Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF
KUBANG PASU
SOAPS
- Cleansing agents are chemical substances used to remove grease and dirt.
- There are two types of cleansing agents:
a) Soaps
- Have been used for more than 3000 years. It was recorded that the Babylonians were
making soap around 2800 B.C.
- In ancient times, soaps were made from ashes of plants which contain sodium
carbonate and potassium carbonate. The ashes were boiled with lime (calcium oxide) to
produce caustic potash (potassium hydroxide). Caustic potash is then boiled with animal
fats to produce soap.
a) Ash + lime b͢ oil caustic potash
(K2CO3) (CaO) (KOH)
b) Caustic potash + animal fats b͢ oil soap
- In 1816, the French chemist Michel Chevreul (1786 – 1889) discovered that animal fats
are composed of fatty acids and glycerol. This discovery contributed to the rapid
development of the soap and candle industry.
- In 1861, the Belgian chemist Ernest Solvay (1838 – 1922) discovered the process to
make soda (sodium carbonate) from common salt (sodium chloride) and calcium
carbonate. This process is known as the Solvay Process which produces sodium
carbonate which is used to making glasses, soaps and detergents.
- Soap are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids with 12 to 18 carbon
atoms per molecule. The general formula of a soap is RCOO-Na+ or RCOO-K+.
- Example of soap :
CH2COOC17H35 CH2OH
- The soap produced can be precipitated by adding common salt (sodium chloride) to the
reaction mixture. Sodium chloride reduces the solubility of the soap in aqueous solution
and causes the soap to be precipitated out.
- The properties of soap depend on :
a) The type of alkali used for saponification.
b) The type of animal fats or vegetables oils used.
- Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard whereas soaps produced from
potassium hydroxide are soft.
- Animal fats (tallow) from cow and vegetable oils (such as palm oils and olive oils) are
used for making soap.
The structure of soap molecule
- When soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and produce sodium ions and
carboxylate ions (RCOO-). For example, sodium stearate (soap) dissolves in water to
form sodium ions and stearate ions.
- The stearate ions take part in the removal of dirt but the sodium ions do not. The
stearate ion consists of two parts: the ‘head’ and the ‘tail’. The ‘head’ is negatively-
charged and the ‘tail’ is a long hydrocarbon chain.
O
║
- The ‘head’ contains the – C – O – ion which dissolves in water (hydrophilic) but does not
dissolve in oil. Conversely, the ‘tail’ contains a long hydrocarbon chain which is insoluble
in water (hydrophobic) but dissolves readily in oil.
- Soaps made from palmitic acid are known as sodium palmitate. Figure 5.2 shows the
structure of the palmitate ion (C15H31COO-) in soap. O
║
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 – C – O-
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 the ‘tail’ is negatively-charged
- Figure 5.3 (a) shows the molecular model of palmitate ion and Figure 5.3 (b) shows the
simple representation of the structure of the palmitate ion.
hydrophilic ‘head’
hydrophobic ‘tail’
(a) The molecular model of palmitate ion (b) The diagrammatic representation of the soap ion
Figure 5.3: The palmitate ion
DETERGENTS
- Detergent are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbon obtained from
petroleum fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals.
Preparation of detergent
- The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with chain length of
12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps.
O O
║ ║
R–O–H + H–O–S–O–H R – O – S – O – H + H 2O
║ ║
O O
Long chain alcohol concentrated sulphuric acid alkyl hydrogen sulphate
O O
║ ║
R–O–S–O–H + NaOH R – O – S – O- Na+ + H2O
║ ║
O O
alkyl hydrogen sulphate sodium alkyl sulphate
- Sodium alkyl benzene sulphinate, were first used in 1940s. It can be prepared in three
steps. The starting materials for making this detergents in a long chain alkene, RCH =
CH2, obtained from the cracking of petroleum.
a) Step 1 : Alkylation
b) Step 2 : Sulphonation
Alkylbenzene produced the react with concentrated sulphuric acid to form
alkylbenzene sulphonic acid.
(H2SO4)
c) Step 3 : Neutralisation
Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced is the reacted with sodium hydroxide to
form sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate, the detergent
+ H2O
When a detergent is dissolved in water, it dissociates to form sodium ions and detergent
ions. The detergent ions have the same basic structure as the soap ions, that is, it
consists of two parts:
a) The ‘head’ is the sulphate group ( - OSO3 -) which is negatively-charged and
hydrophilic (dissolves readily in water but not in oil and grease).
b) The ‘tail’ is the long hydrocarbon chain, which is neutral and hydrophobic (dissolves
readily in oils and grease but not in water).
hydrophilic ‘head’
-
OSO 3
S03-
hydrocarbon ‘tail’ (hydrophobic)
ionic ‘head’ (hydrophilic)
The cleansing action of soap or detergent depend o their chemical bonding and structures.
a) The ionic ‘head’ (negatively-charged) is soluble in water (hydrophilic) but insoluble in oil.
b) The long hydrocarbon ‘tail’ (neutral) is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but soluble in
oil.
Additives in detergents
- Modern detergent used for washing clothes usually contain a few types of additives to
a) Increase their cleaning power.
b) Make them attractive and saleable.
- Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cleansing agents (sodium alkyl
sulphate or sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other substances are additives. The
examples of addictives and their functions are described as follows :
a) Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce cannot be removed by the
ordinary detergents because these types of stains are insoluble in water.
b) Biological enzymes in detergents can break down fat and protein molecules in
food stains. The fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids produced are soluble in
water and are removed during washing.
Brighteners
a) Figure below shows the action of brighteners. The brighteners absorb the
invisible ultra-violet and re-radiate it as blue light.
Cloth
b) Brighteners make fabrics appear whiter and brighter because the blue light can
hide any yellowing on the fabrics. Blue light added to the yellow light reflected
on old fabrics make them look white.
Anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium silicate (Na2S2O3) are used as drying agents to
ensure that the detergent in powdered firm is always in a dry condition.
Stabilisers
Fragrances
Advantages of soaps
- Soaps are effective cleansing agents in soft water, that is, water does not contain Mg 2+
and Ca2+ ions.
- Soaps do not cause pollution problems to the environment. This is because soaps are
made from chemical found in animals and plants. This means that soaps are
biodegradable, that is, they can be composed by the action of bacteria.
Disadvantages of soaps
- Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that contains magnesium and calcium
salts.
- In hard water, soaps will react with Mg2+ and thus, soaps do not lather in hard water.
- Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example rainwater containing dissolves
acids. H+ ions from acids will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic acids molecular
size that are insoluble in water.
- Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as cleansing agents because they exist
main as molecules and do not anionic hydrophilic ends (’head’) that dissolves in water.
Advantages of detergents
- Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft water as well as hard water.
This is because detergents do not form scum with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions found in hard
water.
- The detergents ions (R –O – SO3- and R – SO3-) react with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions in hard water.
However, the magnesium salts and calcium salts which are formed are soluble in water.
Hence, the scum is not formed and the detergents are still active in hard water and
lathers easily.
Disadvantages of detergents
- Most detergents have branched hydrocarbon chains and are non-biodegradable, that is,
they can’t decomposed by bacteria. As a result, non-biodegradable detergents cause
water pollution.
- Phosphates in detergents act as fertilizer and promote the growth of water plants and
algae. When the plants die and decay, they will used up the oxygen dissolves in water.
This will decrease the oxygen content in water and kill fishes and other aquatic lives.
- Detergents produce a lot of foam in water. The layer of foam that covers the water
surface will prevents oxygen from dissolving in water. This condition will cause fish and
other aquatic life it die from oxygen starvation.
- Additives such as sodium hydrochlorite (bleaching agents) releases chlorine gas in water
that is acidic. Chlorine gas is highly toxic and kills aquatic life.
FOOD ADDITIVES
Types of additives and examples
- Food preservatives have been used since ancient times. Ancient civilization used salt to
preserve meat and fish, herbs and spices to improve the flavor of food.
- Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in small quantities for specific
purposes such as
a) Making food last longer by preventing the growth of microorganism.
16 | H a k C i p t a T e r p e l i h a r a MJSC Kubang Pasu
b) Making food last longer by preventing the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in air.
c) Making food taste or smell better.
d) Improving the texture of food and to prevent food from becoming liquid.
e) Restoring the colour of food destroyed during food processing.
f) Adding colouring to food so as to make the food look fresher, more interesting or
more appetizing.
- There are six types of food additives as shown below :
PRESERVATIVES ANTIOXIDANTS
TYPE
STABILISERS OF FOOD THICKENERS
ADDITIVES
FLAVOURING DYES
AGENTS
- Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard or to prevent the growth of
microorganism such as bacteria, mould or fungus, so that the food can be stored for a
long time.
Antioxidants
- Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foods to prevent the oxidation of fats and
oils by oxygen in the air.
- Foods containing fats or oils are oxidized and become rancid when exposed to air.
- When the fats and oils are oxidized, rancid product are formed. This makes the food
unpalatable. The rancid products are volatile organic compound with foul odors (for
example, butanoic acid, C3H7COOH).
- Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages, biscuits and fried foods to slow
down the oxidation process so that these foods do not become rancid.
- There are two types of flavouring agents: artificial flavours and flavour enhancer. They
are added to foods to make them taste better.
- Flavour enhancers have little or no taste of their own. They are chemicals that are added
to food to bring out the flavours or to enhance the taste of food.
- An example of a flavour enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG). MSG is used to
enhance the flavours of other foods.
- Artificial flavour includes sweeteners and other flavours such as peppermint or vanilla.
Aspartame and saccharin are examples of artificial sweeteners.
- Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as a substitute for sugar to enhance the
sweetness in food and drink. However, the used of saccharin is banned in many
countries because it is carcinogenic. Aspartame has largely replaced saccharin as the
artificial sweetener or choice.
- Many esters have fruity odours and tastes and are used as artificial flavours. Table
below shows some examples of esters that are used in making drinks.
- Stabilisers and thickening agents improve the texture and the blending of foods.
- Stabilisers are chemicals that are used to enable oil and water in the food to mix
together properly in order to form an emulsion of oil and water. Examples of stabilizers
are gelatin and acacia gum.
Dyes
- Dyes (colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to foods to give them colour so as
to improve their appearance.
- Some foods are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost during food processing. The
foods industry uses synthetic food colours to :
a) Restore the colour of food lost during food processing.
b) Enhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness of foods.
c) Give colour to foods that do not have colour.
- Some dyes are naturally plant pigments while others are synthetically prepared. The
synthetic colours used in foods are azo and triphenyl compounds. Both these
compounds are organic compounds.
- The synthetic dye, brilliant blue, is an example of triphenyl compound. The synthetic
dye, tartrazine and sunset yellow are examples of azo compounds.
- Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the diazo group, - N = N -, and are
usually yellow, red, brown, black in colour. Triphenyl compounds are organic
compounds containing three phenyl groups, -C6H5, and are usually green. Blue or purple
in colour.
- The types of food additives allowed and the quantity permitted are controlled by the
1983 Food Act and the 1985 Food Regulation.
Allergy
Cancer
Brain damage
Excessive intake of nitrites for a prolonged period of time can cause brain damage. In
this condition, the supply of oxygen to the brain is disrupted and this cause brain
damage.
Hyperactivity
Disadvantage
1. Eating food additives such as preservatives, antioxidants and flavour enhancers is excess
quantities over a long period of time is detrimental to health.
2. Some food additives are used to make foods look more appealing. These additives have
little nutritional value. Eating such foods increases the risk of health hazard.
3. Some foods are fortified with excess amounts of nutrients, such as vitamins A and D, or
of trace elements, such as copper and zinc. Eating foods with excessive amounts of
nutrients can ruin our health.
Imagine life without food additives. The following situations will occur.
1. Food spoilage will drastically reduce the food supply. This will result in food shortages
around the world.
2. Diseases will flourish again due to deficiencies of vitamins and minerals in our food.
3. Loss of appetite will be common particularly among the younger generation because our
food will not look, taste, and smell good and this will affect their appetites.
MEDICINE
Sources and uses of traditional medicines
- Modern medicines can be classified as follows based on their effects on the human
body.
- Some examples of modern medicines are:
a) Analgesics
b) Antibiotics
c) Psychotherapeutic drugs
Analgesics
- Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of analgesics are aspirin,
paraccetamol, and codeine. Analgesics are sometimes called painkillers.
- Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeine is powerful painkillers.
- Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease. Table 5.6 shows the chemical aspect
and functions of some analgesics.
Structural formula:
H O
- Similar to aspirin in its effects but
│ ║
it does not reduce inflammation.
HO N – C – CH3
Paracetamol - Reduces or relieves flu symptoms
such as fever, bone aches and
Thus, unlike aspirin, paracetamol is
runny nose.
neutral in nature.
Penicillin
a) Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium chrysogenum.
b) Penicillin is used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria, such as pneumonia,
gonorrhea and syphilis.
c) Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it cannot be used to
treat tuberculosis.
Psychotherapeutic medicines
- Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of drugs that change the emotional and
behavior of the patient and are used for treating mental or emotional illnesses.
- Table 5.7 shows the types and functions of psychotherapeutic drugs.
Type of modern
Side effects
drug
Can cause bleeding in the stomach because aspirin is vey acidic.
Aspirin
Can cause allergic reactions, skin rashes and asthmatic attacks
People who abuse amphetamines are excitable and talkative.
Psychologically additive and can cause heart attack.
Amphetamines Can cause anxiety, sleeplessness, aggressive behavior and decrease
appetite.
Can cause enlarged pupils, heavy perspiration and trembling hands.
Codeine Can cause addiction.
Can cause allergic reactions.
Penicillin
Can cause death for people who are allergic to it.
Can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes and fever.
Streptomycin
Can cause loss of hearing following long-term use.
Stimulants Can cause addiction.
Antidepressant Can cause addiction.
s Can cause headaches, grogginess and loss of appetite.
Can cause dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, constipation.
Antipsychotic
Can cause tremor and restlessness.
drugs
Sedation (make people calmer, or to make people sleepy)
a) Self-medication
Do not prescribe medicines for yourself (self-medication) or for other people. Discuss
with your doctor and listen to him concerning the medicine to be taken.
b) Follow the instructions given
Follow the instructions given by your doctor or pharmacist concerning the dosage and
method of taking the medicine.
Dosage: Never take larger or more frequent doses and do not take drug for longer than
directed.
Method of taking: Different drugs are taken in different ways. For example, medicines
that are acidic (such as aspirin) must be taken after food. If taken on an empty stomach,
the medicine will damage the stomach lining. Conversely, antadic tablets are usually
taken before food.
c) Medicines for adult and children
Medicines for adult should not be given to children and vice versa.
d) Use of antibiotics
Complete the whole course of antibiotic treatment given by your doctor. Do not stop
taking the antibiotic just because you are already feeling well. If not, the remaining
bacteria will mutate and develop resistance to the antibiotic and render it ineffective in
the future.
e) Side effects
Visit the doctor immediately if there are symptoms of allergy or other effects of the
drugs.
f) Expiry date
Like foods, medicines also have expiry date. Do not take medicines after their expiry
dates.