INTRODUCTION

Vector control involves using preventive methods to eradicate or control vector populations, in
order to limit the transmission and spread of diseases. Preventive measures include habitat
control, reducing contacts with vectors, chemical control and biological control. The focus of this
assignment is chemical control.
Chemical control is an important intervention technique to reduce populations of vector species
and thus reduce their spread of disease. Insecticides, larvicides, rodenticides and repellents are
used to control pests and can be used to control vectors. For example, larvicides can be used in
mosquito breeding zones; insecticides can be applied to house walls (indoor residual spraying);
bed nets treated with insecticide and use of personal skin repellents can reduce the risk of insect
bites and thus infection. The use of pesticides for vector control is supported by the World
Health Organization (WHO) and has proven to be highly effective.
QUESTION 1
Classification of chemical products.
Chemical products used for pest controls can be classified in different way.
1. What pest does it control?
 Insecticides-killing of insects.
 Fungicides- used for killing fungi.
 Nematicides- used for killing nematode.
 Rodenticides- used for killing rodents.
 Acaricides- used for killing arachnids.
 Molluscicides- used for killing molluscs.
 Herbicides- used in killing weeds.
2. Mode of action
 Stomach poisons which have to be eaten
 Contact poisons which work via the skin
 Fumigants, chemicals that produce a vapor that kills organisms
3. What is its source
 Chemicals can either be synthetically made e.g., DDT or Organic e.g., Nicotine
4. Formulation
 These chemicals can be liquids, powders, granules, baits, dusts, or smoke
generators.
5. Active ingredient
 Chemicals can be grouped by their active ingredients (the chemical class which a
toxic component belongs e.g., Organochlorines like DDT, Organophosphates like
Malathion, Carbamates like Carbofuran and pyrethroids like deltamethrin.
6. Persistence in the environment
 Chemicals can either be persistent or non-persistent in the environment in that
they can either remain in the environment e.g., DDT and others in the class of
organophosphates and pyrethroids only stay for a short time in the environment.
 7. What toxicity class does it belong to.
CLASS THREAT
Ia Extremely hazardous
Ib Highly hazardous
II Moderately hazardous
III Slightly hazardous
IV Unlikely to present acute hazard in normal
use

QUESTION 2
Environmental toxicology and ecotoxicology due to chemicals.
The environmental toxicology due to chemicals looks at the harmful effects of these products on
living organism. Chemically synthesized agents have ben known to persist in the environment
for very long after their administration. DDT for example is not very bio-degradable and
accumulates in the soil and can runoff into rivers or lakes causing water pollution. Marine life
such as fish can accumulate the DDT in their and this effect is further amplified when another
animal eats the fish which in turn means consuming the chemical therefore demonstrating bio-
magnification. This process of bio-magnification has let to decline in some species of birds those
that primarily feed of fish. Pesticides and other contaminants that get into the natural
environment can affect wild plants and animals. Ecotoxicology looks at the impact the
contaminants on individuals, populations, natural communities and ecosystems. These
ecosystems include ponds, rivers, grasslands which are adversely affected by chemicals used in
pest control.
Time
The timing of exposure can greatly affect how much damage a pesticide might cause. Migrating
animals may use a stopover site or staging area only briefly. At that time, those special locations
may harbor a large proportion of the population or even the entire species. Other animals form
breeding colonies for a few weeks or months of the year. If a pesticide is used when and where
wildlife are clustered together, much greater harm could result than if that application occurred at
another time even in the same place. Risks may also increase at certain times in the animals’
lives. Pesticides may pose greater risks to young animals or animals under stress from migration
or breeding. The life stage of a plant may affect its risk of harm. An herbicide may not hurt a
seed, or cause only small damage to a large, vigorous plant. However, it might kill a seedling.
Individuals and populations of organisms
Pesticides can affect individual plants and animals in two ways. First, they may cause injury or
death after the plant or animal is exposed to the pesticide directly. This might happen if the
pesticide drifts onto the plant or animal, the animal breathes in the pesticide, or if the animal
drinks or eats something that is contaminated. Plant roots may pick up pesticides in the soil. Any
injuries resulting from these exposures are called direct effects. The second way pesticides may
cause harm is by changing or killing something the plant or animal needs. For example,
pesticides can affect an animal’s food supply by killing certain plants or insects. The loss of plant
cover may also remove the animal’s shelter. Plants could be affected if their pollinators or seed-
dispersers are killed.
Community
Effects can also occur on larger ecological scales than that of the individual. For example,
predator-prey relationships may be changed by pesticides and other contaminants. If the
predatory wasps are more affected by an insecticide than the pests they feed on, the pest
population may grow. The population of pests will often recover faster than the populations of
predators following pesticide applications in agriculture. When pesticides remove one of the
species at the bottom of a food web, many other species may be affected. In this example of
community-level effects, spraying for mosquitoes with Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti)
reduced the populations of midges and mosquitoes, the favorite food of house martins. House
martins in treated areas made fewer trips back to their nest with food, and raised fewer young,
than house martins living in untreated areas. Spiders and dragonflies declined in treated areas,
probably because they also eat midges and mosquitos.
At ecosystem level
chemicals and contaminants may affect more than just the populations of animals and plants that
make up a community. They may also affect basic processes like nutrient cycling or the
formation of soil. For example, nitrogen cycling may be affected if pesticides impact the
bacterial and fungal communities in soil. There may be a time lag between the chemical
exposure and the ultimate effects. The pesticide could be gone before the damage it caused also
disappears
QUESTION 3
Environmental hazards and risks due to chemicals.
Risks associated with pesticide use have surpassed their beneficial effects. Pesticides have
drastic effects on non-target species and affect animal and plant biodiversity, aquatic as well as
terrestrial food webs and ecosystems. According to Majewski and Capel (1995), about 80–90 %
of the applied pesticides can volatilize within a few days of application (Majewski and Capel
1995), Uncontrolled use of pesticides has resulted in reduction of several terrestrial and aquatic
animal and plant species. They have also threatened the survival of some rare species such as the
bald eagle, peregrine falcon and osprey (Helfrich et al. 2009). Additionally, air, water and soil
bodies have also being contaminated with these chemicals to toxic levels.
Threats to biodiversity.
The threats associated with the use of uncontrolled use of these toxins cannot be overlooked. It is
the need of the hour to consider the pesticide impact on populations of aquatic and terrestrial
plants, animals and birds. Additionally, their long term and frequent usage lead to
bioaccumulation as discussed above (Pesticides reduce biodiversity 2010).
Threats to aquatic biodiversity
Pesticides enter the water via drift, by runoff, leaching through the soil or they may be applied
directly into surface water in some cases such as for mosquitoes’ control. Pesticide-contaminated
water poses a great threat to aquatic form of life. It can affect aquatic plants, decrease dissolved
oxygen in the water and can cause physiological and behavioral changes in fish populations.
Aquatic animals are exposed to pesticides in three ways (Helfrich et al. 2009).
 Dermally: Direct absorption via skin
 Breathing: Uptake via gills during breathing
 Orally: Entry via drinking contaminated water
Threats to terrestrial biodiversity
Pesticide exposure can also cause sub-lethal effects on terrestrial plants in addition to killing
non-target plants and also may increase their susceptibility to disease. Pesticides have not even
spared the terrestrial animal populations. Populations of beneficial insects such as bees and
beetles can significantly decline by the use of broad-spectrum insecticides such as carbamates,
organophosphates and pyrethroids. Since pre-agricultural times, 20–25 % of the bird populations
have declined. One of the major causes of this massive decline is the use of pesticides which was
not known before 1962. Pesticide accumulation in the tissues of bird species leads to their death.
Pesticides can be applied as liquid sprays on the soil or crop plant, may be incorporated or
injected into the soil or applied as granules or as a seed treatment. The major concern of pesticide
overuse is their leaching into the soil, which affects the microbes residing in it which help the
plants in many different ways, such as nutrient uptake; breakdown of organic matter and
increasing soil fertility.
Impact on human health
The effects of pesticides on human health are highly variable. They may appear in days and are
immediate in nature or they may take months or years to manifest
Acute effects of chemical exposure include headache, stinging of the eyes and skin, irritation of
the nose and throat, skin itching, appearance of rash and blisters on the skin, dizziness, diarrhoea,
abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting, blurred vision. Chronic effects of chemicals are often
lethal and may not appear even for years. Theses are long term effects that cause damage to
multiple body organs. Long term exposure may cause neurological health effects, cancer,
damage to the immune system, affects the reproductive system and may cause blood diseases.
Mahmood, Isra & Imadi, Sameen & Shazadi, Kanwal & Gul, Alvina & Hakeem, Khalid. (2015).
Effects of Pesticides on Environment. 10.1007/978-3-319-27455-3_13.