The nervous system

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The Cellular
Structure of
Nerves
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 Nerve Cells
The cells of nervous tissue are called
neurons; each neuron has a typical cell
structure, i.e. a large nucleus in a mass of
cytoplasm, with the whole bounded by a
membrane; this part is the cell body,
illustrated in the photograph in Fig. 1

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Neurons differ from other cells in having
long outgrowths, called processes; there
are two kinds of processes, axons and
dendrites.

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Figure 1: A Neuron

Cell membrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm

Long process

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A neuron has only one axon, but can have
none, one or several dendrites (see Fig.
2). impulses travel away from the cell body
along the axon, and to the cell body along
the dendrites

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Figure 2: Diagram of a Neuron

Dendrite
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The dendrites branch repeatedly at their,
ends (known as arborization) and are
usually short- in length; the axon does not
always branch, and is usually long; it can
be up to a metre or so in length

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At the end of an axon, fibrils connect it
with other tissues.

The processes of a neuron are called

nerve fibres.

They often have a protective sheath.

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 Nerves
A nerve consists of a bundle of nerve
fibres, surrounded by a protective sheath
of connective tissue (see Fig. 3).

Each nerve fibre originates in a different

neuron.

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 Figure 3: A Nerve

neuron

Nerve Protective
sheath

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There are two types of nerve fibre, named
from their protective sheath.

The most common is a medullated fibre,

shown in Fig. 4, and also shown in
diagram form in Fig. 2.

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The inner, medullary sheath is composed
of fatty substances, giving the fibre a white
appearance.

This sheath acts as an insulating layer for

the conduction of nervous impulses.

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Figure 4: Medullated Nerve Fibres

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The outer layer is composed of flattened,
tubular-shaped cells, and acts as a
protective layer.

The presence of these protective cells

gives the fibre a segmented appearance
(see Fig. 4).

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The point at which two cells join is called a
node of Ranvier; at this node, the
medullary layer is interrupted.

Lymph nourishes the nerve fibre at these

nodes.

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The second type of nerve fibre is non-
medullated, and is grey in appearance;
such fibres are less common and are
usually found in nerves leading to the
viscera.

If a fibre is cut, the part furthest from the

cell body dies.

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The stump which is left grows away from
the cell body in the medullary sheath.

Fibres without a medullary sheath do not

regenerate in this fashion.

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 Function of neurons
A nerve fibre conducts impulses, which are
electrical in nature, and which arise from a
stimulus received by a sense organ, or nerve
ending.

The impulses travel in one direction only, from

the dendrites, through the cell body, and along
the axon (see Fig. 5).

There are three types of neurons; sensory,

association, and motor neurons.

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Figure 5: Diagram of Neuron
Functions

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Sensory neurons conduct impulses from
sense organs to the central nervous
system; they possess a long, single,
dendrite, and a short axon.

An alternative description is an afferent

neuron. (Motor neurons conduct impulses,
received from the association neurons,
away from the central nervous system and
usually to muscles; they are also known as
efferent neurons.

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Another type of efferent neuron is a
secretory neuron which conducts impulses
to glands.

Association neurons are situated in the

central nervous system and link sensory
and motor neurons.

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 Synapses
A synapse is a junction where fibrils of an axon
are in contact with the dendrites of another
neuron.

There is no continuity between the fibrils and the

dendrites, neither do they touch, but they are
close together.

The impulse from one neuron must jump this

gap to pass to the second neuron.

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Impulses pass one way only across a
synapse, from an axon to a dendrite.

A neuron possessing several dendrites

can receive impulses from several axons
(see Fig. 6).

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Figure 6: Diagram of Synapses

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Similarly, an axon may connect, through
synapses, with the dendrites of several
neurons.

Thus several alternative paths are

available for the conduction of impulses.

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The rate of transmission of an impulse is
slowed down at a synapse.

Increased use of the synapse increases

the speed of transfer, but the same
synapse, when used repeatedly, shows
fatigue, and the speed of transfer then
decreases.

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Some drugs act on synapses to increase
or decrease the ease of transfer of
impulses.

Anaesthetics decrease the ease of

transfer and cause lack of sensation, or
even unconsciousness.

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 Ganglia
A ganglion is a collection of cell bodies of
neurons associated with a particular
nerve, and appears as a bulbous swelling
of a nerve. (See Fig. 7).

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Figure 7(a): Section of a nerve with a ganglion (diagram)
Cell body of
Neuron in ganglion

nerve nerve

Axon from neuron Axon from neuron

in C.N.S in ganglion

synapse
Sheath of ganglion

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Figure 7(b): Ganglion

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The central nervous system
The central nervous system comprises two
parts, the brain and the spinal cord; the
latter being a continua­tion of the former.

This system coordinates all impulses,

received from receptors, which have been
initiated by stimuli.

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It interprets the impulses and produces a
motor or secretory response.

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Description of the spinal cord
The spinal cord is a long, thick-walled tube
extending from the brain to the coccyx; the
tube is swollen in the neck and abdominal
regions.

It contains grey matter on the inside and

white matter on the outside.

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In section the grey matter is H-shaped,
forming four horns, two left and two right
with two dorsal (towards the back) and two
ventral (towards the front).

The white matter runs the whole length of

the cord, but the grey matter stops before
the coccygeal portion.

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A narrow central canal passes through
the middle of the spinal cord; this canal is
filled with cerebro-spirial fluid.

There is a narrow dorsal fissure and a

wider ventral fissure; both fissures run
the whole length of the cord.

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The cord is surrounded by three
membranes.

The inner membrane, the pia mater,

carries blood vessels and lymph vessels; it
is surrounded by cerebro-spinal fluid
contained by a thin filmy membrane, the
arachnoid.

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The dura mater is an outer, tough
membrane.

The membranes pass over the dorsal

fissure, but the pia mater lines the ventral
fissure; the ventral fissure also contains
blood and lymph vessels.

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See Fig. 8 and 9 to follow this description.

Across the pia mater, the tissue of the

spinal cord is bathed and nourished by
cerebro-spinal fluid.

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Figure 8: Section of a spinal cord
central canal

Dorsal fissure

Dorsal horn

Grey matter
Central canal

White matter

ventral fissure
Ventral horn

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 Figure 9: Diagram of a spinal cord
(from Fig. 8)
Central canal
Dorsal fissure
White matter
Grey matter Dorsal horn

Ventral horn
Treble protective layer

Pia mater
Connective tissue Ventral fissure
with blood vessel
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 Structure of the spinal cord
The grey matter consists of the cell
bodies of neurons, and the white matter
consists of axons running along the spinal
cord.

The nerve fibres, or axons, are grouped

together in six tracts.

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Two tracts contain nerve fibres ascending
to, and descending from, the brain.

Two tracts contain nerve fibres ascending

to, and descending from, a higher level of
the spinal cord.

The last two tracts contain nerve fibres

descending to, and ascending from, lower
levels of the spinal cord.

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The spinal cord is divided into different levels by
paired spinal nerves.

Impulses can be sent from one level to the brain,

or to any other part of the spinal cord.

Similarly, impulses can be received from the

brain, or from any part of the spinal cord.

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Insertion of paired spinal nerves
Thirty one pairs of spinal nerves join the spinal
cord, dividing it into levels.

Each nerve has two roots, a dorsal and a

ventral root, which enter, respectively, the
dorsal and ventral horns of the grey matter.

Look at Fig. 10 for a diagram of a pair of spinal

nerves.

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Figure10: Paired Spinal Nerves
Afferent
nerve

Dorsal root Cell bodies

Dorsal root Sensory

Axons
ganglion nerve fibre

Mixed nerve
Motor axons
Efferent
in ventral root Motor axons
nerve
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The dorsal root has a ganglion.

The two roots unite to form a mixed nerve,

containing both sensory and motor nerve fibres.

The dorsal root contains the dendrites of

sensory neurons (forming a sensory, or afferent
pathway) and the cell bodies of the sensory
neurons are contained in the dorsal root
ganglion.

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Axons of the sensory neurons leave the
ganglion and enter the dorsal horn of grey
matter.

The dendrites and cell bodies of motor

neurons are contained in the ventral horn
of grey matter, and the axons of the motor
neurons form the ventral root.

The ventral root is thus a motor, or

efferent, pathway.
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Protection of the spinal cord
The spinal cord is enclosed by a bony
channel formed by the vertebrae of the
backbone.

Each vertebra (Skeletal system) has a

neural arch, through which passes the
spinal cord, and the bony structure
protects the cord. (See Fig. 11).

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Figure 11: Spinal Cord and Backbone
Vertebra

Pia mater Dorsal root

Dorsal root ganglion

7 Ventral root
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The dorsal and ventral roots join to form
the spinal nerve before the nerve leaves
through a foramen, a hole formed between
two vertebrae.

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 The simple reflex arc
The neuron is the structural and metabolic unit
of nervous tissue, but the smallest functional unit
is a reflex arc, which involves two or three
neurons; an afferent an association, and an
efferent neuron.

The simple reflex arc is shown in diagrammatic

form in Fig. 12 .

A stimulus is perceived by a nerve ending, which

is a receptor.

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Figure 12: Simple Reflex Arc

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The receptor initiates an impulse
intnedendrite of the sensory (or afferent)
neuron, which is conducted to the sensory
cell body in the dorsal root ganglion, and
passes on to the sensory axon.

The endings of the axon form a synapse

with dendrites of an association neuron.

The cell body of the association neuron is

in the dorsal horn of grey matter.

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The impulse is conducted by the association
neuron to its axon, which forms a synapse with
the dendrites of a motor (or efferent) neuron.

The cell body of the motor neuron is in the

ventral horn of the grey matter.

The impulse is conducted by the motor axon to

its endings in a muscle (or a gland); this is the
effector.

The muscle contracts, causing an action.

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The reflex arc involves a definite circuit
along which the impulses are conducted.

For simplicity, only one neuron in each

type of nerve has been considered; in an
actual reflex arc, many neurons, in the
same nerve, are involved.

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The muscular contraction only takes place
while the impulse is conducted by the
nerve fibres; when the impulse ceases,
contraction of the muscle stops.

Sometimes (as is shown in the diagram)

an association neuron is not present.

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 Simple reflex actions
The simple reflex arc, described above,
causes purely involuntary actions.

For example, when a hot object is touched

by a hand, the heat acts as a stimulus to
nerve endings in the skin, and a reflex
action causes the hand to be quickly
withdrawn.

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When an object approaches the eyes, a
reflex action of blinking takes place.

The pupil of the eye contracts when the

stimulus of a bright light causes a reflex
action.

When the bone of the knee cap is tapped,

the leg is jerked.
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If the sole of the foot is pricked, the knee
and the ankle joints bend to remove the
foot.

Other reflex actions will be discussed later.

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The basic structure of the brain
The brain is situated in a hard, bony,
cranial cavity of the skull.

It is surrounded by three membranes, the

pia mater, the arachnoid, and the dura
mater; their structure is exactly the same
as for the spinal cord, with cerebro-spinal
fluid contained between the pia mater and
the arachnoid.

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The pia mater dips into all the fissures of
the brain, supplying, the cells with
nourishment.

Cerebro-spinal fluid is also found in the

ventricles. of the brain; these are spaces
between different parts of the brain.

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Cerebro-spinal fluid acts as a cushion against
shocks for the delicate brain cells; it performs
the same function in the spinal cord, insulating
the nervous tissue against shock.

The brain is divided into a fore-, mid-, and hind-

brain.

The hind-brain includes two main sections, the

medulla and the cerebellum.

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The mid-brain joins the fore- and hind-
brains and is very small in comparison
with the other two parts.

The fore-brain has a main section, the

cerebrum, which is by far the largest
section of the brain.

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In the cerebrum and the cerebellum, grey
matter is on the outside of the brain, and
white matter on the inside.

Grey matter (just as in the spinal cord) is a

mass of cell bodies of neurons. White
matter consists of medullated (myelinated)
axons.

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Other portions of the brain have a
structure similar to the spinal cord.

Fig. 13 shows the brain viewed from

underneath, and Fig. 14 shows the relation
of the structures in a vertical plane.

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Figure 13: Base of Brain, viewed
from below

Frontal lobes
Olfactory bulbs

Optical chiasma
Pituitary gland

Pons

Cerebellum
Medulla oblongata

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 The medulla
The medulla is a cone-shaped body, with
its base upwards, and it forms a swelling
at the top of the spinal cord.

Its structure is similar to that of the spinal

cord with white matter outside and grey
matter inside.

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It is the centre of vital reflexes such as
those which control the rate of respiration
and the rate of heart beat, that is, those
reflex actions which are purely involuntary
and vital to the functioning of the body.

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The medulla controls blood pressure by
expanding or contracting blood vessels.

The reflexes for swallowing, coughing,

sneezing, and vomiting are located here.

The least injury to this part of the brain is

fatal as its nerve centres control the most
vital body functions.

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Figure 14: The Brain

cerebrum

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Figure 14: The Brain

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 The cerebellum
The cerebellum is situated below the cerebrum
and dorsal to the medulla, and is roughly oval in
shape.

It consists of a narrow central strip with two

lobes on either side.

The surface of the cerebellum is furrowed, and

consists of grey matter; white matter fills the
inside.

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The lobes of the cerebellum are connected
through the pons, which also connects the
cerebellum to the medulla and to the rest
of the brain.

The pons is a bridge of nerve fibres,

mainly white matter, with some grey
matter intermixed.

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The function of the cerebellum is to
coordinate all muscular action in order to
control balance.

Its function is especially important in

locomotion to ensure that the human body
is balanced at all times on two legs.

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For this reason, the cerebellum is more
highly developed in man than in other
animals.

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 The cerebrum
The cerebrum fills most of the cranial
cavity; it consists of two cerebral
hemispheres, which are on top of, and
overlap on both sides, the other brain
structures.

The two hemispheres are separated by a

deep fissure.

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The outer region of the cerebrum, the
cortex, consists of grey matter, while the
inner region is filled with white matter.

The cerebral cortex is much folded into

convolutions with fissures between
different parts.

The greater the degree of folding of the

cerebrum, the greater the mental activity
of which the brain is capable.

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The cerebrum is the seat of all conscious
action; it controls all mental activity such
as reasoning, emotion, and memory, and
in so doing exhibits the mental activity
called intelligence.

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The cerebrum interprets stimuli received
from receptors and causes a voluntary
action in response to the environment
through spinal nerves by motor nerve
fibres.

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There is a quantitative difference between
man and other animals in the functioning
of the cerebrum which differentiates man
from all other animals.

The functions of the body are associated

with particular areas of the cerebrum, and
these areas are shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 15.

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The parts of
the brain
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Figure 15: Localisation of Functions
in Cerebrum

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Figure 15: Localisation of Functions
in Cerebrum

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 The brain stem
All structures, apart from the medulla, the
cerebellum, and the cerebrum, are part, of
the brain stem.

This is a continuation of the spinal cord,

and the central canal runs through the
brain stem.

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The canal forms ventricles in the brain,
which are filled with cerebro-spinal fluid,
and the presence of the ventricles give the
brain a hollow structure.

There are four ventricles, and they are

continuous, being joined by small
openings or slender canals.

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The human brain has evolved from a
single spinal cord with three spinal
vesicles, these latter developing into the
hind-, mid-, and fore-brain.

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 The hind-brain
This contains the medulla, cerebellum,
and pons, the latter being the fore-part of
the hind-brain.

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Figure 16(a): Longitudinal Section
Through One Hemisphere of Brain
optic lobe cerebrum
Corpus callosum

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Figure 16(b): Vertical Section
Through Brain

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 The mid-brain
The brain stem bends forward into a
horizontal position, and has the thalami
and the optic lobes attached to it.

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 The fore-brain
This contains the thalami, the olfactory lobes,
and the cerebrum.

The brain stem ends blindly in front, and

attached to this part is the pituitary gland (see
p. endocrine).

The cerebral hemispheres originate from the

brain stem before it reaches the terminal end.

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 The thalami
Two large ovoid-shaped structures are situated
on either side of the mid-brain, these are the
thalami.

They extend tailwards past the mid-brain, but, in

fact, are joined to the hind-part of the fore-brain.

A bar of transverse nerve fibres connects the

two thalami.

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The thalami receives all the sensory nerve
fibres from the hind-brain and the spinal
cord, and relay the impulses to the
cerebral hemispheres.

There is a two-way association between

the thalami and the cerebral hemispheres.

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Below the two thalami is situated the
hypothalamus.

This is a centre for many important reflex

actions; it controls the temperature
regulating mechanism of the body; it
regulates sleep, hunger and satiety.

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It also causes the external manifestations
of emotions; this is does in conjunction
with the thalamus, which latter determines
the intensity of an emotion, by modifying
the reactions and mental activity of the
cerebral cortex.

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 The hypothalamus
The floor of the ventricle just below the
thalami is the hypothalamus which
regulates body temperature, water
excretion and many other body functions
which are controlled automatically and
without thought.

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 The optic lobes
These are paired lobes, dorsal to the brain stem,
and below the thalami.

Their main function is the interpretation of sight.

They control the muscles of the eyeballs and

relate the movements of the eyeballs to the
impulses received from the retinas of the eyes.

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 The olfactory lobes
These are paired lobes ventral to the brain
stem, situated at the base of the
cerebrum, each lobe lying close to the
central deep fissure dividing the two
cerebral hemispheres.

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They are small in size, and their function is
to interpret the sense of smell.

As this sense is not of such great

importance in man, they are not so well
developed as in other animals.

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The impulses from the olfactory lobes are
relayed through the thalamus to the
cerebral hemispheres.

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 Corpus callosum
The deep fissure between the cerebral
hemispheres reaches down to the corpus
callosum, which is a mass of white matter.

The nerve fibres in the corpus callosum connect

the two cerebral hemispheres and provide
association tracts for the cerebral cortex in each
hemisphere.

Fig. 16 shows the location of the parts of the

brain.

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 Association tracts
The different regions of each cerebral
hemisphere are connected by tracts of
nerve fibres, forming the white matter on
the inside of the cerebrum.

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In addition, one region of the cerebrum is
connected with association; in this part of
the cerebral cortex are the cell bodies
which connect with all other parts of the
brain and form the associations for the
interpretation of stimuli.

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 The Peripheral Nervous
System
The nervous tissue outside the brain and
spinal cord forms the peripheral nervous
system.

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 Spinal nerves
Paired mixed nerves arise from the spinal cord,
as described previously.

These nerves branch, the branches join other

nerves, and then rebranch; finally they cover the
body with a whole network of nerves.

The arrangement of spinal nerves is shown in

diagram form in Fig. 17.

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Each nerve splits, near its end, into a sensory
and a motor branch (see the simple reflex arc
described previously and Fig. 12).

The nerve connections in the spinal cord are

made with nerves on the same side of the body.

The nerve tracts in the spinal cord cross over,

mainly in the medulla, so that nerves from, and
to, the right side of the body are connected to
the left side of the brain (and vice versa).

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 Cranial nerves
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves leave through
small holes in the skull (the foramina).

The upper pairs are connected with the sensory

and motor reactions of the head.

here are the optic nerves, connected to the

eyes, the olfactory nerves, connected to the
nose, the auditory nerves, connected to the ear,
and nerves connected to the tongue for taste
and sensation of touch.

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Sensory nerves convey the sense of
touch, heat, pain, from areas of skin on the
head.

Motor nerves are connected to the

muscles of the eyeball, the jaw, the cheek,
the tongue, and the neck.

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 These motor muscles are responsible for
speech, and for the reactions of the sense
organs to the environment.

The cranial nerves also cross over in the

brain, so that nerves serving the left hand
side of the head originate in the right hand
side of the brain.

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The 10th cranial nerve is a large mixed
nerve, the vagus, and carries the
important parasympathetic fibres (see
autonomic nervous system below) to the
heart and the viscera (see Fig. 19).

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The cranial nerves are all paired (right and
left).

Notice also that organs which receive para­

sympathetic innervation by fibres in the
cranial nerves also receive sympathetic
innervation by fibres from the sympathetic
chain (sympathetic nerve cord) as
explained below.

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 Figure 17:
Periphereal
Nervous
System

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 The Autonomic Nervous
System
This system of nerves controls the normal
body activities of which a person is not
normally aware.

Such muscular activities as peristalsis

and glandular secretions are controlled
by the autonomic system; these actions
are collectively known as visceral
reflexes.

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The system is composed of two separate
networks of nerves, the sympathetic and
the parasympathetic systems.

Each system contains sensory, motor, and

secretory neurons in addition to
association neurons.

Afferent pathways from the viscera, the

heart and the blood vessels travel to the
brain. Normally there is no sensation
involved.
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Only if there is excessive stimulation, the
person may be aware of pain from these
organs.

Efferent pathways from the brain provide

each of the organs with a double
innervation — for example, nerve impulses
to the heart travel along the
parasympathetic pathway in the vagus
nerve, and along the sympathetic
pathway in the accelerator nerve.
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Activity in the parasympathetic outflow
causes the heart to slow down, while
activity in the sympathetic outflow
increases its rate of beating.

Every organ which is controlled by the

autonomic nervous system is like this, and
receives a nerve supply from both the
parasympathetic and the sympathetic
systems.

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Their effects are opposite.

In Fig. 18, in order to make the diagram

more simple, parasympathetic pathways
are shown on the left and sympathetic
pathways on the right.

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But there are nerves on both sides of the
body, and what is shown in this diagram is
actually only half of each system.

Thus there are two vagus nerves (right

and left) and two sympathetic nerve cords
(right and left).

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 The sympathetic system
A pair of nerve cords run parallel to, and
ventral to the spinal cord, on each side of
the cord.

Each nerve cord extends from the skull to

the pelvis, where the cords unite in the
pelvic ganglion.

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There are ganglia on both cords, and
each ganglion is associated with a spinal
nerve; the ganglia are thus paired as are
the spinal nerves.

Fig. 20.19 is a diagram of the relationship

between a spinal nerve and a sympathetic
ganglion.

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Sympathetic fibres from the spinal cord
connect with the ganglion; these are both
sensory and motor fibres.

In the ganglia are synapses which connect

the various sympathetic fibres arriving at,
and leaving from, the ganglion.

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Sensory (afferent) fibres arrive from the
spinal cord, external receptors, and from
the viscera.

Motor, or efferent, fibres, lead to the

viscera, including glands, and also to
ganglia at higher and lower levels of the
nerve cord.

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The fibres between the ganglia and the
spinal cord are medullated, the remaining
sympathetic fibres are unmedullated.

The nerve fibres going to, and coming

from, the viscera, pass through a plexus,
which is a knot of cell bodies and nerve
fibres.

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In the plexus are numerous synapses,
allowing alternative paths for the nervous
impulses.

Each plexus is connected to several

organs, each with a related function.

The largest plexus is the solar plexus,

which can be taken as an example.

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The solar plexus is connected to ganglia at
the thoracic level of the spinal cord (see
Fig. 18); it is also connected to the
stomach, the small and large intestines
and the adrenal gland.

It thus controls the viscera associated with

digestion and absorption of food.

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The solar plexus is ventral to the aorta,
and dorsal to the stomach.

There are also other plexuses in the

cardiac and abdominal regions, as shown
in Fig. 18.

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In the diagram, the spinal nerves are
numbered for the thoracic, lumbar, and
sacral regions of the spinal column.

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 Figure 18: Diagram of
Autonomic Nervous
System. Half of
parasympathetic
system shown on left,
half of sympathetic
system shown on
right. Organs all
receive double
innervation.

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 Figure 19:
Relationship between
Spinal Cord and
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200
System
Functions of the sympathetic
system
The system firstly reacts to the
environment through its connection with
the spinal cord.

A stimulus is perceived by a sense organ,

or other receptor, and this initiates an
impulse which is interpreted by the brain.

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The brain produces an involuntary reflex
action, which is a visceral reflex, by
connections through the motor tracts of
the spinal cord, to the relevant ganglia,
and from there to the relevant plexus, and
finally to the viscera. (See Fig. 18).

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For example, danger dilates the pupils,
inhibits the flow of saliva, inhibits the
secretory flow of juice in the stomach and
slows down or stops peristalsis.

These visceral reflexes are quite

involuntary.

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The viscera, under conditions other than
normal, indicate pain, or discomfort,
through the afferent nerves.

The impulses reach the brain by very

indirect routes, and when the brain
interprets the impulses, the exact location
of the original stimulus is often uncertain.

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For example, the brain may only be
conscious of a pain in the abdomen, and is
uncertain of the exact location.

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The parasympathetic system
Most of the nerve fibres in this system are
in the paired cranial nerves.

Fig. 18 shows only four actual cranial

nerves with Roman numerals to indicate
which of the twelve cranial nerves is in the
parasympathetic system.

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The most important nerve of the
system is the tenth cranial nerve
(labelled X in the diagram); it is the
vagus nerve, and it connects the
medulla with most of the viscera.

Three spinal nerves from the sacral

vertebrae are also part of the system.

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 Functions of the
parasympathetic system
The system promotes the ordinary visceral
reflexes which maintain the normal upkeep
of the body functions.

For example, the sight of food stimulates a

reflex outflow along the ninth cranial nerve
and increases the flow of saliva.

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Look at the functions of the medulla as
described.

The medulla controls the vital functions,

and acts through these nerves.

Almost all of these are unconscious

reflexes, and cannot be influenced by
voluntary action.
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 Autonomic system
The sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems are mutually antagonistic.

Every organ of the body is supplied with

neurons from each system, and this
causes a balance in the functioning of an
organ.

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The balance depends on the normal
needs of the body for the functioning of an
organ, and the needs of the organ in
relation to the immediate environment.

For example, the parasympathetic system

stimulates peristalsis, a normal need of the
body when food is present in the
alimentary canal.

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Excitement, or danger, perceived by sense
organs from the immediate situation,
inhibit peristalsis, so that blood is not used
in digestive absorption but is available for
muscular activity.

When the danger is removed, the body

returns to normal and the vagus nerve
stimulates peristalsis.

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The balance obtained in the peristallic
movement depends on the interpretation
of the situation by the brain.

The sympathetic system is also intimately

connected with hormones secreted by the
system of ductless glands (endocrine).

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The Sense
Organs

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 The eye
This is a specialised organ of sight, better
developed in man than in other animals,
except for birds.

The interpretation of nervous impulses by

the brain of man is better than in other
animals.

Fig. 20 is a section through the optic nerve

of an eyeball.
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 Figure 20:
Section
Through
Optic Nerve
of Eyeball

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pial sheath of optic
7 nerve
 Structure of the eye
The eyeball is roughly spherical in shape
with a bulge in the front,. (Look at Fig. 21).

It is covered with three layers; on the

outside is the sclerotic coat (also called
the sclera), a tough, opaque layer
composed of connective tissue,in the
middle is the choroid coat a black
pigmented layer; .on the inside is the
retina, which contains light-sensitive sense
organs.
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Figure 21: Horizontal Section
Through Right Eye

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The choroid contains some of the blood
vessels for supplying the eye with blood.

In the front part of the eye, the sclerotic

coat becomes modified to form the cornea,
a thinner transparent layer, forming the
bulge in front.

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Behind the cornea, the choroid is modified
to form the iris and the ciliary body.

The iris is a circular sheet of coloured

muscle in which is a central aperture, or
hole, forming the pupil of the eye; the iris
is the pigmented portion of the eye.

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The ciliary body p contains the ciliary
muscles; the crystalline lens of the eye is
attached to the ciliary muscles by the
suspensory ligaments.

The nervous tissues of the retina stop just

behind the ciliary body.

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The optic nerve enters the dorsal side of
the eyeball, and is connected to the retina;
at its point of entry there is no nervous
tissue of the retina.

The large dorsal chamber of the eyeball,

between the retina and the lens, is filled
with a transparent jelly-like substance, the.
vitreous humour.

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The small ventral chamber, between the
lens and the cornea, is filled with a watery
fluid, the aqueous humour.

The. front of the eye is covered with a thin

transparent membrane, the conjunctiva,
which is a continuation of the lining of the
eyelid.

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 External features of the eye
The eyeball is situated in the eye socket
surrounded by hard bones of the skull;
protection to the eye is given by the frontal
bone above, and by the jaw bone beneath
and to the side.

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Inside the eye socket is the orbit, a pad of
fat richly supplied with blood and lymph
vessels.

Its function to cushion the eyeball against

shock.

There are three pairs of muscles attached to

the sclerotic coat; they are situated between
the eyeball and the orbit.

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Two pairs of muscles are called rectus
muscles; one pair, situated at the top and
bottom of the eyeball, move it up and
down; the other pair, situated left and right
eyeball, turn it left and right.

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The third pair of muscles are placed
obliquely, and steady the eye in its upward
and downward movements. (Look at Figs.
22 and 23).

The eyebrows are two arched raised

portions of skin, both thickly covered with
hair; their function is to prevent sweat, and
dust entering the eye.

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 Figure 22:
Eye Socket

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Figure 23: Movement of Eyeball
(vertical section of right eye)
Top rectus muscle

Right internal muscle

Bottom rectus muscle

Oblique muscle

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The eyelids are two thin, movable folds of
skin; the upper eyelid is larger and more
movable, being provided with ajnuscle for
retraction.

When closed, the eyelids unite and

provide protection for the eyeball.

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Eyelashes grow from the free ends of the
eyelids; they are thick, short, curved hairs,
providing protection against small foreign,
bodies entering the eye.

The conjunctiva lines both eyelids; when

the lids are closed, the conjunctiva forms a
closed pouch.

The eyelids blink every few seconds, thus

cleaning the cornea of dust and grit.

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A lachrymal gland is situated on the upper
and outer side of the orbit; it secretes a
watery fluid which washes the surface of
the eye.

Severe irritation of the eye, or emotion,

causes the lachrymal gland to secrete a
copious flow of fluid, this appears, as
tears.

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The fluid bathing the eye is drained
through small canals at the inner corner of
the eye, into a nasal duct, leading into the
nasal cavity.

A full view of the eye (Fig. 24) shows the

location of the parts described; the white
of the eye is the sclerotic coat, and the
cornea covers the iris and pupil.

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 Figure 24: The
Eye

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The functions of the eye parts

The conjunctiva admits light and is a

protective covering against germs entering
the eye.

The cornea, admits and refracts (i.e.

bends) light.

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The sclerotic coat gives, shape to the
eyeball, and protects the more delicate,
inner, parts of the eye.

The choroid coat carries blood vessels

supplying the eye with oxygen and food,
and its black pigment absorbs light, thus
preventing any reflection which would
interfere with.

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The retina perceives light nays, while the
optic nerve conducts impulses from the
retina to the brain.

The iris controls the amount of light to the

retina by altering the size of the aperture
(pupil of eye) to admit more or less light
through the lens.

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The crystalline lens focusses the rays of
light on the retina; it is held in place by the
suspensory ligaments.

The ciliary muscles control the curvature

of the lens.

The aqueous humour and the vitreous

humour maintain the shape of the eye.

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The vitreous humour further refracts light,
aiding the lens in forming an image on the
retina.

In fact, the cornea and the vitreous

humour play a greater part in refraction of
light than does the lens.

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The blind spot occurs where the optic
nerve enters the eyeball; there is no
vision, as there is no nervous tissue on the
eyeball at that place.

The yellow spot is the point of most acute

vision; the best colour vision is obtained
there, and light is normally focused there.

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 Vision
When the ciliary muscles are at rest, the
eye is relaxed, the crystalline lens is thin,
and the eye is focussed on infinity, i.e. on
distant object.

When the ciliary muscles contract, the lens

bulges and becomes thicker, and the eye
focusses on near objects.

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This alteration in the thickness of the
crystalline lens is called accommodation;
its effects are shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 25.

The retina contains light-sensitive

receptors of two types, known as rods and
cones, named from their shape. (See Fig.
27).

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Figure 25: Accommodation of
Crystalline Lens

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There are no rods or cones at the blind
spot.

To demonstrate the blind spot, look at the

cross in Fig. 26 with the right eye only.

Move the book towards and away from the

eye.

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Figure 26: The Blind Spot Exercise

+
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 Figure 27:
Retina
Showing
Rods and
Cones

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Figure 28: Crystalline Lens; Ciliary
Muscle

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The spot will disappear when its image is
on the blind spot.

At the yellow spot there are only cones; at

the periphery of the retina, there are only
rods; between these two places there is a
mixture of rods and cones.

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Rods are more sensitive to light than
cones.

Rods contain, a red-coloured chemical

substance, visual purple, which is
decomposed by light to form, after two
changes, a protein and vitamin A, while, at
the same time, an impulse of energy is
initiated in the rod for onward transmission
by nerve fibres.

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In the dark, the cells of the retina
synthesize visual purple from the protein
and vitamin A.

Without an adequate supply of vitamin A,

vision is impaired, particularly at night or in
dim light.

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The greater sensitivity of rods is evident
when looking at an object at night; the eye
does not look directly at the object as this
would focus it on the yellow spot; instead,
the eye looks away from object so that the
image is formed on the periphery of the
retina.

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There are three types of cones, which are
respectively sensitive to red, green and
blue light; these are the three primary
colours, and any other colour can be
formed additively from a combination of
them.

The interaction of the impulses from the

different cones produces the range of
colours interpreted by the eye.

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Colour blindness occurs inindividuals
who possess defects in their cones; such
people fail to distinguish all the colours of
the spectrum, and some even, who are
totally colour­blind, can only distinguish
light and dark.

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Colour blindness is inherited and is not a
form of disease.

The possession of two eyes gives

stereoscopic vision from the two images
formed on the retinas when the brain
interprets the impulses it receives;
stereoscopic vision permits distances to
be judged.

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 Interpretation of vision
The rods and cones of the retina when
stimulated by rays of light, produce impulses
which are conveyed by the sensory nerve
branches to the optic nerve.

The optic nerve contains bundles of these

sensory nerve fibres which transmit the impulses
to the central nervous system.

The optic nerves from each eyeball meet at the

optic chiasma (see Fig. 13).

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The optic chiasma is situated on the
ventral side of the thalamus, and in front of
the pituitary body.

The sensory nerve fibres from the nasal

area of each retina cross over in the optic
chiasma, but the sensory nerve fibres from
the temporal (i.e. outside) area of each
retina do not cross over each other.

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The sensory nerve fibre leave the optic
chiasma by the optic tracts- .and end in
the visual areas-of. the cerebrum.

The visual areas of the cerebrum interpret

the impulses in conjunction with the
association-areas—of the cerebrum.

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The right cerebral hemisphere receives
impulses from the nasal area of the left
retina and from the temporal area of the
right retina.

Each cerebral hemisphere thus receives

impulses from one half of the retina of
each eyeball.

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The optic tracts also have nerve fibres
originating in the optic lobes.

The optic lobes control movements of the

eyeballs from an interpretation of the
impulses received from the retinas, while
the cerebral hemispheres interpret vision
from coordination with other areas of the
cerebrum and with the whole central
nervous system.

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The optic chiasma provides an example of
cranial nerves crossing over each other so
that the sensory organs of the right side of
the body are connected with the left
cerebral hemisphere, and similarly for the
left side of the body being connected with
the right cerebral hemisphere.

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 Defects of the eye
Defects of the eye are due to defects in
structure and are not associated with ill-
health or disease.

Fig. 28 shows the crystalline lens and

ciliary muscle.

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 Long sight
The eyeball is too short for the crystalline
lens, so when viewing a near object the
image comes to a focus behind the retina
(see Fig. 29).

As the distance of the object increases,

the image approaches the retina.

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Distant objects can be brought into focus,
near objects cannot.

A convex, or converging, lens is used

when viewing near objects to correct the
defect.

No lens is needed for distant objects.

Long-sighted persons use spectacles for

reading or for viewing near objects.
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 Short sight
The eyeball is too long for the crystalline
lens, so when viewing a distant object the
image comes to a focus in front of the
retina. (See Fig. 30).

As the object distance decreases, the

image approaches the retina, and may be
focussed on it.

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 Figure 29 and 30: Long
Sight and Its Correction
and Short Sight and Its
Correction

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Very near objects can be brought into
focus, but distant objects cannot.

A concave, or diverging, lens is used to

correct the defect.

Different lenses are needed for near and

for distant objects, so short-sighted
persons need spectacles for viewing all
objects.

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 Astigmatism
The curvature of the cornea is not uniform,
so an object is brought to a different focus
in different planes.

For example, horizontal lines on an object

may be in focus, but vertical lines are not.

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This defect is corrected by a special lens,
a cylindrical lens, which is a lens in one
plane only, and plain glass at right angles
to it.

This type of lens offsets the differences in

curvature of the cornea in two planes.

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 Lack of accommodation
Elderly people lose the power of
accommodation due to weakening of the
ciliary muscles and to inelasticity of the
crystalline lens.

The eye cannot accommodate to view

near objects, so a convex lens is used as
in long sight.

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 Involuntary actions
The brain is not conscious of an involuntary
action.

A stimulus affects the nervous system to

produce an automatic response such as the
stimulus for the autonomic nervous system,
which produces an involuntary visceral reflex.

The simple reflex arc leads to an involuntary

action.

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 Complex reflex arc
Many actions are reflex and involuntary,
but at the same time the external stimulus
initiates an impulse which is conducted to
the brain by the spinal cord.

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For example, on touching a hot object, the
simple reflex action withdraws the hand
but the brain records the sensation of heat
and pain, usually after a small period of
time has elapsed since the reflex motor
action.

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The brain can thus inhibit the final stages
of the reflex action.

A higher, or lower, level of the spinal cord

can also- initiate further reflex actions.

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This sequence of events whereby the
sensory impulse produces further motor
action at other levels of the central
nervous system forms a complex reflex
action.

The circuits for such a reflex action are

shown in Fig. 31.

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 Figure 31:
Additional voluntary response
Complex
Sensation experienced
Reflex Action

Additional reflex

receptor

effector

Voluntary effector
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 Voluntary actions
These are actions initiated by the motor
centres of the cerebral cortex, and are
almost entirely muscular actions.

All the important sense organs, such as

the eye, ear, taste buds, olfactory
receptors, are connected to the cerebral
cortex through the thalami.

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The sensations have then to be
interpreted by the cerebral cortex, and
coordinated by the thalami before action is
taken.

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Any subsequent muscular action is also
coordinated with supporting action by the
cerebellum.

For example, throwing a ball is a voluntary

action, and controlled by the cerebral
cortex; the cerebellum produces the
additional muscular activity to ensure the
body remains balanced.

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 Behaviour
A group of actions in response to a given
stimulus, or stimuli, forms a pattern of
behaviour.

Unlearned behaviour, which can vary from

simple reflex actions to quite complicated
activities, is hereditary, and has developed
because of the survival value to the animal
concerned.

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A complicated activity which is an example
of unlearned behaviour is the sucking
reflex of a new born baby; it involves
coordination of head movements, lip and
tongue action, and a swallowing reflex.

Unlearned behaviour is never forgotten.

Learned behaviour depends on the mental

capabilities of the animal.

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The simplest method of learning is by trial
and error, such as is shown by a rat
finding its way through a series of
obstacles to obtain food.

A more advanced method of learning

depends on reasoning, whereby the
results of possible actions are considered
before the action is taken.

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Once having successfully performed the
series of actions, the next attempt is much
easier.

This introduces the concepts of memory

and habit, which are essentially the same
thing.

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Memory is used for skill with words, and
habit for skill with motor actions.

With repeated use the behaviour pattern

becomes easier to follow; with lack of use
the behaviour pattern is forgotten.

Forgetting is the opposite of memory and

habit.

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 Conditioned reflex
One of the earliest experiments on
conditioned reflexes was made by Pavlov.

He rang a bell each time he fed a dog, and

after several days of this treatment the bell
was rung, but no food was given; the dog's
salivary glands produced saliva, the
normal reflex response to the stimulus of
food.

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The stimulus of the bell had replaced the
stimulus of food, and a conditioned reflex
had been established.

In this reflex action, the dog had learned

new associations and formed a habit.

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After a period of absence of the bell
stimulus, the dog forgot the conditioned
reflex action, showing that learned
behaviour is readily forgotten.

Most animal behaviour consists of

conditioned reflexes learnt mainly by trial
and error.

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Man has the advantage of speech to
communicate errors to others so that time
is not wasted in trial and error as a method
of learning.

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Learning, whether with words or with
actions, necessitates the formation of
associations in the brain; it has been
shown that repetition increases memory,
which is the formation of associations.

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Hence in any learning process which is
based on both memory and
understanding, it is best to work little and
often, i.e. three separate work periods of
one hour, spaced over a day or two
producing a better memorisation than one
work period of three hours.

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 Reasoning
Intelligence is connected with the ability to
associate facts, and this ability varies from
person to person; the actual process of
selecting the facts to produce a flow of
relevant facts is called reasoning.

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When facts for a necessary action are in
opposition, then an expression of will, or
intention, is needed to perform a voluntary
action.

This requires a "drive", as it is called by

psychologists. Hunger is a primitive form
of "drive".

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A more advanced "drive" is the desire for
approval, usually present in most human
beings.

Human beings usually learn faster when in

competition with each other, as a result of
the desire for approval.

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The highest activity of the brain is in
abstract thought, in which the facts are far
removed from the immediate biological
environment.

The ability to retain experience, especially

by recording the experience in speech or
in writing, coupled with the ability to
reason, differentiates man from all other
animals.

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 Biological irritability
Man is aware of his environment through
his sense organs, and these are
connected to a very efficient and
extremely complex nervous system.

The stimuli from the environment produces

a series of involuntary and voluntary
actions which enable the individual to
survive in his environment.

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The highly developed brain allows the
immediate actions to anticipate future
changes in the environment, and thus
increases the chances of survival.

Man thus shows a better developed

biological irritability than other animals.

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 QUESTIONS
1. Make a fully labelled diagram of a neuron.

2. Distinguish between a nerve and a nerve fibre.

3. Explain the following terms; afferent nerve fibre; efferent

nerve fibre; synapse; ganglion.

4. Describe the structure, with the aid of labelled diagrams,

of the spinal cord. How is the spinal cord protected?

5. Give a brief account of paired spinal nerves.

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6. What is a simple reflex arc?

7. Make a labelled diagram showing the

relation of the basic parts of the human
brain.

8. Describe the structure and functions of

the medulla of the human brain.

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9. Write short notes on:
a) the thalami;
b) the hypothalamus;
c) the corpus callosum;
d) association tracts.

10. Give a brief description of the structure and

functions of the sympathetic nervous system.

11. Explain the method of antagonistic working of

the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems, using the heart as an example.

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12. Describe the structure of the parts of the eye
which focus an image on the retina. Explain the
mechanism of focussing of the eye.

13. Write short notes on: a) the choroid; b) the retina; c)

the sclerotic coat; d) eyelashes; e) lachrymal glands.

14. How is the size of the pupil altered? What useful

purpose does this serve?

15. Explain the functions of rods and cones in the retina.

What relation is there between vitamin A and these
functions?

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16. Describe the function of the optic chiasma. How
does this assist in stereoscopic vision?

17. Name three defects of eyes and the manner in

which they can be corrected.

18. A man balances on a piece of rope. What

organs in the body help in maintaining his balance?

19. Give a description of the following:

a) Organ of Corti;
b) utricle;
c) Eustachian tube;
d) perilymph;
e) oval window;
f) cochlea.

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