March | April 2010

Feature title: Protein sources - Alternative protein sources

should also show functionality if they are to play a role in modern aquafeeds
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The International magazine for the aquaculture feed industry

 F: Protein
Protein sources
Alternative protein sources should also show
functionality if they are to play a role in
modern aquafeeds
by Keith Filer Ph.D, research Manager, Asia-Pacific biosciences Centre, Alltech, inc.
T
he aquaculture industry
today faces a number of
challenges that threaten
to restrict its development
and profitability.
To live in harmony with consumer expec-
tations of the highest possible standards of
product quality and to do so in a sustainable
and environmentally responsible manner
necessitates an innovative, coordinated and
holistic approach within the aquaculture
industry.
The requirement for sustainability has
focused on the composition of the feed
being used as one of the key parameters
determining the sustainability of production
of a particular species, particularly the fish- However, in Europe, and now increas-
meal and fish oil content and how it relates ingly in North America, consumers pre-
to overall feed conversion ratios.
Figure 1: A comparison of typical essential amino acid
(EAA) requirements for fish and the EAA profile of
AquateTM
Further formulation trends are moving
towards low fishmeal and oil content in the
grower feeds and finishing feeds designed
to restore flesh quality parameters such as
omega 3 fats, and fillet quality that are con-
sidered essential for the promotion of the
product and its benefits for human health.
This strategy addresses to some extent
the limited resources of fishmeal and fish oil.
Expectations of sustainability
The only way to achieve the expecta-
tions of sustainability and replace or supple-
ment fishmeal and fish oil in aquafeeds is to
exploit alternative protein and lipid sources.
The obvious and traditionally used alter-
natives are animal and plant protein sources.
fer aquaculture products to have been
fed without the use
of animal by-products
due in part to recent
health scares in the
terrestrial animal sec-
tor such as bovine
spongiform encepha-
lopathy (BSE).
The search is on,
therefore, for not only
the simple replacement
of protein, but the provi-
sion of functional nutri-
tion addressing both the
sustainability and flesh
quality requirements
of the industry while
12 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | March-april 2010
meeting the nutritional requirement of the
animal being cultured.
Alternative vegetable
protein sources
Over the last two decades aquaculture
research has focused on plant protein
sources such as grains, pulses and oilseeds
as they are generally widely available.
However, the use of soybean meal and
other plant based protein sources such as
legume seeds, oilseed cakes, leaf meals, leaf
protein concentrates and root tuber meals
have been limited due to the presence of a
wide variety of anti-nutritional substances
in these products and their interaction
with the physiology of the animal resulting
in depressed growth and feed efficiency,
mortality and abnormal intestinal morphol-
ogy and damage.
These substances act in different ways:
by affecting protein utilisation and digestion
(e.g. protease inhibitors, tannins, lectins) by
affecting mineral utilisation (e.g. phytate,
gossypol pigments, glucosinolates) antivita-
mins and other miscellaneous substances
(e.g. phytoestrogens).
The increasing use of plant protein
sources is also raising new concerns about
possible contamination by mould derived
mycotoxins.
This risk is enhanced by the global
nature and trading of plant protein sourc-
es and the as yet little investigated impact
of different mycotoxins and their interac-
tions in aquaculture species. In 2008, the
Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed in
F: Protein
the EU noted that mycotoxins
accounted for 56 percent of
border rejections when identi-
fied by risk. This concern may
become increasingly important
© Mjunsworth | Dreamstime.com
in aquafeed formulations in the
future.
A number of production tech-
niques and specific products are
used to help reduce the effect
of anti-nutritional substances and
"The primary defence mechanism of a fish can be considered to be the physical
mycotoxins in terrestrial animal
production, but these are not
barrier (skin, gills and gastrointestinal tract). Both externally and internally, therefore,
the mucosal barrier and tissue cellular membrane integrity play a vital role"
widely used in the aquaculture
sector at this time. Studies using
enzymes and mycotoxin adsorb-
ents are being carried out to find alterna-
tives to overcome these limitations.
Fermentation technologies may be used
to produce sustainable sources of single-
are a source of dietary nucleotides, which
have been shown to promote growth and
celled proteins: algae and yeast being two enhance non-specific immune activity. They
Single-celled proteins examples. are also low in phosphorous, which can lead
Single-celled proteins such as micro- Yeast based proteins have been the most to less water and environmental contamina-
algae, bacteria and yeast are now being thoroughly investigated as protein sources tion than fishmeal and other plant based
considered as attractive alternatives to and as a dietary replacement for fishmeal alternative protein sources that contain
the more traditional plant protein sources. because they are a rich source of protein, high levels of this mineral.
Many of these have been incorporated into with a relatively good balance of essential The processing and extraction tech-
aquafeed with differing degrees of success amino acids. They contain B complex vita- nologies of both cell wall material and yeast
(Oliva-Teles and Goncalves, 2001). mins, pigments, complex carbohydrates and extract are critical in providing function-
It’s time for us to Brand and Create our own destiny.
Exploring opportunities in an industry with a bright future: Aquatic proteins
to feed a growing population
Primacy of science in aquaculture: Nutritional tools for modulating intestinal microbial ecology, health and performance
2010: The year when aquaculture reaches the volume of capture and becomes the more relevant segment of the industry
26th Annual International Animal Health and Nutrition Symposium
MAy 16 - 19 | LexINgtoN, KeNtucKy, uSA
For more information, or to request an invitation, contact your local Alltech representative, visit www.alltech.com/symposium or email us at symposium@alltech.com.
Delegates who are members of ARPAS and AAVSB will be able to earn CEUs.
210mmx147mm.indd 1 2/19/2010 11:47:51 AM
March-april 2010 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 13
 F: Protein F: Protein

have a requirement for a well-balanced
mixture of essential and non-essential
amino acids from which to construct their
own protein tissues and, therefore, the
balance of essential amino acids in the diet
is crucial. Aquate is a rich source of highly
digestible amino acids with a crude protein
content of approximately 47 percent.
The amino acid profile of Aquate
closely matches the requirement for fish
(Figure 1) and contains docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA) at approximately 33.8 percent
of its fat content. Furthermore, its nucle-
otide content provides functional nutri-
ents that are present in the yeast extract
component. Nucleotides are known to
play a major role in almost all biologi-
cal processes and this includes: storage
of energy, components of several coen-
zymes which are involved in carbohydrate,
protein and fat metabolism, mediation
in cellular processes, control of several
Figure 2: Mucal production increases with the addition of enzymatic reactions and intermediates in
Bio-Mos® (Torrecillas et al, 2008). biosynthetic reactions.
Aquate’s level of nucleotides ranges
from five percent to as much as 15 percent
ality and optimising nutritional potential and feed industry or for the extrac- in the specialised AquateTM Junior product.
by ensuring a high degree of digestibil- tion of high-valued components such Aquate Junior has been designed for juve-
ity. Industrial spray drying techniques have as vitamins (C & D2), n-fatty acids, nile stages of aquaculture species, where
played a significant role in improving these pigments and antioxidants (B carotene, a rich source of nucleotides are especially
characteristics. astaxanthin, lutein). important for immunity and gut health.
Microalgae are rich sources of protein,
carbohydrates and lipids.
Through the careful formulation and
blending of algal and yeast components
The Aquate family has been designed
to provide functionality in aquafeeds
The amino acid profile of almost all Alltech has produced the AquateTM to meet the specific requirements of a
algae compares favourably to other food range of products designed to provide particular aquaculture sector or species.
protein sources and the carbohydrate nutritional solutions for the aquaculture AquateTM SPMP also contains the specific
components are highly digestible. industry. yeast cell wall component Bio-Mos®, which
However, it is the lipid content that is Aquate is the commercial name for a has been used to provide an effec-
especially interesting because of the func- second generation of sustainable product tive feed component in the fight to
tionality of this component, particularly solutions aimed at enhancing biomass control sea lice in salmonid culture.
so in some species rich in n-3 and n-6 production, feed efficiency and boosting Combinations of functional nutrition in
fatty acids. natural defence mechanisms in aquacul- this manner has resulted in improve-
Today, commercial microalgae produc- ture species so encouraging healthier and ments in gut morphology, nutrient
tion is used to produce algal biomass for more robust populations. uptake, improved immuno-competence
direct use as feed additives in the food Aquaculture species, like other animals, and disease resistance.
Table 1: the number of sea lice found to be present on sampled juvenile salmon.
Control CAGES BIo-MoS CAGES
  1 2 3 4 AVERAGE 1 2 3 4 AVERAGE T-TEST
Mature
1 2 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0.5 0.178
females
Preadult 14 32 24 53 30.75 29 24 15 20 22 0.179
Chalimus 22 4 8 26 15 8 8 14 7 9.25 0.170
Caligus 17 14 14 5 12.5 8 14 7 5 8.5 0.140
TOTAL 54 52 46 85 59.25 45 46 37 34 40.5 0.044
by the presence of retained in the fish flesh so indicating more
bioactive substances effective treatment.
and the epidermal The combined effect of SPMP and
migration of inflam- improved operational practises resulted
matory cells and in reduced Chalimi resettlement follow-
their secretions, may ing treatment, which was attributed to
affect the establish- increased mucal production (Figure 5) and a
ment and prolifera- general overall lower level of pressure from
tion of ectoparasitic all stages of total mobile lice.
copepods, ciliates or Marine Harvest concluded that the Loch
monogenean (Jones, Sunart trials indicated that
Figure 3: Typical skin mucus development on salmon fed
AquateTM SPMP in Scotland (Wallace et al, 2009). 2001). • The SPMP diet produced more epi-
Work at GIFAS dermal mucus than the control diet.
monitored sea • The SPMP diets promoted better gut
lice development on juvenile salmon and integrity, which allowed better uptake
Aquate SPMP and
TM
showed that after a seven week period of of SLICE® into the flesh of fish.
Atlantic salmon feeding the total sea lice counts showed • Using SPMP to enhance emamectin
The primary defence mechanism of a that fish fed with the addition of Bio-Mos uptake was environmentally positive.
fish, exposed to an infectious or damaging had significantly lower overall numbers of • Using SPMP to encourage epidermal
agent, can be considered to be the physical sea lice present compared with the fish mucus curbed Chalimi resettlement in
barrier (skin, gills and gastrointestinal tract) fed the control diet. In addition, the total comparison with control populations.
and their protection mechanisms, at the number of individual salmon infected by • SPMP can be incorporated into the
point of interaction of the environment and sea lice (irrespective of species, life stage diet at the initial stage of food produc-
the physiology of the fish. Both externally or sex) was significantly reduced by the tion, thus eliminating an additional
and internally, therefore, the mucosal bar- Bio-Mos supplementation (Table 1). cost for top coating.
rier and tissue cellular membrane integrity In the United Kingdom, the aim of the In Norway, Salmon Group, following
play a vital role in this process. National Sea Lice Strategy is to extend the industrial trials using SPMP, concluded that
In sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), mucosal lice free period
production increases when Bio-Mos is fed and reduce
as indicated by the significant increase the frequency
(P<0.05) in the number of cells secreting of therapeutic
acid mucin in the posterior gut (Figure 2).
The quantity of lysozyme in the mucus was
intervention.
M a r i n e
Marine phospholipids
also increased. Harvest sam-
In commercial field studies carried out pled fish muscle A new generation of omega-3 lipids
by Marine Harvest in 2008 (Wallace et al, for emamectin
with a broader spectrum of health
2009) salmon fed on Aquate SPMP showed benzoate
increased skin mucous secretion (Figure 3). (EmB) in fish benefits.
This increased skin mucosa was character- fed Aquate
ised in the field by noticeably more slimy SPMP and the - High DHA contents, preferably in
fish and was also widely reported by site control diets easily digestible and highly bio
managers from Salmon Group in Norway. immediately available form for aquaculture use.
The role of mucus in anti-parasitic after the end
mechanisms in fish is not well under- of medication - Numerous benefits on improving
stood. Buchmann and Bresciani (1998) with SLICE®. the immune response, better
demonstrated that mucus, as measured Noticeably weight gain and physical
by the density of mucous cells, could higher levels of
conditions of land animals.
play a role in limiting the parasite load the medicinal
of monogeans in rainbow trout. Other residue were
authors have shown that monogenean found in the
and crustacean ectoparasites can modu- fish fed Aquate
late mucus production during attach- SPMP (Figure
ment by reducing the mucous cells in 4). This is
the skin of the host (Wells & Cone 1990, important envi-
Nolan et al 1999). ronmentally as
Recent studies, however, have begun to less emamec- Fiskerihavnsgade 35 Phone +45 79120999
clarify the relative roles of the immune system tin benzoate P.O. Box 359 Fax +45 79120888
in fighting parasitic infections in fish. It has is voided in
6701 Esbjerg E-mail 999@999.dk
been suggested that the physico-chemical the faeces
Denmark Web www.999.dk
characteristics of skin mucus as determined and more is

14 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | March-april 2010 March-april 2010 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 15

999_AD_IAF0904V3.indd 1 22/06/2009 14:01
 F: Protein
Figure 4: EmB residues in the SPMP study in Loch Sunart
(Wallace et al, 2009).
04/01/2008
18/01/2008
01/02/2008
15/02/2008
Figure 5: Average Chalimi levels from SPMP fed fish
versus controls, Loch Sunart. (Wallace et al, 2009)
"Single-celled protein sources have the
potential to become a renewable source
of functional nutrition providing both
alternatives to fishmeal and fish oil"
• 4/5 farms reported better general
health status in the SPMP fed fish.
• 4/5 farms reported less lice treat-
ments in the trial fish.
• All farms reported that the fish
appeared to be very slimy.
Aquate trial with cobia
In omnivores and herbivorous species,
such as catfish or tilapia, high replacement taste and texture characteristics
levels (>40 percent) of fishmeal can be
tolerated provided that the amino acid
requirement of the fish species is met
from other sources. However, in the car-
nivorous fish species cobia (Racyhycentron
canadum), Chou et al,
2004 reported that a 40
percent replacement of
fishmeal with soybean
conversion ratio, led Virginia Cobia Farms
to consider the inclusion of Aquate in their
proprietary cobia grow-out formulations.
in the Family
meal did not have a neg- Conclusion
ative effect on growth Single-celled protein sources have the Alltech® has developed a range of products to address dietary requirements at different
performance, but that potential to become a renewable source of
at higher replacement functional nutrition providing both alterna- stages of life in aquaculture species. These sustainable product solutions are proven to
rates growth perform- tives to fishmeal and fish oil. support profitability in aquaculture operations as well as performance in fish and shrimp.
ance decreased.
A recent trial at References
™
Virginia Cobia Farms
Buchmann K & Bresciani J (1998).
in Saltville, Virginia, USA Microenvironment of Gyrodactylus derjavini on
investigated the poten- rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss: association Ideally suited for fish and shrimp in any stage of life to maintain performance and to
tial of Aquate inclusion between mucous cell density on skin and site support independence from traditional aquaculture diet ingredients.
(30 percent of the dry selection. Parisitology Research 84, 17-24.
diet) to replace fish- ™
Chou RL, Her BY, Su MS, Hwang G, Wu
meal and fish oil for the YH & Chen HY (2004). Substituting fishmeal
marine carnivore cobia with soybean meal in diets of juvenile cobia
Racyhycentron canadum. Rachycentron canadum. Aquaculture 229, 325- Specifically designed for the juvenile stages of life in fish and shrimp to support good
The high level of 333. health, uniform growth and survival.
replacement of fishmeal
Jones SRM (2001). The occurrence and
was designed to capital- ™
mechanisms of innate immunity against parasites
ise on the DHA content in fish. Developmental and Comparative
of Aquate and investigate Immunology 25, 841-852.
if it could not only satisfy A natural, affordable product created for salmon in all life stages to maintain good
29/02/2008
14/03/2008
28/03/2008
11/04/2008
25/04/2008
09/05/2008
23/05/2008
Nolan DT, Reilly P & Wendelaar Bonga SE
the essential fatty acid health and defense mechanisms against adverse aquatic elements present in the
(1999). Infection with low numbers of sea louse
requirements of juvenile
Lepeoptheirus salmonis induces stress-related surrounding environment.
cobia, but also provide
effects in post smolt Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).
adequate n-3 HUFA in
Can J. Fish Aquatic Sci. 56, 947-959.
the final product for Give your fish and shrimp the Alltech Aqua Advantage.
human consumers. Oliva-Teles, A. & P. Goncalves. 2001. Partial
replacement of fishmeal by brewers yeast Contact your Alltech representative today
A commercial diet
regularly used for cobia
(Saccaromyces cerevisiae) in diets for sea bass for more information.
(Dicentrarchus labrax) juveniles. Aquaculture 202,
production was used as 269-278.
the control diet and a
second experimental Torrecillas S, Makol A., Caballero M.J, Montero D,
Sweetman J & Izquierdo M.S (2008). Enhanced
diet high in soy product
nutrient utilization and bacterial infection
inclusion (>55 percent
of the dry diet) was also
resistance in European sea bass (Dicentrarchus
labrax) fed mannan oligosaccharides. Poster
included. At the end
of the feeding trial, the
presented at XIII ISFNF Meeting, Brazil 1-5 June.
fish were harvested and Wallace C, Waddell R, Cockerill D & Ritchie
G (2009). Double mucal effect boosts sea lice
utilized for test market-
control and potentially extends useful life of
ing purposes in which
medications. Fish Farming Xpert, No 1/09, 48-53.
chefs, distributors and others compared
the cobia fed the experimental diets in Wells PR, & Cone DK (1990). Experimental
terms of taste, texture, physical and visual studies on the effect of Gyrodactylus
preferences. colemanensis and G. salmonis on density
of mucous cells in the epidermis of fry of
The trial showed that Aquate could be
Oncorhynchus mykiss. J. Fish Biol. 37, 599-603.
used as a partial provider of essential n-3
HUFA in marine fish diets and
that the inclusion of Aquate
appeared to impart beneficial More inforMation:
Keith Filer Ph.D
to the final product with 83 Research Manager
percent of the test panel prefer- Asia-Pacific Biosciences
Centre
ring the Aquate fed fish to that of
Alltech, Inc.
the high soy inclusion diet. This, Email: kfiler@alltech.com
aquasolutions@alltech.com
combined with an improved feed www.alltech.com
16 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | March-april 2010
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