 ft-lbsor 181.7 ft-kips
Thismoment islessthan themoment capacity of the75-ft class1 pole, 184.2 ft-kips( i.e., 0.65
283.4, refer to Table15.3). Thus, the75-ft class1poleisadequateif theP effect isignored.
Toincludetheeffect of thepoledisplacement, thesamepolewasmodeledontheSAP-90computer
programusingamodulusof elasticity of 1920ksi. Under thefactored NESCloading, themaximum
displacement at thetop of thepoleis67.9 in. Theassociated secondary moment at thegroundline
is28.5 ft-kips, which isapproximately 15.7% of theprimary moment. Asaresult, a75-ft classH1
Douglas Fir pole with an allowable moment of 217.9 ft-kips is needed when the P effect is
considered.
15.5 TransmissionTower Foundations
Tower foundation design requires competent engineering judgement. Soil data interpretation is
critical as soil and rock properties can vary signicantly along a transmission line. In addition,
construction proceduresand backll compaction greatly inuencefoundation performance.
Foundationscan bedesigned for sitespecic loadsor for astandard maximum load design. The
best approach isto useboth asitespecic and standardized design. Theselection should bebased
on thenumber of sitesthat will haveageotechnical investigation, inspection, and verication of soil
conditions.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
15.5.1 Geotechnical Parameters
Toselect anddesign themost economical typeof foundation for aspeciclocation, soil conditionsat
thesiteshouldbeknownthroughexistingsiteknowledgeor newexplorations. Inspectionshouldalso
beconsidered to verify that theselected soil parametersarewithin thedesign limits. Thesubsurface
investigation program should beconsistent with foundation loads, experiencein theright-of-way
conditions, variability of soil conditions, and thedesired level of reliability.
In designing transmission structurefoundations, considerationsmust begiven to frost penetra-
tion, expansive or shrinking soils, collapsing soils, black shales, sinkholes, and permafrost. Soil
investigation should consider theunit weight, angleof internal friction, cohesion, blowcounts, and
modulus of deformation. Theblow count values arecorrelated empirically to thesoil value. Lab
testscan measurethesoil propertiesmoreaccurately especially in clays.
15.5.2 FoundationTypesSelectionandDesign
Therearemany suitabletypesof tower foundationssuch assteel grillages, pressed plates, concrete
footings, precast concrete, rock foundations, drilled shaftswith or without bells, direct embedment,
pilefoundations, and anchors. Thesefoundationsarecommonly used assupport for lattice, poles,
and guyed towers. Theselected typedependson thecost and availability [ 14, 24] .
Steel Grillages
Thesefoundationsconsist entirelyof steel membersandshouldbedesignedinaccordancewith
Reference[ 3] . Thesurroundingsoil should not beconsidered asbracingtheleg. Therearepyramid
arrangementsthat transfer thehorizontal shear tothebasethroughtrussaction. Other typestransfer
theshear through shear membersthat engagethelateral resistanceof thecompacted backll. The
steel can bepurchased with thetower steel and concreteisnot required at thesite.
Cast inPlaceConcrete
Cast in placeconcretefoundation consistsof abasemat and asquareof cylindrical pier. Most
piersarekept in vertical position. However, thepier may bebattered to allowtheaxial loadsin the
tower legs to intersect the mat centroid. Thus, the horizontal shear loads are greatly reduced for
deadendsandlargelineangles. Either stubanglesor anchor boltsareembeddedin thetopof thepier
so that theupper tower section can bespliced directly to thefoundation. Bolted clip angles, welded
stud shear connectors, or bottom platesareadded to thestub angle. Thistypecan also beprecast
elsewhereand delivered to thesite. Thedesign isaccomplished by Reference[ 1] .
DrilledConcreteShafts
Thedrilled concreteshaft isthemost common typeof foundation nowbeingused to support
transmission structures. Theshaftsareconstructed bypower auguringacircular excavation, placing
thereinforcingsteel and anchor, and pouringconcrete. Tubular steel polesareattached to theshafts
usingbaseplateswelded to thepolewith anchor boltsembedded in thefoundation (Figure15.6a).
Latticetowersareattached through theuseof stub anglesor baseplateswith anchor bolts. Loose
granular soil may require a casing or a slurry. If there is a water level, tremi concrete is required.
The casing, if used, should be pulled as the concrete is poured to allow friction along the sides.
A minimum 4" slump should allow good concreteow. Belled shafts should not beattempted in
granular soil.
If conditionsareright, thisfoundation typeisthefastest and most economical to install asthere
isno backllingrequired with dependency on compaction. Lateral proceduresfor design of drilled
shaftsunder lateral and uplift loadsaregiven in References[ 14] and [ 25] .
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FIGURE15.6: Direct embedment.
Rock Foundations
If bedrockisclosetothesurface, arockfoundationcanbeinstalled. Therockqualitydesignation
(RQD) isuseful in evaluatingrock. Uplift capacity can beincreased with drilled anchor rodsor by
shaping the rock. Blasting may cause shatter or fracture to rock. Drilling or power hammers are
thereforepreferred. It isalso helpful to wet theholebeforeplacingconcreteto ensureagood bond.
Direct Embedment
Direct embedment of structuresistheoldest form of foundation asit hasbeen used on wood
poletransmission linessinceearlytimes. Direct embedment consistsof diggingaholein theground,
insertingthestructureinto thehole, and backlling. Thus, thestructureactsasitsown foundation
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transferringloadstotheinsitusoil viathebackll. Thebackll canbeastonemix, stone-cement mix,
excavated material, polyurethanefoam, or concrete(seeFigure15.6b and c). Thedisadvantageof
direct embedment isthedependency on thequality of backll material. To accurately get deection
and rotation of direct embedded structures, the stiffness of the embedment must be considered.
Rigid caisson analysiswill not giveaccurateresults. Theperformancecriteriafor deection should
befor thecombined poleand foundation. Instability of theaugured holeand thepresenceof water
may requirealiner or doubleliners(seeFigure15.6d). Thedesign procedurefor direct embedment
issimilar to drilled shafts[ 14, 25, 16] .
VibratoryShells
Steel shellsareinstalled by using avibratory hammer. Thetop 6 or 8 ft (similar to slip joint
requirements) of soil insidetheshell isexcavated and thepoleisinserted. Theannulusisthen lled
with ahigh strength non-shrink grout. Thepolecan also beattached through aangeconnection
which eliminatesexcavatingand grouting. Theshell design issimilar to drilled shafts.
Piles
Pilesareused to transmit loadsthrough soft soil layersto stiffer soilsor rock. Thepilescan
be of wood, prestressed concrete, cast in place concrete, concrete lled shells, steel H piles, steel
pipeslled with concrete, and prestressed concretecylinder piles. Thepipeselection dependson the
loads, materials, and cost. Pilefoundationsarenormally used moreoften for latticetowersthan for
H-framed structuresor polesbecausepileshavehigh axial load capacity and relatively lowshear and
bendingcapacity.
Besidestheexternal loading, pilescanbesubjectedtothehandling, drying, andsoil stresses. If piles
arenot tested, thedesign should beconservative. Reference[ 14] should beconsulted for bearing,
uplift, lateral capacity, and settlement. Drivingformulascan beused to estimatedynamic capacity
of the pile or group. Timber piles are susceptible to deterioration and should be treated with a
preservative.
Anchors
Anchors are usually used to support guyed structures. The uplift capacity of rock anchors
dependson thequality of therock, thebond of thegrout and rock with steel, and thesteel strength.
Theuplift capacity of soil anchorsdependson theresistancebetween grout and soil and end bearing
if applicable. Multi-belled anchorsin cohesivesoil depend on thenumber of bells. Thecapacity of
Helix anchorscan bedetermined by theinstallation torquedeveloped by themanufacturer. Spread
anchor plateanchorsdepend on thesoil weight plusthesoil resistance.
Anchors provide resistance to upward forces. They may be prestressed or deadman anchors.
Deadmen anchorsarenot loaded until thestructureisloaded, whileprestressed anchorsareloaded
when installed or proof loaded.
Helix soil anchors have deformed plates installed by rotating the anchor into the ground with
a truck-mounted power auger. The capacity of the anchor is correlated to the amount of torque.
Anchorsaretypically designed in accordancewith theproceduregiven in Reference[ 14] .
15.5.3 Anchorage
Anchorageof thetransmissiontower canconsist of anchor bolts, stubangleswithclipangles, or shear
connectorsand designed by Reference[ 3] . Theanchor boltscan besmooth barswith anut or head
at thebottom, or deformedreinforcingbarswiththeembedment determinedbyReference[ 1] . If the
anchor bolt baseplateisin contact with thefoundation, thelateral or shear load istransferred to the
foundation by shear friction. If thereisno contact between thebaseplateand theconcrete(anchor
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bolts with leveling nuts), the lateral load is transferred to the concrete by the side bearing of the
anchor bolt. Thus, anchor boltsshould bedesigned for acombination of tension (or compression),
shear, and bendingby linear interaction.
15.5.4 ConstructionandOther Considerations
Backll
Excavated foundationsrequireahigh level of compaction that should beinspected and tested.
Duringtheoriginal design thedegreeof compaction that may actually beobtained should becon-
sidered. Thisconstruction procedureof excavation and compaction increasesthefoundation costs.
Corrosion
Thetypeof soil, moisture, and stray electric currentscould causecorrosion of metalsplaced
belowtheground. Obtainingresistivitymeasurementswoulddetermineif aproblemexists. Consid-
eration couldthen begiven toincreasingthesteel thickness, aheavier galvanizingcoat, abituminous
coat, or in extremecasesacathodic protection system. Hard epoxy coatingscan beapplied to steel
piles. In addition, concretecan deterioratein acidicor high sulfatesoils.
15.5.5 SafetyMarginsfor FoundationDesign
TheNESC requiresthefoundation design loadsto betaken thesameasNESC load casesused for
designof thetransmissionstructures. Theengineer must usejudgement indeterminingsafetyfactors
depending on thesoil conditions, importanceof thestructures, and reliability of thetransmission
line. Unlikestructural steel or concrete, soil doesnot havewell-dened properties. Largevariations
exist in thegeotechnical parametersand construction techniques. Larger safety marginsshould be
provided wheresoil conditionsarelessuniformand lessdened.
Although foundation design isbasedon ultimatestrength design, thereisnoindustrystandardon
strength reduction factorsat present. Thelatest research [ 11] showsthat uplift test resultsdiffered
signicantlyfromanalytical predictionsanduplift capacity. Basedon astatistical analysisof 48uplift
testson drilled piersand 37 testson grillagesand plates, thecoefcientsof variation werefound to
beapproximately 30%. To achievea95%reliability, which isa5%exclusion limit, an uplift strength
reduction factor of 0.8to 0.9isrecommended for drilled shaftsand 0.7to 0.8for backlled typesof
foundations.
15.5.6 FoundationMovements
Foundation movements may change the structural conguration and cause load redistribution in
latticestructuresandframedstructures. For polestructuresasmall foundationmovement caninduce
alargedisplacement at thetop of thepolewhich will reduceground clearanceor causeproblemsin
wirestringing. Theamount of tolerablefoundation settlementsdependson thestructuretypeand
load conditions. However, thereisno industry standard at thepresent time. For latticestructures,
it issuggested that themaximum vertical foundation movement belimited to 0.004 timesthebase
dimensions. If larger movementsareexpected, foundationscanbedesignedtolimit their movements
or thestructurescan bedesigned to withstand thespecied foundation movements.
15.5.7 FoundationTesting
Transmission linefoundationsareload tested to verify thefoundation design for specic soils, ad-
equacy of thefoundation, research investigation, and to determinestrength reduction factors. The
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load testswill renefoundation selection and verifythesoil conditionsand construction techniques.
The load tests may be in uplift, download, lateral loads, overturning moment, or any necessary
combination.
Thereshouldalsobeageotechnical investigation at thetest sitetocorrelatethesoil datawithother
locations. Therearevarious test set-ups, depending on what typeof loading is to beapplied and
what typeof foundation isto betested. Theresultsshould comparetheanalytical methodsused to
actual behaviors. Theload vs. thefoundation movementsshould beplotted in order to evaluatethe
foundation performance.
15.5.8 DesignExamples
EXAMPLE15.4: Spread Footing
ProblemDeterminethesizeof asquarespread footingfor acombined moment (175 ft-k) and
axial load (74kips) usingtwo alternatemethods. In therst method, theminimum factor of safety
against overturningis1.7and themaximum soil pressureiskept belowan allowablesoil bearingof
4000 psf. In the second method, no factor of safety against overturning is specied. Instead, the
spread footing is designed so that theresultant reaction is within themiddlethird. This example
showsthat keepingtheresultant in themiddlethird isaconservativedesign.
Solution
Method 1
Try a8ft x 8ft footing
P = 74 kips
Mo = 175 kip-ft
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P increasefor footingsizeincrease=0.3kips/ft
2
e = 175 k-ft/74 kips= 2.4 ft > 8 ft/6 = 1.33 ft
Therefore, resultant isoutsidethemiddlethird of themat.
(4

2.4

) 3 = 4.8 ft
S.P. = (74 k)(2)/(4.8 ft)(8 ft) = 3850 psf < 4000 psf
M
R
= (74 k)(4 ft) = 296 k-ft
M
R
/Mo = 296/175 = 1.7
FOSagainst overturning, O.K.
Method 2(increasemat sizeto keep theresultant in themiddlethird) Try a11.3ft x 11.3ft mat
P increase =

(11.3 ft)
2
(8 ft)
2

0.3 k/ft
2
= 19.1 kips
e = 175 k-ft/(74 +19.1) kips= 1.88 ft = 11.3 ft/6
Resultant iswithin middlethird.
S.P. = (93.1 k)(2)/(11.3)
2
= 1460 lbs/ft
2
< 4000 lbs/ft
2
Therefore, O.K.
Increasein mat size= (11.3/8)
2
= 1.99
Therefore, mat sizehasdoubled, assumingthat themat thicknessremainsthesame.
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EXAMPLE15.5: Design of aDrilled Shaft
ProblemDeterminethedepth of a5-ft diameter drilled shaft in cohesivesoil with acohesion of
1.25 ksf by both Bromsand modied Bromsmethods. Thefoundation issubjected to acombined
moment of 2000 ft-k and a shear of 20 kips under extreme wind loading. Manual calculation by
Bromsmethod isshown herein whilethemodied Bromsmethod ismadeby theuseof acomputer
program(CADPRO) [ 25] , which determinesthedepth required, lateral displacement, and rotation of
thefoundationtop. Calculationsaremadefor variousfactorsof safety(or strengthreductionfactor).
Theequationsused in thisexamplearebased on Reference[25] .
Foundation in CohesiveSoil:
M = 2000 ft-kips
V = 20 kips
Cohesion:
C = 1.25 ksf
D = 5"
Solution
1. UseBromsMethod [ 14]
M = 2000 +20 1
= 2020 ft-k
H = M/V = 2020/20 = 101
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q = V/(9 CD) = 20/(9)(1.25)(5) = 0.356
L = 1.5D +q

1 +(2 +(4H +6D)/q)

0.5

= (1.5)(5) +.356

1 +(2 +(4)(101) +(6)(5))/0.356)

0.5

= 20.3 ft
2. Comparison of Resultsof BromsMethod and Modied BromsMethod.
Depth from Modied Brom
FOS C used broms(ft) D (ft)
1.0 1.0 1.25 20.3 19 .935 .457
1.33 0.75 .9375 22.3 19.5 .89 .474
1.5 0.667 .833 23.2 20.5 .81 .366
1.75 0.575 .714 24.6 23.0 .653 .262
2.0 0.5 .625 25.8 24.0 .603 .23
where
FOS = factor of safety
= strength reduction factor
= displacement, in.
= rotation, degrees
3. Conclusions
Thisexampledemonstratesthat themodied Bromsmethod providesamoreeconomical design
thantheBromsmethod. It alsoshowsthat asthedepthincreasesby26%, thefactor of safetyincreased
from1.0to 2.0. Thecost will also increaseproportionally.
15.6 DeningTerms
Bearingconnection: Shear resistanceisprovided bybearingof bolt against theconnected part.
Block shear: Acombination of shear and tensilefailurethrough theend connection of amem-
ber.
Buckling: Modeof failureof amember under compression at stressesbelowthematerial yield
stress.
Cascadingeffect: Progressivefailureof structuresdueto an accident event.
Circuit: A systemof usually threephaseconductors.
Eccentricconnection: Linesof forcein intersectingmembersdo not passthrough acommon
work point, thusproducingmoment in theconnection.
Galloping: High amplitude, lowfrequencyoscillation of snowcoveredconductorsduetowind
on uneven snowformation.
Horizontal span: Thehorizontal distancebetween themidspan pointsof adjacent spans.
Legand bracingmembers: Tension or compression members which carry the loads on the
structureto thefoundation.
Lineangle: Denotesthechangein thedirection of atransmission line.
Linetension: Thelongitudinal tension in aconductor or shield wire.
Longitudinal load: Load on thesupportingstructurein adirection parallel to theline.
Overload capacity factor: A multiplier used with the unfactored load to establish the design
factored load.
Phaseconductors: Wiresor cablesintendedtocarryelectriccurrents, extendingalongtheroute
of thetransmission line, supported by transmission structures.
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Redundant member: Members that reduce the enbraced length of leg or brace members by
providingintermediatesupport.
Sag: Thedistancemeasuredverticallyfromaconductor tothestraight linejoiningitstwopoints
of support.
Self supported structure: Unguyed structuresupported on itsown foundation.
Shear friction: Amechanismtotransfer theshear forceat anchor boltstotheconcretethrough
wedgeaction and tension of anchor.
Shield wires: Wiresinstalled on transmission structuresintended to protect phaseconductors
against lightningstrokes.
Slendernessratio: Ratio of themember unsupported length to itsleast radiusof gyration.
Span length: Thehorizontal distancebetween two adjacent supportingstructures.
Staggered bracing: Bracememberson adjoiningfacesof alatticetower arenot connected to a
common point on theleg.
Stringing: Installation of conductor or shield wireon thestructure.
Transverseload: Load on thesupportingstructurein adirection perpendicular to theline.
Uplift load: Vertically upward load at thewireattachment to thestructure.
Vertical span: Thehorizontal distancebetween themaximumsagpointsof adjacent spans.
Voltage: Theeffectivepotential differencebetween anytwoconductorsor between aconductor
and ground.
References
[ 1] ACI Committee318, 1995, BuildingCodeRequirementsfor ReinforcedConcretewithCom-
mentary, American ConcreteInstitute(ACI), Detroit, MI.
[ 2] ANSI, 1979, Specication and Dimensionsfor Wood Poles, ANSI 05.1, American National
Standard Institute, NewYork.
[ 3] ANSI/ASCE, 1991, DesignofSteel LatticedTransmissionStructures,Standard10-90, American
National StandardInstituteandAmericanSocietyof Civil Engineers, NewYork. (Former ASCE
Manual No. 52).
[ 4] ANSI/IEEE, 1992, IEEEGuidetotheInstallationof OverheadTransmissionLineConductors,
Standard 524, American National StructureInstituteand Instituteof Electrical and Electronic
Engineers, NewYork.
[ 5] ANSI/IEEE, 1993, National Electrical SafetyCode, Standard C2, American National Standard
Instituteand Instituteof Electrical and ElectronicEngineers, NewYork.
[ 6] ASCE, 1984, Guidelinefor Transmission LineStructural Loading, Committee on Electrical
Transmission Structures, American Society of Civil Engineers, NewYork.
[ 7] ASCE, 1986, InnovationsintheDesignof Electrical TransmissionStructures, Proc.Conf.Struct.
Div. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., NewYork.
[ 8] ASCE, 1987, GuidefortheDesignandUseofConcretePole,AmericanSocietyof Civil Engineers,
NewYork.
[ 9] ASCE, 1990, Designof Steel TransmissionPoleStructures, ASCEManual No. 72, Second ed.,
American Society of Civil Engineers, NewYork.
[ 10] CSI, 1992, SAP90A Series of Computer Programs for the Finite Element Analysis of
StructuresStructural AnalysisUsersManual, Computer and Structures, Berkeley, CA.
[ 11] EPRI, 1983, Transmission LineStructureFoundationsfor Uplift-Compression Loading: Load
Test Summaries, EPRI Report EL-3160, ElectricPower Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
[ 12] EPRI, 1990, T.L. WorkstationCode, EPRI (ElectricPower ResearchInstitute), Report EL-6420,
Vol. 1-23, Palo Alto, CA.
[ 13] Gere, J.M. and Carter, W.O., 1962, Critical Buckling Loads for Tapered Columns, J. Struct.
Div., ASCE, 88(ST1), 112.
[ 14] IEEE, 1985, IEEETrial-UseGuidefor TransmissionStructureFoundationDesign, Standard
891, Instituteof Electrical and ElectronicsEngineers, NewYork.
[ 15] IEEE, 1991, IEEE Trial-UseGuidefor Wood Transmission Structures, IEEE Standard 751,
Instituteof Electrical and ElectronicEngineers, NewYork.
[ 16] Kramer, J. M., 1978, Direct Embedment of Transmission Structures, Sargent & Lundy Trans-
mission and Substation Conference, Chicago, IL.
[ 17] Peyrot, A.H., 1985, Microcomputer Based Nonlinear Structural Analysisof Transmission Line
Systems, IEEETrans. Power ApparatusandSystems, PAS-104(11).
[ 18] REA, 1980, DesignManual for HighVoltageTransmissionLines,Rural Electrication Admin-
istration (REA) Bulletin 62-1.
[ 19] REA, 1992, Design Manual for High VoltageTransmission Lines, Rural Electrication Admin-
istration (REA), Bulletin 1724E-200.
[ 20] REI, 1993, ProgramSTAAD-IIIStructural AnalysisandDesignUsersManual, Research
Engineers, Orange, CA.
[ 21] Rossow, E.C., Lo, D., and Chu, S.L, 1975, Efcient Design-Analysis of Physically Nonlinear
Trusses, J. Struct. Div., 839-853, ASCE, NewYork.
[ 22] Roy, S., Fang, S., andRossow, E.C., 1982, SecondaryEffectsof LargeDefection in Transmission
Tower Structures, J. EnergyEng., ASCE, 110-2, 157-172.
[ 23] Roy, S. and Fang, S., 1993, Designingand TestingHeavy Dead-End Towers, Proc. Am. Power
Conf., 55-I, 839-853, ASCE, NewYork.
[ 24] Simpson, K.D. and Yanaga, C.Y., 1982, Foundation Design Considerations for Transmission
Structure, Sargent & Lundy Transmission and Distribution Conference, Chicago, IL.
[ 25] Simpson, K.D., Strains, T.R., et. al., 1992, TransmissionLineComputer Software: TheNewGen-
eration of Design Tool, Sargent & Lundy Transmission and Distribution Conference, Chicago,
IL.
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