Late Adulthood:

Social and
Personality
Development
Development Across the
Lifespan
Presented By: - Nishant
Personality Development and Successful
Aging

 Whether personality changes or stays stable in

late adulthood depends on which facets of
personality are considered.
 According to Costa and McCrae, basic
personality traits remain stable.
 agreeableness
 satisfaction
 intellect
 extroversion
 energy
Some changes in personality
occur as a result of new
challenges that appear in
later adulthood.
 Erikson labeled the last stage
of personality development
EGO-INTEGRITY-VERSUS-
DESPAIR, which is
characterized by a process of
looking back over one's life,
evaluating it, and coming to
terms with it.
 Erikson, continued

 Integrity comes when people feel they

have realized and fulfilled the possibilities
that have come their way.
 Despair occurs when people feel
dissatisfied with their life, and experience
gloom, unhappiness, depression, anger, or
the feeling that they have failed
 changes in personality: peck’s
developmental tasks
 Robert Peck suggests that personality
development in elderly people is occupied by
three major developmental tasks or challenges.
 The first is REDEFINITION OF SELF VERSUS
PREOCCUPATION WITH WORK-ROLE, which
means that those in old age must redefine
themselves in ways that do not relate to their
work-roles or occupations.
(peck’s developmental tasks,
continued)
 The second major task is BODY TRANSCENDENCE
VERSUS BODY PREOCCUPATION, a period in which
people must learn to cope with and move beyond changes
in physical capabilities as a result of aging.
 The third developmental task is EGO TRANSCENDENCE
VERSUS EGO PREOCCUPATION in which elderly people
must come to grips with their coming death.
 Changes in personality: Levinson’s
views on the Winter of Life

 According to Daniel Levinson, people enter late

adulthood after passing through a transition stage
that typically occurs about age 60 to 65.
 During this transition time people begin to view
themselves as entering late adulthood.
 People struggle with being "old", and often must face
illness and death of one's friends and loved ones
( Levinson’s views on the winter of
life, continued)

 People must struggle with the loss

of power, respect, and authority.
 People can serve as resources for
younger people and be in a
position to give advice.
 Old age brings freedom to do
things for fun and entertainment
Coping with Aging: Bernice Neugarten’s Study

 Rather than focusing on commonalities

of aging, this classic study focused on
the different ways that people cope with
aging.
 Four different personality types among
those in their 70’s
 Disintegrated & disorganized
 Passive-dependent personalities
 Defended personalities
 Integrated personalities
 Disintegrated & disorganized
 Unable to accept aging

 Experience despair as they age

 Often end up in nursing homes, or are hospitalized

 Passive-dependent personalities
 Lead lives filled with fear

Illness
Future
Inability to cope
 May seek out hope, even when not needed
 Defended personalities
 Seek to ward off aging

 May try to act young

 Exercise vigorously
 Youthful activities
 Unrealistic expectations may lead to disappointment

 Integrated personalities
 Most successful

 Cope comfortably with aging

 Accept becoming older & maintain self dignity

~Most people studied fell into the final category

Erikson, Peck, Levinson & Neugarten
all suggest that a major
characteristic of personality
development in old age is looking
backward, called a LIFE REVIEW,
where people examine and evaluate
their lives.
 Life Review & Reminiscence: The Common
Theme of Personality Development
 According to Robert Butler, the life review is
triggered by the increasing awareness that one
will die.
 There are benefits to a life review.
 a better understanding of one's life
 resolution of lingering problems
 a sense of sharing and mutuality with others
like them
 may improve memory
 A life review is not always positive.
 People may become obsessed with the past.
 This may cause psychological dysfunction
 Overall, a life review and reminiscence can play an
important role in the ongoing lives of the elderly
 Continuity between past & present
 Increases awareness of the contemporary world
 New insights
(Overall personality growth & development!)
Age Stratification Approaches to Late
Adulthood
 Age stratification theories suggest that economic resources,
power & privilege are distributed unequally among people at
different stages of the life course, impacting development.
 Power declines among elderly in industrialized nations lead to
more distance between this group and young adults
~These theories help explain why aging is viewed more
positively in less industrialized societies
 Culture Shapes the Way We Treat People in
Adulthood
 Cultures that revere old age have several things in
common.
 They are homogeneous in socioeconomic terms
and the elderly control the finances.
 Older adults in these cultures continue to
engage in activities that are valued by society.
 These cultures tend to be organized around
extended families.
Cultural differences in the way the elderly are
treated are often exaggerated

 The Eskimos do not leave their elderly to die

on ice floes.
 The Chinese revere old age but there is
great individual variation.
~ Important to avoid broad global statements
about how older adults are treated in a given
society!
 Does Age Bring Wisdom?

 Wisdom: expert knowledge in the practical aspects of life.

 This concept has received little attention from gerontologists
and other researchers
 Developmentalists disagree on whether we should expect a
relationship between wisdom and aging.
 Is wisdom a trait that declines with age?
 Does wisdom reflect an accumulation of knowledge,
experience, and contemplation?
 Another challenge:
differentiating wisdom from
intelligence
 Timing?
 Intelligence
 Related to the here-and-now
 Logical & systematic thinking

 Wisdom
 Timeless quality
 Understanding of human behavior

~Psychologist Robert Sternberg:

Intelligence permits people to
invent the atom bomb, wisdom
prevents them from using it
 Successful Aging: What is the Secret?

 No proven way to age successfully

 How people age depends on personality
factors and personal circumstances
 2 major approaches provide alternate
explanations
 Disengagement theory
 Activity theory
Disengagement Theory: Gradual Retreat
 According to DISENGAGEMENT THEORY, the period in
late adulthood that marks a gradual withdrawal from the
world on physical, psychological, and social levels;
people withdraw from the world and the world compels
the elderly to withdraw (e.g., retirement).
 The theory suggests that withdrawal is a mutual process
 norms and societal expectations
 allows more reflection and freedom
Disengagement Theory, continued

 People can become more reflective about their lives.

 People can become less constrained by social roles.
 People become more discerning about relationships, which can
help them adjust to increasing frequency of serious illness and
death among their peers.
 Disengagement is not an automatic, universal process for all
people in late adulthood.
Activity Theory: Continued Involvement

 According to ACTIVITY THEORY, successful

aging occurs when people maintain the interests,
activities, and social interactions with which they
were involved during middle age.
 Happiness and satisfaction with life are assumed
to spring from a high level of involvement with the
world.
Activity Theory, continued

 When it is no longer possible to work,

successful aging according to activity
theory suggests that replacement
activities be found.
 Being involved in any activity just to
remain active may not always contribute
to happiness and satisfaction.
 Some people are happier when they can
slow down and only do those things that
bring them the greatest satisfaction.
 Neither theory provides a complete
picture of aging
 Which theory best explains successful
aging may depend on one's behavior
prior to late adulthood.
 Those active in youth better off with
activity
 Those that were uninvolved/socially
independent may be more satisfied
with disengagement
A General Model of Successful Aging…

 Good physical and mental health are

important in determining an elderly
person's sense of well-being.
 Financial security and a sense of
autonomy and independence also give
one's later life a significant advantage.
 A positive outlook on life helps people
view their old age more favorably.
e selective optimization model of successful ag

 Developmental psychologists Baltes and Baltes

focus on the selective optimization model
 Suggests that older people overcome changes
and losses in old age according to the principle
of SELECTIVE OPTIMIZATION, where people
concentrate on particular skill areas to
compensate for losses in other areas.
Selective Optimization with Compensation

According to this model, successful aging

occurs when an older adult focuses on his or
her most important areas of functioning &
compensates for losses in other areas.
Daily Life in Late Adulthood:
Living arrangements

 Contrary to the stereotype, only 5 % of

elderly people end their lives in a nursing
home.
 2/3 of people over the age of 65 live with
other members of the family.
 Most live with their spouse.
 The adjustment to living with children can
be difficult.
 African-Americans are more likely to live in
multigenerational families than Whites.
 (Living arrangements in late
adulthood, continued)

 10 % live in a CONTINUING-CARE community,

which typically offers an environment in which all the
residents are of retirement age or older and need
various levels of care.
 Several types of nursing homes exist.
 ADULT DAY-CARE FACILITIES are where elderly
individuals receive care only during the day, but spend
nights and weekends in their own homes.
 (Living arrangements in late adulthood,
continued)
 SKILLED-NURSING FACILITIES provide full-
time nursing care for people who have chronic
illnesses or who are recovering from a
temporary medical condition.
 Only 1 % of those aged 64 to 74 are in
nursing homes.
 25 percent of those over 85 are in nursing
homes.
 Fears of nursing homes can lead to INSTITUTIONALISM, a
psychological state in which people develop apathy,
indifference, and a lack of caring about themselves.
 Often brought about by a sense of learned hopelessness, the
belief that one has no control over one's environment.
 Langer and Janis found that when given simple choices over
their lives, only 15 % of the choice groups died within 18
months, compared to 30 % of the comparison group.
Financial issues in late adulthood

 People who were well-off in young adulthood

remain so in late adulthood; those who were
poor remain poor in late adulthood.
 12 % of the elderly over age 65 live below
the poverty line.
 Women are twice as likely to live in poverty
than men.
 7 % of White people live below the poverty
line.
(Financial issues in late adulthood,
continued)
 18 % of Hispanics live below the poverty line.
 25 % of African-Americans live below the
poverty line.
 82 % of African-American women are "poor" or
"near-poor".
The elderly must often live on a fixed income.
 social security
 pensions
 savings
 The elderly face rising health costs.
 The average older person spends 20
% of his or her income on health care
costs.
 Nursing homes can cost $30,000 to
$40,000 a year
Work and retirement in late adulthood

 When to retire is a major decision faced by the majority of

people in late adulthood.
 The typical retirement age is moving downward to age 60.
 Social security and pensions allow people to retire earlier.
 A disincentive is built into Social Security by having workers
taxed at higher rates on both social security and earnings.
Work and retirement in late adulthood,
continued

 Many people continue to work full- or part-

time for some part of late adulthood.
 Mandatory retirement is illegal (since the
1970s) with the exception of certain public
safety jobs such as police, firefighters,
prison guards, and pilots.
The retirement decision is based on a
number of factors.

 Workers may be burned out after working all

their lives.
 Jobs can be frustrating and tension-filled.
 Health may decline.
 Incentives are offered by their company to retire
early.
 Desire to travel and see more of family
 According to Atchley, people pass
through stages in the process
of retirement.
 At first there is a honeymoon period, in
which former workers engage in a variety
of activities, such as travel, that were
previously hindered by full-time work.
 Disenchantment may occur when retirees
conclude that retirement is not all they
thought it would be.
 Reorientation is the stage where retirees
reconsider their options and become
engaged in new, more fulfilling activities
 Atchley, stages in the process of
retirement continued

 A retirement routine stage occurs when retirees

come to grips with the realities of retirement and
feel fulfilled in this new phase of life.
 The final stage is the process of termination
where the retiree either goes back to work or
health deteriorates so badly that the person can
no longer function independently.
 Not everyone passes through each stage and the
sequence is not universal (table in text)
Gerontologists suggest several factors
related to a successful retirement
 Plan ahead financially.
 Consider tapering off from work
gradually.
 Explore your interests before you
retire.
 Plan to volunteer your time.
Relationships: Old and New
 Marriage in the later years
 The proportion of men who are married over the
age of 65 is far greater than that of women.
 70 % of women outlive their husbands.
 The marriage gradient makes remarriage easier for
elderly men than for women.
 The vast majority of those still married report they
are satisfied with their spouse.
Living Patterns of Older Americans

Think about what these patterns might

suggest about the relative health &
adjustment of men & women.
(Marriage in the later years, continued)
 For some, the stress of retirement or old age
changes the relationship
 2 % of divorces in the U. S. involve women over 60
 Reasons for divorce at such a late stage are varied.
Women initiate it because:
 Husband may be abusive or alcoholic.
 The husband may have found a younger woman.
 Men in retirement may suffer psychological turmoil
(Marriage in the later years, continued)

 Divorce is harder on women than men.

 Happiness and quality of life for women often
plummets since marriage may have been
central to their identity
 5 % of the elderly never married and late
adulthood brings fewer changes to their lives.
 Report feeling less lonely than most people
of the same age
 Greater sense of independence
 The Lasting Influence of Childhood:
Evidence from the Terman Study
 The Terman study of over 1,500 children of high
intelligence began in the 1920s (“termites”)
 Still ongoing with subjects now in their 80s
being tested every 5 years.
 Longest-running longitudinal study in the field
of psychology
 Recent analyses have examined the impact that
several types of psychological stresses have
had on participants current lives—and deaths
Terman study, continued

 Subjects whose parents divorced when they were

children faced a 1/3 greater risk of an earlier death
compared to those whose parents remained married
until the children were at least 21
 There was greater stigma attached to divorce then.
 Children of divorced parents had greater marital
instability themselves.
 Terman study, continued

 Those who were prudent, truthful, and free from vanity

had a 30% lower chance of dying in a particular year
perhaps due to a greater adherence to health habits.
 Childhood cheerfulness was related to a shorter life
perhaps because of carelessness and a carefree attitude
about health habits.
 Earlier death is related to occupational choice: Men &
women with more stereotypically male jobs showed
higher mortality rates!
 Dealing with retirement: Too much
togetherness?

 For many couples, retirement means that

relationships have to be refashioned.
 Couples spend more time together.
 Provides an opportunity for sharing household
chores.
 Men become more affiliative and less competitive
and women become more assertive and
autonomous.
Caring for an Aging Spouse
 Shifts in health mean that in late adulthood men
and women may have to care for an ill spouse.
 May provide closeness and a sense of fulfillment.
 The caregiver may not be in good health either.
 In most cases, the caregiver is the wife.
The Death of a Spouse:
Becoming Widowed

 Few events are more painful than the death of a

spouse.
 No longer part of a couple.
 Must deal with profound grief.
 No one to share life with.
 Social life often changes.
 Economic changes often occur
--According to Gloria
Heinemann and Patricia
Evans, the process of
adjusting to widowhood
occurs in three stages.
 In the first stage, preparation,
spouses prepare for the
eventual death of the partner.
 The second stage, grief and mourning, is an
immediate reaction to the death of a spouse.
 May last years or months.
 Length depends on the degree of support and
personality factors.
 The last stage is adaptation, where the widowed
individual starts a new life.
 These stages do not apply to everyone
 The Process of Adjustment to Widowhoo

Heineman
n&
Evans,
1990
Social networks of late adulthood
 Friendships play an important role in the lives of those in
late adulthood.
 Friendships are often more valued than family because
of the element of control: we choose our friends.
 Friendships are more flexible than family.
 When a spouse dies, friends help fill the gap.
 When a friend is defined as irreplaceable, the death of
that friend may be quite difficult.
Social Activity in Late Adulthood

Friends & family play an important

role in the social activity of the
elderly.
Social Support: The Significance of Others

 Friends provide SOCIAL SUPPORT, assistance and

comfort supplied by another person or a network of
caring, interested people.
 Social support is important for successful aging.
 Provides an ear.
 Can sympathize when they have been through the
same crises.
 Can help furnish material support such as solve
problems, give a ride, or fix broken things.
 The Significance of Others,
continued
 Dogs can be especially good at
providing social support.
 Reciprocity, the expectation that if
someone provides something positive
to another person, a return benefit
ought to be received, makes social
support effective and beneficial.
 Family relationships: The Ties that Bind

 Connections with siblings, children,

grandchildren, and great-grandchildren may
provide an important source of comfort to
adults in the last years of their lives.
 Siblings are important because they have
shared a large portion of life with you.
(Family relationships, continued)

 More important are children and

grandchildren.
 Often provide support and care.
 Parents often have a greater developmental
stake in close ties because they see their
children as perpetuating their beliefs, values,
and standards.
Most parents and children remain close.

 75 % of children live within a 30-mile drive to

their parents.
 Daughters tend to be in more frequent
contact than sons.
 Mothers tend to be the recipient of
communication more than fathers.
 Children may turn to their elderly parents for
advice, information, and monetary help.
Grandchildren & Great-Grandchildren
 Not all grandparents take great pride in
their grandchildren.
 Grandmothers are more involved than
grandfathers.
 Many grandchildren express a greater
preference for their maternal grandmother
than for their paternal grandmother.
 African-American grandparents are more
involved with their grandchildren than are
European-Americans.
 (Grandchildren & Great-Grandchildren,
continued)

 African-American grandfathers play a larger role in their

grandchildren's lives than do white grandfathers.
 Most grandparents do not have close relationships to their
great-grandchildren although they enjoy having them.
 May relate to the fact that great-grandparents are very old.
 May have so many great-grandchildren that it is hard to keep
track of them.
Elder Abuse: Relationships Gone Wrong

 Elder abuse (the physical and psychological

mistreatment or neglect of elderly individuals)
is all too common!
 Estimates: as many as 2 million people above the
age of 60 each year (may be low, because
unreported!)
 Expected to increase as the number of elderly
increase
(Elder Abuse, continued)
 Elder abuse is most often directed at family
members (particularly parents)
 Unhealthy and isolated most at risk; also, those with
dementia (esp. Alzheimers)
 Usually results due to economic, psychological, and
social pressure on caregivers required to give high
levels of care around the clock
 More efforts need to be made by society at
prevention
 Education
 Support agencies