Disinfection

Dr. Akepati S. Reddy

Associate Professor, Thapar University
Adjunct Scientist, TCIRD
Patiala (Punjab) 147 004

Biological water quality
Assessed by MPN test (Multiple tube fermentation technique and
membrane filtration technique)
Improved by disinfection: deactivation (render harmless), not sterilization,
of pathogens (causing water borne diseases)
Disinfection two types
Primary disinfection: achieving desired level of microbial kills or
inactivation
Secondary disinfection: maintaining disinfectant residual in finished water
to prevent regrowth of microorganisms
Disinfection can be brought about by
Chemical agents (disinfectants)
Chlorine and hypochlorite; Chlorine dioxide; and Chloramines
Ozone
Mixed oxidants
Irradiation (UV radiation) and Heating
Sonification, electrocution,
Filtration (and membrane filtration, nano-filtration!), Coagulation-
flocculation, and Settling also assist
Disinfection
Disinfection
Inactivation processes include
denaturation of
proteins (structural proteins, enzymes,
transport proteins)
nucleic acids (genomic DNA or RNA,
mRNA, tRNA, etc)
lipids (lipid membranes, other lipids)
Disinfection kinetics is described by
Chicks law (1908)
Follows first order kinetics - when the
disinfectant level is constant the
number of microbes surviving is
function of contact time
Equal susceptibility and uniform
dispersion of the microbes is assumed
Reduction of microbes is expressed in
log reductions (1 log reduction = 10%
survival, 2 log reduction = 1% survival, 3
log reduction = 0.1% survival and so on.
kt
N
N
kN
dt
dN
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
ln
N is the number of microbes
t is contact time
k is disinfection rate constant
Disinfection
Disinfection is temperature sensitive
Usually observed to double for every 10C
raise in temperature
This can be used find out the typical
activation energy (E
a
) value
Disinfection is pH sensitive
OCl
-
is less effective than HOCl and low pH is
more effective
Ozone is more effective at lower pH at
higher pH ozone may convert into OH
-
ClO
2
is more effective at higher pH
Disinfection is function of both time (t) and
disinfectant concentration (C)
Chick-Watson law
Here K
0
is extent disinfection per unit
concentration of the disinfectant and per unit
time (L/mg.min)
Higher K
0
indicates more effective disinfection
( )
t C
N
N
k
t C k
N
N
law s Chick f rom
law Watson Chick
k t C
K
K
T RT
T T E
K
K
n
n
n
T
T
a
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
=

=
=

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
0
0
0
0
10
2 1
1 2
2
1
ln
ln
) ' (
2
ln
R is gas constant
(8.314 J/mol.K)
Disinfection
K
0
for 99% kills at 5C
CT values for inactivation using ClO
2
Ideal Disinfectants
Versatile (effective against all types of
pathogens)
Fast-acting (effective within short contact
times)
Robust (effective in the presence of
interfering materials such as particulates,
suspended solids and other organic and
inorganic constituents)
Easy to handle non-toxic, soluble, non-
flammable, non-explosive
Compatible with various materials/surfaces
in WTPs (pipes, equipments)
Economical
A good disinfectant must be toxic to
microorganisms well below the toxic
thresholds to humans and higher animals
Should have fast rate of kills and should
persist enough to prevent re-growth in the
distribution system


Oxidants used in the disinfection
Disinfection
Factors influencing disinfection
Type of disinfectant used
Concentration of disinfectant
Contact time
Temperature and pH
Concentration and type of microorganisms
Presence of interfering materials (pathogens can be embedded in the
organic particles
Other environmental variables!
Factors that prevent effective disinfection also include
Turbidity offer sanctuary and shield from the full action of the
disinfectant
Resistance to disinfectant (cysts, encysted bacteria, bacterial spores,
ova, viruses)
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs)
The disinfectant can react with water and its constituents (metals,
ammonia, organics, etc.) and form DBPs
Taste and odour problems



Chlorine gas is highly oxidizing, toxic, corrosive and hazardous
yellow-green gas (supplied as liquid chlorine in bullets)
At 0.1% (volume) concentration in air lethal to human beings
Heavier than air and spreads slowly at ground level
Effective against all types of microbes as both primary and
secondary disinfectant
Leaves combined and free residual chlorine in the treated water
and this prevents microbial regrowth during supply
Chlorine handling requires specialized equipment, care and skill
Storage in a separate room (not connected to other rooms), doors
opening to outside, windows facilitating visual inspection needed
Install chlorinator in the rooms with direct emergency access to
outside air
Self contained breathing apparatus and chlorine cylinder repair kit
must be readily accessible
Masks, air tanks, chlorine detection devices etc. needed
Disinfection (Chlorination)
by Chlorine gas
Inexpensive and large scale applications prefer its use
Liquid chlorine is drawn out, vapourized (should take care of the
latent heat of vapourization) and dosed into water by an injector
Highly pressurized water is passed through a venturi vacuum created
sucks chlorine gas into the water stream
Provisions are made for proper mixing of the chlorine dosed and for
the requisite contact time
pH control may be necessary for effective disinfection
Alternatively the chlorine gas is dissolved in water to form chlorine
solution and this inturn dosed/injected into water
Solubility is 750 mg/l at usually encountered pH and temperature
Chlorine gas on dissolution in water forms hypochlorus acid (HOCl)
and reduces pH
HOCl dissociates to form OCl
-
(this is limited by the lower pH)

HOCl is more effective as disinfectant than OCl
-

Dechlorination of chlorinated wastewater prior to disposal may be
needed (SO
2
, Na
2
SO
3
, sodium metabisulfite, activated carbon)
HOCl H O H Cl + +
+
2 2
+
+ OCl H HOCl
Disinfection (Chlorination) by Chlorine gas
Chlorine gas application system
Chlorine gas application system
More expensive than Cl
2
and Highly corrosive
Available as a solution with 5-15% available chlorine level
Decomposes on storage
Should not be stored beyond a month
Should be stored in cool, dark and dry areas
Easier to handle than calcium hypochlorite and chlorine gas
Preferred for highly populated areas and small scale applications
The sodium hypochlorinator includes a solution tank, dosing
pumps, tubing and diffuser
Diluted hypochlorite solution is injected into water supply pipe at
controlled rate
On dissolution sodium hypochlorite forms OCl
-
(less effective as
disinfectant than HOCl)


Sodium hypochlorite can be generated onsite by electrolysis of
sodium chloride solution in specialized proprietary equipment
Hydrogen is given off here as a byproduct



+
+ OCl Na NaOCl
Disinfection (Chlorination) by sodium
hypochlorite
Calcium hypochlorite is a white solid (easily soluble in water) and
has about 65% available chlorine
Can be purchased in granular, powdered and tablet forms
Very corrosive, has a strong odour and readily absorbs moisture
and generates chlorine gas
Should be kept away from organic materials (can generate heat and
cause fire or explosion)
Packed calcium hypochlorite is very stable
Calcium hypochlorite can be dosed as
Dissolution in water to prepare a solution with 1-2% available chlorine
and dosing/injecting as solution
Diaphragm pumps are used for the dosing
Tablets of calcium hypo can be directly dissolved in water at
atmospheric pressure
On dissolution calcium hypochlorite forms OCl
-
(less effective as
disinfectant than HOCl)



+
+ OCl Ca OCl Ca 2 ) (
2
2
Disinfection (Chlorination) by calcium
hypochlorite
Very strong oxidant (comparable to Cl
2
) and very expensive
Highly soluble in water (10 times to Cl
2
)
Can react with household materials and produce offensive odours
Can transfer from solution to gaseous form and become explosive
Volatile and subjected to photo-decomposition
Unstable at higher concentrations (>15%) and under pressure
Used for disinfection, as primary disinfectant (alternative to Cl
2
)
Disinfection is brought about by oxidation - Better for Giardia and
Cryptosporidium kills
Does not react with ammonia - Forms halogenated organics and
chlorite (toxic to humans), but not THMs and HAAs
Superior for manganese oxidation
Insensitive to pH over a broard range (4-8) pH >9.0 is avoided
ClO
2
is also used in a pretreatment (>5.0 min contact time)
Destructs TTHM and HAA precursors, oxidizes manganese and
controls taste and odour (from algae diatoms)
Typical dose: 0.6 to 1.7 ppm (2.0 to 5.0 ppm is typical dose for Cl
2
)
Simultaneous application of NH
2
Cl and ClO
2
are avoided
Disinfection by Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine dioxide application system
Chlorine Dioxide Generation Systems
ClO2 is unstable and hence produced onsite (as 1-2% solution!)
Stabilized ClO2 solutions of 3000 mg/L strength are also
available can prove ideal for small water systems
Cl2 gas/25% sodium chlorite solution or solid sodium chlorite
(NaClO2) systems and solid based systems

95% purity of CLO2 is attainable
Overdose of Cl2 can make the process very efficient
Sodium chlorite storage/leaks are the biggest safety concerns
Sodium sodium chloride produces pure ClO2 (low chlorite!)
Sulfuric acid, sodium chlorate/ H2O2 solution system

Bulk storage of sodium chlorate and of 73% H2SO4 are the
concerns
Electrochemical systems and acid-chlorite systems



NaCl ClO Cl NaClO 2 2 2
2 2 2
+ +
2 4 2 2 4 2 2 2 3
2 O SO Na ClO SO H O H NaClO + + + +




SAF-T-CHLOR
SOLID
SODIUM
CHLORITE
CHLORINE
AIR AIR
FILTER
E
J
E
C
T
O
R

RAW WATER
IN
SOLUTION
OUT
CHLORINE
SAF-T-CHLOR
SOLID
SODIUM
CHLORITE
CHLORINE DIOXIDE + AIR
SCALE
SCALE
Cl2 + 2NaClO2 2ClO2 + 2NaCl
Disinfection by TwinOxide
Developed and made in Netherlands
An advanced delivery system of aqueous ClO
2
solution (0.3%)
Delivered as a powder kit of two components having very long
shelf life (5 years)
Component A: 64% - sodium chlorite and 36% - other ingradients
Component B: sodium bisulfate
Components A & B are mixed onsite in specified volume of tap
water at neutral pH , and left for 3 hrs to produce aqueous ClO
2

solution (concentrate)
4 kg product produces 100 L of 0.3% of the concentrate
The concentrate should be stored in UV proof sealed container, in
cool dark room (half-life when stored in dark at 22C is 30-60 days)
Works as disinfectant in the pH range of 4 to 10
Imparts no smell, taste or colour
Generates no chlorine, chlorate, chlorite or chloride
Non-explosive and lightly corrosive
Chlorination is highly sensitive to inorganic and organic loads and
forms harmful disinfection byproducts (DBPs), like, tri-halo-
methanes (THMs), halo-acetic acids (HAAs), etc.
Oxidation products of organics, some are carcinogenic, and some cause
taste and odor problems
IS 10500: 2012 prescribes limits for total tri-halo-methanes (TTHMs) in
drinking water
Limits prescribed: 0.08 ppm for TTHM, 0.06 ppm for HAA and 1.0 ppm
for Chlorite
Factors affecting the DBPs formation
Types and concentrations of organic materials
Dose of chlorine and reaction/contact time
temperature and pH of water
Solutions to the disinfection byproducts (DBPs)
Reducing the organics concentration in the water prior to chlorination
(adsorption on activated carbon)
Use of alternate disinfectants that form no undesirable DBPs
(substitution of chloramines, a less effective disinfectant, to chlorine)
Removal of the DBPs formed from the water after chlorination


Disinfection/Chlorination byproducts (DBPs)
Disinfection by Chloramines
Weak disinfectant effective bactericide but less effective against
viruses and protozoans
Produces fewer disinfection byproducts (DBPs)
An effective and appropriate secondary disinfectant
Formed by chlorinating ammonia containing water or by adding
ammonia (anhydrous ammonia, ammonium sulfate, or ammonium
hydroxide) to the water containing chlorine
Into the water supply main chlorine is injected and then ammonia is
injected and adequate mixing and contact time is provided
Chloramines formation reactions are 99% complete within a few
minutes
Formation of nitrogen trichloride is undesirable
NCl3 is harmful to humans and it imparts disagreeable taste and
odour
Chlorine to ammonia ratio of 5:1 is not exceeded and pH of water is
not allowed to drop below 5 do not allow NCl3 formation

Disinfection by Ozonation
Formed by passing dry air or oxygen through a system of high
voltage electrodes
Unstable (half life is <15 min.) hence generated onsite
Ozonation system includes
Air (or oxygen) preparation as feed (pure oxygen use has higher
production density and requires relatively lesser energy)
Electrical power supply
Ozone generation by using a corona discharge cell
Ozone contact chamber - requires shorter contact time than Cl2
Ozone exhaust gas destruction
Used as a primary disinfectant (leaves no disinfecting residue and
hence requires a secondary disinfectant)
Preferred for waters containing colour and organics
Has low solubility in water hence needs rigorous mixing
Capital cost of ozonation systems is higher; Operation and
maintenance is complex; Electricity amounts to 26-43% of O&M cost
Forms no undesirable products with organics can produce
halogenated organics provided bromide is present
Disinfection by UV radiation
Special lamp is used for UV radiation and disinfection uses reactors
Thin sheets of turbidity free water are exposed to about 30
microwatts/cm2 power
Equipment is easy to operate and maintain
Destroys genetic material (energy intensity and contact time are
important) - effective wavelengths of the radiation are 200-300 nm
Damage of genetic material is not sufficient hence higher than the
required dose of UV radiation is used
Used as primary disinfectant (attractive for small water systems)
May not be effective in inactivating protozoan cysts hence
preferably used with groundwater systems not in direct influence of
surface waters
Not suitable for water with high levels of suspended solids, turbidity,
colour and/or soluble organic matter
A secondary disinfectant must be used to prevent re-growth of
microbes
Requires shorter contact times - produces no known toxic residuals


Chemistry of Chlorination
Objectives of chlorination: Disinfection, H
2
S control, sludge bulking
control, odour control, etc.
Chlorine as gas, ClO2, and sodium/calcium hypochlorite (and
chloramines!) are used
Large systems use chlorine gas
All the chlorine based disinfectants release HOCl or OCl





pH and temperature determine the equilibrium relationship
pKa at 20C is 7.58 and at 0C is 7.82 indicates HOCl levels are higher at
lower pH (at <5 pH all chlorine is HOCl and at >10 pH most of it is OCl
-

76% HOCl at 7.0 pH and 33% at 7.8 pH

pKa increases with decreasing temperature
Sum of HOCl and OCl
-
is known as free residual chlorine
HOCl H O H Cl + +
+
2 2
+
+ OCl Ca OCl Ca 2 ) (
2
2
+
+ OCl Na NaOCl
+
+ OCl H HOCl
| || |
| | HOCl
OCl H
K
a
+
=
C at
C at pK
a

=
0 82 . 7
20 58 . 7
Chlorine reacts with reduced materials (Fe
2+
, Mn
2+
, H
2
S,
organics, NH
3
, etc.) consumes the dosed chlorine
Design of chlorination
Dosage control
Dose range should be known - depends on
Peak flow
Dose needed depends on
Characteristics of the water
Residual chlorine needed in the treated water
Can be estimated on the basis of laboratory experimentation
Dose control can be
Manual (to obtain the residual chlorine needed after 15
minutes of contact time) involves pacing chlorine flow rate
with the water flow rate
Automatic control automatic measurement of residual
chlorine and using it for dose adjustment
Loss of weight of the cylinder can be the basis for dosage
monitoring
Injection and initial mixing
Can be applied directly as gas or indirectly as aqueous
solution
Can be withdrawn from storage facility as liquid or as gas
Use black steel piping for dry chlorine (liquid or gas) and
PVC piping (schedule-80) for chlorine solution
For withdrawing as gas evaporation of the liquid in the
container is needed (can form frost)
Withdrawal as gas is possible when dose is <18 kg/day for
68 kg cylinders and <205 kg/day for 908 kg cylinders
Evaporators are used if withdrawal is >180 kg/day (must
when total dosage is >680 kg/day)
Temperature control to avoid freezing is needed
Addition of chlorine solution can be by diffuser a plastic
pipe with drilled holes into the path of wastewater flow
Mixing can be by inline static mixers, in-line mixers, high
speed induction mixers, pressurized water jets and pumps
Design of chlorination
Chlorine contact basin design
Basin configuration
Long plug flow chambers are used to eliminate formation
of hydraulic dead zones that reduce effective HRT
Length to width ratio is 20:1 to 40:1
Often larger diameter sewer pipes are used
Use of submerged baffles/guide vanes or combination of
both for better hydraulic performance
Open area in the submerged baffle is 6-10% of the flow
cross section area
Head loss across the baffle is




Eliminate requirement of contact basin if travel time in the
pipeline is greater than contact time needed
Design of chlorination
2
2
1
|
.
|

\
|
=
Cna
Q
g
H
L
Q is water flow rate
C is discharge coefficient (0.8)
n is number of openings
a is cross section area of opening
Chlorine storage facilities
Gas is toxic, very corrosive and heavier than air
Ventilation at floor level to storage chamber with capacity of
60 air changes per hour
Fixed glass viewing window for checking leaks prior to entry
Fan controls at the room entrance
Protect storage and feed facilities from fire hazards
Provide leak detection equipment connected to alarm
system
Protect cylinders from direct sun light during summer warm
climates
Spill control and containment and emergency caustic
scrubbing system to neutralize leaks
Containment vessels to provide total enclosure of cylinder
in event of cylinder failure gas is contained within and
processed at normal rate through chlorination facilities
Design of chlorination