AC Meter

Figure 1: Sine wave

The instantaneous value of a sine wave is given by:
e = Em sin wt
Where
Em = maximum amplitude (volts, peak value)
w = radian frequency (radian per second)
t = time (seconds)

Peak-to-peak value, Epp @ Vpp = 2Em

T
Average value, E avg   e(t ) dt = total area under voltage curve
0

1 T Em
 
2
RMS value, E rms e(t ) dt =
T 0
2
AC meters can be divided into three major categories:

 Meters using meter movements sensitive to the rms of an ac signal

 Meters rectifying the ac and then using dc meter movements,
calibrated in rms
 Meters using either a computational method or the heating value
definition of rms

There are two types of ac meter movements:

 Electrodynamometer type
 Iron vane type
Electrodynamometer Movement
 Applied voltage at A and B will cause current to flow through the two
coils
 Interaction between the two magnetic fields will cause the coil to
rotate
 Force is proportional to the current and the magnetic field
 Also, the magnetic field is proportional to the current
 Hence, the force is proportional to the current squared (I2), and so
the angular position of the pointer
 Meter scale n be calibrated to indicate the true rms value
Iron Vane Meter Movement
 Employs the principle of repulsion between two iron vanes; one
fixed and the other moveable, placed inside a coil
 Current flowing in the coil will cause the iron vanes to be
magnetized with like poles – repulsion will occur
 Moveable vane will rotate against the force exerted by spring until
the two forces are in balance condition
 The repulsion will always in the same direction, regardless of the
direction of the current
 Can measure ac or dc
Rectifying AC for Measurement
Half-Wave Rectifier
 Diodes D1 and D2 will cause voltage drops
 D1 conducts in positive cycle while D2 conducts in negative cycle

Vp 2Vrms
Vave  
 

 When conducting, D2 causes a small voltage drop VF across D1

and the meter, thus preventing the flow of any reverse leakage
current through the meter via D1
Example

A PMMC instrument with FSD = 50 µA and Rm = 1700 Ω is used as

half-wave rectifier voltmeter. Diode D1 must have a minimum (peak)
forward current of 100 µA when the measured voltage is 20% of FSD.
The voltmeter is to indicate 50 Vrms at full scale. Calculate for Rs and
Rsh.

Ans: Rsh = 778 Ω, Rs = 139.5 kΩ

Full-Wave Rectifier
 D1 and D2 conducts in positive cycle while D3 and D4 conducts in negative
cycle

2V p 2 2Vrms
Vave  
 
Example

A PMMC instrument with FSD = 100 µA and Rm = 1 kΩ is t be employed as an

ac voltmeter with FSD = 100 Vrms, with the use of full-wave rectifier. Calculate
for Rs.

Ans: 890.7 kΩ
Half-Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier
Voltmeter
 Half-bridge name is applied because two diodes and two resistors
are applied instead of four diodes in a full-wave bridge rectifier
 During positive cycle,
 D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased

 Current flows from terminal 1 through D1 and the meter, and then

through R2 to terminal 2
 But R1 is in parallel with the meter and R2, which are connected

in series  much current passes through R1, only part of it flows

through the meter and R2
 During negative cycle,
 D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased

 Current flows from terminal 2 through R1 and the meter, and then

through D2 to terminal 1
 But R2 is in parallel with the meter and R1, which are connected

in series  much current passes through R2, only part of it flows

through the meter and R1
Rectifier Ammeter
 The use of current transformer gives the ammeter a low terminal
resistance and low voltage drop
 The CT steps up input voltage to provide sufficient voltage to
operate the rectifiers; steps down primary current to a level suitable
for measurement by a PMMC meter
 Ip/Is = Np/Ns
 RL is used to take a portion of secondary current not required by the
meter
Example

A rectifier ammeter is to give FSD for a primary current of 250 mA. The
PMMC meter has FSD = 1 mA and Rm = 1700 Ω. The CT has Ns =
500 and Np = 4. The diodes each have VF = 0.7 V, and Rs = 20 kΩ.
Calculate the required value for RL.

Ans: 28.2 kΩ
Power Measurement
Power (P) = work/time = W/t
but W = QV and t = Q/I
hence, P = VI
where,
P = power in watt
W = work in joules
Q = charge in coulombs
t = time in seconds
V = potential in volts
I = current in amperes
also,
P = I2R = V2/R
The Three Types of AC Power
Total apparent power delivered PA = VI = S
Reactive power delivered PR = VI sin θ = Q
True average power dissipated PT = VI cos θ = P
where,
θ is the power factor angle

The three powers are related by: PA = √[PT2 + PR2]

where,
PR = PRL – PRC
PRL = inductive reactive power
PRC = capacitive reactive power
Electrodynamometer Wattmeter
 Employs a current circuit and a potential circuit
 Current circuit – connected in series with the line
 Potential circuit – placed cross the line
 Can be used to measure power in dc as well in ac
Power Measurement in 3-Phase Circuits
1. Three-Wattmeter Method
 The three wattmeter readings add up to give the total power
supplied
 The potential coils are measuring VØ
 The current coils are measuring IØ
 Total power is given by:
PT = 3 VØ IØ cos θ
2. Two-Wattmeter Method