computer would deserve to be called

intelligent if it could deceive a human into

believing that it was human
Alan Turing
It is not my aim to surprise or shock you--
but the simplest way I can summarize is to
say that there are now in the world
machines that can think, that can learn
and that can create. Moreover, their ability
to do these things is going to increase
rapidly until--in a visible future--the range
of problems they can handle will be
coextensive with the range to which the
human mind has been applied.
--Herbert Simon
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the area of computer science focusing on
creating machines that can engage on behaviors that humans
consider intelligent.

 Researchers are creating systems which can

 mimic human thought,
 understand speech,
 beat the best human chess player etc
Introduction

AI for short, is a combination of computer science, physiology, and

philosophy
The beginnings of AI reach back before electronics, to philosophers

and mathematicians such as Boole

 AI really began to intrigue researchers with the invention of the
computer in 1943
 The technology was finally available, to simulate

intelligent behavior

1815 -
1864
Introduction

 Over the next four decades, AI has grown from programs capable of
playing checkers, to systems designed to diagnose disease

The products available today are only bits and pieces of what are
soon to follow

The advancements in the quest for artificial intelligence have, and



will continue to affect our jobs, our education, and our lives.
Garry Kasparov playing against Deep Blue, the first machine to
win a chess match against a world champion.
Introduction

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines

and the branch of computer science which aims to create
it.

Major AI textbooks define artificial intelligence as "the

study and design of intelligent agents
intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and
takes actions which maximize its chances of success

 John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956 defines it as

"the science and engineering of making intelligent machines
Introduction

 Among the traits that researchers hope machines will exhibit are
 reasoning,
 knowledge,
 planning,
learning,
 communication,
 perception
the ability to move and manipulate objects
Introduction

 AI research uses tools and insights from many fields, including

computer science
Psychology
Philosophy
Neuroscience
cognitive science
Linguistics
ontology
operations research
 economics
 control theory
Probability
 optimization
 logic
Introduction

 AI research also overlaps with tasks such as

robotics,
control systems
scheduling
data mining
logistics
speech recognition
facial recognition etc

 Other names for the field have been proposed such as

computational intelligence
synthetic intelligence
Intelligent systems
or computational rationality
 1894 -
History 1964

Although the computer provided the technology necessary for AI, it was
not until the early 1950's that the link between human intelligence and
machines was really observed.

Norbert Wiener was one of the first Americans to make observations on

the principle of feedback theory feedback theory.

The most familiar example of feedback theory is the thermostat: It

controls the temperature of an environment by gathering the actual
temperature of the house, comparing it to the desired temperature, and
responding by turning the heat up or down.

Wiener theorized that all intelligent behavior was the result of feedback
mechanisms. Mechanisms that could possibly be simulated by machines.
In late 1955, Newell and Simon developed The Logic Theorist,
The program, representing each problem as a tree model, would
attempt to solve it by selecting the branch that would most likely
result in the correct conclusion.

In 1956 John McCarthy regarded as the father of AI, organized a

conference to draw the talent and expertise of others interested in
machine intelligence for a month of brainstorming.
In the seven years after the conference, AI began to pick up
momentum. Although the field was still undefined, ideas formed at
the conference were re-examined, and built upon. Centers for AI
research began forming at Carnegie Mellon and MIT, and a new
challenges were faced:
In 1957, the first version of a new program The General Problem
Solver(GPS) was tested.

The program developed by the same pair which developed the Logic
Theorist.

The GPS was an extension of Wiener's feedback principle, and was

capable of solving a greater extent of common sense problems.

A couple of years after the GPS, IBM contracted a team to research

artificial intelligence. Herbert Gelerneter spent 3 years working on a
program for solving geometry theorems.
While more programs were being produced, McCarthy was busy developing a
major breakthrough in AI history.

In 1958 McCarthy announced his new development; the LISP language,

which is still used today.

LISP stands for LISt Processing, and was soon adopted as the language of
choice among most AI developers.

In 1963 MIT received a 2.2 million dollar grant from the United States
government to be used in researching Machine-Aided Cognition (artificial
intelligence).

The grant by the Department of Defense's Advanced research projects

Agency (ARPA), to ensure that the US would stay ahead of the Soviet Union
in technological advancements.

The project served to increase the pace of development in AI research, by

drawing computer scientists from around the world, and continues funding.
Other programs which appeared during the late 1960's were
STUDENT, which could solve algebra story problems

SIR which could understand simple English sentences.

The result of these programs was a refinement in language

comprehension and logic

Another advancement in the 1970's was the advent of the expert

system. Expert systems predict the probability of a solution under set
conditions

over the course of ten years, expert systems had been introduced to
forecast the stock market, aiding doctors with the ability to diagnose
disease, and instruct miners to promising mineral locations. This was
made possible because of the systems ability to store conditional
rules, and a storage of information.
During the 1980's AI was moving at a faster pace, and further into
the corporate sector.

In 1986, US sales of AI-related hardware and software surged to

$425 million.

Expert systems in particular demand because of their efficiency.

Companies such as Digital Electronics were using XCON, an expert
system designed to program the large VAX computers. DuPont,
General Motors, and Boeing relied heavily on expert systems
The Transition from Lab to Life

The personal computer made its debut

Such foundations as the American Association for Artificial Intelligence were founded
with the demand for AI development, created a push for researchers to join private companies.
150 companies such as DEC which employed its AI research group of 700 personnel, spend $1
billion on internal AI groups.

Other fields of AI also made there way into the marketplace during the
1980's. One in particular was the machine vision field.

The work by Minsky and Marr were now the foundation for the cameras and
computers on assembly lines, performing quality control.
Although crude, these systems could distinguish differences shapes in objects
using black and white differences. ‘

By 1985 over a hundred companies offered machine vision systems in the

US, and sales totaled $80 million.
The 1980's were not totally good for the AI industry.

In 1986-87 the demand in AI systems decreased, and the industry

lost almost a half of a billion dollars.

Companies such as Teknowledge and Intellicorp together lost more

than $6 million, about a third of there total earnings. The large losses
convinced many research leaders to cut back funding.

Another disappointment was the so called "smart truck" financed by

the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.

The projects goal was to develop a robot that could perform many
battlefield tasks. In 1989, due to project setbacks and unlikely
success, the Pentagon cut funding for the project.
Despite these discouraging events, AI slowly recovered.

New technology in Japan was being developed. Fuzzy logic, first

pioneered in the US has the unique ability to make decisions under
uncertain conditions.

Also neural networks were being reconsidered as possible ways of

achieving Artificial Intelligence.

The 1980's introduced to its place in the corporate marketplace, and

showed the technology had real life uses, ensuring it would be a key
in the 21st century.
AI put to the Test
The military put AI based hardware to the test of war during Desert Storm.
AI-based technologies were used in missile systems, heads-up-displays, and
other advancements.

AI has also made the transition to the home. With the popularity of the AI
computer growing, the interest of the public has also grown.

Applications for the Apple Macintosh and IBM compatible computer, such as
voice and character recognition have become available.
Also AI technology has made steadying camcorders simple using fuzzy logic.

With a greater demand for AI-related technology, new advancements are

becoming available.

Inevitably Artificial Intelligence has, and will continue to affecting our lives
Timeline of major AI events
Approaches

• bottom-up
•the best way to achieve artificial intelligence is to build electronic
replicas of the human brain's complex network of neurons

•the best way to achieve artificial intelligence is to build electronic

replicas of the human brain's complex network of neurons

•AI researchers who prefer this bottom-up approach to construct

electronic circuits that act as neurons do in the human brain.
•much of the working of the brain remains
unknown

•complex network of neurons is what gives

humans intelligent characteristics.

•By itself, a neuron is not intelligent, but

when grouped together, neurons are able
to pass electrical signals through networks.
•Warren McCulloch after completing medical school at
Yale, along with Walter Pitts a mathematician proposed a
hypothesis to explain the fundamentals of how neural
networks made the brain work.

•Based on experiments with neurons, McCulloch and Pitts

showed that neurons might be considered devices for
processing binary numbers.

•binary numbers (represented as 1's and 0's or true and

false) were also the basis of the electronic computer.

•This link is the basis of computer-simulated neural

networks, also know as Parallel computing.
Boole’s contribution
•

•A century earlier the true / false nature of binary

numbers was theorized in 1854 by George Boole in his
postulates concerning the Laws of Thought.
• Boole's principles make up what is known as Boolean
algebra,
• the collection of logic concerning AND, OR, NOT
operands.
•For example according to the Laws of thought the statement:
(for this example consider all apples red)
•Apples are red-- is True

•Apples are red AND oranges are purple-- is False

•Apples are red OR oranges are purple-- is True

•Apples are red AND oranges are NOT purple-- is also True
•Boole also assumed that the human mind works
according to these laws

•it performs logical operations that could be

reasoned

•Ninety years later, Claude Shannon applied

Boole's principles in circuits the blueprint for
electronic computers

•Boole's contribution to the future of computing

and Artificial Intelligence was immeasurable, and
his logic is the basis of neural networks.
•Frank Rosenblatt, experimenting with computer
simulated networks, was able to create a
machine that could mimic the human thinking
process, and recognize letters.

•But, with new top-down methods becoming

popular, parallel computing was put on hold.

•Now neural networks are making a return, and

some researchers believe that with new computer
architectures, parallel computing and the bottom-
up theory will be a driving factor in creating
artificial intelligence.
Top Down Approaches; Expert Systems

•Top-down approach attempts to mimic the brain's

behavior with computer programs.

• Because of the large storage capacity of computers,

expert systems had the potential to interpret statistics
• in order to formulate rules. An expert system works

much like a detective solves a mystery. Using the

information, and logic or rules, an expert system can
solve the problem
• For example it the expert system was designed to

distinguish birds it may have the following:

•Charts like these represent the logic of
expert systems
• Using a similar set of rules, experts can

have a variety of applications

•With improved interfacing, computers may

begin to find a larger place in society.

Chess

•AI-based game playing programs combine intelligence with

entertainment
• One game with strong AI ties is chess

•World-champion chess playing programs can see ahead twenty plus

moves in advance for each move they make.

•In addition, the programs have an ability to get progressably better

over time because of the ability to learn

•Chess programs do not play chess as humans do. In three minutes,

Deep Thought (a master program) considers 126 million moves while
human chessmaster on average considers less than 2 moves
•Herbert Simon suggested that human chess masters are familiar
with favorable board positions, and the relationship with thousands
of pieces in small areas. Computers on the other hand, do not take
hunches into account. The next move comes from exhaustive
searches into all moves, and the consequences of the moves based
on prior learning.

•Chess programs, running on Cray super computers have attained a

rating of 2600 (senior master), in the range of Gary Kasparov, the
Russian world champion
Frames
•One method that many programs use to represent knowledge are
frames

•Pioneered by Marvin Minsky, frame theory revolves around packets

of information

•For example, say the situation was a birthday party. A computer

could call on its birthday frame, and use the information contained in
the frame, to apply to the situation

•The computer knows that there is usually cake and presents because
of the information contained in the knowledge frame. Frames can
also overlap, or contain sub-frames

• The use of frames also allows the computer to add knowledge.

•Although not embraced by all AI developers, frames have been used
in comprehension programs such as Sam
•Sam
•Sam is a program from Yale's AI lab which is able to read

between the lines, and assume certain facts.

•The Story:
•John went to New York by bus. On the bus he talked to

an old lady. When he left the bus, he thanked the driver.

He took the subway to Leone's. On the subway his pocket
was picked. He got off the train and entered Leone's. He
had some lasagna. When the check came, he discovered
he couldn't pay. The management told him he would have
to wash dishes. When he left, he caught a bus to New
Haven.
•Sam's comprehension: (Sam's answers
are in red.)

Why did John go to New York?

•

•Because John wanted to go to Leone's

How did John get to Leone's?
•

•John took a bus to New York and then he took

the subway to Leone's.
Did anything unusual happen on the bus?
•

•I don't remember anything

Did anything unusual happen on the subway?

•

•A thief picked John's pocket.

What did John order?

•

•John ordered lasagna.

Did anything unusual happen at the restaurant?

•

•John discovered that he could not pay the check and

so he had to wash dishes.
Why couldn't John pay the check?
•

•Because John didn't have any money.

Why didn't John have any money?

•

•Because a thief picked John's pocket.

How did John get back to New Haven?

•

•John went from Leone's by subway and then he went

to New Haven by bus.

How was John able to take the bus to New

•
Haven?
•Probably he had a ticket.
•Sam's logic is represented in frames. For this story Sam
might use a restaurant frame, and a subway and bus
frame. These frames spell out what events in order most
likely would occur in situations.

•Sam is impressive, because it can draw conclusions from

the story that are not specifically stated. Also, with the
last response, Sam shows that he can make conjectures
without information from the story, with the use of
frames.
ELIZA
Eliza, Joseph Wiezbaum's result of trying to make a
program converse in English amazed people when it
appeared in mid 1960's.
The program was able to converse about any subject,
because it stored subject information in data banks.
Another feature of Eliza was its ability it picked up speech
patterns.
notably, after creating one of the most famous programs
Wiezbaum objected to the bonds that interviewees were
making with his creation, and denounced the intelligence
of Eliza.
The following passage shows Elizas talking to a teenage
girl. The teenager speaks first, and Eliza's answers are in
blue.
•Men are all alike.
•IN WHAT WAY

•They're always bugging us about

something or other.
•CAN YOU THINK OF A SPECIFIC EXAMPLE

•Well, my boyfriend made me come here.

•YOUR BOYFRIEND MADE YOU COME HERE

•He says that I am depressed all the time.

•I AM SORRY TO HERE YOU ARE

DEPRESSED
•It's true that I am unhappy
•DO YOU THINK COMING HERE WILL HELP

YOU NOT TO BE UNHAPPY

•I need help, that seems certain.

•WHAT WOULD IT MEAN IF YOU GOT SOME

HELP
•Perhaps I could learn to get along with my

mother.
•TELL ME MORE ABOUT YOUR FAMILY

•My mother takes care of me.

•WHO ELSE IN YOUR FAMILY TAKES CARE
OF YOU
•My father.

•YOUR FATHER

•You are like my father in some ways.

•WHAT RESEMBLANCE DO YOU SEE

•You are not very aggressive but I think

you don't want me to notice that.

•WHAT MAKES YOU THINK THAT I AM NOT
VERY AGGRESSIVE
•You dont argue with me.

•WHY DON'T YOU THINK I ARGUE WITH

YOU
•You are afraid of me.

•DOES IT PLEASE YOU TO BELIEVE I AM

AFRAID OF YOU
•My father is afraid of everybody.
•WHAT ELSE COMES TO MIND WHEN YOU THINK OF
YOUR FATHER
•Bullies.

•DOES THAT HAVE ANYTHING TO DO WITH THE FACT

THAT YOUR BOYFRIEND MADE YOU COME HERE

• As impressive as Eliza looks, Wiezbaum noted that it

understood no more of the girl's problems as an alarm
clock understands when to go off. For example, the last
sentence gives the impression of comprehension, but in
fact the program is written so that at one point, it
modifies the first sentence and applies it as a response.