Submitted by: Fatima Mehmood 191520116

Course: Cognitive Psychology

Submitted to Respected teacher
Sir Tayyab Habib
Assignment #3

Artificial Intelligence

Intelligence is God gifted quality and no doubt, man is crown of

creation. The quality which has blessed human being, this status is
blessed due to intelligence. Due to this blessing the modern age has
given birth to Artificial Intelligence (AI). Artificial Intelligence has
also become source to multiply this blessed quality. Allah has
granted a man super quality among all creatures of the universe
and due to which man has made this earth a glimpse of Eden.
 Intelligence is defined in Oxford Learner’s
Dictionary as:
the ability to learn, understand and think in a logical way about things;
the ability to do this well
Oxford Learner’s Dictionary

Intelligence has been defined in many ways:

 The ability to act rationally.
 The ability to act like human.
Artificial Intelligence in defined in Oxford
Learner’s Dictionary:
the study and development of computer systems that can copy intelligent
human behavior.
Oxford Learner Dictionary

Artificial intelligence is the field of computer science that

is associated with the concept of machines “thinking like
humans” to perform such tasks such as learning, problem-
solving, planning, reasoning and identifying patterns.
 Definition of AI from an Intelligence perspective:
 Artificial intelligence is making “intelligent” machines which
perform like humans.
Examples:
Turing Test- inability to distinguish computer responses from human
responses.

Artificial Intelligence in the eyes of

Authors:
 First definition of AI by Elaine A. Rich:
“AI is the study of making computers do things, at which, at the
moment, people are better.”

Elaine Rich

Computer Scientist

(Author of AI book)

 According to B.G. Buchanan and E.H. Shortliffe:

“Artificial Intelligence is that branch of computer science dealing with
symbolic, non-algorithmic methods of problem solving.”

Physician and computer scientist

 According to A. Barr and E. Feigenbaum:

“AI is the part of computer science concerned with designing intelligent
computer systems, that is, systems that exhibit characteristics we
associate with intelligence in human behavior.”
 Computer Scientist (father of expert systems)

Background History of AI:

 The invention of the programmable digital computer in the 1940s.

John McCarthy:

Computer and Cognitive Scientist

McCarthy was one of the founders of the discipline of artificial
intelligence.[1] He co-authored the document that coined the term
"artificial intelligence" (AI) in the year 1955.

Alan Turing:
 English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher, and theoretical biologist

Alan Turing was a British scientist and a pioneer in computer science.

During World War II, he developed a machine that helped
break the German Enigma code. He also laid the groundwork for
modern computing and theorized about artificial intelligence.

In the first half of the 20th century, science fiction familiarized the world
with the concept of artificially intelligent robots. By the 1950s, we had a
generation of scientists, mathematicians, and philosophers with the
concept of artificial intelligence (or AI) culturally assimilated in their
minds. One such person was Alan Turing, a young British polymath who
explored the mathematical possibility of artificial intelligence. Turing
suggested that humans use available information as well as reason in
order to solve problems and make decisions, so why can’t machines do
the same thing? This was the logical framework of his 1950
paper, Computing Machinery and Intelligence in which he discussed
how to build intelligent machines and how to test their intelligence.
 The Conference that Started it All
In one Conference Alan Turing raised the very important question.

Can Machines Think?

Five years later, the proof of concept was initialized through Allen
Newell, Cliff Shaw, and Herbert Simon’s, Logic Theorist. The Logic
Theorist was a program designed to mimic the problem-solving skills of
a human and was funded by Research and Development (RAND)
Corporation. It’s considered by many to be the first artificial intelligence
program and was presented at the Dartmouth Summer Research
Project on Artificial Intelligence (DSRPAI) hosted by John McCarthy
and Marvin Minsky in 1956. In this historic conference, McCarthy,
imagining a great collaborative effort, brought together top researchers
from various fields for an open-ended discussion on artificial
intelligence, the term which he coined at the very event. Sadly, the
conference fell short of McCarthy’s expectations; people came and went
as they pleased, and there was failure to agree on standard methods for
the field. Despite this, everyone whole-heartedly aligned with the
sentiment that AI was achievable. The significance of this event cannot
be undermined as it catalyzed the next twenty years of AI research.
 Roller Coaster of Success and Setbacks:

From 1957 to 1974, AI flourished. Computers could store more

information and became faster, cheaper, and more accessible.
Machine learning algorithms also improved and people got better at
knowing which algorithm to apply to their problem. Early
demonstrations such as Newell and Simon’s General Problem
Solver and Joseph Weizenbaum’s ELIZA showed promise toward the
goals of problem solving and the interpretation of spoken language
respectively.

These successes, as well as the advocacy of leading researchers

(namely the attendees of the DSRPAI) convinced government
agencies such as the Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (DARPA) to fund AI research at several institutions. The
government was particularly interested in a machine that could
transcribe and translate spoken language as well as high throughput
data processing. Optimism was high and expectations were even
higher. 
  Herbert Simon predicted

“machines will be capable within 20 years, of doing any work a man can
do.”

 Marvin Minsky

“within a generation, the problem of creating Artificial Intelligence will

substantially solved.”

Types of AI
 Software: virtual assistants, image analysis software, search
engines, speech and face recognition systems
 "Embodied" AI: robots, autonomous cars, drones, Internet of
Things

 Artificial Intelligence in everyday life:

 Online shopping and advertising
Artificial intelligence is widely used to provide personalized
recommendations to people, based for example on their previous
searches and purchases or other online behavior. AI is hugely important
in commerce: optimizing products, planning inventory, logistics etc.

 Web search

Search engines learn from the vast input of data, provided by their users
to provide relevant search results.

 Digital personal assistants

Smartphones use AI to provide services that are as relevant and

personalized as possible. Virtual assistants answering questions,
providing recommendations and helping organize daily routines have
become ubiquitous.
 Smart homes, cities and infrastructure

Smart thermostats learn from our behavior to save energy, while

developers of smart cities hope to regulate traffic to improve
connectivity and reduce traffic jams.

 Cars

While self-driving vehicles are not yet standard, cars already use AI-
powered safety functions. The EU has for example helped to fund VI-
DAS, automated sensors that detect possible dangerous situations and
accidents.
Navigation is largely AI-powered.
 Artificial intelligence against Covid-19
In the case of Covid-19, AI has been used in thermal imaging in airports
and elsewhere. In medicine it can help recognize infection from
computerized tomography lung scans. It has also been used to provide
data to track the spread of the disease.
Other examples of artificial intelligence use

AI is set to transform practically all aspects of life and the economy.

Here are just a few examples:

 Health

Researchers are studying how to use AI to analyze large quantities of

health data and discover patterns that could lead to new discoveries in
medicine and ways to improve individual diagnostics.

For example, researchers developed an AI program for answering

emergency calls that promises to recognize a cardiac arrest during the
call faster and more frequently than medical dispatchers. In another
example, EU co-funded KConnect is developing multi-lingual text and
search services that help people find the most relevant medical
information available.

 Transport

AI could improve the safety, speed and efficiency of rail traffic by

minimizing wheel friction, maximizing speed and enabling autonomous
driving.

Methods of Artificial Intelligence:

There are two types of AI:

 Symbolic learning:

Symbolic artificial intelligence is the term for the collection of all

methods in artificial intelligence research that are based on high-level
"symbolic" (human-readable) representations of problems, logic and
search. Symbolic AI was the dominant paradigm of AI research from
the mid-1950s until the late 1980s.

 Deep process learning:

Deep learning is an AI function that mimics the workings of the human
brain in processing data for use in detecting objects, recognizing speech,
translating languages, and making decisions. Deep learning AI is able to
learn without human supervision, drawing from data that is both
unstructured and unlabeled.

Theory of Mind and

Artificial Intelligence
Theory of mind is a popular term from the field of psychology as an
assessment of an individual human's degree of capacity for empathy
and understanding of others.
These thoughts are normal for social interaction:
Examples: We make sense of people’s behavior via belief-desire
psychology
 Its easy to explain why Job will carry umbrella with him, because
believes it will rain and wants to stay dry.

 (ToM), as described by AI Goldman:

‘Theory of Mind’ refers to the cognitive capacity to attribute mental
states to self and others. Other names for the same capacity include
“commonsense psychology,” “naïve psychology,” “folk psychology,”
“mindreading” and “mentalizing.” […] How do they [people], or their
cognitive systems, go about the task of forming beliefs or judgments
about others’ mental states, states that aren’t directly observable?

Case study
The intersection between technology and health has been an
increasing area of focus for policymakers, patient groups, ethicists
and innovators. As a company, we found ourselves in the midst of
many different discussions with customers in both the private and
public sectors, seeking to harness technology, including cloud
computing and, all for the end goal of improving human health.
Many customers were struggling with the same questions, among
them how to be responsible data stewards, how to design tools that
advanced social good in ethical ways, and how to promote trust in
their digital health-related products and services.
 Reference of Case Study:
https://www.digitaleurope.org/news/case-studies-on-artificial-
intelligence/

 Benefits of Artificial Intelligence:

 Reduction in Human Error:

The phrase “human error” was born because humans make mistakes
from time to time. Computers, however, do not make these mistakes if
they are programmed properly. With Artificial intelligence, the decisions
are taken from the previously gathered information applying a certain set
of algorithms. So, errors are reduced and the chance of reaching accuracy
with a greater degree of precision is a possibility.

 Takes risks instead of Humans:

This is one of the biggest advantages of Artificial intelligence. We can
overcome many risky limitations of humans by developing an AI
Robot which in turn can do the risky things for us. Let it be going to
mars, defuse a bomb, explore the deepest parts of oceans, mining for coal
and oil, it can be used effectively in any kind of natural or man-made
disasters.

 Available 24x7:
An Average human will work for 4–6 hours a day excluding the breaks.
Humans are built in such a way to get some time out for refreshing
themselves and get ready for a new day of work and they even have
weekly offed to stay intact with their work-life and personal life. But
using AI we can make machines work 24x7 without any breaks and they
don’t even get bored, unlike humans.

Example: Educational Institutes and Helpline centers are getting many

queries and issues which can be handled effectively using AI.

 Faster Decisions:

Using AI alongside other technologies we can make machines take

decisions faster than a human and carry out actions quicker. While taking
a decision human will analyze many factors both emotionally and
practically but AI-powered machine works on what it is programmed and
delivers the results in a faster way.

 New Inventions:

AI is powering many inventions in almost every domain which will help

humans solve the majority of complex problems.

Example: Recently doctors can predict breast cancer in the woman at

earlier stages using advanced AI-based technologies.

Disadvantages of AI:
As every bright side has a darker version in it. AI also has some
disadvantages.

1) High Costs of Creation:

As AI is updating every day the hardware and software need to get
updated with time to meet the latest requirements. Machines need
repairing and maintenance which need plenty of costs. It’ s creation
requires huge costs as they are very complex machines.

2) Making Humans Lazy:

AI is making humans lazy with its applications automating the majority

of the work. Humans tend to get addicted to these inventions which can
cause a problem to future generations.

3) Unemployment:
As AI is replacing the majority of the repetitive tasks and other works
with robots, human interference is becoming less which will cause a
major problem in the employment standards. Every organization is
looking to replace the minimum qualified individuals with AI robots
which can do similar work with more efficiency.

4) No Emotions:

There is no doubt that machines are much better when it comes to

working efficiently but they cannot replace the human connection that
makes the team. Machines cannot develop a bond with humans which is
an essential attribute when comes to Team Management.
New AI systems have beyond-human cognitive abilities, which many of
us fear could potentially dehumanize the future of work. AI will indeed
automate most repetitive and physical tasks, and part of the quantitative
tasks such as programming and even data science. However, by
automating these skills, AI will push human professionals up the skillset
ladder into uniquely human skills such as creativity, social abilities,
empathy, and sense-making, which machines cannot automate. As a
result, AI will make the workplace more human, not less. This is the gift
of AI to Mankind. However, humans will need to change jobs and learn
new skills throughout their lives. This will not be easy for everyone.

Conclusion
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning are products of
both science and myth. The idea that machines could think
and perform tasks just as humans do is thousands of years
 old. The cognitive truths expressed in AI and Machine
Learning systems are not new either. Now the great
challenge of AI is to find ways of representing the
commonsense knowledge and experience that enable people
to carry out everyday activities such as holding a wide-
ranging conversation, or finding their way along a busy
street. Conventional digital computers may be capable of
running such programs, or we may need to develop new
machines that can support the complexity of human thought.