INTRODUCTION TO PRESSURE VESSEL

PREPARED BY: MUHAMMAD RIDHWAN ABDUL RASID, MECHANICAL TRAINEE DATE: FEBRUARY 2010

Stresses

In two dimensions, the state of stress at a point is conveniently illustrated by drawing four
perpendicular lines that we can view as representing four adjacent planes of atoms taken from an
arbitrary position within the material. The planes on this “stress square” shown in Fig. 1 can be
identified by the orientations of their normals; the upper horizontal plane is a +y plane, since its
normal points in the +y direction. The vertical plane on the right is a +x plane. Similarly, the left
vertical and lower horizontal planes are −y and −x, respectively.

Figure 1: State of stress in two dimensions; the stress square.

The sign convention in common use regards tensile stresses as positive and compressive stresses as
negative. Besides, the stress square must be in equilibrium; therefore this arrow must be balanced
by another force acting on the −x (lefty) face and pointed in the –x (lefty) direction. Of course, these
are not two separate stresses, but simply indicate the stress state is one of uniaxial tension. It goes
same with y direction for compression.

Figure 2: The sign convention for normal stresses.

Consider now a simple spherical vessel of radius r and wall thickness b, such as a round balloon. An
internal pressure p induces equal biaxial tangential tensile stresses in the walls, which can be
denoted using spherical rθφ coordinates as σθ and σφ. The internal pressure generates a force
towards the spherical wall, which is balanced by the wall stress.

Figure 3: Wall stresses in a spherical pressure vessel.

At the surfaces of the vessel wall, a radial stress must be present to balance the pressure there.

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Figure 4: Free-body diagram for axial stress in a closed-end vessel.

The stresses in the axial direction of a cylindrical pressure vessel with closed ends are found using
this same approach as seen above and yielding the same thing (equilibrium state& equation).

Figure 5: Hoop stresses in a cylindrical pressure vessel.

Note the hoop stresses are twice the axial stresses. This result — different stresses in different
directions — occurs more often than not in engineering structures, and shows one of the 3
compelling advantages for engineered materials that can be made stronger in one direction than
another (the property of anisotropy). If a pressure vessel constructed of conventional isotropic
material is made thick enough to keep the hoop stresses below yield, it will be twice as strong as it
needs to be in the axial direction.

What is pressure vessel?

Structures such as tank capable of holding internal pressure have been very important in the history
of science and technology. In order to make a better flow of gas and fluid, an aqueduct or tank must
be constructed so they can run all the way from the reservoir to the destination.

However, temperature& pressure differential is dangerous and many fatal accidents have occurred
in the history of their development and operation. These temperature& pressure difference have
created stresses toward the shell.

A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to hold gases or liquids material under internal or
external pressure.

Pressure vessels are designed to operate safely at a specific pressure

and temperature technically referred to as the "Design Pressure" and
"Design Temperature". Design code to design pressure vessel such as
ASME sec VIII and BS standard.

Pressure vessels may theoretically be almost any shape, but shapes

made of sections of spheres, cylinders, and cones are usually employed. A common design is a
cylinder with hemispherical end caps called heads.

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Type of pressure vessel

1. Horizontal vessel on saddle support.

a. Shell is primary component that contains pressure. Curved
shape.
b. Vessel always closed by head.
c. Components typically welded together.
d. Saddle supports used for horizontal vessel.
- Spreads load over shell.
- One support fixed, other slides.

2. Vertical vessel on leg support.

a. Most head are curved shape for strength, thinness and
economy.
b. Semi-elliptical shape is most common head shape.
c. Small vertical vessel typically supported by legs
- Typically maximum 2:1 ratio of leg length to diameter.
- Number, size and attachment details depend on loads.

3. Tall vertical tower.

a. Nozzles used for:
- Piping systems
- Instrument connections
- Manways
- Attaching other equipment
b. End typically flanged, maybe welded.
c. Sometimes extend into vessel.

4. Vertical reactor.
a. Skirt support typically used for tall vertical vessels:
- Cylindrical shell.
- Typically supported from grade
b. General support design
- Design for weight, wind, and earthquake.
- Pressure not a factor.
- Temperature also a consideration for material selection and
thermal expansion.

5. Spherical pressurized storage vessel.

a. Spherical storage vessels typically supported on legs.
b. Cross-bracing typically used to absorb wind and
earthquake loads.

6. Vertical vessel on lug support.

a. Vessel size limits for lug supports:
- 1-10 ft diameter.
- 2:1 to 5:1 height/diameter ratio
b. Vessel located above grade.
c. Lugs bolted to horizontal structure.
Pressure vessel in oil& gas industry

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Applications in oil and gas production that use pressure vessel.

1. Pipe receiver and launcher

2. Gas lift/ injection launcher and receiver
3. Water injection launcher and receiver
4. Production separator
5. Degasser
6. Electrostatic coalescer
7. Hydrocyclone
8. Scrubber
9. Glycol contactor
10. Flare knock-out drum
11. Wet/dry air receiver and launcher
12. Deaerator
13. Closed/ opened drain vessel

Main components of pressure vessel

DESIGN

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A. Generic Criteria in designing a pressure vessel (PV).
The following are the full steps to design a pressure vessel from the beginning, specification towards
the end, shipment and operation.
1. General requirements for PV specification
I. P&ID drawing
From the drawing, we can determine the type of, function and sizing of the PV which
satisfy the process requirement. Moreover, the datasheet of every PV follows the P&ID.
II. Datasheet
All required information and figures for calculation
III. Scope of Supply
The supplier shall be responsible for the mechanical design, supply of material,
manufacture, assembly, inspection, testing, painting, protection and delivery of the
pressure vessel.
IV. Regulatory Approvals
During or after the fabrication, the pressure vessel will be inspected and tested for 3 rd
party U stamp (for Div 1, allowed to be used for operation) such as ABS and DNV. These
organisations have the license to do inspection and award the U stamp after completion.
V. Design Life
Design life shall be as per client specification.
VI. Location &Environmental Conditions
The operating environmental conditions shall be specified to determine the protection
of the pressure vessel from the wind (in case there is typhoon) and disasters (earth
quake). The data will be used to design the best support for the vessel.
2. Design basis& manufacturing requirements
All these are the requirement of design basis in order to fabricate the process PV. They have
to obey the ASME code standard thus it can be approved by the organization for operation.
I. Thickness / pressure
Based on datasheet, the supplier will calculate the allowable pressure and required wall
thickness. Therefore, the dimension of the component can be determine and start the
fabrication. The difference in pressure and thickness are based on operation
temperature, stress and young modulus of material itself. The design temperature and
pressure shall be the max value allowed. Below is the formula for required thickness and
allowable pressure:

Cylindrical shell (Longitudinal seam)

PR
Required wall thickness t=
SE−O.6 P
SE t
Allowable pressure P=
R+0.2 t
Sphere or cylindrical shell (circ. Seam)
PR
Required wall thickness t=
2 SE−0.2 P
2 SEt
Allowable pressure P=
R+0.2 t
Ellipsoidal head
PD
Required wall thickness t=
2 SE−0.2 P

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 2 SEt
Allowable pressure P=
D+0.2 t

Torisperical head
1 L
Add data M=
4
3+ ( √)
r
PL M
Required wall thickness t=
2 SE+ P ( M −0.2 )
2 SE t
Allowable pressure P=
ML−t ( M −0.2 )
Conical head
Add data α= angle
PD
Required wall thickness t=
2cos α ( SE +0.4 P )
2 SEt cos α
Allowable pressure P=
D−0.8tcosα
Flat ends
Add data d= end type
CP
Required wall thickness t=d
√
SE
SE
Allowable pressure P=t 2 2
d C

II. Manways
Vessels that require access or inspection openings shall be equipped as follows:
a. All vessels less than 450 mm and over 300 mm I.D. shall have at least two
handholes or two plugged, threaded inspection openings of not less than NPS
11⁄2 (DN 40).
b. All vessels 450 mm to 900 mm, inclusive, I.D. shall have a manhole or at least
two handholes or two plugged, threaded inspection openings of not less than
NPS 2 (DN 50).
c. All vessels over 900 mm I.D. shall have a manhole, except that those whose
shape or use makes one impracticable shall have at least two handholes 100 mm
x 150 mm or two equal openings of equivalent area.
An elliptical or obround manhole shall be not less 300mmx400 mm. A circular manhole
shall be not less than 400 mm I.D. A handhole opening shall be not less 50mmx75mm,
but should be as large as is consistent with the size of the vessel and the location of the
opening.
III. Lifting devices
The size, weight and shape of the PV to be made must consider the available lifting
device (carrier, lorry or crane). If the PV is very big, however there is no lifting device can
lift it, thus the PV can not be transported to the operation site. Some PV are made on
site because of the size are very big.
IV. Attachments/ Gauge
Some attachments such as metering gauge (pressure or temperature), piping, and
instruments have to be attached to PV. The designer will determine the location of the
gauge which satisfies with the client.

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 V. Reinforcement (reinforced pad)
When the shell is holed for any attachment (nozzle or piping), there is increased stress
toward the surface nearby the hole. To avoid from the force breaking the shell, the
reinforcement welded to support the surface. Meanwhile the attachment will be welded
on the reinforcement pad.
VI. Insulation
The importance of insulation in PV is to maintain the heat inside the vessel. The heat is
very important for PV boiler application, hence it has a layer of insulator inner shell to
avoid the heat absorb out to the surrounding. Meanwhile, if the heat is not significant,
the supplier will just build casing as protection in term of economic wise.
VII. Corrosion allowance
For corrosive operation, the client will set corrosion allowance that supplier should meet
by choosing the suitable material and corrosion protection (chemical inhibitor).
VIII. Deflection
For horizontal PV, the weight & pressure might cause deflection to the PV itself; hence
the supplier will make sure the calculation of the saddle include the overall weight; PV
and fluid. Meanwhile, the vertical PV might deflect due to wind load, inertia generate by
the movement of the ship (ex FPSO) or earth quake. Therefore the supplier will include
all these external force (wind, G force and seismic load) in the thickness calculation
instead of the inner pressure thus the deflection only in the range below maximum
allowable value.
IX. Support
This support can counter extreme environmental conditions such as typhoon and earth
quake which create vibration to the PV.
3. Components for fabrication of PV
I. Plate
Plate in oil& gas PV commonly made of carbon steel and stainless steel. It will be rolled
into cylindrical shape as PV shell and formed to make the head. The thickness of the
plate is the main point in designing the pressure vessel.
II. Pipe
The external force and moments exerted by the attachment such as piping should be
included in the calculation. The joint is another main thing in PV design beside of
dimension and material.
III. Forging
Forging is a process which the material (commonly steel) is deformed by giving external
force on it. The forging steel is harder and stronger than the machined cut steel (mild
steel) due to difference in grain structure.
IV. Flanges
Flange is an interface between nozzle and pipe. It made of forged steel or mild steel
(ASTM A105N). There are 6 types of flange, however only two types commonly use in oil
and gas PV application:
 Slip-on (use in oil& gas)
 Welding neck (preferred in oil& gas)
 Socket welding
 Threaded
 Lap-joint
 Blind
V. Bolting
Bolt and nut joint the flange. The material for bolt is ASTM A193-B7 – PTFE Coated; and
the material for nut is ASTM A194-2H – PTFE Coated.
VI. Gaskets

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 Gasket is used between flange to enhance the bolted joint and avoid leakage. There are
two types of gasket material used based on flow pressure:
a. Below 150 pound – CNAF
b. Below 300 pound – SS316, Graphite Filled, SS316 Inner Ring & CS Outer Ring
4. Material selection
The selection of construction materials for Code pressure vessels has to be made from Code
approved material specifications. It usually specifies the most economical materials of low
first cost and/ or low future maintenance cost that will be satisfactory under operating
conditions and will meet other requirements. There are many factors must be considered in
selecting the most suitable materials including:

a. Corrosion resistance in the service corrosive environment

b. Strength requirements for design temperature and pressure
c. Cost
d. Ready market availability
e. Fabricability
f. Quality of future maintenance.

Generally, process equipment is designed for a certain minimum service life under specific
operating conditions. Typical design lives are given below for several types of petrochemical
equipment:

a. 20 years: fractionating tower, reactors, high pressure heat exchanger shells and other
major equipment which is hard to replace.
b. 10-15 years: carbon steel drums, removable reactor parts and alloy or carbon steel
tower internal
c. 5-10 years: carbon-steel piping, heat exchanger tube bundles and various process
column internals.

Basically the vessels are specialized to adapt with two different services. Therefore, we can
save money in material selection which uses the material specific to the working operation.
The typical service for pressure vessels are:

I. Noncorrosive service
In addition to corrosion resistance, the fundamental material selection criteria are
design temperature and design pressure. So basically, the materials are selected based
on operating temperature. There are 3 level of temperature:
a. Low temperature – low alloy and fine-grain carbon steels which tested for notch
toughness and are found to perform satisfactory.
b. Intermediate temperature – low carbon steels are sufficient which they behave
essentially in elastic manner; that is the structure returns to its original dimensions
when applied forces are removed and maximum stress is below than the yield point.
c. Elevated temperature – mechanical changes in mechanical properties occur in
steels. They begin to exhibit a drop in ultimate and yield strength and cease to be
elastic, becoming partly plastic.

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 II. Corrosive services
For high corrosive operation, commonly we use stainless steel for petro-chemical plant.
Since the price of stainless steel is very high, which triple of the carbon steel, there are
three method of attaching the alloy to the carbon steel plate:
a. Integrally applied cladding – integrally clad or roll clad is fabricated in a steel mill by
hot rolling of assemblies of carbon or low alloy steel plates (backing) and corrosion
resistant sheet (linear) which have been welded at the edges.
b. Strip or sheet lining (explosion cladding)
The stainless steel which can not use conventional welding such as titanium steel are
attached to the plate using explosion method.
c. Weld overlay cladding.
The stainless steel which can be weld using conventional welding is weld on the plate
line by line until the surfaces are totally covered up.

III. Bolting materials

a. Bolt for pressure connections – Bolting materials for pressure connections must
conform to the specifications listed in the Code. Bolts are designed not only for
strength but also for tightness at the joints. In order to prevent leakage of a bolted
joint, the total force exerted by the bolts must exceed the sum of the force due to the
operating fluid pressure and the force necessary to keep the joint tight.

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 b. Bolt for structural connections – bolting for structural non pressure parts is designed
for strength only, since the tightness of the joint is not important.
5. Fabrication
I. Shell
The shell commonly made of carbon steel and stainless steel. The steel plate rolling
process will make it become cylindrical shaped. Because there is limitation in forming
and rolling machine width, thus the design should be based on the available width,
meaning the PV shall be divided into several parts.
II. Heads
There are several types of head:
a. Semi ellipsoidal
b. Torispherical
c. Hemispherical
d. Flat
e. Conical
The head is formed into shapes by two types of forming:
a. Hot formed – heads are formed at temperature suitable to the material. This
method basically to reduce residual stresses, to temper or soften the material
itself. Typically carbon steel heads are hot formed at 899 oC and stainless steels
are hot formed at 1038oC.
b. Cold formed – heat treatment is usually required after cold forming to remove
brittleness including stress relief.
III. Nozzle
The nozzle existence will affect PV load calculation. The loads are strictly forces and
moments imposed on the nozzle by the attached piping. Before applying these load
numbers, check the piping layout connected to the nozzle to make assumption about
the loading combination. Then, refer to supplier/fabricator range of dimension which
suit with load.

IV. Welding

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Welding plays important role during fabrication. It is about joining several plate and
nozzle become one large shape.

WELDING
WELDING

WELDING
WELDING WELDING
WELDING
TYPE
TYPE OF
OF WELD
WELD WELDED JOINT
WELDED JOINT
METHOD
METHOD PROCESS
PROCESS

Shielded Metal Arc

Shielded Metal Arc
FORGE
FORGE GROOVE
GROOVE Tee
Tee
Welding
Welding (SMAW)
(SMAW)

Submerged
Submerged arc
arc
FUSION
FUSION FILLET
FILLET Lap
Lap
welding (SAW)
welding (SAW)

Gas Metal Arc

Gas Metal Arc
PRESSURE
PRESSURE PLUG
PLUG Butt
Butt
Welding (GMAW)
Welding (GMAW)

Gas Tungsten Arc

Gas Tungsten Arc
Corner
Corner
Welding (GTAW)
Welding (GTAW)

Gas Welding
Gas Welding Edge
Edge

Resistance
Resistance
Welding
Welding

a. Welding Method
Welding is a joining process that uses heat, pressure, and/or chemicals to fuse two
materials together permanently.

The most widely used industrial welding is arc welding which is any of several of
fusion welding processes wherein the heat of fusion is generated by an electric arc.

b. Type of weld
i. Groove weld
A type of weld that consists of an opening between two part surfaces, which
provides space to contain weld metal. Groove welds are used
on all joints except lap joints.

Groove weld can be subdivided

according to the edge conditions.

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 Type of groove weld

ii. Fillet Weld

A fillet weld is a weld with an approximately triangular cross section, joining
two surfaces at right angles.

iii. Plug weld

A plug is a circular weld made either by arc or gas welding through one
member of a lap or tee joint.

welding

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 Some form of welded joint in combination with different weld types

c. Welding process.

i. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

This form of welding is widely used. The heat for welding is produced by the
resistance of the arc air gap to the flow of electric current. Also called stick
electrode welding, SMAW is almost always done manually. As the electrode
heats, the core wire which conducts the current to the arc melts and provides
filler metal for the welded joint. The coating of the electrode breaks down to
form a gaseous shield for the arc and weld puddle as well as small amount of
slag, which protects the weld as it cools. Shielding is very important for the
quality of weld, since it prevents the loss of alloying elements during the transfer
of molten metal through the arc.

ii. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

This process, almost always fully automatic, is used in the fabrication of main
vessel seams. It gives excellent welds at low cost. However, it can be used for
horizontal positions only. A continuous consumable wire coil is used as
electrode. Weld puddle and arc are protected by liquid slag, formed form
granular mineral flux deposited ahead of the arc.

iii. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

A consumable continuous wire is used as an electrode which melts and supplies
the filler metal for the welded joint. A protective shield of inert gases (helium,
argon, CO2, or a mixture of gases) is used. The process produces excellent welds
at less cost than the GTAW process (see below) with higher weld deposition
rate.

iv. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

This process is used when the highest-quality welding with difficult to weld
metals is required. An arc is formed by a nonconsumable tungsten electrode,
which carries the electric current; the filler metal, if required, is added

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 separately form a rod or a continuous wire. Inert gas flows around the arc and
the weld puddle to protect the hot metal.

v. Gas Welding
Heat of fusion is generated by burning a flame of gas with oxygen. Different
gases are used, as described below:
a. The oxyhydrogen process (OHW) uses hydrogen for combustion.
b. The oxyacetylene process (OAW) uses acetylene gas:
- Flame cutting
- Flame machining
vi. Resistance Welding
The heat of fusion is generated by the resistance at the interface to the flow of
electric current. No shielding is required. Pressure must be applied for good
metal joining. Resistance spot welding (RSW) or resistance seam welding (RSEW)
are used to fix corrosion-resistant linings to the wall of a vessel shell.

V. Heat Treatment
Heat treatment intended to be done on individual parts of a vessel after they have been
shaped for assembly. Post hotwork/ coldwork heat treatment (heating about 2/3 of
material melting temperature) followed by natural cooling to remove the residual stress.
VI. Clad Construction
Integrally clad materials are used for fabricating equipment of reactive metals
economically, robustly and durably. Bonding these materials onto lower cost, stronger
backers extends the economical service of these materials into higher pressures and
temperatures and more challenging service environments than are feasible with solid
alloy construction.
VII. Tolerances.
The entire components have their percentage of permissible dimensional difference
which provided in the code.
6. Inspection, examination and testing.

The inspection must be run during the fabrication. This because to ensure the vessel is in the
best quality and satisfy with the required operating requirement.

 Inspection and Test Plan (ITP)

It is basically the test planning before the fabrication of the pressure vessel. Refer Table
1 for an example of ITP

 Material Identification and Certification

i. Material
Make sure the materials that supplied by the suppliers are as stated in the
datasheet.
ii. Dimensional
The inspectors have to ensure that the dimension of all fabricated plate, shell,
nozzle and head are same as stated in the datasheet.
iii. Sizing
This matter also same with above. Running of size is the biggest problem during
fabrication. It will lead to other problems. I.e. leakage and deform.

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  Inspection and Examination

i. NDT
- Visual& optical testing
Must be performed in suitable conditions, however, fine cracks may remain
invisible.
- Magnetic particle examination (MT)
It is the best method for the detection of fine surface cracks. This method is the
most sensitive and it reveals many cracks that are not detected by other methods
with a lower defect sensitivity. AC yoke WMFT is preferred over DC or prod
methods. DC methods are not as sensitive and prod methods may leave arc strikes
that, if not ground out, can serve as crack initiators.
- Ultrasonic examination (UT)
With straight and angle-beam probes is the main method for the detection of
subsurface and deeper surface defects of sufficient size. UT shear waves,
longitudinal waves, and crack-tip diffraction ultrasonic inspections are used. UT
may also be used for the examination of a vessel under pressure without
discharging of the liquid gas from the vessel.
- Radiographic testing (RT)
- It is used incases of volume defects revealed by ultrasonic as
an additional method for the characterization the defects.
Incases of weld repair, it is always recommended to use RT.
- Dye-penetrant examination (PT)
It is used only occasionally, is less sensitive than MT, it is
however, easier to perform. In case, some complicated
areas that MT, UT and RT are not accessible, the PT is used.
RT setup
ii. Hydrostatic test
During a hydrostatic test, a pressure vessel is placed inside a closed system, usually
a test jacket filled with water, and a specified internal water pressure is applied to
the container inside this closed system. The applied internal pressure causes an
expansion of the container being tested, and the total and permanent expansion
that the container undergoes is measured. This volumetric expansion
measurement, in conjunction with an internal and external visual inspection of the
container, are used to determine if a pressure vessel is safe for continued use, or
has suffered from a degradation in its structural integrity and must be condemned.

7. Marking

The manufacturer’s markings on a pressure vessel include information regarding the date of
manufacture, the manufacturers name or registered mark, the serial number of the unit and
the specification or exemption to which the container complies. For pressure vessels that
have been re-qualified one or more times, additional markings indicate the date(s) of any
previous hydrostatic retests and identification markings of the retest facility.

8. Preservation and protection for shipment.

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This preservation and protection basically to protect the pressure vessel from accidental
deformation, leakage and rust initiator during transportation to the site. The vessel might be
very big and heavy thus very dangerous to residential if something happen. The action below
taken to overcome this matter:
 Rust Prevention.
 Protection and safety during delivery.
 Transport Saddles.

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Table 1 (from inspection, examination and testing)

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