PESTICIDES AND HEALTH
1. INTRODUCTION
The use of pesticide has increased rapidly
over the past decades. Many people may be
exposed to pesticides, including workers on
farms and in factories as well as consumers
and communities. There are many ways in
which pesticides may threaten the health of
humans and the safety and integrity of the
environment. This section describes in some
detail the health hazards of pesticides and the
risks from different exposures. We examine
different ways in which exposures can occur
and also give some explanation about how to
interpret data on pesticide risks. Lastly, we
present a few examples of different
alternatives to pesticides so that all
stakeholders and interested people can
participate in discussions around pesticide
policy in an informed manner.
1.1 What are pesticides?
Pests are flies,
insects or moulds
that destroy crops,
plants and wood.
Some pests are
responsible for
causing or spreading
diseases in human
(mosquitoes
transmit malaria,
snails carry
bilharzia). Pesticides are the different types of
chemicals used to kill these pests. We talk of
fungicides as chemicals that destroy moulds
and fungi, and insecticides as chemicals to
destroy unwanted insects. Herbicides are
pesticides used to kill weeds and grass so as
to protect the crop.
Pesticides are used in farming to promote
crop production (get bigger yields). Farming
today has become dependent on using
chemicals. This is because higher and higher
yields are expected demanding the use of
more vigorous pesticides. Some pests are also
developing resistance to pesticides. Because
the chemicals cannot control the pests
anymore, more and newer pesticides are
having to be used.
Pesticides are also used in other settings. The
Health Authorities may use pesticides to
control pests that transmit disease. Household
may be treated to get rid of household pests.
Wooden poles and materials used for
telephone lines and railway sleepers may be
treated to preserve them for longer use. This
means that pesticides are used in many
different ways and people may have different
chances and ways of being exposed to
pesticides.
1.2 How are pesticides applied?
Pesticides usually come in different forms
such as powder, granules or concentrates that
have to be mixed with water before being
sprayed. Generally, there should be clear
instructions about how much to mix in order
for the spray to be effective. Pesticides may
be sprayed manually, using a backpack, or
using mechanical means from a pump behind
a tractor. Some farming activities require the
pesticide spray to reach the tops of trees, so it
releases a large cloud of fine mist (called a
mist blower). However, if the tractor is
spraying the pesticide downward from a fixed
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boom at the back, there is less manual
handling of the pesticide and less release of
the spray into the air.
Manual methods (such as using a backpack or
handspray) are used in domestic use, spraying
to control malaria, or by small-scale farmers
who cannot afford expensive spray equipment
or whose farms are too small to warrant using
a tractor.
Sometimes, an aeroplane can be used to spray
pesticides, particularly if there is a very large
surface area to cover or the land is too wet for
a tractor to drive in. This will release a fine
spray at a height above the ground over the
area treated.
Certain pesticides come in the form of a gas
and are released from capsules or canisters.
The gas then spreads throughout the area and
this is called fumigation. This method is used
to apply a strong pesticide in a warehouse or
to treat soil when re-planting. When soil is
treated by fumigation, it is usually covered
with a plastic sheet to prevent the gas from
escaping. People who enter the fumigated
area will breathe in the gas if they have no
protection. Pesticides are sometimes also used
to fumigate food products. Fumigation is used
in grain mills and dried fruit factories and on
some farms when the field or orchard is being
replanted.
2. HEALTH EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES
There are different types of effects caused by
pesticides on human health. The two main
types of effects are Acute Effects and Chronic
Effects:
Effects that happen quickly (acutely), usually
following exposure to a large (or unusually
excessive) amount of the pesticide. These are
called acute effects.
An example of this is the
poisoning of the liver,
kidneys and lungs that
follows when somebody
swallows the concentrate of
the herbicide paraquat. A
person poisoned in this way
will be very ill, requiring
hospitalisation as their
organs start to fail, often in
an Intensive Care Unit. However, acute
effects can also be less severe, and in
some cases, can mimic the symptoms of a
bad flu, making it difficult to diagnose the
fact that the person is suffering from
pesticide poisoning.
Effects that happen slowly over a long period
of time. These we call chronic effects, and
include such diseases such as cancer and
nerve damage.
Chronic effects usually are related to long-
term exposure at low doses, frequently in a
way that a person is unaware. However,
chronic effects can follow on a massive
exposure or poisoning, in the weeks, months
or years that follow.
There are some effects caused by pesticides
which are intermediate between acute and
chronic effects. These effects may take days
or weeks to develop after exposure to the
pesticide.
Some effects of pesticides also occur only
with repeated exposures. Sometimes, a
person's body can become adjusted to the
presence of a pesticide, and they do not
experience symptoms, even though the
pesticide is affecting their body. This is called
tolerance. The problem with tolerance is that
the person is more sensitive to any new
exposures, and a small further exposure may
tip them into immediate and severe illness.
This often happens with a group of pesticides
called Organophosphates.
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2.1 Examples of Acute Effects of Pesticides
Damage to nerves.
Many pesticides act on insects by damaging
the nervous system of the insect. In the same
way, these pesticides may be harmful to
human nerves. The Organophosphate
pesticides are the most important group. They
will cause a person to have the following
symptoms:
• Headache, dizziness and weakness.
• Tremor.
• Excessive salivation, sweating, tearing of
the eyes, watering of the mouth.
• Disturbance of vision.
• Nausea and vomiting.
Pesticides that act on the nerves can also
affect the nervous tissue in the brain, causing
a person to become confused and
disorientated, and sometimes present as if
they have a psychiatric disorder. More severe
effects can cause fits or collapse, and may
affect the nerves controlling breathing,
causing the person to stop breathing. Most
cases of fatal poisonings are caused by these
organophosphate pesticides. Examples of
these pesticides (names) are Dursban,
Gusathion, Azodrin, Lebaycid, and Rogor.
Many other pesticides can also cause nervous
system damage. These include the
Organochlorine pesticides (such as DDT,
dieldrin, etc).
Metabolic Poisoning.
Pentachlorophenol is a herbicide and wood
preservative. It is used in agriculture but also
sold for domestic use. (You can buy it at a
hardware store). If a person is heavily
exposed, it leads to poisoning of the cells of
the body causing the body to burn up its
supply of carbohydrate. A person poisoned by
this chemical will start to sweat a great deal,
the body temperature will rise and the person
can become seriously ill and die.
Damage to the lungs.
Different pesticides can cause damage to the
lungs. Methyl Bromide is a fumigant gas that
will cause immediate damage to the lining of
the lungs, causing the lungs to fill up with
fluid and the person will collapse with
respiratory failure. Paraquat causes an
irreversible thickening of the lungs, making
the lungs stiff and unable to absorb oxygen
for the body's needs. Many cases of paraquat
poisoning are fatal.
2.2 Examples of Chronic Effects of
Pesticides
Cancer.
There are some pesticides which are well
recognised as causing cancer. For example,
early pesticides containing arsenic are known
to cause cancer but most of these are no
longer in widespread use. However, there are
some pesticides currently in use for which
there is evidence suggesting that exposure is
associated with a small increase in the risk of
cancer. These include pentachlorophenol,
amitrole, and dioxin (a contaminant of some
herbicides).
Then there is a lot of epidemiological
evidence (research from studies of large
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groups of exposed and unexposed workers, or
from studies of cases who have cancer
compared to controls without cancer) that
suggest associations between cerain types of
exposures (for example spraying certain
herbicides, or use of organophosphates) with
certain types of cancers (for example, blood
cancers called lymphomas). This evidence is
accumulating slowly and the International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)
periodically publishes state-of-the-art
assessments of the carcinogenicity of
different chemicals, based on the weight of
the evidence.
Effects on the immune system.
The body's system of defence (the immune
system) against infections and cancer may
also be affected by chemicals. It is only
recently that attention has been focussed on
this link. Some studies have shown that
certain chemicals
are capable of
causing adverse
effects on an
organism's immune
system. For
example, dioxin is a
potent immunotoxin
for animal in
laboratory studies and has been shown to
cause changes in immune markers amongst
workers exposed in massive accidental
releases of dioxin.
However, there is a growing body of evidence
to suggest that new chemicals in the
environment (xenobiotics) are causing shifts
in the whole population's immune status. The
scientific evidence to support this hypothesis
is only accumulating gradually.
Effects on the reproductive system.
Certain pesticides are known to cause adverse
effects on the reproductive system. For
example, a fumigant called DBCP
(Dibromochloropropane) has been shown to
cause sterility amongst men, only partially
reversible after withdrawl from exposure.
Some exposures to pesticides have been
thought to cause specific birth defects but the
evidence is not consistent.
However, of greater concern, is the agrument
that the xenobiotics in the environment
mentioned above, are similar in action to
hormones. These chemicals with hormone-
like properties (called xeno-oestrogens or
endocrine disruptors) are thought to have an
effect not only on the immune system, but
also on the reproductive system. This was
published in a book recently (called "Our
Stolen Future") which caused a great deal of
controversy. It is thought to explain a trend
found that shows that male sperm counts are
gradually declining over time. Some of these
xeno-oestrogens include pesticides such as
DDT, atrazine, mancozeb, 2,4-D and others.
Effects on the nervous system.
Some of the effects on the nervous system
may be chronic and last long after a person
recovers from an acute poisoning. It also
seems that some
pesticides can cause
damage to the
nerves without an
exposed person
being aware of any
poisoning. The
symptoms of
damage to the
nerves affecting the hands and feet include
numbness, tingling or burning sensations.
Sometimes the muscles in the limbs grow
weaker from the paralysis and the person will
develop wasting and limb deformities.
In some cases, the pesticide will affect the
central nervous system, causing disorders of
memory, cognition, thinking and personality
change. Even though psychological effects
are difficult to study, there is a lot of research
going into investigating these effects of
pesticides.
2.3 Examples of Other Effects of Pesticides
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Many pesticides cause skin problems, either
in the form of corrosive burns or through
causing irritant or allergic reactions (called
eczema). Dioxins cause a specific type of
facial rash called chloracne. Some pesticides
(Gamma BHC) can precipitate a type of
metabolic disorder called porphyria, which
has different features including skin
problems.
Some pesticides may cause an allergic
reaction in the lungs leading to an asthmatic
illness. Exposure to paraquat over a long
period of time may also lead to a gradual
stiffening of the lungs with loss of lung
function.
There are many other ways in which
pesticides may have adverse effects on health
(for example affecting one's liver, the
kidneys, or one's mental state) but the
research is still very sketchy.
2.4 Toxicity of Pesticides
Pesticides are generally classified according
to how toxic they are on the basis of tests
done on laboratory animals (see the later
section on the laws). Four categories of
toxicity are identified, group I being most
toxic and group IV being the least. This
method of classification does not readily take
into account the possible chronic effects of
lower levels of exposure.
Another problem is that, when people are
exposed to some pesticides over a long period
of time, the chemicals may accumulate in the
body. Certain pesticides (the
organochlorines) are soluble in fat and are
stored in the fat cells in the body. This makes
them persist in the body and it can be difficult
to clear these chemicals from the body. It is
suspected that these chemicals can come out
of the fat cells when the person is ill and
breaks down fat cells. People can then
suddenly get ill without knowing that the
pesticide has caused the illness.
Alternatively, the effect of the chemical may
accumulate with tolerance and a small
additional exposure may cause a person to
become very ill very quickly. This is a big
problem for workers handling
Organophosphates (see above).
2.5 Things which make people more
susceptible to pesticide-related disease
Some pesticides may not be that toxic in their
original state but become toxic (or more
toxic) inside the body when converted to
chemical products (metabolites). This
conversion happens in a person’s liver. Other
factors that affect the liver (such as alcohol or
certain medications) can therefore change the
person’s ability to metabolise the pesticide.
This is why chronic undernutrition,
alcoholism and liver disease make a person
more susceptible to pesticides.
Young children are more vulnerable to the
effects of pesticides. This is because they
absorb a greater amount of pesticide
compared to adults and are also biologically
more susceptible to the adverse effects.
Women may also carry increased risks
because of their child-bearing role. Pesticide
may damage the unborn foetus.
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2.6 Identifying the Cause of a Disease
associated with Pesticides - Understanding
the Limitations of Research and Medical
Knowledge
Because of the long delay between the
exposure and chronic effects of pesticides, it
may be difficult to diagnose the condition and
to realise that the pesticide may have been the
cause. Some of the conditions are subtle and
present with gradual onset and early
symptoms (called sub-clinical) which makes
them difficult to identify.
It is also difficult to be certain that the
pesticide is the cause because chronic
conditions have many other causes. For
example, some pesticides appear to increase
the risk of lung and blood cancers, but we
know that smoking and other chemicals such
as benzene are strong causes of the same
cancers. It then becomes difficult to reach a
conclusion that the pesticide caused the
cancer of a specific person.
It also makes it difficult for researchers to
investigate whether a pesticide causes a
particular chronic disease because they have
to take these factors (called confounding
factors) into account. The long delay between
the exposure and the effect also means that
many people will be lost to follow up for the
research. For this reason, the research
findings about pesticides will always have
limitations, and the state of knowledge of
pesticides and their health hazards is
gradually expanding as new methods are
developed.
Another important issue is that most scientific
research is conducted within a particular
framework. The scientist sets out to disprove
the hypothesis that there is no effect from
exposure to pesticides. If the study can
disprove the hypothesis, the results can be
interpreted to say that the pesticide has the
effect of causing the outcome. However, if
the study does not disprove the hypothesis, all
the study shows is that there is no evidence
that the pesticide has the effect investigated.
The absence of evidence for an effect is NOT
the same as evidence for NO effect, and
should be interpreted in that way. We will
often find people misinterpreting research
data to support arguments that certain
pesticide are "safe."
2.7 Monitoring Exposed People to Prevent
Disease
The effect of pesticides is often unnoticed
because it is similar to other conditions like
the common cold or flu. Chronic effects are
also gradual and can develop slowly over a
long time without you being aware of it.
Because of this, it is important to monitor
people exposed to pesticides to be sure they
have not been overexposed to a pesticide.
This usually involves the measurement of the
pesticide or a product produced from the
pesticide in the body (called a metabolite).
Usually one can measure these metabolites in
the blood or in the urine.
For certain pesticides (the organophosphates),
one can also measure the effect the pesticide
has on certain markers in the blood
(cholinesterase enzymes). In this way, one
can see if a person is being adversely affected
before they have further exposure and
become ill. It becomes possible to monitor a
person and withdraw them from any exposure
that may lead to illness. This is the basis for
medical surveillance of exposed workers on
farms and in factories.
Not all pesticides can be measured by these
markers. In that case, one has to rely on
measuring the actual pesticide or its
metabolites. This is usually more complex
and costly, and requires special laboratories.
2.8 Routes and Types of Exposure to
Pesticides
There are many ways that one can be exposed
to pesticides - in your work, in your home, in
the food you eat or the water you drink.
Pesticides can be absorbed into the body
through the lungs (when you breathe them in)
or through the skin or by swallowing
pesticides (in food, water, unlabelled
containers, or deliberate ingestion).
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Many pesticides are very easily absorbed
through the skin. This route for exposure is
very important for farm workers, or for
people who work with pesticides in the open
air. If workers splash pesticide on their
overalls or clothes, the pesticide can continue
to be absorbed through the skin long after
they have stopped working with the pesticide.
Even for workers spraying pesticides, the
danger of the spray is that it settles on their
clothes and skin, and is absorbed through the
skin. Pesticides that splash near the eyes can
also be easily absorbed through the lining of
the eyes (conjunctiva).
Inhaling pesticides is more of a problem for
people working with pesticides inside a
closed room. For example, workers mixing
the concentrates of pesticides are at risk of
breathing in the pesticide fumes.
One can swallow a
pesticide if it is present on
the surface of a foodstuff.
We call this a pesticide
residue. Pesticides can also
contaminate water
supplies, particularly
surface and ground water
supplies near spraying
activities. People who
attempt suicide usually
ingest large quantities of a
pesticide. Sometimes,
adults and children can
drink a pesticide from an
unlabelled container by
accident.
The different groups who may therefore be
exposed to pesticides include:
1. Workers of farms, factories and other
setting handling pesticides.
2. Consumers: Pesticides may stick to the
outside of fresh fruits and vegetables
(residues) and be present in the diet.
3. Domestic users: Many people use
pesticides at home for the control of
household pests such as ants, cockroaches
and flies.
4. Reuse of pesticide containers: People may
also be exposed from the re-use of
containers that were previously used for
pesticides, especially if the containers are
used for cooking, brewing or storing
water.
5. Suicide: Pesticides are often used by
people who want to kills themselves. This
is particularly important in rural farming
areas. If the pesticide store is not
adequately controlled, people can get
access to large quantities and
concentrated forms of pesticides which
are more likely to kill the person.
6. Childhood accidents: Young children may
drink pesticides by accident, especially if
it is stored in an unlabelled container.
3. PESTICIDES AND WORK
Many workers
are exposed to
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pesticides in their work. This includes (see
Table) farm workers, people who work in
parks and forests, workers in factories, mills
and pack stores and workers for commercial
pest control companies (for example,
Rentokil).
There has been very little monitoring of
workers’ exposures to pesticides or the effects
of these exposures on their health. This is a
major gap because it is difficult to plan
preventive policies without this information.
For example, we know that only about 20%
of cases of pesticide poisoning seen at
hospitals in the Western Cape are reported.
We know even less about the cases on farms
of milder poisoning that do not get to the
hospital. There is a major need to improve
monitoring and surveillance of workers
exposed to pesticides in South Africa.
Workers who handle pesticides need to have
proper training in how to protect themselves.
New South African regulations (see later)
have made it mandatory for all workers to be
informed of the hazards of pesticides with
which they work, as well as ways to prevent
exposure. These regulations also make it
compulsory to monitor workers medically to
make sure their health is not affected by
pesticides in both the short and long terms.
Until a few years ago, there were no laws that
covered the occupational health of workers
using pesticides on farms.
The regulations also introduce the practice
called “Risk Assessment” which has been
used in many countries around the world. By
Risk Assessment, the employer is obliged to
investigate whether there are any exposures to
hazardous chemicals at the workplace. If so,
the employer is obliged then to monitor the
environment and the workers’ health. The
regulations set out details of how to do this.
The most important exposure experienced by
farm workers is usually contact with
pesticides on the skin. Protective measures
should be aimed at preventing all routes of
exposure but particularly exposure via the
skin. Broadly speaking, there are two groups
of methods to prevent exposure (see Table).
These include the use of protective clothing
and equipment, such as masks, and ways to
change the process (engineering controls) or
8
the labour inputs to the process
(administrative controls). The first group of
methods tries to achieve health and safety by
changing the worker to suit the workplace,
while the second tries to adjust the workplace
to make it safer for the worker.
Wearing protective clothing is very important
for preventing exposure but is difficult in hot
conditions that are common in South Africa.
In the heat, protective clothing becomes very
uncomfortable. In fact, if workers sweat a lot,
the moisture will absorb more pesticide and

may increase the amount of pesticide a It is also a problem if workers are not given
worker absorbs through the skin. training in how to use the protective clothing
properly, or how to maintain the protective
9
equipment. Using a broken glove or a mask
with an expired filter may be worse because it
gives the worker a false sense of safety and
they be more careless than if they had no
protection.
Other ways in which workers’ behaviour can
lead to exposure should also be prevented.
Eating or smoking in an area where pesticides
have been sprayed or mixed can lead to
workers swallowing residues of the pesticide.
Taking home overalls that have been splashed
with pesticides can expose family members at
home. Many workers also take home
pesticides to use for pests in their homes that
may be far to strong for domestic use.
Training is very important to prevent these
routes of exposure.
Many people disagree that protective clothing
should be the main method to prevent
workers’ exposure. They argue that this shifts
the responsibility onto the individual worker.
He or she can then be blamed for any
problems caused by the pesticides if they do
not use the clothing properly. Using methods
that change the workplace to make it safer for
workers is preferable. In fact, the current
legislation in South Africa (the Hazardous
Chemical Substances Regulations) make it a
legal requirement to use all other methods for
preventing exposure before using protective
clothing. This approach is called the Hierachy
of Controls and is commonly applied in
developed countries.
Ways to make the spraying process safer
include enclosing the spraying equipment (for
example, putting a ventilated cabin on the
tractor), designing spray equipment to cause
less drift, etc (see Table). In other countries,
there are many regulations aimed at
protecting workers from exposure to
pesticides which do not apply in South
Africa. For example, fields that have been
sprayed are posted to warn workers and the
public to stay out of the area. The registration
of the pesticide is based on information as to
how long the field must be posted in this way.
4. PESTICIDES AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
Pesticides do not only affect the people who
work with them. Pesticides can reach the
environment in different ways. Spraying of
pesticides in farming areas can lead to
contamination of soil and ground water. This
can change the fertility of land and cause
water sources to become polluted. This form
of environmental contamination is
particularly important when pesticides are
sprayed from an airplane because it is very
difficult to control the amount of drift with
aerial application of pesticides.
However, less obvious forms of pesticide use
can be very important in contaminating the
1
environment. Forestry activities and the use and birds. Pesticides can kill animals or cause
of herbicides for weed control can cause indirect damage in the form of retarded
widespread pollution. For example, the land growth, abnormal behaviour and impaired
adjoining the Limpopo river was sprayed with reproduction. Some species of animals are
a herbicide by the former South African threatened with extinction because of
army, causing long term damage to the river hazardous chemicals in the food chain. For
growth. It also harmed the crops on example, the blue crane is a national bird that
surrounding farms because farmers had to use is threatened with extinction by farmers’ use
the river water for irrigation. of pesticides as bait to poison predatory
animals.
Once pesticides reach the environment, they
will break down, a process called
degradation. The products of breakdown are
usually less toxic than the original pesticide,
but sometimes the breakdown product may be
more toxic, depending of the specific
pesticide. The rate at which pesticides break
down depend on a number of factors,
including the type of pesticides, the soil types
and climatic conditions.

Some pesticides are very persistent and take a

long time to break down. These include the
organochlorines (such as DDT and dieldrin)
whose long persistence makes them more
effective pesticides. Because of their Insects that are not pests are also killed by
persistence, these chemicals tend to pesticides. Many insects, such as bees, which
accumulate in foodstuffs. As the foods are are very sensitive to pesticides, are
consumed along the natural food chains, the responsible for pollination in natural
chemicals become more concentrated. This is environments. The effect of pesticides on
called bioaccumulation. these “beneficial” insects will disrupt the
natural ecosystems in many ways.
There is some evidence that fish and beef in
South Africa have started to accumulate high It is important to monitor the presence of
levels of these persistent chemicals, even pesticides in the environment but little is done
though their use in South Africa. The laws allow for
has long since
ceased. This is
because these
chemicals
continue to persist
in the
environment long
after their use has
stopped.

Contamination of
the environment
with pesticides is
an important
threat to wildlife,
particularly to fish
1
regulations to make the chemical
manufacturers report the amount and types of
pesticides they produce to the Department of
Agriculture but this has not been enforced
since the mid 1970s. Also, water sources in
South Africa are not routinely monitored for
organic chemicals such as pesticides because
it is very expensive. As a result, we know
little about the extent of environmental
contamination by pesticides.
One study in Natal-Kwazulu found that DDT
sprayed for malaria control in residents’ huts
had accumulated in the breast milk of
lactating mothers in the area. This study
showed how the exposure in the environment
can lead to humans being directly affected. If
pesticides are used without caution, their
effects may last for generations because of
their impact on the environment.
5. PESTICIDES AND THE DOMESTIC
ENVIRONMENT
Exposure to pesticides does not occur only in
an occupational setting, but also in public
places and the home. In order to reduce this
exposure and possible pesticide poisoning,
one must be aware of the many exposures that
exist and take precautionary measures.
The general public can be exposed to
pesticides daily through a variety of means,
such as:
• Public spraying (e.g., road sides, office
buildings, golf courses, schools, food
stores, airplanes, railways, public parks
and gardens).
• Homes (e.g., gardens in livings spaces,
under floors, in ceilings, in wood
preservatives, dipped/flea collared pets).
• Pesticide residues in food.
• Ground/surface water contamination.
• Malaria/queala/locust control programs.
• Pesticide drift from home and agricultural
uses.
• Commercial lawn care services.
• Pesticide treated non-consumable
products (e.g., cut flowers, timber,
plants).
There are several hazards related to the home
use of pesticides:
• Poisoning incidents from not using
pesticides correctly, accidents, spillage,
and not protecting oneself accurately.
• Incorrect storage of pesticides: Not
storing them in a separate place giving
rise to contamination of other things (e.g.,
dog food, clothes, water supplies). Putting
pesticides in unmarked containers or
losing labels.
• Children are particularly vulnerable to
pesticide exposure. They crawl on the
floors, ground, and lawn that may be
sprayed with pesticides. They drop food
on the floor and eat it. Children may also
be more likely to drink something from an
unmarked container.
• Pesticides are also used for committing
suicide because they are easily accessible
in the home, work and stores. This is
particularly a problem in rural towns and
on farms due to the easy access to
pesticides.
Some pesticide exposure prevention points to
remember:
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• Look for an alternative before using
pesticides!
• Always apply chemicals as stated on the
label. If there is no label, do not use it!
• Never store or put a pesticide in any
container other than its original one. Do
not bring pesticides home from work in
unmarked containers!
• Store all pesticides away from anything
else and make sure they are under lock
and key.
• Do not throw empty pesticide containers
in the bin or anywhere else. Phone your
local health inspector for disposal advice
as they are responsible for disposal of
hazardous chemical substances under the
Hazardous Chemical Substances Act.
• Do not use old or expired pesticides.
They may have been banned or are
ineffective.
• Where protective clothing when applying
a chemical.
• Make sure others, children, and animals
are not going to directly exposed to your
pesticide use activity.
The public needs to be aware of all the
possible places for chemical exposure and to
ask questions:
• Ask public places to post signs when
spraying chemicals. For example, if a
school has been fumigated, ask that they
post signs when spraying.
• Ask your local store if their fresh produce
has been tested for pesticide residues.
• Take your drinking water to be tested.
• Ask neighbours to let you know when
they are using chemicals and encourage
the use of alternatives.
Alternatives exist to pesticides and should be
used first! (See section 7 below).
6. PESTICIDES TO WATCH OUT FOR
Many underdeveloped countries use
dangerous pesticides that are banned in
Western countries. The safety laws in
Western countries are much stricter so
pesticide manufacturers, which are large
multinationals, export chemicals to countries
where the laws are not so strict. The result is
that the underdeveloped world uses only 20%
of the world's pesticides, but suffers more
than 75% of poisonings in the world.
In South Africa, most of these banned
chemicals are not registered for use.
However, there are still some chemicals that
are either banned or severely restricted that
are still permitted for use in South Africa.
1

Ethylene Dibromide:
This is banned in England and severely
restricted in the US. It is used as a fumigant
and applied as a gas. It has been restricted
because of evidence that it can cause
infertility and cancer.
Lindane (Gamma-benzene hexachloride):
About 20 different forms of this pesticide are
registered in South Africa with the
Department of Agriculture. Household
treatment for woodborer often makes use of
lindane. It is also used as a treatment for
headlice and marketed as a shampoo. The
evidence is that lindane can cause damage to
the nervous system and cancer. It is an
organochlorine pesticide and therefore
persists in the environment for a long time.
Chlordane:
This is a very toxic pesticide used for
controlling termites in buildings. It is banned
in England and New Zealand. It is causes the
same sort of illnesses as lindane.
DDT:
DDT is banned for use in agriculture.
However, until recently, DDT was still being
used in South Africa to control the mosquito
that spreads malaria. It can cause long term
damage to the nervous system, liver and skin,
and is thought to cause cancer. DDT is very
persistent in the environment. It can
accumulate in the body for many years. At
least 29 countries around the world have
banned DDT.
Parathion:
This is one of the more toxic
organophosphate pesticides and is still used in
South Africa, particularly on citrus farms. It
was first developed during World War II as a
nerve gas. Today, most cases of acute
poisoning in the world are due to Parathion.
Other dangerous pesticides used in South
Africa are Aldicarb (Temik),
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) and Paraquat,
which is used as a weed-killer. Paraquat
causes a fatal stiffening of the lungs if you
swallow as little as a teaspoon of the
concentrated mixture. It also may have
gradual effects on your lung function if you
work with it over a long period of time.
Paraquat is very cheap and is very effective as
a herbicide. That is why it is so commonly
used. The police have used it to spray on
illegal dagga fields in remote rural areas to
destroy the plants.
The chemical mentioned above are part of list
called the "Dirty Dozen". This list has been
drawn up by international environmentalist
groups around the world who have launched a
campaign to ban all chemicals they believe to
be dangerous.
The United Nations has developed a code of
conduct for countries exporting pesticides to
underdeveloped countries. This code gives
the country receiving the pesticides more
control over the pesticides it imports. South
Africa has not signed the code, and until
recently, was exporting dieldrin (One of the
"Dirty Dozen" pesticides, banned in the USA)
to Botswana. There is more detail on this in
later sections.
7. ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES
The previous
sections in this
manual have
outlined the
various health
and
environmental
problems related
to pesticide use.
In the discussion of preventing pesticide
poisoning, exposure and contamination the
emphasis is on ONLY USING PESTICIDES
1
AS A LAST RESORT. This implies not only
trying one alternative to pesticides, but
several, before resorting to a pesticide. This
section discusses some "alternatives" to
pesticides.
7.1 Why should alternatives be
considered?
There are good reasons why we should
consider alternatives to pesticides. These are
to:
• Protect humans from the health hazards
associated with pesticide exposure (e.g.,
reproductive health).
• Reduce costs (e.g., pesticide use,
environmental clean up, workers
compensation from pesticide injuries).
• Protect the environment (i.e., soil, water,
air) from contamination and destruction.
• Protect animals from poisonings and
hazards.
• Protect natural predators.
• Protect the destruction of natural
pollinators (i.e., bees).
• Prevent the development of pesticide
resistance in species.
• Reduce pesticide residues in food, water,
and soil.
Pests can be controlled without using
pesticides and several methods of control
exist. Research on pesticide alternatives is
continually developing with research on areas
such as, genetic engineering, transgenic
plants, biological controls, and biopesticdes.
7.2 Alternative Pest Control Measures
Some alternative pest control measures
include:
Organic Farming
The philosophy behind organic farming is
that crops are produced using absolutely no
pesticides or related agricultural chemicals
during any stage of pre-crop planting or plant
growth. In many organic farming societies,
the seeds and soil used have to be "pesticide
free", that is unexposed to pesticides for
several years. More and more consumers in
the developed world are "demanding" organic
products to avoid potential health effects from
exposure to pesticide residues.
A recent development has been a consumer
demand for cotton grown without pesticides.
The belief is that since cotton farming
requires a great deal of pesticide spraying, the
cotton products are likely to contain pesticide
residues that may be readily absorbed into the
skin. Many farmers have argued that cotton
cannot be grown without pesticides.
However, consumer demand for pesticide free
cotton has proved these farmers wrong and
cotton is now being organically grown in
Europe and America.
Organic farming relies on the methods of
control discussed below under Integrated Pest
Management (IPM). However, the main
difference between the two approaches is that
organic farming does NOT USE
PESTICIDES AT ALL; not even as a last
resort!
Community-Based Pest Management
In developing countries, there are initiatives
to control pests, such as tsetse flies and
mosquitoes by organising affected
communities in rural areas to co-ordinate
control programs. In Kenya, the International
Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology
(ICIPE) has been instrumental in
implementing such programs (Saini and
Haskell 1993). For example, one project
encouraged communities to maintain
mosquito nets by dipping them regularly in a
pyrethrum mixture. Another community
1
project in Kenya monitors and maintains
tsetse traps by emptying traps of flies,
repairing and making traps, and replenishing
the bait odours with urine from livestock.
Community participation in pest management
strategies is effective with alternative
technologies, safe, and economically viable.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
IPM is based on using different methods to
control pests and only using pesticides as a
last resort. IPM implies the use of the best
mix of environmentally sound techniques in
order to keep pests below the damaging point
(i.e., threshold). The use of pesticides under
IPM requires understanding the pest and
which
chemical to
use, as well
as when it is
best to apply
a chemical
(e.g., when a
pest is at a certain stage in its life cycle).
Also, pesticide equipment should be set to
release droplets at certain sizes depending on
the type of chemical for efficiency. However,
the main components of IPM are non-
chemical approaches.
Globally, commercial farmers who employ
IPM methods have embraced this approach
for its cost effectiveness, and for avoiding
pest resistance and environmental problems.
People often think that crop yields will drop
significantly if pesticides are not use,
however this is not the case because not all
pest damage results in economically
significant losses in yields (Hansen 1988).
That is, one can accept a certain amount of
pest damage and still enjoy good crop yields.
According to Pimentel (1993), there has been
an increase in crop losses although pesticide
use has increased because of :
• Crops being more susceptible to pests
(i.e., hybrid varieties).
• The destruction of natural enemies (i.e.,
things that destroy the pests).
• The increase in pest resistance to
pesticides.
• Decrease in rotating crops (i.e., growing
the same crops, in the same field year
after year).
• The increase in planting only one crop
(i.e., monoculture).
Understanding where pests come from and
why is a key first step!
7.3 Some of the approaches used in IPM:
Biological Controls
Biological control simply implies using living
organisms or their products to control pests.
This approach has successfully controlled
pest plants (e.g., water hyacinth), pest insects
(e.g., maize stem borer), and rats/mice/gerbils
(by erecting perches in fields for predator
birds). Biological control involves techniques
such as:
• Using natural predators (i.e., organisms
that eat pests whole).
• Parasites (i.e., organisms that that eat
pests from the inside).
• Microbials (i.e., microscopic organisms
that make pests sick).
• Companion planting (i.e., where one plant
protects another).
• Miochemicals (i.e., natural scents and
tastes to repel, trap or confuse insects).
1

Cultural Controls
These are farm management practices that
prevent pests from developing into a problem.
These practices include:
• Rotating crops.
• Tilling the soil.
• Varying the planting time.
• Removing crop residues (destroy, use for
compost or fodder).
• Pruning, thinning, and weeding.
• Composting plants.
• Hand-picking of pests.
Mechanical and Physical Controls
These are methods that prevent the spread
and reduce the infestation of pests (e.g.,
insects and rodents). These methods include:
• Trapping.
• Building barriers (e.g., nets and fences to
keep out crop destroying birds and
animals, mosquito nets).
• Using light, sound or heat to control the
pest.
Resistant Varieties
These are plants and animals that have a
resistance to pests. This resistance is either
put into plants by scientists (genetic
engineering and transgenic plants) or these
are plants used by farmers for years
(traditional plants).
Sanitation Controls
These are clean up measures to remove and
prevent breeding sites and food supplies for
pests. In fact, for some pests, effective
control cannot be maintained without good
sanitation practices (e.g., removing food,
garbage, and dirt to prevent cockroaches,
ants, flies, and rats). Some sanitation
practices are:
• Removing water, food, garbage and/or
“shelters” for the pest.
• Preventing a pest from actually getting in
to the place you want to keep them out of.
• Keeping planting sites clean.
• Remove plants that are sick/diseased so
that cannot infect healthy plants.
Natural Control or BioPesticides
“Natural” control methods means the use of
plants, bacteria, crushed insects, etc. to make
a substance to apply to the pest or to prevent
the pest from
attacking. The
success of
using natural
controls was
highlighted by
the use of
pyrethroids
(from a
flower). There has been such a market for
pyrethroids that small-scale farmers in Kenya
1
grew the flowers for cash-cropping. Some
examples of natural pesticides are:
• Citronella oil as an insect repellent.
• Neem tree (seeds and/or leaves) controls
250 species of insects as well as having
medicinal properties.
• Bicarbonate of soda spray as a fungicide.
• Bordeaux mixture for the control of
cockroaches.
• Coriander as a companion plant because
of its odour and attracts predators.
• Flour dusted onto vegetables that are
attacked by caterpillars.
• Flour and water mixture is good spray for
controlling aphids, red spider mite and
whitefly.
• Milk and water solution for the control of
fungal diseases.
• Tomato leaves as an insecticide.
The list of natural pesticides is long and there
are numerous methods. Many good books
exist on explaining the methods in detail, as
well as numerous societies on alternative
pesticide methods.
A key component in IPM is understanding the
natural balance of the environment in which
pests live. One needs to learn how to be a
“caretaker” of the environment so that pests
can also be controlled by their natural
predators. This is done by understanding the
environment in which pests live (i.e., the
ecosystem) and by understanding pests habits
and life-cycles.
Alternative control methods for pests is not
limited just to commercial farming. Pest
control alternatives can be used for small-
scale farming, home gardens, in the house, in
buildings, food stores, and on the body - any
where a pesticide would be used, an
alternative can be used! Before using a
pesticide one should always first look for an
alternative. Pesticides are meant to “kill” and
there is no such thing as a totally “safe”
pesticide.
8. SUMMARY: PREVENTING
PESTICIDE POISONING
For workers and people who have to handle
pesticides, there are ways to prevent pesticide
poisoning.
FIRST, TRY TO USE AN ALTERNATIVE
TO PESTICIDES. For example, if you are on
a farm, try to make sure your farm
understands IPM and can reduce usage of
pesticides.
If this is not possible, then you can WORK
SAFELY WITH PESTICIDES (see the table
above).
• Use a safer application method or
substitute with a safer pesticide.
• Enclose the spraying.
• Make sure there is proper ventilation
where you work.
• Keep away from any contact with mixing
or spray unless absolutely necessary.
• Make sure the periods you work with
pesticides are as short as possible and
involve as few workers as possible.
• If you work with a pesticide:
- Handle it carefully. Avoid spilling on
your hands or clothes.
- Never smoke or eat while using
pesticides.
- Never apply pesticides when there is
wind blowing, because the pesticide
will blow onto you.
- After working with pesticides, wash
your hands and whole body carefully.
Management at workplaces are
supposed to provide taps and showers
to wash and a change of overalls.
• Store and dispose of pesticides safely:
- All pesticides should be locked away
in a store separate from food, tools
and other equipment.
- The store should be as far away from
the any homes as possible and no
children should be able to get into the
store.
1
 - Inside the store, there should be no 9. WHAT CAN YOU DO IF THERE IS
leaking of the containers, and no AN ACCIDENT WITH A
pesticides in unlabelled containers. PESTICIDE?
- Empty pesticide containers must be
destroyed. all empty pesticide If you get pesticides on you by accident, this
containers should be punctured, is what you must do:
flattened and buried or burned. If
containers are not destroyed, they • Take off the clothing that is contaminated
should be sent to a waste disposal with the pesticide.
service. • Wash off the pesticide with soap and
water.
• Use protective clothing properly: • If the pesticide has gone into your eyes,
- wash our your eye with a gentle stream of
water for at least 15 minutes.
• If the pesticide has been swallowed, read
the label to see what first aid you must
give.

A person involved in an accident with

pesticides must be taken to a doctor:

• If the pesticide has splashed in the eyes.

• If the person has swallowed the pesticide.
• If the person has spilled a lot on their
skin or clothes.

TAKE THE LABEL OF THE PESTICIDE

TO THE DOCTOR.

ALWAYS ACCOMPANY THE PERSON

TO THE DOCTOR IN CASE THEY
BECOME UNCONSCIOUS.

Make sure it is not broken or worn. Mend any

tears. If protective clothing is used at the
workplace, the management must supply
new clothing.
- Filters in masks must be changed
regularly.
- Masks and goggles must fit your face
properly.
- The most important part of the body to
protect is usually the face, neck, arms and
legs. This is where most absorption
through the skin takes place.

1
10. STRATEGIES FOR HEALTH AND
SAFETY WITH PESTICIDES
Use alternatives to pesticides where possible:
• Methods to control pests that do not
depend on chemicals should be used more
often. IPM will be safer for the health of
workers and communities.
Avoiding exposure to pesticides:
• If pesticides are going to be used, there
are ways to use safer technologies (such
as enclosing the spray or have better
machines that use less pesticide) or
choosing the safest pesticide.
Labeling:
• Every pesticide should be clearly labeled,
including the name and instructions how
to work safely with it. If there is no label,
workers should have the right to refuse to
work with it.
Washing:
• Washing facilities and regular change of
clothing must be available at the
workplace, so that workers do not have to
take overalls home.
Posting of fields:
• Fields that have recently been sprayed,
should have signs to keep people out
(posting).
Protective equipment:
• A cap, overalls, long rubber gloves and
gumboots must be provided for workers
who handle pesticides. Equipment should
be maintained in good condition, and
overalls washed regularly.
Health care:
• People handling pesticides should have
access to a health service that monitors
them regularly to prevent them from
becoming affected by the pesticides. An
emergency service to treat all people
poisoned by pesticides should also be
provided at the workplace and in the
community.
Training:
• All people working with pesticides should
be trained to work safely with chemicals.
This includes training on the safe mixing,
spraying and storage of pesticides, signs
of poisoning, first aid and disposal of
containers. This training is especially
important for women because of the risks
to pregnancies. The laws and how to
monitor workers for safety should also be
part of training.
Storage:
• Pesticides must be stored safely: They
should be locked away, properly labeled
in containers that do not leak. They must
be kept away from food, feeds, fertilizer,
family and family homes.
Work conditions:
• Workers must change work area and type
of work regularly. Never work with
pesticides for more that 10 hours at a
time. There must be regular breaks.
Workers should never work alone with
pesticides and should never spray
pesticides into the wind.
2
REFERENCES: .

PESTICIDES AND THE DOMESTIC

ENVIRONMENT

Beaumont, P. (1993) Pesticide, Policies and

People - A Guide to the Issues. London:
The Pesticides Trust.

Reducing Your Risk - A Guide to Avoiding

Hormone-Disrupting Chemicals. Canada:
World Wide Fund for Nature.

ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES

Benbrook, C.M. (1996) Pest Management

at the Crossroads. New York: Consumers
Union.

Berger, A. (1994) Using Natural Pesticides:

Current and Future Perspectives. Report 2.
Sweden: Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences.

Hansen, M. (1988) Escape From the

Pesticide Treadmill: Alternatives to
Pesticides in Developing Countries. New
York: Institute for Consumer Policy
Research, Consumers Union.

Pest Publications. (1987) Shepherds Purse -

Organic Pest Control Handbook.
Tennessee: The Book Publishing
Company.

Pimentel, D. and J. Lehman (1993) The

Pesticide Question - Environment,
Economics, and Ethics. New York:
Chapman & Hall.

Saini, R.K. and P.T. Haskell (1993)

Community-Based and Environmentally Safe
Pest Management. Kenya: ICIPE Science
Press.

Schoubroeck, van F., M. Herens, W. deLouw,

J Louwen, and T. Overtoom (1990)
Managing Pests and Pesticides in Small
Scale Agriculture. The Netherlands: Centre
for Development Work The Netherlands.

2
MAJOR POISON CENTRES IN SOUTH
AFRICA
These centres may be contacted or visited
when you have questions about pesticide
poisoning. Your doctor or nurse can get help
from experts.
Western Cape:
• University of Cape Town: Medicines
Information Centre, Department of
Pharmacology. OBSERVATORY, 7925.
Tel: (021) 448 3202; 406 6291; 406 6280.
• University of Stellenbosch: Pharmacology
and Toxicology Consultation Centre,
Tygerberg Hospital Department of
Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, P.O.
Box 19063, TYGERBERG, 7505. Tel:
(021) 938 6084; 938 6235 (office hours);
(021) 9316129 (after hours- 24hrs)
• Red Cross War Memorial Children's
Hospital Poisons Information Service,
Department of Paediatrics and Child
Health, RONDEBOSCH, 7700. Tel: (021)
689 5227
Orange Free State:
• Department of Pharmacology/ Poison
Control and Medicine Information Centre,
Faculty of Medicine University of the
Orange Free State, P.O. Box 339,
BLOEMFONTEIN, 9300. Tel: (051) 47
5353 (all hours) (051) 405 3067 (office
hours); (051) 405 3911 (Universitas
Hospital).
Gauteng:
• Johannesburg Hospital Poison
Information Centre, PrivateBag X39,
JOHANNESBURG,2000. Tel: (011) 642
2417; 488 3108.
CROP PROTECTION AND ANIMAL
HEALTH ASSOCIATION (AVCASA)
Chemical companies who work with farmers
on the safe use of pesticides.
Mr. J. Kleynhans, Director, P.O. Box 1955,
HALFWAY HOUSE, 1685. Tel.: (011) 805-
2000/70/79/85. Fax.: (011) 805-2222.
PROVINICAL DEPUTY DIRECTORS
OF OCCUPATIONAL AND/OR
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Western Cape: Mr S. Mbuli or Ms E.
Taljaard, Private Bag X19, BELLVILLE
7535. Tel: 021-948 8573/4/5; Fax: 021-
9463525.
North West Province:Mr T. Pule, Private Bag
X828, PRETORIA, 0001, Tel: 012-312 0262.
Northern Province: Mr Jimmy Ledwaba,
Private Bag CX9302, Pietersburg, 0700, Tel:
0152-291 2010
Fax: 0152-291 3355.
Mmpumalanga: Mr L Mdhluli (Acting Dep.
Director), Private Bag X2068, Mmabatho,
8681. Tel: 013- 752 3107/8; Fax: 013- 752
6028.
Gauteng: Mr Robbie Hamilton, Private Bag
X085, Marshalltown, 2107. Tel: 011-355
3829; Fax: 011-838 3613.
Free State: Mr Danny Hugo, P.O. Box 441,
Bloemfontein, 9300, Tel: 051- 430 1418;
Fax: 051-447 2715.
Northern Cape: Mr Z Zincume, Private Bag
X5049, Kimberley, 8300. Tel: 0531-1185;
Fax: 0531-827168.
Eastern Cape: Ms Isabel Nompuku, Private
Bag X0038, Bisho. Tel: 0401-93754; Fax:
0401-951205.
Kwazulu-Natal: The Director (no one
appointed yet), Private Bag X9051,
Pietermaritzburg, 3200. Tel: 0331-953 175;
Fax: 0331- 953 175.