Mr.

Duez World History

Castle Project Information

Castles of Britain
Castle Learning Center
By providing these castle research pages, we
hope to encourage students, writers, and
enthusiasts of all ages to explore castles and to
stimulate their creativity. Here you will find
many areas of interest to help and guide you.

PART ONE: Background

What is a castle? A castle is a properly fortified military residence.

Why were castles built? Initially, they were designed and built to hold down conquered
territory. They also served to intimidate and strike fear into the local peoples, were places of
refuge, and places for the lords to live. They were also impressive symbols of the power and
wealth of their owners.

When were castles built? Norman castles were built from the 11th to 13th centuries.

Castles were brought to Britain by William the Conqueror, when he invaded England from his
homeland in France. Known as the Duke of Normandy, William invaded England in 1066 and, due
to his victory in the Battle of Hastings, William was crowned the King of England, and became
King William I.

One of the most powerful ways for William to take control of his new kingdom, which included
England, Scotland and Wales, was to have castles built throughout the land. At first, he ordered
the construction of very simple castles, called motte and bailey castles.

They consisted of an earthen mound, called a motte, topped by a tower (first built of wood, and
soon rebuilt in stone to make the towers more sturdy). The bailey was a large area of land
enclosed by a shorter mound, placed next to the motte. Inside the bailey were the main activities
of the castle (workshops, stables and livestock, household activities, etc.), while the tower on
the motte was used as the lord's residence and as an observation post.

These earth and wood castles were not very sturdy, because the wood would rot fairly quickly and
was easy for an enemy to burn. So, William the king ordered the construction of stone castles.
Stone castles were much more sturdy, did not rot like wood, and also were much more able to
withstand any attack by an invader. Over the centuries after William was king, other kings
ordered elaborate castles to be built.

Castles were not just used by the king. Most castles, in fact, were granted by a king to their most
loyal subjects, knights or barons who fought valiantly in battle and supported their king. The king,
starting with William the Conqueror, gave his loyal knights vast estates and permission to build
castles. In return, he expected these men (most of whom were given the titles of earl or lord) to
control their lands as the king's representative, to keep the local population from rebelling, and to
force them to work and pay rent to the lord (who then passed it onto the king).

Many of the people who lived in Britain before it was conquered did not like being controlled by
the king's barons, and wanted to keep control of their own lands themselves. But that was not
possible, because William and later kings (and queens) demanded they pay homage. Therefore,

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castles were built to establish the power of the king and his followers, and to keep the people
from regaining control of their own lands.

These first knights and barons, followers of William the Conqueror, were known as the Normans,
and were a very powerful lot. They built castles almost everywhere in Britain, hundreds of which
still survive.

Stone castles were built for stability and to symbolize the power of the lords of the kingdom. Even
if the king did not order a particular castle to be built for his use, he still retained the ability to
seize any of his lords' castles if they displeased him or if the king had a special reason to want to
use it.

PART TWO: Castle Features

The features that made stone castles stable and able to withstand battle include the following:

• The walls were very thick, anywhere between 8 and 20 feet in thickness, so they could
withstand bombardment or battering from a battering ram, or another siege engine (like a
trebuchet or catapult).
• Over time, the shape of the towers changed as castle- builders experimented with
designs that were less likely to fall down in battle or from the instability of the structure
itself. Originally, towers were simple square-shapes, easy to build but also easy to topple
down.

One of the most ingenious ways that a tower was pulled down was a method known as
undermining. An enemy's soldiers would dig a tunnel under one corner of a tower, prop it
up with wood, and then set the wood on fire. When the wood burned to ashes, the tower
would be so unstable (no longer having a good foundation) that it would tumble to the
ground. However, sometimes undermining did not accomplish what the enemy soldiers
wanted - sometimes the wood fell down before the enemy had left the tunnel, and they
died! One of the towers at Rochester Castle near London still shows an unsuccessful
attempt by an invader to pull down a corner tower.

The round tower was determined to be a more effective shape for withstanding the impact
of a battle. However, it was more difficult to build because the design was more complex.
Yet, many castles made use of round towers. Their shape caused cannon balls and other
types of missiles to bounce off the walls without doing damage. They also were not

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 vulnerable to undermining. And they also gave an added bonus of providing more space on
the interiors. The greatest of Norman knights, William Marshall, introduced the use of
round towers to Britain, and they were especially used in Wales.

Some castles used what is known as a splayed plinth, which added support at the base of
the towers. The plinth had the effect of placing sturdy legs into the earth at the base of the
tower, so that it would not lean or be likely to fall down. Goodrich Castle has excellent
examples of the splayed plinth.

• The curtain wall (the wall which surrounded the main portion of the castle) gradually
became a more and more effective means to stabilize the castle. At first, they were just
simple walls, but with time, they became much thicker. The curtain wall was intersected at
various points (good for observing the activity outside the castle, and to watch for
invaders) by different types of towers, most of which were used for observation, but also
as living quarters, the chapel, for storage, or to house the dungeon.
• One of the most important modifications to the curtain wall was the development of
the gatehouse. At first, the gatehouse was just the way in and out of the castle, and was
usually a simple doorway. However, they soon became the strong point of many castles,
the place where an enemy was most likely to try to break through, so the gatehouses were
equipped with several defensive techniques to thwart an enemy's attack. These included:
the portcullis (a heavy iron grate that was lowered to block the intruder's entrance); heavy
wooden doors that could be barred shut; strategically-placed arrowslits (slits in the stone
wall that pointed outward, and through which a soldier could shoot arrows at an enemy
without being shot back at); and murder holes (gaps in the ceiling above the entrance
passage through which boiling liquids or deadly missiles could be thrown down upon
attackers). One of the most complex gatehouses can be found at Pembroke Castle in
Wales.
• Immediately outside the castle were other features which added to its stability. Most were
surrounded by some form of ditch (which we more commonly called themoat). Ditches
were deep, cut into the bedrock or earth around the main part of the castle, and also
around a bailey. While many ditches were water-filled (some by changing the direction of
an adjacent river!), others never had water. They were every bit as difficult to cross as the
water-filled moats, because they were very deep and had very steep walls.
• In order to gain entry to the castle, wooden drawbridges were built to span the ditches.
These bridges were ingeniously designed and could be moved away from the ditch to
prevent unwanted visitors from gaining access to the castle. (By the way, inside the
castles, entry to some of the towers, especially the keep, was by using a wooden ladder
that reached the second floor, and could be removed to prevent unwanted access!)

Sometimes more than one ditch and drawbridge were constructed, to make unwelcome
access even more improbable. And many castles were built atop steep hillsides that would
make it difficult for an invader to climb (especially carrying heavy weapons). These high
locations also allowed the castle guards to see a long distance into the countryside, which
was useful for detecting an invasion.

PART THREE: Labor, Organization, and Costs

Organizing and erecting a stone castle was a daunting task which involved enormous outlays of
material, manpower, time, and money. Stone was quarried as close to the site as possible, but
decorative rock was often transported from special outcrops which were located at some distance,
increasing expenses considerably. In addition, although timber took on a secondary role in castle
construction (as framing, flooring, ceilings, and scaffolding), it became very costly since it was
still required in great quantities and had to be brought to the site from far a field, due to the
depletion of nearby forests.

Other expensive building materials included lead (for roofing), iron and tin, initially mined in
England and later taken from Welsh sources.
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Labor costs could be enormous, since skilled workers were essential to stone castle building.
Specialists were often brought in from all parts of the kingdom to work on a castle, including: the
master mason, quarrymen, woodcutters, smiths, miners, ditchers, carters, and carpenters. At
times, as many as 2000 men were conscripted or hired for a particular project.

The following quote from Master James of St. George (Edward's ingenious master mason) gives
us a glimpse into the building requirements for the splendid Welsh castle at Beaumaris.
Addressing the king's Exchequer, Master James wrote:

In case you should wonder where so much money could go in a week, we would have you
know that we have needed - 400 masons, both cutters and layers, together with 2000 less
skilled workmen, 100 carts, 60 wagons and 30 boats bringing stone and sea coal; 200
quarrymen; 30 smiths; and carpenters for putting in the joists and floor boards and other
necessary jobs. All this takes no account of the garrison mentioned above, nor of the
purchase of material, of which there will have to be a great quantity... The men's pay has
been and still is very much in arrears, and we are having the greatest difficulty in keeping
them because they simply have nothing to live on (McNeill, 1992).

Weekly wages for these workers averaged from four shillings for a master mason to six pence for
a woman laborer. James of St. George earned two shillings a day, plus 100 marks while constable
of Harlech Castle. By today's standards, these wages seem minimal, but at the time they would
have enabled Master James to live very comfortably.

Not surprisingly, a stone castle took a great deal longer to complete than any earth and timber
stronghold. Major construction work occurred only from April to November, and was directly
dependent on weather conditions.

Building Chart
Castle Seasons of Work Height in Feet Average Height Per Season
Scarborough 10 90 9
Orford 8 65 8
Newcastle (UT) 8 80 10
Chilham 3 35 12
Bowes 5 50 10
Dover 10 80 8
Odiham 5 50 10

The building process itself was cumbersome, and estimated rate of ten feet of elevation per year
(Fry 1981). Henry II's castle at Orford, for example, took eight years to build and the mighty
Dover Castle required ten years. In contrast, Edward I's fortresses in north Wales took an
average of between five and seven years, with the exception of Beaumaris (never finished) and
Caernarfon (also never completed, even after an incredible 45 years!).

With all the limitations mentioned above: the weather, the sheer mass of building material, and
the availability of skilled labor, funding and wages, it is truly amazing that these architectural
wonders were ever finished.

PART FOUR: Castle Defenses, Part I

The defenses for the castle consisted of many things, from the moat to battlements. As castle
design advanced, so too did the defenses. An allure was the wall-walk along the top of a curtain
wall. They were accessed by a wooden or stone stair parallel to the wall, or sometimes by a mural
tower. Wall-walks were often paved with stone slabs. A later 13th century innovation was an
overhanging allure. This developed into flying parapets and machicolations.

Arrow loops, also known as arrow slits or bow loops, allowed defenders to fire their arrows from
cover. There were several different styles, as illustrated below. Rare before 1190, they were

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normally just a simple vertical slot, less than two inches wide at the outside, and averaged
between 3 to 12 feet in length.

In the late 12th century, developments included the introduction of a splayed foot, which formed
a wider part in the slot and allowed soldiers to aim over a larger area outside the castle beneath
them. At the same time, horizontal slits were introduced.

During the 13th century, the ends of the slits often became rounded, and were known as oillets.
In addition, more than one cross-arm came into use. Some arrow loops were massive (e.g., up to
17 feet long, with triple cross-arms).

The barbican was a exterior defense protecting the entrance of the castle. It confined an
approaching enemy to a narrow front, often leaving the attackers in the open, and offered an
easy target for the castle defenders. Barbicans also confused the attackers, as they oftentimes
found themselves in a hopeless maze of twists and turns. The most common type is a walled
passage projecting from the front of the gatehouse.

A small turret or lookout projecting out at an angle of a tower or on the surface of a wall and
supported by corbels was called the bartizan. Also referred to as a crow's nest, the bartizan was
almost always located at one of the highest points of the castle. The bastion was a prominent
projection meant to cover dead ground, flank curtains and provide crossfire. Dead ground means
an area where attackers could not be seen or fired upon, a blind spot.

A batter, plinth or spur is the angled footing of a wall or tower. It was used to counter
undermining or to cause dropped missiles to ricochet horizontally. This defensive invention also
acted as a deflecting surface for battering rams, thus making them less effective.

The battlements, or crenellations, provided a walk on the wall summit, a fighting platform and a
defense against escalade (scaling the walls). They are also the distinguishing feature of a castle.
An embrasure, or crenel, is a splayed opening in a wall used to provide a firing point. They were
usually from 2-3 feet wide, while the intervening merlons rose 3-7 feet high and were about 5
feet wide. Often these crenels would have wooden shutters for greater protection. Sometimes
battlements were used symbolically on unfortified structures to give the impression that the
buildings were true castles.

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PART FOUR: Castle Defenses, Part II

The level area or space between the castle curtain wall and the ditch or moat is called the berm.
The braie is an exterior defense of small height hindering an attacker's approach; it was most
commonly made of earth. A cross wall is an interior or exterior dividing wall. Some went across
the bailey and others divided the keep or other structures. The curtain wall surrounded the
bailey or castle buildings. It was often connected by flanking towers and could be from 6-20 feet
thick. Sometimes arrow slits were placed in the curtain wall so that the castle defenders could
safely shoot at the attackers.

A drawbridge was a moveable wooden bridge that gapped the castle ditch or moat. It could be
removed or raised to prevent easy entry into the castle. Thegatehouse was the entrance to the
castle containing at least one portcullis that could be raised or lowered. Vaulted ceilings could
contain murder holes and arrow slits in the side walls. Hoarding, or brattice, was developed to
cover dead ground, or blind spots at the base, or foot, of the curtain wall. A covered wooden
gallery positioned in front of the battlements with holes in the floor, the hoard allowed defenders
to observe and fire upon attackers. In the later Middle Ages, hoarding evolved into stone
machicolations. Sometimes machicolations were used symbolically to recreate a castellated effect
on unfortified structures.

The keep, great tower, or donjon was a self-sufficient, last resort, place of refuge used during a
siege. Most keeps were square or rectangular in shape, although there were round keeps. Some
keeps were over 80 feet high and had walls over 17 feet thick. Machicolations were openings in
the floor of a projecting parapet or platform along the wall or above an archway, through which
defenders could drop or shoot missiles vertically on attackers below.

Merlons are the solid parts of a crenellated parapet. They were sometimes pierced with arrow
slits.

Moats were kept full by a nearby water supply: a spring, lake, stream, or river. The builders
would put a dam on the outlet side of the water supply, and control the water level in the moat.
Some moats had stone casings, but most were left with earthen banks. Most castles, however,
had dry moats, known simply as ditches.

The purpose of water defenses was to prevent the castle from being besieged. Sappers found it
difficult to tunnel under a moat; attackers could not wade across, for fear of drowning in the deep
waters; attackers would not dare swim across the moat, as it presented too big of a target for the
castle guards and made them very vulnerable. Attackers were known to use portable bridges, or
barges, to span the moat and besiege a castle.

There is a myth that alligators or crocodiles were placed in the moats. This is not true. Some
moats did have eels and other kinds of fish in them for food. Sometimes, sharpened sticks (bungy

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sticks) were placed in the moat to prevent attackers from safely entering it. Burning liquids may
also have been poured in the moats, but references to this are not proven.

Some castles, like Caerphilly Castle in Wales, sit in the middle of artificial lakes, but most had
simple moats. Some moats only surrounded parts of the castle. Sometimes, water defenses were
used along with other natural defenses, such as a cliff or river. Moats often ranged between 3 and
30 feet in depth, and were typically well over 12 feet in width. They reached the peak of their
development in the 13th century, and went out of fashion in the late 16th century.

Murder holes are openings in a floor through which the castle defenders could drop missles or
liquids upon the attackers. Stones were the most often used missile. Boiling oil was not used, as
it was a precious commodity to waste. More than likely, if any boiling liquid was used, it was
water. Murder holes were most often located in the vaulting over the gate passage.
The parapet was an embattled wall shielding the castle defenders on the wall-walk.

Almost all stone castles had towers. Some were flanking towers in the curtain wall, gatehouse
towers, smaller stair, or mural towers. Towers provided access to the wall walks, lookout points
and sleeping quarters for the castle garrison. Towers could be square, D-shaped, or round. They
were important defensive features, as were the other ones mentioned above.

PART FIVE: Life in the Castle, Part I

Most of us fantasize about living in a castle. We

dream about the ultimate lives of luxury, never
having to fend for ourselves, having our every
whim taken care of, swimming in jewels or swathed
in silk. But, despite all the glamor we see in movies
and conjure up in our imaginations, medieval castle
life was not necessarily easy.

Hardships were plenty, and even the wealthiest

individuals often found themselves living in less
than adequate quarters. There was no central
heating, except for the central hearth or fireplace,
which had to be tended to be efficient. Of course, that heat was usually saved for the lord and his
family. Servants, soldiers, and others made due with tiny lamps and shivered a lot in the cold
medieval nights.

The lord, his family and guests had the added comfort of heavy blankets, feather mattresses, fur
covers, and tapestries hanging on the walls to block the damp and breezes, while residents of
lesser status usually slept in the towers and made due with lighter bedclothes and the human
body for warmth. The lord and lady's personal attendants were fortunate to stay with their master
or mistress in their separate sleeping quarters. However, they slept on the floor wrapped in a
blanket, but, at least on the floor, they could absorb some of the warmth of the fireplace.

Even during the warmest months of the year, the castle retained a cool dampness and all
residents spent as much time as possible enjoying the outdoors. Oftentimes, members wrapped
blankets around themselves to keep warm while at work (from which we derive the term
bedclothes). Baths were taken in transportable wooden tubs, so that the summer sun could warm
the water and the bather, but the tub could be moved inside when the weather worsened.

Privacy was ensured with a tent or canopy. And for more delicate endeavors, imagine needing to
use the guardrobe (latrine) and having a brisk wind gusting through the privy. With stone or hard
wood seats, using the latrine would certainly have been an invigorating experience. No wonder
the chamber pot remained close to the bedside!

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Life during the Middle Ages began at sunrise, when one of the guards trumpeted the day's start.
Servants had already begun to stir, ensuring the fires were lit in the kitchen and great hall and
getting the morning meal underway. Since dinner was not served until between 10AM and noon,
they had at least a few hours to fulfill their other chores while the stews or soups bubbled in the
iron pots. All floors had to be swept, cleared of any debris, and basins washed out.

Once the lord and his lady had arisen, chambermaids ventured into their apartments, swept and
emptied chamber pots and wash basins, and the laundress also began the day's wash. For their
part, the lord and lady of the castle made sure they were tidy before they greeted their household
or any guests, washing off with water from their basins while partially clothed to keep warm.

PART SIX: Life in the Castle, Part II

A small breakfast of bread and drink was taken

by all, and then the lord and his family entered
the chapel for morning mass. Once mass was
complete, the lord tackled the day's business.
While relying on certain members of his
household staff to manage the castle in his
absence or when he had other duties to handle,
the lord was the castle's chief administrator
when he was in residence. Indeed, in many
ways, the lord was king of his own domain,
which included his castle, the estates, and his
subjects, both inside the castle and in the
surrounding peasant villages.

Often, the lord was granted possession of more than one lordship or earldom so had to divide his
time among all of his properties. His powers were political, judicial, fiscal, and also included the
policing of his territory. Like his king, he could mete out punishment, collect rent from his
subjects, and even mint his own coins.

When the lord had obligations that took him away from the castle, as was frequently the case, his
main representative was the steward, also called the seneschal. The steward actually had
substantial power of his own, because he had to know virtually everything that went on at the
castle and in the surrounding estates. So, he had to be skilled at accounting and legal matters, as
well as personnel management.

Other key members of the household staff included the chamberlain (in charge of the great
chamber/hall), the chaplain, the keeper of the wardrobe, the butler (also known as the bottler, he
ensured there was enough drink stored in the buttery), the cook, the chandler (who made
candles), and the marshal (who was in charge of the stables). Each of these individuals had their
own staff to manage.

The lady of the castle was served by ladies-in-waiting and chambermaids. She spent much of the
day overseeing their work, as well as supervising the activities in the kitchen staff. The lady also
kept an eye on her large group of spinners, weavers, and embroiderers who had the enormous
responsibility of keeping everyone clothed, and offering the lady companionship. In addition, the
ladies were responsible for educating the young pages who, at the age of 7, came to the castle to
learn religion, music, dance, hunting, reading, and writing before moving into knight's service as
squires.

At 14, young boys became squires, and the lord placed them under the guidance of a
knowledgeable knight who would teach them about chivalry as well as how to wield a sword or
ride a horse into battle. A youth's ultimate goal was knighthood, which could be attained at the
age of 21 when the boys officially became men. Many knights became highly skilled warriors and

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spent peacetime traveling to tournaments to pitch themselves into individual combat with other
aspiring knights. The tournaments were good training grounds for real warfare.

When a group of soldiers was stationed at a castle, they comprised its garrison. Individual
members included the knights, squires, a porter (to tend the main door), guards, watchmen, and
men-at-arms. All were prepared to defend their lord and his household in an instant. Each soldier
had his own place in an attack and his own skill to rely upon. Some were crossbowmen, archers,
lancers, or wielded swords. Medieval warfare was definitely a highly complex process, despite the
simplicity of the weapons.

Castles must have been noisy - and smelly - places. Livestock roamed inside the stables,
blacksmiths clanged out ironwork in the forges, the soldiers practiced their skills, and children
played when lessons were completed. Various craftsmen worked diligently in the inner ward,
including cobblers (making shoes), armorers, coopers (who made casks), hoopers (who helped
the coopers build the barrels), billers (making axes), and spencers (who dispensed).

The interior walls were used to support timber structures, like the workshops and the stables,
and, sometimes, stone buildings also leaned against the walls. Fires burned. The well and cisterns
offered water. Servants were constantly bustling, taking care of the personal needs of the
household, but also finding time for gossip and flirtation.

At mid-morning, dinner was served. This was the main meal of the day, and often featured three
or four courses, as well as entertainment. After dinner, the day's activities would resume, or the
lord might lead his guests on a hunt through the grounds of his nearby deer park. Recreation was
never ignored!

The evening meal, supper, was generally eaten late in the day, sometimes just before bedtime.
While not as formidable as dinner, this meal ensured residents would never be hungry when they
settled down to sleep off the day's labors.

We can only imagine that, though the people worked hard during the Middle Ages, they also
compensated by playing hard. Holidays were times for letting loose of inhibitions and forgetting
the stresses of life. The peasants as well as the castle's household found time for pleasure, and
made up for their struggles as best they could. In this modern age of technological convenience,
we must admire their perseverance.