NASA News

National Aeronautics and

Space Ad ministration
Washington . D C 20546
AC 202 755-8370

For Release THURSDAY

July 2 7 . 1 9 7 8

Press Kit Project Pioneer V e n u s 2

RELEASE NO: 78-101

Contents

GENERAL RELEASE ..................................... 1-6

M I S S I O N P R O F I L E ..................................... 7-24
P i o n e e r V e n u s M u l t i p r o b e Mission .................. 13-24

THE PLANET VENUS .................................... 25-40

MAJOR QUESTIONS ABOUT VENUS ......................... 41-42

H I S T O R I C A L D I S C O V E R I E S ABOUT V E N U S .................. 43-45

EXPLORATION O F VENUS BY SPACECRAFT .................. 46-47

THE P I O N E E R VENUS SPACECRAFT ........................ 48-62

T h e O r b i t e r Spacecraft ............................ 53-58
T h e M u l t i p r o b e S p a c e c r a f t ......................... 58-62

VENUS ATMOSPHERIC PROBES ............................ 63-76

T h e L a r g e Probe ................................... 63-70
The Small Probe ................................... 70-76

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......................
S C I E N T I F I C INVESTIGATIONS 77-97
Orbiter ...................................... 77-85
........................
O r b i t e r R a d i o Science 85-88
......................
L a r g e Probe E x p e r i m e n t s 88-92
............ 9 2 - 9 3
L a r g e and S m a l l Probe I n s t r u m e n t s
......................
S m a l l Probe E x p e r i m e n t s 94
....................
Multiprobe B u s E x p e r i m e n t 94-95
c
......... 9 5 - 9 6
M u l t i p r o b e R a d i o Science E x p e r i m e n t s
P R I N C I P A L INVESTIGATORS AND S C I E N T I F I C
INSTRUMENTS .................................. 97-100

LAUNCH VEHICLE ................................. 101-102

LAUNCH F L I G H T SEQUENCE ......................... 102

LAUNCH VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS ................. 103

ATLAS CENTAUR F L I G H T SEQUENCE ( A C - 5 0 ) .......... 1 0 4

LAUNCH OPERATIONS .............................. 105

MISSION OPERATIONS ............................. 105-107

DATA RETURN. COMMAND AND TRACKING .............. 108-111

P I O N E E R VENUS TEAM ............................. 112-114

CONTRACTORS .................................... 114-117

VENUS S T A T I S T I C S ............................... 118

NOTE TO E D I T O R S :

T h i s press k i t covers t h e l a u n c h phase of t h e P i o n e e r V e n u s

Multiprobe s p a c e c r a f t and c r u i s e phases of b o t h t h e P i o n e e r

V e n u s O r b i t e r and t h e M u l t i p r o b e spacecraft . Much of t h e

material i s also p e r t i n e n t t o t h e V e n u s encounter. b u t an

updated press k i t w i l l be i s s u e d s h o r t l y before a r r i v a l a t

the planet i n December 1 9 7 8 .

..
National Aeronautics and
Space Ad ministration
Washington, D.C. 20546
AC 202 755-8370

For Release:
Nicholas Panagakos
Headquarters, Washington, D.C. THURSDAY
(Phone: 20 2/7 5 5- 36 8 0 ) July 27, 1 9 7 8
Peter Waller
Ames Research Center, Mountain View, Calif.
(Phone: 41 5 / 9 65- 5 09 1)

RELEASE NO: 78-101

SECOND VENUS SPACECRAFT SET FOR LAUNCH

NASA will launch the second of two Pioneer spacecraft

to Venus next month as part of a detailed scientific study
of that cloud-shrouded planet.

Riding atop an Atlas Centaur rocket, Pioneer Venus 2

will be launched from Cape Canaveral, Fla., about Aug. 7
for the start of a 354-million-kilometer (220-million-mile)
journey to Earth's nearest neighbor.

Pioneer Venus 2 is a multiprobe spacecraft designed to

measure directly Venus' dense, searing atmosphere from top

to bottom. Venus' atmosphere at the surface is 100 times
as dense as Earth's and hotter than the melting points of
lead and zinc, 4 8 5 degrees Celsius ( 9 0 0 degrees Fahrenheit).
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T h i r t e e n m i l l i o n km ( 8 m i l l i o n m i . ) and 20 days o u t from

Venus, P i o n e e r Venus 2 w i l l s e p a r a t e i n t o f i v e a t m o s p h e r i c

entry craft. Four of t h e s e p r o b e s w i l l e n t e r Venus' atmos-

phere a t p o i n t s spread over t h e p l a n e t ' s Earth-facing

hemisphere, t w o on t h e day s i d e and t w o on t h e n i g h t s i d e .

The f i f t h e n t r y p r o b e , t h e t r a n s p o r t e r b u s , w i l l a l s o e n t e r

on t h e day s i d e .

Another c r a f t , P i o n e e r Venus 1--an o r b i t e r designed t o

c i r c l e t h e p l a n e t f o r a y e a r o r more--was launched May 2 0

and w i l l a r r i v e a t Venus December 4 . The e n t r y p r o b e s o f

P i o n e e r Venus 2 a r e p l a n n e d t o a r r i v e f i v e d a y s a f t e r t h e
1

Orbiter .

The 30 e x p e r i m e n t s a b o a r d P i o n e e r Venus 1 and 2 a r e

planned a s a c o o r d i n a t e d o b s e r v a t i o n a l system. The m i s s i o n

employs t h e l a r g e s t number of s p a c e c r a f t - - s i x - - e v e r devoted

t o one p l a n e t and w i l l make t h e most measurements a t t h e

g r e a t e s t number o f l o c a t i o n s .

The f l i g h t s are t h e f i r s t d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o s t u d y i n g

t h e atmosphere and w e a t h e r of a n o t h e r p l a n e t on a g l o b a l

scale. I n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d a t Venus may h e l p us l e a r n

more a b o u t t h e f o r c e s t h a t d r i v e t h e w e a t h e r on o u r own
planet.
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Scientists believe Venus may be an unusually good place
to study the mechanics of atmospheres because the planet
rotates very slowly and there are no oceans. The atmosphere
appears to be a relatively simple weather machine, and the
important atmospheric circulation motions appear to be global.
Hence, continuous measurements from orbit, combined with
those of the probes from many points in the atmosphere,
could provide at least a rough picture of Venusian weather
processes.

The five probe spacecraft which make up Pioneer Venus 2

will make direct measurements and observations from within

the planet's atmosphere, providing by f a r the most detailed

information yet on atmospheric composition, circulation and
energy balance.

The multiprobe spacecraft employs a spin-stabilized,

2.4-meter (8-foot)-diameter, structure cylindrical bus,
containing most spacecraft support systems. The four
probes are launched from the bus toward Venus. The

multiProbe weighs 904 kilograms (1,990 pounds) and carries

51 kg (116 Ib.) of scientific instruments.

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W i t h i n t h e bus c y l i n d e r , a t h e r m a l l y - c o n t r o l l e d

equipment compartment houses i n s t r u m e n t s , communications

and d a t a - h a n d l i n g s y s t e m s , a s w e l l as n a v i g a t i o n , o r i e n t a t i o n ,

thruster and power systems. The e x t e r i o r of t h e bus

c y l i n d e r i s c o v e r e d w i t h power-generating s o l a r cells.

On i t s four-month j o u r n e y t o Venus, t h e s p a c e c r a f t w i l l

f l y a b o u t t w o - f i f t h s of t h e way around t h e Sun between t h e

o r b i t s of E a r t h and Venus, some 354 m i l l i o n km ( 2 2 0 m i l l i o n m i . ) .

P i o n e e r Venus 2 i s made up of a t r a n s p o r t e r b u s , a

l a r g e probe c r a f t ( t h e Sounder Probe) and three i d e n t i c a l

smaller p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t ( t h e North, Day and N i g h t P r o b e s ) .

These s p a c e c r a f t , i n c l u d i n g t h e b u s , will e n t e r a t
p o i n t s s p r e a d o v e r Venus' e n t i r e E a r t h - f a c i n g hemisphere,

a b o u t 1 0 , 0 0 0 km ( 6 , 0 0 0 m i . ) apart. T h e bus w i l l o b t a i n

d a t a on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e uppermost p a r t of t h e

atmosphere b e f o r e b u r n i n g up. The o t h e r f o u r p r o b e s w i l l

make d e t a i l e d measurements of t h e atmosphere a t lower a l t i t u d e s

as t h e y descend t o t h e s u r f a c e . The p r o b e s a r e n o t d e s i g n e d

t o s u r v i v e a f t e r i m p a c t ; t h e y may r e t u r n s u r f a c e d a t a b r i e f l y ,

however.

T h e l a r g e Sounder Probe i s e x p e c t e d t o make t h e f i r s t

d e t a i l e d i n v e n t o r y of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of Venus' atmosphere.

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Because of its high density, temperatures, and corrosive

constituents, the Venusian atmosphere presents a difficult
problem f o r designers of entry craft. The high entry speeds
of about 41,600 kilometers per hour (26,000 miles per hour)
add to the problem.

A l l four atmospheric probes are geometrically similar.

The main component of each is a sperical pressure vessel

which houses instruments, communications, data, command and
power systems. The large Sounder Probe weighs about 3 1 6 kg
(698 lb.) and its seven instruments weigh 28 kg (62 lb.).
It is about 1.5 meters ( 5 feet) wide. The smaller North,
Day and Night Probes weigh 93 kg (206 lb. ) each, and their
three experiments weigh 3 . 5 kg (7.7 lb.). Each of the
smaller probes is 0.8 m (30 inches) in diameter.

All instruments within the probe pressure vessels

require either observing or direct sampling access to the
hostile atmosphere. This is oneof the most difficult
technical problems of the mission.

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NASA's Office of Space Science has assigned project

management of the two Pioneer Venus spacecraft to Ames
Research Center, Mountain View, Calif., and the spacecraft
will be controlled continuously from the Mission Operations
Center at Ames. The spacecraft werebuilt by Hughes Aircraft
Co., El Segundo, Calif., and the scientific instruments were
supplied by NASA centers, other government organizations,
universities and private industry.

The spacecraft will be tracked by NASA's Deep Space

Network, operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in
Pasadena, Calif., a government-owned facility managed for
NASA by the California Institute of Technology. NASA's
Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, is responsible for the
launch vehicle, which was built by General Dynamics,
San Diego, Calif.

Cost of the two Pioneer Venus spacecraft, scientific

instruments,mission operations and data analysis is about
$180 million. This does not include cost of launch vehicles
and tracking and data acquisition.

Launch period for the multiprobe flight is 27 days

( Auq. 7 throuqh Sex>t. 3 , 1978) , and durina these davs

the launch window opens progressively earlier each day,
beginning at 3 : 3 6 a . m . EDT.

(END OF GENERAL RELEASE. BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOLLOWS)

 -7-

MISSION PROFILE

The two Pioneer flights to Venus will explore the

atmosphere of the planet, study its surface using radar
and determine its g l o b a l shape and density distribution.
Launched May 20, 1978, the first spacecraft Pioneer Venus 1,
an Orbiter, will make eight months or more of remote-sensing
and direct measurement. Pioneer Venus 2, a Multiprobe, will
separate into five atmospheric entry craft, eight million
miles out from the planet, and measure the atmosphere from
top to bottom in about two hours at points spread over the
entire Earth-facing hemisphere of Venus.

The Pioneer Venus Orbiter Mission

The seven-month flight of Pioneer Venus 1 follows a
trajectory more than half way around the Sun (through about
200 degrees), and will cover about 480 mj-llion kilometers
(300 million miles). This trajectory, three months longer
than that o f the Multiprobe, allows a slower arrival speed
at Venus, requiring less weight for the orbit insertion motor.
It also allows an orbital low point (periapsis) at a latitude
of about 20 degrees north.
Launch dates were timed so that the Orbiter arrives at
Venus on Dec. 4, 1978, five days before the arrival of the
five probes on Dec. 9. Launch dates were selected for opti-
mum payloads for both Orbiter and Multiprobe missions.
Launch vehicle for both Pioneer Venus spacecraft is an
Atlas (SLV-3D)/Centaur (D-1AR) two-and-a-half-stage rocket.
Air Force Eastern Test Range personnel conduct tracking during
the near-Earth part of the mission. NASA's Deep Space Network
(DSN) is responsible for the remainder.
Two days before arrival at Venus, the spacecraft spin
rate will be increased to 30 rpm and the Orbiter will be
oriented with its 1 8 , 0 0 0 - N (4,000-lb.)-thrust, solid-fueled
rocket engine pointing forward, opposite the direction of
travel at the point of closest approach to Venus.
On Dec. 4, 1978 (the 198th day after launch), Ames
Mission Control engineers will command a 28-second orbit
insertion burn. This will reduce spacecraft velocity by
3,816 km/hr (2,366 mph), placing Pioneer in a 24-hour orbit
around Venus. The planned orbit will be inclined 7 5 degrees
to Venus' equator, with its low point (periapsis) near 20
degrees north latitude. The orbit's high point (apoapsis)
is expected to be at an altitude of 66,000 km (41,000 mi.),
and periapsis initially will be at 300 km (180 mi.) , later
reduced to about 150 km (90 mi.). Planned orbital injection
time is 11:OO a.m. EST.
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AUG. 7,1978

VENUS AT
EARTH AT LAUNCH

+
SUN

DAYS AFTEI
LAUNCH \ \
VENUS AT
ARRIVAL ON
DEC. 9,1978
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Within hours after the orbit insertion rocket burn,

members of the Orbiter navigation team will have determined
any shortcomings in the orbit. After slowing the spin rate
and adjusting orientation, they will command firing of
thrusters to trim up the orbit to acceptable dimensions.
Attention in the Mission Operations Center will then
switch to the probes scheduled to arrive five days later,
but fine tuning of the orbit will continue after completion
of the probe mission.

In-Orbit OPerations
For efficient orbital operations during the 243-day
primary Orbiter mission (one complete Venus rotation on its
axis), the orbit will have a period very close to 24 hours.
This means that most activities will occur at the same time
on Earth every day. This includes the most intensive periods
of data return during periapsis. Data return via the high-
gain antenna will be at the two highest rates, 1,024 or
2,048 bits per second.
The 24-hour orbit h a s been divided into two periods,
reflecting the kind of measurements being taken. The peri-
apsis (orbital low point) period is about four hours long.
The apoapsis (orbital high point) period is 20 hours long.
Since the Orbiter dips into the upper atmosphere itself at
periapsis, which may be as low as 150 km (90 mi.) to make
direct measurements, the periapsis period is the time of
highest data return.
Mission operations will use five data formats during
the periapsis period. These formats are designed to permit
emphasis on certain instruments when desirable; for example,
one provides intensive aeronomy coverage at periapsis,
another stresses optical coverage.
The mapping format gives 44 per cent of the data stream
to the radar mapper for Venus surface study, and divides the
rest between the ultraviolet spectrometer and the infrared
radiometer.

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PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF PIONEER VENUS O R B I T

APPROACH
TRAJECTORY

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TERMINATOR AT

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+8

+3 +4
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N o r m a l l y , c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l u s e o n l y two d a t a f o r m a t s
i n t h e 20-hour a p o a p s i s segment. T h e f i r s t of these w i l l be
f o r t a k i n g p i c t u r e s of t h e whole p l a n e t i n u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t ,
which w i l l show t h e four-day r o t a t i o n of Venus' c l o u d s i n
sequence. Known a s t h e imaging format, it a l l o c a t e s 6 7 p e r
c e n t of t h e d a t a stream t o t h e imaging i n s t r u m e n t and t h e
c l o u d p h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r , and d i v i d e s t h e rest among t h r e e
s o l a r w i n d - p l a n e t i n s t r u m e n t s and t h e a s t r o n o m i c a l e x p e r i -
m e n t ' s gamma b u r s t d e t e c t o r . T h e o t h e r format, known a s t h e
g e n e r a l f o r m a t , a l l o c a t e s d a t a r e t u r n among a l l O r b i t e r
experiments except t h e p i c t u r e - t a k i n g cloud photopolarimeter
and t h e i n f r a r e d r a d i o m e t e r . As much as t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of
t h e t o t a l a p o a p s i s p e r i o d w i l l be d e v o t e d t o imaging, which
has very l a r g e d a t a requirements.

S p a c e c r a f t c o n t r o l l e r s have d e s i g n e d a number of s e q u e n c e s
using t h e s e formats. During t h e eight-month O r b i t e r m i s s i o n ,
t h e y w i l l work w i t h e x p e r i m e n t e r s , s e l e c t i n g f o r m a t
combinations f o r b e s t s c i e n t i f i c r e s u l t s .

During t h e f i r s t 40 d a y s i n o r b i t , t h e O r b i t e r w i l l
pass b e h i n d Venus ( o c c u l t a t i o n ) f o r p e r i o d s of up t o 2 3
minutes. T h i s a l l o w s t h e r a d i o s c i e n c e t e a m t o measure
e f f e c t s of Venus' atmosphere down t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 km
( 3 1 m i . ) on t h e s p a c e c r a f t r a d i o s i g n a l a s it p a s s e s t h r o u g h
it. S i n c e t h e narrow beam s i g n a l i s b e n t by t h e p l a n e t ' s
atmosphere, t h e a n t e n n a ' s d i s h r e f l e c t o r c a n be commanded
as much as 1 7 d e g r e e s away f r o m t h e E a r t h - l i n e t o e x t e n d t h e
t i m e of r e c o r d i n g t h e s i g n a l a s it i s r e f r a c t e d around t h e
solid planet.

A l s o d u r i n g o c c u l a t i o n s , when communications are c u t

o f f , t h e Venus O r b i t e r w i l l s t o r e d a t a i n i t s m i l l i o n - b i t
memory. C o n t r o l l e r s w i l l t h e n command memory s t o r a g e , and
a f t e r emergence of t h e O r b i t e r , t h e d a t a memory r e a d o u t
format f o r r e t u r n of s t o r e d d a t a .

During t h e e i g h t months on o r b i t , h e a l t h of t h e s p a c e -
c r a f t w i l l be m o n i t o r e d t h r o u g h t h e c o n t i n u o u s f l o w of
e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a (see O r b i t e r Data Handling S e c t i o n ) , and
r e d u n d a n t systems f o r t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s ( s u c h a s
command and d a t a r e t u r n ) w i l l b e used i f needed. M i s s i o n s
Operations engineers a l s o w i l l t r i m t h e o r b i t about every
1 0 days e i t h e r t o lower p e r i a p s i s a l t i t u d e which i s c o n s t a n t l y
raised by s o l a r g r a v i t y o r t o a d j u s t t h e o r b i t a l p e r i o d when
it d r i f t s from t h e d e s i r e d v a l u e .

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T h e primary m i s s i o n ends a f t e r 2 4 3 d a y s . Shortly

a f t e r w a r d s , t h e O r b i t e r and Venus w i l l b e b e h i n d t h e Sun
and communications w i l l b e g a r b l e d o r c u t o f f f o r s e v e r a l
d a y s . A f t e r emergence from t h e s o l a r . b l a c k o u t , t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y w i l l be a v a i l a b l e f o r e x t e n d e d m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s
which are n o t c u r r e n t l y a p a r t o f t h e approved m i s s i o n .

P i o n e e r Venus M u l t i p r o b e Mission

P i o n e e r Venus 2 , t h e m u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t , w i l l be
launched toward Venus on a c i r c u l a r p a r k i n g - o r b i t a s c e n t
t r a j e c t o r y from Cape C a n a v e r a l A i r F o r c e S t a t i o n by NASA's
Kennedy Space C e n t e r p e r s o n n e l . The l a u n c h v e h i c l e w i l l
head i n a d i r e c t i o n 3 t o 18 d e g r e e s s o u t h o f s t r a i g h t e a s t ,
passing over southern Africa s h o r t l y a f t e r separation of t h e
s p a c e c r a f t from t h e l a u n c h v e h i c l e .

The four-month t r i p t o Venus f o l l o w s a more d i r e c t

t r a j e c t o r y t h a n t h a t of t h e O r b i t e r , g i v i n g t h e p r o b e s
approach s p e e d s o f a b o u t 19,500 km/hr ( 1 2 , 0 0 0 mph). T h i s
i s 6,500 km/hr ( 4 , 0 0 0 mph) f a s t e r t h a n O r b i t e r a r r i v a l , and
i s p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e t h e p r o b e s are slowed a t atmosphere
e n t r y t o a few hundred m i l e s p e r hour by t h e b r a k i n g of
atmospheric f r i c t i o n .

The M u l t i p r o b e f l i g h t w i l l c o v e r a b o u t 354 m i l l i o n km
( 2 2 0 m i l l i o n m i . ) , going a b o u t t w o - f i f t h s o f t h e way around
t h e Sun (135 d e g r e e s ) i n f o u r months as i t crosses t h e 4 2
m i l l i o n km ( 2 6 m i l l i o n m i . ) between t h e o r b i t s of E a r t h and
Venus.

Launch p e r i o d f o r P i o n e e r Venus 2 f l i g h t i s 27 d a y s ,
from Aug. 7 t o S e p t . 3 , 1978. During t h i s p e r i o d , t h e
l a u n c h window opens e a r l i e r e a c h day f r o m 3:36 a . m . t o
1 2 : 1 6 a . m . EDT. This launch p e r i o d w i l l allow t h e probes
t o a r r i v e a t Venus on D e c . 9 , 1978, f i v e days a f t e r a r r i v a l
of t h e O r b i t e r . The e a r l i e r O r b i t e r a r r i v a l w i l l a l l o w
t h e O r b i t e r ' s remote and d i r e c t s e n s i n g i n s t r u m e n t s t o
e s t a b l i s h c o r r e s p o n d i n g d a t a on t h e Venus s p a c e e n v i r o n m e n t ,
c l o u d s and upper atmosphere t h a t c a n b e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e
probe measurements i n t h e atmosphere.

P i o n e e r Venus 2 w i l l be launched by an A t l a s (SLV-3D)

C e n t a u r (D-1AR) two-and o n e - h a l f - s t a g e l a u n c h v e h i c l e . After
l i f t o f f , b u r n o u t o f t h e 1 , 9 1 7 , 0 0 0 - ~ (431,040-1b.)- t h r u s t ,
stage-and-one-half A t l a s b o o s t e r w i l l o c c u r i n a b o u t
f o u r minutes. S t a g e s e p a r a t i o n and i g n i t i o n of t h e 130,000-N
( 3 0 , 0 0 0 - l b . ) - t h r u s t C e n t a u r second s t a g e w i l l t h e n t a k e p l a c e .

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 PIONEER VENUS
TRAJECTORIES

ORBITER LAUNCH
MAY/JUNE 1978

/ 7 DVENUS
AT
ORBITER LAUNCH
R n R F I d1INfV-l

VENUS AT PROBE
PROBE LAUNCH ENCOUNTER
AUGUST DECEMBER 1978
A
ORBITER ARRIVES

EARTH AT ORBITER ENCOUNTER

/ ENCOUNTER
PROBE RELEASE
SEQUENCE
 -15-

A t s i x m i n u t e s a f t e r l i f t o f f , t h e Antigua s t a t i o n
begins tracking. The hydrogen-fueled C e n t a u r e n g i n e w i l l
burn f o r about f i v e minutes w i t h t h e f i r s t engine c u t o f f a t
9 m i n u t e s , 4 2 s e c o n d s a f t e r l i f t o f f . T h i s b e g i n s t h e 18-
minute c o a s t p e r i o d i n c i r c u l a r p a r k i n g o r b i t a t 1 6 7 km
(104 m i . ) a l t i t u d e . A t about launch p l u s 1 3 minutes,
Antigua w i l l end i t s t r a c k i n g coverage: a t a b o u t 2 0 m i n u t e s
a f t e r l a u n c h , t h e Ascension s t a t i o n b e g i n s t r a c k i n g and a t
l a u n c h p l u s 2 4 m i n u t e s Multiprobe-Centaur combination p a s s
beyond Ascension r a n g e .

A t 2 7 m i n u t e s and 3 0 s e c o n d s , C e n t a u r b e g i n s i t s second
b u r n and 2 m i n u t e s and 8 s e c o n d s l a t e r ( l a u n c h , p l u s 2 9 . 6
m i n u t e s ) i t s e n g i n e c u t s o f f p u t t i n g t h e M u l t i p r o b e on
t r a j e c t o r y t o Venus. About 2 7 . 6 m i n u t e s a f t e r l a u n c h an A i r
F o r c e Range I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n A i r c r a f t b e g i n s f i v e m i n u t e s of
t r a c k i n g coverage.

A t 29.7 minutes a f t e r launch, Centaur o r i e n t s t h e

Multiprobe s p i n a x i s t o w i t h i n 1 2 degrees of p e r p e n d i c u l a r
t o t h e e c l i p t i c ( E a r t h ' s o r b i t p l a n e ) w i t h i t s f o r w a r d end
pointed near t h e south e c l i p t i c pole. One hundred t h i r t y -
f i v e s e c o n d s a f t e r t h e second C e n t a u r e n g i n e c u t o f f , a l s o
a t l a u n c h p l u s 3 1 . 9 m i n u t e s , P i o n e e r s e p a r a t e s from C e n t a u r ,
and t h e s p a c e c r a f t command r e g i s t e r i n i t i a t e s t h e s p i n u p
sequence. S p a c e c r a f t t h r u s t e r s t h e n s p i n up M u l t i p r o b e
t o 1 5 rpm.

During powered f l i g h t , as w i t h P i o n e e r Venus 1, l a u n c h

v e h i c l e and s p a c e c r a f t w i l l be m o n i t o r e d from t h e P i o n e e r
Mission C o n t r o l C e n t e r a t Cape C a n a v e r a l v i a DSN and E a s t e r n
T e s t Range t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g Antigua and Ascension.

T h i r t y - t w o m i n u t e s a f t e r l a u n c h , a f t e r Centaur-Multiprobe
s e p a r a t i o n , m i s s i o n c o n t r o l w i l l s h i f t from t h e Ames M i s s i o n
Director a t Cape C a n a v e r a l t o t h e F l i g h t D i r e c t o r a t t h e
P i o n e e r M i s s i o n O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r (PMOC) a t Ames Research
C e n t e r i n C a l i f o r n i a . Commands t o and d a t a r e t u r n e d from
t h e P i o n e e r Venus w i l l l e a v e and a r r i v e a t E a r t h v i a t h e
g l o b a l n e t of t h e DSN t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s . The s t a t i o n s i n
t u r n r e c e i v e commands from and r e l a y d a t a t o t h e PMOC a t
Ames.

A t 50 m i n u t e s a f t e r l a u n c h , t h e DSN's Canberra s t a t i o n
a c q u i r e s t h e s p a c e c r a f t and 1 0 m i n u t e s l a t e r command capa-
b i l i t y is established. D a t a r a t e through t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s
a f t omni a n t e n n a i s 256 bps.

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 -16-

E N T R Y POINTS FOR PIONEER - V E N U S

ATMOSPHERE PROBES
 -17-

For t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o weeks,communications between

s p a c e c r a f t and E a r t h w i l l b e p r i m a r i l y " h o u s e k e e p i n g , "
s i n c e t h e probe and Bus i n s t r u m e n t s make no i n t e r p l a n e t a r y
measurements. They a r e d e s i g n e d t o measure t h e Venus atmosphere.
Data w i l l be s p a c e c r a f t h e a l t h and e n g i n e e r i n g measurements.

Five days a f t e r launch, t h e space n a v i g a t i o n s e c t i o n a t

t h e J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y w i l l have c a l c u l a t e d t h e
M u l t i p r o b e Venus t r a j e c t o r y p r e c i s e l y , and c o n t r o l l e r s a t
t h e PMOC a t Ames w i l l command t h e t h r u s t e r f i r i n g sequence
f o r t h e f i r s t t r a j e c t o r y c o r r e c t i o n maneuver. About 1 4 days
a f t e r l a u n c h , t h e t w o Bus i n s t r u m e n t s w i l l be checked o u t
f o r t h r e e h o u r s a t a d a t a r a t e of 1 , 0 2 4 b p s . Twenty d a y s
a f t e r l a u n c h , o p e r a t i o n s e n g i n e e r s w i l l make a second c o u r s e
correction.

About 6 0 days a f t e r l a u n c h , t h e seven i n s t r u m e n t s and

t h e systems on t h e Large Probe w i l l be checked o u t f o r t h r e e
h o u r s a t d a t a r a t e s of 2 5 6 and 128 bps. C o n t r o l l e r s a t PMOC
check o u t t h e t h r e e i n s t r u m e n t s and systems on each of t h e
Small P r o b e s f o r an hour of o p e r a t i o n each a t a d a t a r a t e of
6 4 and 1 6 b p s . They perform s i m i l a r checks on t h e t w o i n s t r u -
ments a b o a r d t h e Bus a t 5 1 2 b p s . The Bus communications and
power system w i l l b e used f o r t h r e e checks.

About 9 4 d a y s a f t e r l a u n c h ( 3 0 days b e f o r e atmosphere

e n t r y ) , controllers w i l l i n i t i a t e the t h i r d trajectory
c o r r e c t i o n maneuver. A t a b o u t t h e same t i m e , t h e s p a c e c r a f t
i s o r i e n t e d so t h a t t h e a f t - f a c i n g medium-gain h o r n a n t e n n a
looks a t E a r t h . T h i s a l l o w s a h i g h e r d a t a r a t e f o r probe
s e p a r a t i o n maneuvers.

Twenty-seven d a y s b e f o r e e n t r y , t h e Bus and Large Probe

i n s t r u m e n t s a r e checked o u t .

Twenty-four d a y s b e f o r e a t m o s p h e r i c e n t r y , and 1 3 m i l l i o n
k m ( 8 m i l l i o n m i . ) f r o m Venus, c o n t r o l l e r s r e o r i e n t t h e
s p a c e c r a f t so t h a t t h e Large Probe w i l l e n t e r t h e atmosphere
w i t h i t s heat shield aligned w i t h its entry f l i g h t
path. T h i s means a l i g n i n g t h e Bus s p i n a x i s w i t h t h e planned
L a r g e Probe e n t r y t r a j e c t o r y b e c a u s e t h e Large Probe i s
c e n t e r e d on t h e s p i n a x i s . The Large Probe i s t h e n l a u n c h e d
by a p y r o t e c h n i c - s p r i n g mechanism toward i t s e q u a t o r i a l e n t r y
p o i n t on Venus' day s i d e , becoming a n i n d e p e n d e n t s p a c e c r a f t .

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V I E W FROM EARTH OF MULTIPROBE
ENTRY LOCATIONS
 -19-

The n e x t 2 3 days f r o m a t m o s p h e r i c e n t r y , t h e Bus i s

maneuvered f o r s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e S m a l l P r o b e s by changing i t s
f l i g h t p a t h , p o i n t i n g i t toward t h e c e n t e r of Venus. A t 22
d a y s b e f o r e e n t r y t h e t h r e e S m a l l Probe i n s t r u m e n t s a r e checked
o u t . A t 20 d a y s b e f o r e e n t r y t h e Bus i s r e o r i e n t e d so t h a t
t h e t h r e e S m a l l P r o b e s c a n be t a r g e t e d f o r t h e i r e n t r y p o i n t s
-- one on t h e day s i d e a t mid-southern l a t i t u d e s , t h e second
on t h e n i g h t - s i d e , a l s o a t mid-southern l a t i t u d e s , and t h e
t h i r d on t h e n i g h t s i d e a t h i g h n o r t h e r n l a t i t u d e s .
M i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s t h e n commands l a u n c h of t h e t h r e e Small
Probes. A f t e r t h e t r a n s p o r t e r Bus i s spun up t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y
4 8 rpm, t h e probes a r e launched by r e l e a s i n g t h e clamps t h a t
hold t h e m . C e n t r i f u g a l force of t h e Bus s p i n throws t h e
p r o b e s t a n g e n t i a l l y from t h e Bus i n t o t h e i r e n t r y t r a j e c t o r i e s .
A s a r e s u l t of t h i s l a u n c h p r o c e s s , t h e S m a l l Probes r e t a i n t h e
48-rpm s p i n e s t a b l i s h e d w h i l e a t t a c h e d t o t h e Bus.
With l a u n c h of a l l f o u r p r o b e s , f i v e s p a c e c r a f t --
i n c l u d i n g t h e Bus -- each w i t h i t s own i n s t r u m e n t and command
and d a t a system -- a r e headed f o r Venus.
E i g h t e e n days before e n t r y , a f t e r S m a l l Probe s e p a r a t i o n ,
c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l r e t a r g e t t h e Bus f o r e n t r y . Bus e n t r y i s
d e l a y e d a b o u t 85 m i n u t e s a f t e r e n t r y of t h e l a s t S m a l l Probe
t o provide a radio s i g n a l r e f e r e n c e f o r p r e c i s e computations
of t h e p r o b e d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r i e s . (Trajectory d a t a w i l l be
used t o measure winds i n Venus' atmosphere.)

From t h i s p o i n t o n , t h e f o u r probes w i l l be commanded

by onboard timers and o t h e r s e n s o r s and e l e c t r o n i c s , and
t h e y w i l l n o t be h e a r d from by c o n t r o l l e r s on E a r t h u n t i l
22 minutes b e f o r e atmospheric e n t r y .

A t e n t r y minus e i g h t d a y s , f i n a l a d j u s t m e n t s w i l l be
made t o t h e Bus' e n t r y a n g l e by ground command, and a t
e n t r y minus two d a y s , t h e Bus s y s t e m s and s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s
w i l l be checked.
Approximately two h o u r s b e f o r e Bus e n t r y , t h e s c i e n t i f i c
i n s t r u m e n t s w i l l be w a r m e d up and commanded i n t o t h e o p e r a t i o n
mode f o r e n t r y .

On Dec. 9 , 1978, a t a b o u t 2 p.m. EST, t h e f o u r p r o b e s

w i l l a r r i v e a t Venus and e n t e r t h e atmosphere. The Large
Probe w i l l descend t o Venus' s u r f a c e i n 55 m i n u t e s and t h e
t h r e e S m a l l P r o b e s i n a b o u t 57 m i n u t e s , depending on e n t r y
angle.
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1
 LARGE PROBE DESCENT SEQUENCE

e
ENTRY

J
FIRE MORTAR
B I
H
I
t
u
0
I

DEPLOY PILOT CHUTE

RELEASE AFT COVER
%
EXTRACT CHUTE BAG

DEPLOY MAIN CHUTE

RELEASE
CHUTE
AE ROSH EL L/PR ESSUR E VESSE L
SEPARATION
 -21-

L a r q e Probe E n t r y Events

A t 2 . 5 h o u r s b e f o r e e n t r y , t h e Large Probe command u n i t

w i l l o r d e r warmup of t h e b a t t e r y and r a d i o r e c e i v e r . Twenty-
two m i n u t e s b e f o r e e n t r y , t h e p r o b e w i l l b e g i n t r a n s m i s s i o n
of r a d i o s i g n a l s t o E a r t h . A t e n t r y minus 1 7 m i n u t e s , t h e
Large Probe b e g i n s t r a n s m i t t i n g d a t a a t 256 bps. The command
u n i t i n i t i a t e s warmup of t h e s e v e n s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s
aboard, p l u s instrument c a l i b r a t i o n . Five minutes before
t h e peak e n t r y d e c e l e r a t i o n p u l s e of 320 G , t h e p r o b e w i l l
be t r a v e l i n g 4 1 , 6 0 0 km/hr ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph). E n t r y o c c u r s a t
2 0 0 km ( 1 2 0 m i . ) a l t i t u d e , where t h e p r o b e e n c o u n t e r s t h e
t e n u o u s t o p of t h e atmosphere.

The t i m e r w i l l command d a t a s t o r a g e f o r t h e a t m o s p h e r i c
s t r u c t u r e e x p e r i m e n t d u r i n g e n t r y communications b l a c k o u t .
T h i r t y - e i g h t seconds a f t e r e n t r y , t h e Large Probe b e g i n s
t h e d e s c e n t p h a s e , d e p l o y s i t s p a r a c h u t e and j e t t i s o n s i t s
forward a e r o s h e l l - h e a t s h i e l d . F o r t y - t h r e e seconds a f t e r
e n t r y , a t an a l t i t u d e of 6 6 km ( 4 0 m i . ) , a l l i n s t r u m e n t s
should be o p e r a t i n g . Seventeen m i n u t e s l a t e r , a t 47 k m
(28 m i . ) a l t i t u d e , t h e p a r a c h u t e i s j e t t i s o n e d , and t h e
aerodynamically s t a b l e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l descends t o t h e
s u r f a c e i n 39 m i n u t e s , i m p a c t i n g 55 m i n u t e s a f t e r e n t r y .
A s t h e p r o b e d e s c e n d s , t h e atmosphere g e t s s t e a d i l y h o t t e r
and d e n s e r , u n t i l a t t h e s u r f a c e i t s t e m p e r a t u r e i s 4 7 0 d e g r e e s
C ( 9 0 0 d e g r e e s F . ) , and i t s p r e s s u r e i s n e a r l y 1 0 0 t i m e s t h a t
a t the Earth's surface. The Large Probe j e t t i s o n s i t s
p a r a c h u t e t o speed i t s d e s c e n t t h r o u g h t h i s v e r y d e n s e atmos-
p h e r e , s o t h a t i t r e a c h e s t h e s u r f a c e b e f o r e h e a t d e s t r o y s it.

During d e s c e n t , t h e Large P r o b e ' s s e v e n i n s t r u m e n t s

w i l l have o b t a i n e d d a t a t o d e t e r m i n e a l t i t u d e and c o m p o s i t i o n
of c l o u d l a y e r s , atmosphere c o n s t i t u e n t s , t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s -
s u r e , d e n s i t y , wind f l o w and v a r i a t i o n s of h e a t f l o w i n t h e
atmosphere.
The Large Probe w i l l impact t h e s u r f a c e a t a b o u t 36
km/hr ( 2 2 mph). None of t h e p r o b e s i s d e s i g n e d t o s u r v i v e
impact .
Small Probe Events

The t h z e S m a l l Prc.-,br:, t w w i l l . enter t h e planet's

atmosphere a t a b o u t 4 1 , 6 0 0 km/hr ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph). However,
b e c a u s e t h e i r e n t r y p o i n t s a r e s p r e a d over a n e n t i r e hemi-
s p h e r e of Venus, and t h e y a r e launched s i m u l t a n e o u s l y from
t h e Bus, t h e a n g l e s of t h e i r f l i g h t p a t h s i n t o t h e atmosphere
vary g r e a t l y . T h i s means t h a t e n t r y h e a t i n g and d u r a t i o n s
of maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n p u l s e s v a r y w i d e l y .

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Peak deceleration forces vary from 2 0 0 G to 565 G. Entry

times also differ by up to 10 minutes, and descent times by
one minute. As with the Large Probe, entry is defined as
occurring at an altitude of 200 km (120 mi.).
Three hours before atmospheric entry, the stable oscil-
lator in the radio transmitter for one-way Doppler tracking
and the battery on each Small Probe are warmed up by commands
from the onboard command unit. Twenty-two minutes before
entry, each Small Probe begins transmission of radio signals
to Earth. Seventeen minutes before entry, the Small Probes
begin transmitting data at 64 bps. The command unit initiates
warmup and calibration for the three instruments on each Small
Probe.
Five minutes before entry, the two cables and weights
of the yo-yo despin system are deployed to reduce the spin
rates of the Small Probes from 48 to 15 rpm. The high spin
rates imparted by the Bus are needed to disperse the probes
to entry points widely spaced over the planet. However, this
wide dispersion a l s o means that the Small Probes enter Venus'
high upper atmosphere somewhat tilted to their flight paths.
The "spindown" of the probes is needed to make it easier for
aerodynamics forces to line up the axes of the probes with
their entry flight paths. This must occur quickly before
heating at the edges of the probes' conical heat shields
becomes serious. Cables and weights are jettisoned
immediately after spindown.
Five minutes before the peak deceleration pulse of
atmospheric entry, the command unit orders the "blackout"
format for storage of spacecraft data, plus heat shield
temperature and accelerometer measurements for the atmos-
pheric structure experiment. This is to assure no l o s s of
data during the 10-to-15-second communications blackout at
entry.
Within the first minute (18 to 46 seconds) after entry,
the nephelometer window is opened, and the atmospheric
structure and net flux radiometer housing doors are opened
and instrument booms deployed.
At this time, the upper descent phase begins, with the
probes in the altitude range of 72 to 65 km (43 to 39 mi.)
and all instruments operating. The instrument compartment
doors on each side of the Small Probe afterbodies serve to
despin the probes. A small vane on the pressure sensor inlet
serves to prevent the spin rate from falling to zero rpm
enabling instruments to make observations over a full circle
of probe rotation.

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A t e n t r y plus 1 6 . 4 m i n u t e s , a s the t h i c k e n i n g a t m o s p h e r e
i n t e r f e r e s w i t h radio t r a n s m i s s i o n , t h e d a t a r a t e i s reduced
t o 1 6 b p s . T h i s o c c u r s a t a n a l t i t u d e of 3 0 k m ( 1 8 m i . ) .
From this p o i n t , t h e t h r e e S m a l l P r o b e s d e s c e n d i n t o
Venus' i n c r e a s i n g l y d e n s e lower a t m o s p h e r e , i m p a c t i n g on t h e
s u r f a c e a t 36 h / h r ( 2 2 mph) from 56 t o 57 m i n u t e s a f t e r t h e
e n t r y t i m e o f each probe. U n l i k e t h e L a r g e Probe, t h e S m a l l
P r o b e s r e t a i n t h e i r h e a t s h i e l d s t o the s u r f a c e . The d e n s i t y
o f t h e a t m o s p h e r e i s s o g r e a t t h a t t h e d r a g o f t h e s e aero-
dynamic s u r f a c e s slows them t o t h e d e s i r e d d e s c e n t s p e e d .
L i k e t h e L a r g e Probe, t h e S m a l l Probes a r e n o t d e s i g n e d t o
s u r v i v e on t h e s u r f a c e .

Bus E v e n t s

E i g h t y m i n u t e s a f t e r a l l p r o b e s h a v e e n t e r e d t h e Venus
a t m o s p h e r e , t h e Bus w i l l e n t e r on t h e day s i d e o f t h e p l a n e t
a t high l a t i t u d e s i n t h e s o u t h e r n hemisphere. Unlike t h e
p r o b e s , t h e Bus h a s no h e a t s h i e l d f o r h i g h - s p e e d e n t r y , and
i s e x p e c t e d t o b u r n up o n e t o two m i n u t e s a f t e r e n t r y . The
Bus c a r r i e s two e x p e r i m e n t s on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e atmos-
p h e r e , and i o n and a n e u t r a l mass s p e c t r o m e t e r . T h e s e i n s t r u -
ments measure c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e i o n o s p h e r e and u p p e r atmos-
p h e r e from 2 0 0 km ( 1 2 0 m i . ) down t o 1 1 5 k m ( 6 9 m i . ) , making
t h e m i s s i o n s ' o n l y a t m o s p h e r i c c o m p o s i t i o n measurements between
1 5 0 and 1 1 5 km . The Bus, w i t h i t s more p o w e r f u l t r a n s m i t t e r ,
r e t u r n s t h i s data t o Earth a t 1 , 0 2 4 bps.

A l l d a t a from t h e p r o b e m i s s i o n s w i l l be recorded s i m u l -
t a n e o u s l y by t h e D S N s t a t i o n s a t G o l d s t o n e , C a l i f . , and Can-
b e r r a , A u s t r a l i a , and more t h a n 5 0 m u l t i p r o b e e x p e r i m e n t e r s
w i l l spend a y e a r o r more a n a l y z i n g t h e s e d a t a . The i n v e s -
t i g a t o r s w i l l be e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n comparing r e s u l t s
from t h e w i d e l y - s p a c e d p r o b e f l i g h t p a t h s on t h e day and n i g h t
s i d e s and i n b o t h h e m i s p h e r e s of Venus.

Atmospheric wind v e l o c i t i e s a n d d i r e c t i o n s w i l l be c a l -
c u l a t e d from measurements of t h e p r o b e v e l o c i t i e s , t h r o u g h
t r i a n g u l a t i o n measurements from f o u r s t a t i o n s a t o n c e . Two
STDN s t a t i o n s a t Guam a n d S a n t i a g o , C h i l e , w i l l record Bus
and p r o b e d a t a a l o n g w i t h t h e D S N s t a t i o n s .

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l
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THE PLANET VENUS

Venus i s t h e p l a n e t most s i m i l a r t o E a r t h i n s i z e , mass

and d i s t a n c e from t h e Sun. B u t i t s s u r f a c e i s much h o t t e r ,
i t s atmosphere much d e n s e r , and i t s r o t a t i o n much s l o w e r t h a n
t h a t of E a r t h .

The d i a m e t e r of Venus i s 1 2 , 1 0 0 k m (7519 m i . ) , compared

w i t h E a r t h ' s 12,745 km (7920 m i . ) . The mass of Venus is
0.81 t i m e s t h a t of t h e Earth. The mean d e n s i t y o f Venus i s
5.26 grams p e r c u b i c c m compared w i t h E a r t h ' s 5.5 grams p e r
cubic cm.

Because Venus i s c l o s e r t o t h e Sun, i t receives a b o u t

t w i c e as much e n e r g y a s E a r t h . However, it i s more r e f l e c t i v e
t h a n E a r t h b e c a u s e of i t s c l o u d y atmosphere. A s a r e s u l t of
t h e s e two competing f a c t o r s , Venus a b s o r b s a b o u t t h e same
amount o f s o l a r e n e r g y as E a r t h . Thus Venus would be e x p e c t e d
t o have a t e m p e r a t u r e v e r y s i m i l a r t o E a r t h ' s . In fact, the
s u r f a c e of Venus i s v e r y h o t , a b o u t 4 8 0 d e g r e e s Z ( 9 0 0 d e g r e e s F ) .

T h i s t h e o r y f o r t h e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e of Venus assumes t h a t
t h e atmosphere a l l o w s t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e incoming s o l a r r a d i a t i o n
t o t h e lower atmosphere and t h e s u r f a c e . However, t h e atmosphere
r e s t r i c t s t h e p a s s a g e of h e a t r a d i a t i o n from t h e s u r f a c e and t h e
lower atmosphere back i n t o s p a c e . The h e a t i s t r a p p e d . E a r t h
h a s a modest greenhouse e f f e c t t h a t r a i s e s i t s s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e
by a b o u t 35 d e g r e e s C ( 9 5 d e g r e e s F . ) , b u t i n some p a r t s o f t h e
i n f r a r e d spectrum h e a t c a n e s c a p e by d i r e c t r a d i a t i o n from t h e
E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e t o s p a c e . Because of i t s d e n s i t y , c o m p o s i t i o n
and c l o u d s , t h e Venus atmosphere i s v e r y t h i c k , and b e c a u s e it
i s m o s t l y c a r b o n d i o x i d e , it i s e s s e n t i a l l y opaque t o o u t g o i n g
h e a t r a d i a t i o n a t a l l important wavelengths.
One o f t h e m o s t p u z z l i n g a s p e c t s of Venus i s i t s l a c k of
water. I f Venus i s as d r y a s i t seems, where d i d t h e o c e a n s of
Venus go, i f any e v e r e x i s t e d ? One s p e c u l a t i o n i s t h a t t h e
w a t e r rose i n t o t h e upper atmosphere and w a s d i s s o c i a t e d by
s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n i n t o hydrogen and oxygen. The
hydrogen e s c a p e d i n t o s p a c e from t h e t o p of t h e Venus atmosphere,
and t h e h e a v i e r oxygen d i f f u s e d down t o t h e o x i d i z e d c r u s t .
D e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s shows t h a t it might n o t be p r a c t i c a l f o r Venus
t o have l o s t a n ocean o f water by such a r o u t e . P e r h a p s Venus
formed c l o s e enough t o t h e Sur, so t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e p r e v e n t e d
w a t e r from b e i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e s o l i d material t h a t formed
the planet. I f s o , Venus would n e v e r have had enough water
w i t h i n i t s r o c k s t o form e a r l y deep oceans l i k e t h o s e o f E a r t h .
D i r e c t measurements o f g a s e s w i t h i n t h e Venus atmosphere may
p o i n t toward one o f t w o a l t e r n a t i v e s : E i t h e r t h a t water w a s
n o t i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o Venus as much a s on E a r t h , o r t h a t water
o u t g a s s e d and was s u b s e q u e n t l y l o s t .
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O r b i t and R o t a t i o n of Venus

The r o t a t i o n of Venus i s v e r y slow and i n a r e t r o g r a d e

d i r e c t i o n , t h a t i s , o p p o s i t e t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p l a n e t ' s
r e v o l u t i o n a b o u t t h e Sun and t o t h e r o t a t i o n of most o t h e r
p l a n e t s . Venus t u r n s on i t s a x i s once i n 2 4 3 . 1 E a r t h d a y s .

S i n c e Venus' r o t a t i o n on i t s a x i s and r e v o l u t i o n i n o r b i t
around t h e Sun a r e i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s , t h e l e n g t h of a s o l a r
day on Venus i s 1 1 7 E a r t h d a y s (58.5 E a r t h d a y s of " d a y l i g h t "
58.5 E a r t h d a y s o f n i g h t ) .

The o r b i t s of E a r t h and Venus a r e t i l t e d t o e a c h o t h e r

a b o u t 3.5 d e g r e e s . Venus' a x i s i s t i l t e d a b o u t 6 degrees
f r o m p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e of t h e p l a n e t ' s o r b i t . T h i s
compares w i t h E a r t h ' s a x i a l tilt of 23.5 d e g r e e s w h i c h p r o d u c e s
o u r s e a s o n s . Thus, s e a s o n a l e f f e c t s on Venus a r e s m a l l .

Some s c i e n t i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t Venus' period of r o t a t i o n

i s t i e d t o t h e r e v o l u t i o n of t h e E a r t h and Venus around t h e
Sun. Venus p r e s e n t s t h e same hemisphere toward E a r t h a t e a c h
closest a p p r o a c h ; t h a t i s , e a c h t i m e t h e p l a n e t p a s s e s between
Sun and E a r t h . If t h e r o t a t i o n of Venus i s l o c k e d t o t h e c l o s e
a p p r o a c h e s of E a r t h and Venus, t.hen t h e i n t e r n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of
m a s s w i t h i n Venus s h o u l d b e s l i g h t l y asymmetric.
Why d o e s Venus r o t a t e so s l o w l y when m o s t o t h e r p l a n e t s
r o t a t e i n p e r i o d s of h o u r s r a t h e r t h a n months? One s p e c u l a t i o n
i s t h a t a l a r g e body h i t Venus and s t o p p e d i t s r o t a t i o n . T h i s
l a r g e body m i g h t have been c a p t u r e d a s a s a t e l l i t e i n t o a
r e t r o g r a d e o r b i t and l a t e r impacted w i t h Venus t o s t o p i t s
normal r o t a t i o n and r o t a t e it slowly i n an o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n .

I t c o u l d b e t h a t Venus w a s formed from l a r g e f r a g m e n t s ,

and a s a r e s u l t of t h e combined i m p a c t s o f t h e s e f r a g m e n t s n e v e r
had much r o t a t i o n . According t o a n o t h e r s u g g e s t i o n , s o l a r t i d a l
e f f e c t s i n Venus' d e n s e atmosphere may have slowed r o t a t i o n
and t h e n " t u r n e d t h e p l a n e t o v e r " , a c c o u n t i n g f o r i t s backward
rotation.

Radar a s t r o n o m e r s have mapped a n a r e a on t h e E a r t h - f a c i n g

s i d e of t h e p l a n e t a s l a r g e a s A s i a and have found w h a t a p p e a r s
t o be a rugged s u r f a c e . According t o t h e r a d a r r e s u l t s , there
are huge s h a l l o w c r a t e r s a s w e l l as a n enormous v o l c a n o which
may be as l a r g e i n a r e a , though n o t a s h i g h , a s Olympus Mons
on Mars ( t h e s o l a r s y s t e m ' s l a r g e s t d i s c o v e r e d so f a r ) . Radar
a s t r o n o m e r s a l s o d e t e c t e d what a p p e a r s t o be a n enormous canyon.
T h i s chasm i s 1 4 0 0 k m (870 m i . ) l o n g , 1 5 0 k m ( 9 5 m i . ) w i d e , and
several k i l o m e t e r s deep.
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Venus' I n t e r i o r and Absence o f Magnetic: F i e l d

U n l i k e t h e E a r t h , Venus has no s i g n i f i c a n t magnetic f i e l d .

The g e n e r a t i o n of E a r t h ' s f i e l d i s a t t r i b u t e d t o a s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g
dynamo i n t h e f l u i d core of t h e p l a n e t . Convection c u r r e n t s i n
t h e core g i v e r i s e t o e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s t h a t produce t h e e x t e r n a l
magnetic f i e l d . T h i s t h e o r y , which a l s o seems t o a p p l y t o
J u p i t e r , p r e d i c t s t h a t s l o w - s p i n n i n g p l a n e t s l i k e Venus s h o u l d
n o t have magnetic f i e l d s .

Venus i s a p l a n e t whose shape c o u l d be v e r y close t o a

s p h e r e a c c o r d i n g t o r a d a r measurements. They s h o w i t s e q u a t o r
t o b e almost a p e r f e c t c i r c l e . Because t h e p o l e s do n o t r o t a t e
i n t o view a s do p o i n t s on t h e e q u a t o r , c i r c u l a r i t y around t h e
p o l e s c a n n o t be measured. The l a c k o f i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n
s h a p e , and of a s a t e l l i t e makes it d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
i n t e r n a l d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p l a n e t . M o s t models of
t h e i n t e r i o r are based on i t s s i m i l a r i t y t o E a r t h , c o n s i s t i n g
of a l i q u i d c o r e , a s o l i d m a n t l e and a s o l i d c r u s t . But t h e
t r u e n a t u r e o f t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e p l a n e t i s v e r y much i n
d o u b t b e c a u s e s c i e n t i s t s do n o t know Venus' t h e r m a l s t r u c t u r e
o r t h e n a t u r e of t h e materials which make up i t s mass.

The Atmosphere of Venus

Carbon d i o x i d e i s t h e dominant gas i n t h e Venusian

atmosphere. There are a l s o t r a c e s of w a t e r , c a r b o n monoxide,
h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d and hydrogen f l u o r i d e . Free oxygen h a s n e v e r
been found.
The c l o u d s which o b s c u r e t h e s u r f a c e o f Venus c o n s i s t of
t h i c k h a z e s of d r o p l e t s b e l i e v e d t o be made of s u l f u r i c a c i d .
Venus' c l o u d s a r e p a l e y e l l o w and v e r y r e f l e c t i v e , r e t u r n i n g
i n t o s p a c e some 7 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e s u n l i g h t f a l l i n g on them.
Space probe measurements have shown t h a t there a r e d i s t i n c t
c l o u d l a y e r s much h i g h e r t h a n t e r r e s t r i a l c l o u d s . Photographs
t a k e n i n u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t reveal a four-day r o t a t i o n of t h e
markings i n t h e s e c l o u d s . T h i s r o t a t i o n i s l i k e t h a t o f t h e
p l a n e t , i n a r e t r o g r a d e d i r e c t i o n . Unusual dynamics o f t h e
atmosphere a r e r e q u i r e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h i s high-speed c l o u d
motion.
The g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d f i g u r e f o r a t m o s p h e r i c c a r b o n
d i o x i d e on Venus i s 9 7 p e r c e n t . However, measurements made
by e a r l y Venera s p a c e c r a f t (USSR) d i f f e r from r a d i o o c c u l a t i o n
measurements s u g g e s t i n g t h e p r e s e n c e o f a b o u t 70 p e r c e n t
carbon d i o x i d e i n t h e Venusian atmosphere. And, i f t h e r e
i s much a r g o n i n t h e atmosphere, t h e amount of c a r b o n d i o x i d e
c o u l d be as l o w a s 2 5 p e r c e n t .
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Adding to the uncertainty is the fact that the percentages

determined by the Veneras were obtained by sampling the
atmosphere in regions where there are sulfuric acid droplets.
The presence of the acid may have contaminated these measurements.
It is therefore possible to argue that the carbon dioxide is
considerably less than 97 per cent, with the remainder being
made up by some combination of nitrogen and argon.
The amount of carbon dioxide is important because it plays
a major role in the interpretation of the microwave spectrum
of the planet. If the atmosphere is 9 7 per cent carbon dioxide,
the microwave observations permit the presence of as much as
0.1 per cent water below the clouds. Some instruments on the
most recent Veneras 9 and 10 indicated that water vapor
constituted about 0.1 per cent of the atmosphere below the
main clouds. At the cloud tops it is only 0.0001 per cent,
however. But, if there is another gas in the atmosphere of
Venus that is not a good microwave absorber, the planet's
atmosphere might contain more water than is now believed.
Carbon dioxide is also important to theories about the
evolution of the atmosphere of Venus, and to the radiative
properties of the present atmosphere and its dynamic
characteristics.
The atmospheres of both Venus and Earth are assumed to
have originated from gases that were released from the interiors
of the planets which were hot when the planets first formed. In
the case of Earth, most of the outgassing may have occurred soon
after formation, from the heat of formation. Venus may never
have had much water to outgas in the first place if it was
formed from parts of the solar nebula that were poor in water,
Or it may be that Venus formed with as much water as the Earth,
but this water has now been lost.
The Earth holds its water in its oceans because it is much
cooler than Venus and there is a ''lid" on its atmosphere. This
lid is the very cold tropopause where the temperature rises
with altitude. This prevents heated water vapor from rising
by convection to cooler heights where it could be dissociated
by solar ultraviolet radiation. But if Earth were moved to
the same distance from the Sun as Venus, conditions could
change drastically. The additional solar energy would be
sufficient to evaporate all of Earth's oceans.

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If Venus had been formed from the same mix of materials

as Earth and then outgassed its volatiles, we would expect it
to have an atmosphere about 350 times as massive as Earth's.
Carbon dioxide would account for a surface pressure of about
100 atmospheres, and water vapor would account for about 150
atmospheres. On Earth most of the 100 atmospheres of carbon
dioxide is tied up in carbonate rocks which are chemically
stable at terrestrial temperatures, but unstable at Venus
temperatures. Earth's oceans, if vaporized, would result in
an atmospheric pressure of about 250 atmospheres. Venus
does indeed have nearly 100 atmospheres of carbon dioxide,
but the water is apparently absent. There are no oceans,
and the atmospheric water vapor is a minor constituent.
One of the major questions to be answered by Pioneer Venus
is just how much water vapor is present. Water vapor would
be broken down by solar ultraviolet radiation into oxygen
and hydrogen. The hydrogen would escape into space leaving
the oxygen behind. Effectively the oceans would be leaking
into space.
This could have happened to Venus. If the primitive
atmosphere of Venus consisted mostly of steam (because the
planet is closer to the Sun than Earth), the resulting
convective atmosphere could not have had a barrier to
convection. The water vapor would have dissociated into
hydrogen and oxygen. Calculations suggest that within
about 30 million years perhaps 90 per cent of the water
could have been lost to the planet, but all could not be
lost in this way.
Furthermore, there is no easy way to explain what
happened to the leftover oxygen other than that it reacted
with the surface rocks. Yet without running water to
continually expose fresh rocks for oxidation, the process
might be insufficient to remove all the oxygen. Continental
drift might be a possible mechanism to expose fresh rocks.
There is a question, too, of what happens to the oxygen now
released in the upper atmosphere by photodissociation of
carbon dioxide to produce the carbon monoxide observed
spectroscopically. The incorporation of oxygen with sulfur
to form the sulfuric acid droplets does not seem to account
for all the missing oxygen.

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V E N U S - E A R T H TERMPERATURE PROFILES

120

100

BO
v)
w
-
-I I
w
E 0
50 I
I
- CJ
w
FO =

!O

TEMPERATURE "C
 -31-

On Venus, because of the high surface temperatures,

reactions between rocks, minerals and the atmosphere are
expected to be much faster than on Earth. However, on Earth
the action of running water constantly exposes new rocks to
the action of the atmosphere and aids oxidation and other
reactions between the rocks and the atmosphere. This is not
happening on Venus. If fresh rocks are not being exposed by
some other mechanism, the atmosphere of Venus may not have
achieved equilibrium with surface materials.
The Venus atmosphere can be divided into three distinct
regions: a region above the visible cloud tops which includes
the ionosphere and the exosphere: a region of clouds: and a
region from the base of the clouds to the surface.

Upper Atmosphere
The upper atmosphere of Venus has an ionosphere which is
different from that of Earth. Because Venus does not have a
significant magnetic field, the solar wind interacts direc.tly
with the upper atmosphere and the ionosphere of the planet.
Among the atmospheric regions of Venus, the upper atmosphere
above the cloud tops is best understood. It has been investigated
from Earth and from flyby and orbiting spacecraft. Above 150 km
(90 mi.) it is more rarefied than the atmosphere of Earth at the
same height. Like Earth's atmosphere, it is ionized by incoming
solar radiation to produce positively-charged ions and free
electrons of an ionosphere, which is thinner and closer to the
surface of the planet than Earth's ionosphere. Like Earth's
ionosphere, the ionosphere of Venus has layers at which the
number of electrons per cubic centimeter (electron density)
peaks. In Earth's ionospheric layers, the peak electron density
is about 100,000 to 1,000,000 electrons per cubic centimeter, and
occurs at an altitude of about 2 5 0 to 300 km (150 to 180 mi.).
The major ion is singly-charged carbon dioxide.
Mariner 10 found two clearly defined layers in the nighttime
ionosphere: a main layer at 1 4 2 km (87 mi.) altitude and a
lesser layer at 124 km (76 mi.). The peak intensity of the latter
was about 78 per cent of the higher layer. On the dayside there
was one main layer at 1 4 2 km (87 mi.) and several minor layers,
including one at 128 km (78 mi.) and another at about 180 km
(110 mi.). The Venera 9 and 10 orbiters obtained similar results,
but single layers seem to be the most common.
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SOLAR WIND - VENUS INTERACTIONS

BOW SHOCK
TRANSITION

- -
~ -/R~REFACTIOI\
OPAUSE WAVE

SOLAR

-1
"-1
-- -. --
 -33-

From a practical standpoint, Venus has no intrinsic

magnetic field. The field of Venus is less than 1/10,000 o f
Earth's field. There is a region of rarefaction (lessened
density) of the solar wind flow at Venus, and the characteristics
of the plasma there indicate that Venus absorbs part of the flux
of the solar wind. On the dayside of Venus, there is a sharp
boundary to the ionosphere at 350 to 500 km (210.to 305 mi.).
This is believed to be caused by the interaction of the solar
wind with Venus' atmosphere. On the night side of the planet,
the ionosphere extends high into space and probably into a
plasma tail stretching away from the Sun.
Temperatures have been measured in regions above the visible
cloud layers by radio occultation. The temperature of the
exosphere (region where particles escape the planet) was derived
from density variation with altitude found by the ultraviolet
experiments of spacecraft. From observations of the ultraviolet
radiation from hydrogen and helium atoms, it is calculated that
the temperature of the exosphere of Venus when Mariner 10 flew
past the planet was about 127 degrees C (260 degrees F). At such
a temperature, the thermal escape of helium gas would be negligible
Accordingly it is thought that if helium outgassed from the rocks
of Venus as it did on Earth the gas might have accumulated in
the upper atmosphere of Venus. A corona of hydrogen begins at
about 8 0 0 km (480 mi.) and contains up to 10,000 atoms per
cubic centimeter.

Haze Lavers
At least two tenuous layers of haze can be seen in high
resolution pictures of the limb (edge of the disc) of Venus.
They extend from equatorial regions to higher latitudes. They
may be associated with temperature inversions in the high
atmosphere, and may result from processes similar to those in
Earth's atmosphere which produce layers of aerosols in the
stratosphere. Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended
in an atmosphere. The stratified layers of haze are in the
region 8 0 to 9 0 km (50 to 5 6 mi.) above the surface of Venus
where the atmospheric pressure is between 50 and 0.5 millibars.
(Pressure at Earth's surface is 1000 millibars). These haze
layers are extremely tenuous. At the topmost haze layer, if
the atmosphere is mainly carbon dioxide, the temperature should
be - 7 5 degrees C . However, temperatures determined from
occultations differ appreciably above 60 km (37 mi.), suggesting
temperature inversions that separate the haze layers from the
topmost convective cloud deck as well as the upper from the
lower haze layers. In the region above 50 km (30 mi.), the
daytime atmosphere is about 15 degrees C ( 5 9 degrees F)
warmer than the temperature at night.

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The Cloud Lavers

B e l o w t h e upper atmosphere i s t h e 18-km ( 1 1 - m i . ) - t h i c k

r e g i o n c o n t a i n i n g t h e c l o u d s of Venus v i s i b l e from E a r t h . While
t h e c l o u d s o f Venus l o o k e x t r e m e l y opaque, t h e y are i n f a c t v e r y
tenuous. Veneras 9 and 1 0 d e t e r m i n e d t h a t v i s i b i l i t y w i t h i n t h e
c l o u d s i s between 1 and 3 km ( 0 . 6 t o 1 . 8 m i . ) . They are more
l i k e t h i n hazes than t e r r e s t r i a l clouds. The p a r t i c l e s making
up t h e c l o u d s of Venus are s p h e r i c a l and a b o u t one t o t w o
microns i n d i a m e t e r . These d r o p l e t s a p p a r e n t l y c o n s i s t o f
s u l f u r i c a c i d , w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s v a r y i n g from 5 0 t o 5 0 0
per cubic centimeter.

The p r e s e n c e o f s u l f u r i c a c i d c l o u d s e x p l a i n t h e e x t r e m e
d r y n e s s o f t h e Venus upper atmosphere. N e a r l y a l l t h e water
h a s c h e m i c a l l y bound up i n t h e sulfuric acid d r o p l e t s . The
d e n s i t y of Venus' atmosphere a t t h i s l e v e l i s a b o u t o n e - t e n t h
t h e d e n s i t y of E a r t h ' s atmosphere a t sea l e v e l . Sulfuric acid
c l o u d s remain as c l o u d s o v e r a w i d e r r a n g e of t e m p e r a t u r e t h a n
water c l o u d s , a l t h o u g h h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s c a u s e some of t h e
w a t e r t o evaporate f r o m t h e droplets. There i s e v i d e n c e of
t h e p r e s e n c e of f l u o r i n e i n t h e Venus atmosphere. This element
p r o b a b l y combines w i t h w a t e r i n t o t h e e x t r e m e l y s t a b l e and
corrosive fluorosulfonic acid. But none of t h e s e a c i d s c a n
a c c o u n t f o r t h e a b s o r p t i o n of u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n by t h e
c l o u d s . There m u s t b e a n unknown u l t r a v i o l e t a b s o r b e r i n t h e
c l o u d s which g i v e s r i s e t o t h e d a r k markings s e e n i n u l t r a v i o l e t
p i c t u r e s of Venus.

One s p e c u l a t i o n i s t h a t t h e d a r k r e g i o n s s e e n i n u l t r a v i o l e t
l i g h t a r e oxygen-depleted r e g i o n s where a s i g n i f i c a n t amount of
u l t r a v i o l e t - a b s o r b i n g s u l f u r i s b e i n g produced. There a p p e a r s
t o b e a whole s e r i e s of compounds of s u l f u r , oxygen and h a l o -
q e n s t h a t e n t e r i n t o t h e c h e m i s t r y of t h e atmosphere of Venus.
The P i o n e e r Venus measurements o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e
atmosphere of Venus w i t h a mass s p e c t r o m e t e r and g a s chromatograph
s h o u l d c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s e c h e m i c a l
p r o c e s s e s t h a t are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e Venusian c l o u d s and t h e i r
markings.

The d a r k markings of t h e c l o u d s , s e e n i n u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t ,
have c h a r a c t e r i s t i c forms t h a t have been s t u d i e d from E a r t h .
There are h o r i z o n t a l Y-shaped f e a t u r e s which s o m e t i m e s have a
tail. There a r e f e a t u r e s t h a t look l i k e a r e v e r s e d l e t t e r C .
The f e a t u r e s i n t h e form of a reverse l e t t e r C a p p e a r more
o f t e n on t h e e v e n i n g t e r m i n a t o r t h a n on t h e morning t e r m i n a t o r .
Other f e a t u r e s a r e l i k e a r e v e r s e d C w i t h a b i s e c t i n g bar.
Sometimes t h e r e a r e t w o p a r a l l e l e q u a t o r i a l bands. The
p a t t e r n s a r e a l s o almost always symmetrical a b o u t t h e e q u a t o r
of Venus. The arms of t h e s e f e a t u r e s are a l w a y s open i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i r r e t r o g r a d e motion which varies between
1 8 0 and 4 7 0 kph ( 1 1 2 t o 265 m p h ) .
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VENUS ATMOSPHERE

WEAKLY
IONIZED

'""I MAIN
I O N I2A T ION
WEAKLY
UPPER
ATMOSPHERE
IONIZED
LAYERS

UPPER
HAZES
LOWER
HAZES

TROPOPAUSE
CLOUDS

WIND
SHEAR

LOW H A Z E S
I CLOUDS

AEROSOLS LOWER
DUST
20 ATMOSPHERE
I CLEAR

V 1 ATMOSPHERE
SURFACE

i5 io 7'5 loo
WIND SPEED m/s
 -36-

I n t h e upper atmosphere t h e e f f e c t s o f s o l a r h e a t i n g are

s i. g n i f i c a n t , and t h e C-bar, C- and Y-shaped f e a t u r e s a r e a l l
ass o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s u b - s o l a r p o i n t , which i s t h e p o i n t where
t h e Sun s h i n e s down on t h e Venus atmosphere from d i r e c t l y
o v e r h e a d . However, t h e f e a t u r e s move around t h e p l a n e t and
are n o t f i x e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s u b - s o l a r p o i n t .

A b i g q u e s t i o n a b o u t Venus' atmosphere i s whether t h e

a p p a r e n t motions o f t h e u l t r a v i o l e t markings a r e a r e s u l t o f
a c t u a l movement o r merely a wave motion. The e v i d e n c e t o d a y
p o i n t s t o a n a c t u a l movement of mass; i . e . , winds. But t h e r e
i s some e v i d e n c e o f wave m o t i o n s , d i u r n a l t i d e s and p a r a l l e l
equatorial belts.

The d i v i s i o n between t h e h i g h wind v e l o c i t i e s o f t h e

s t r a t o s p h e r e , and t h e n e a r c a l m o f t h e d e n s e s u r f a c e atmosphere
seems t o come a t a b o u t t h e 5 6 km ( 3 6 m i . ) l e v e l . The b i g change
i n wind v e l o c i t y t h u s a p p e a r s t o t a k e p l a c e a t t h e bottom of t h e
c l o u d s where t h e r e must b e a s h e a r zone. Thus, t h e c l o u d bottoms
are expected t o be extremely ragged.
The S o v i e t p r o b e s measured t h e amount of s o l a r r a d i a t i o n
down t o t h e s u r f a c e . Above 5 0 km ( 3 1 m i . ) , s c a t t e r i n g a p p e a r s
t o be by t h e c l o u d p a r t i c l e s . B e l o w a b o u t 25 km ( 1 5 m i . ) , t h e
s c a t t e r i n g i s R a y l e i g h s c a t t e r i n g ; i . e . , by much smaller a i r
m o l e c u l e s . A t t h e s u r f a c e , w i t h t h e S u n ' s p o s i t i o n a b o u t 30
d e g r e e s from o v e r h e a d , t h e i n t e g r a t e d f l u x w a s measured as
b e i n g a b o u t e q u a l t o t h a t o n a n o v e r c a s t day on t h e E a r t h a t
sea l e v e l i n m i d - l a t i t u d e s .

The h i g h v e l o c i t y winds i n t h e Venus atmosphere might a r i s e

b e c a u s e t h e p l a n e t h a s such a m a s s i v e and d e e p atmosphere. Large-
s c a l e e d d i e s c o n t a i n i n g a l o t o f e n e r g y c o u l d t r a n s p o r t momentum
from low t o h i g h a l t i t u d e s w i t h a h i g h a m p l i f i c a t i o n . The i o n
wind s p e e d s i n t h e d e n s e l o w e r atmosphere produced by t h e h e a t
from t h e Sun and t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e p l a n e t a r e a m p l i f i e d i n t o
t h e t h i n upper atmosphere.

L o w e r Atmosphere

The p e n e t r a t i o n of Veneras 9 and 1 0 i n t o t h e lower atmosphere

produced new i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h i s r e g i o n . A t a b o u t 50 km ( 3 0 m i . )
a l t i t u d e , t h e wind v e l o c i t y a p p e a r s t o b e a b o u t 1 3 0 kph ( 8 0 mph).
A t t h e l a n d i n g s i t e of Venera 9 , t h e l o c a l wind v e l o c i t y v a r i e d
from 1 . 2 t o 2.5 kph ( . 9 t o 1 . 4 mph); a t t h e Venera 1 0 s i t e , i t
v a r i e d from 2 . 9 t o 4 . 7 kph ( 1 . 8 t o 9 . 2 mph). The two l a n d e r s
t h u s confirmed a l o w wind v e l o c i t y close t o t h e s u r f a c e , as w e l l
as l i t t l e d u s t c o n t e n t i n t h e l o w atmosphere.
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There are s t i l l many u n r e s o l v e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e

atmosphere o f Venus t h a t need t o b e answered, such as:

0 How d o e s t h e Venus w e a t h e r machine r e a l l y work?

0 I t i s r e a l l y a greenhouse e f f e c t t h a t makes Venus

so h o t compared w i t h t h e E a r t h ? O r i s t h e r e a
dynamic cause?

Did Venus once have a more moderate s u r f a c e

temperature?

What c a u s e s t h e d a r k markings i n t h e Venus c l o u d s ?

0 What a r e t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e Venus atmosphere?

Thermal e m i s s i o n from t h e upper atmosphere d i f f e r s v e r y

l i t t l e between n i g h t and day and between l o w and h i g h l a t i t u d e .
T h i s i n d i c a t e s a dynamic a c t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e atmosphere, and
s u g g e s t s t h a t h e a t i n s u b s t a n t i a l amounts i s b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d
around t h e p l a n e t h o r i z o n t a l l y . There are dynamic a c t i v i t i e s
a t a l l l e v e l s b e c a u s e s p a c e c r a f t have d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e s o l a r
r a d i a t i o n p e n e t r a t e s through t h e clouds and, t h e r e f o r e , a f f e c t s
t h e atmosphere down t o t h e s u r f a c e . D i r e c t s o l a r h e a t i n g i s
most i m p o r t a n t above 56 km ( 3 4 m i . ) ; dynamic e f f e c t s below t h a t .
Over t h e whole of t h e p l a n e t t h e r e i s a l s o t h e e f f e c t
o f t h e atmosphere a t t h e e q u a t o r r i s i n g a s i t i s w a r m e d by
s u n l i g h t , and s i n k i n g n e a r t h e P o l e s , a s it c o o l s .

The S u r f a c e of Venus

Radar h a s r e v e a l e d l a r g e - s c a l e f e a t u r e s t h a t s u g g e s t
t e c t o n i c s and impact molding of Venus' topography. Details
of t h e s u r f a c e have been p r o v i d e d by t h e two S o v i e t l a n d e r
spacecraft.

The r a d a r o b s e r v a t i o n s r e v e a l a l a r g e - s c a l e g r a n u l a r
s t r u c t u r e , s u g g e s t i v e of a r o c k - s t r e w n d e s e r t . Large b u t
s h a l l o w c i r c u l a r f e a t u r e s , most l i k e l y c r a t e r s , a r e found i n
equatorial regions. Some areas of h i g h r a d a r r e f l e c t i v i t y a r e
i n t e r p r e t e d a s e x t e n s i v e l a v a f l o w s and mountainous areas. A
major chasm s t r e t c h e s 1 4 0 0 km ( 8 7 0 m i . ) n o r t h and s o u t h a c r o s s
t h e equator.
A t f i v e d e g r e e s s o u t h l a t i t u d e and 3 2 0 d e g r e e s l o n g i t u d e
i s t h e h i g h mountain B e t a w i t h a c r a t e r e d t o p l i k e t h e l a r g e
Martian volcanoes. There are a l s o a r c u a t e r i d g e s . One i s a t
l e a s t 8 0 0 km ( 4 8 0 m i . ) l o n g . There a r e mountainous a r e a s which
may b e v o l c a n i c o r a r e s u l t of c r u s t a l p l a t e movements.
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 -38-

P h o t o g r a p h s f rom one S o v i e t l a n d e r s p a c e c r a f t c o n f i r m a
d r y rocky s u r f a c e t h a t h a s been f r a c t u r e d and moved a b o u t by
unknown p r o c e s s e s . T h e second l a n d e r produced a p i c t u r e of
r o c k s w i t h rounded e d g e s and p i t t e d s u r f a c e s . The forms of
t h e s e r o c k s may b e e x p l a i n e d by v o l c a n i c a c t i v i t i e s h a v i n g
t a k e n p l a c e on the s u r f a c e .

T h e e x i s t e n c e of c r a t e r s on Venus s u g g e s t s t h a t i t s s u r f a c e
h a s n o t been s u b j e c t e d t o t h e major t e c t o n i c changes e x p e r i e n c e d
on E a r t h , b u t t h a t i t h a s p r o b a b l y e v o l v e d somewhat a l o n g t h e
same l i n e s as Mars. Some o l d cratered t e r r a i n i s p r e s e r v e d
w h i l e o t h e r p a r t s have been m o d i f i e d by t e c t o n i c s and v o l c a n i s m .
Venus m i g h t , i n d e e d , have e v o l v e d t o a s t a g e between t h a t o f
Mars and t h a t of t h e E a r t h .

Venera 9 l a n d e d a t 3 3 d e g r e e s n o r t h l a t i t u d e . Its p i c t u r e
shows h e a p s of rocks, m o s t l y a b o u t 30 c m ( 1 2 i n . ) o r more i n
s i z e , and w i t h r a t h e r s h a r p e d g e s . T h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s e rocks
i s b e l i e v e d t o be associated w i t h t e c t o n i c p r o c e s s e s . The l a n d e r
i s b e l i e v e d t o be on t h e s i d e of a h i l l i n which t h e r e i s some
downward movement o f t h e r o c k s . T h e s h a r p e d g e s and lack o f
r o u n d i n g of t h e r o c k s a t t h i s s i t e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y were
formed from b r e a k a g e of h a r d , l a y e r e d r o c k s , p o s s i b l y a lava
flow

Venera 1 0 l a n d e d a t 1 5 d e g r e e s n o r t h l a t i t u d e , i n a n area
w i t h a much smoother s u r f a c e . This i s b e l i e v e d t o be a p l a t e a u
o r p l a i n o f g r e a t e r r e l a t i v e a g e t h a n t h e s i t e of Venera 9 .
There are s o m e rocky e l e v a t i o n s which a r e c o v e r e d w i t h a
r e l a t i v e l y dark, fine-grained s o i l . This i m p l i e s t h a t t h e
rocks have been w e a t h e r e d , p o s s i b l y by c h e m i c a l a c t i o n w i t h
t h e atmosphere. I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e g e n t l e winds a t t h e
s u r f a c e c o u l d have been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e w e a t h e r i n g .
G e n e r a l l y a t t h i s s i t e t h e m a t e r i a l of t h e Venusian s o i l i s
d a r k , b u t t h e r e are o u t c r o p s of l i g h t e r - c o l o r e d r o c k p e n e t r a t i n g
t h e s o i l . Some o f t h e d a r k s o i l f i l l s d e p r e s s i o n s of t h e
o u t c r o p s . T h i s s u r f a c e i s i n t e r p r e t e d as b e i n g much o l d e r and
more w e a t h e r e d t h a n t h e s u r f a c e s e e n a t t h e Venera 9 s i t e . The
w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s may b e a chemical i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e
h o t r o c k s and t h e atmosphere, p o s s i b l y by m i n e r a l a c i d s and
w a t e r vapor.
Measurements made by t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e
sarface r o c k s have a d e n s i t y between 2 . 7 and 2 . 9 grams p e r
c u b i c c e n t i m e t e r , which i s t y p i c a l of t e r r e s t r i a l b a s a l t i c
rocks.
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 -40-

Surface temperatures appear to be high enough to make

portions of the surface glow a dull red. They are high enough
to melt zinc, but not most common rocks. The Venus rocks at
the two landing sites are about as radioactive as terrestrial
lavas and granites. This suggests that Venus, like Earth,
has differentiated by heating to form a dense core and a
lighter crust.
Though it has dramatic major features, the surface is
smoother than that of Earth and Mars. Radar-measured minimum
to maximum height differences are 10 km (6 mi.)-- the height
of Mt. Everest. This compares with 20 km (12.4 mi.) on the
Earth, from the bottom of the Mariannas Trench to the top
of Everest. It compares with 30 km (18.6 mi.) on Mars, from
the floor of the Hellas basin to the peak of Olympus Mons.
Craters on Venus seem to be shallower than on the other worlds
of the inner solar system.
On the Moon and Mercury, and to a somewhat lesser extent
on Mars, the ratio of craters diameter to depth is about 10
to 1. On Venus, according to the radar surveys, the ratio
is more like 100 to 1. The craters on Venus seem to be
extremely shallow; the reason is not known. It could result
from plastic deformation of the hot surface or from some
weathering process.

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MAJOR QUESTIONS ABOUT VENUS

0 A p a r t from c a r b o n d i o x i d e , of what does t h e lower atmos-

p h e r e c o n s i s t , and how a r e i t s c o n s t i t u e n t s d i s t r i b u t e d ?

Venus p r o b a b l y h a s l e s s t h a n s e v e n p e r c e n t of g a s e s
o t h e r t h a n c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n i t s lower atmosphere. M o s t
l i k e l y c a n d i d a t e s f o r o t h e r m a j o r g a s e s a r e a r g o n and
n i t r o g e n . T h e r e a r e no measurements o f l o w e r atmosphere
g a s e s o t h e r t h a n t h e S o v i e t measurements of c a r b o n
d i o x i d e and w a t e r v a p o r .

0 Of what m a t e r i a l s a r e Venus' c l o u d s made?

The v i s i b l e c l o u d s p r o b a b l y c o n s i s t of s u l p h u r i c a c i d
d r o p l e t s , p e r h a p s formed by s u l f u r compounds from t h e
surface.
0 What o t h e r c l o u d l a y e r s a r e t h e r e ?

Some k i n d s of c l o u d p a r t i c l e s a b s o r b s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t
radiation. T h i s i s needed t o e x p l a i n t h e u l t r a v i o l e t
p h o t o g r a p h s which show d a r k r e g i o n s . These d i f f e r e n t
k i n d s of c l o u d p a r t i c l e s c o u l d be m e t a l h a l i d e s o r s u l f u r .

0 What can t h e lowermost atmosphere t e l l u s a b o u t t h e

p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e and i n t e r i o r ?

S u r f a c e c o n s t i t u e n t s ( p o s s i b l y hydrogen f l u o r i d e and
mercury and s u l f u r compounds) may b e d e t e c t a b l e i n t h e
bottom 2 0 km ( 1 2 m i . ) of t h e h o t , d e n s e atmosphere.

0 How d o e s t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and d e n s i t y v a r y g l o b a l l y
about t h e planet?

0 Why i s Venus' lower atmosphere s o h o t ?

T h i s i s p r o b a b l y due t o a runaway g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t i n
which h e a t from t h e Sun i s m o r e e a s i l y a b s o r b e d t h a n
reradiated.

0 What r o l e do v a p o r i z a t i o n - c o n d e n s a t i o n c y c l e s p l a y i n t h e
atmosphere, and how do t h e s e p r o c e s s e s a f f e c t Venus'
weather?

0 What a r e t h e c o m p o s i t i o n and t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s of t h e
upper atmosphere?

0 How does t e m p e r a t u r e v a r y i n s p a c e and t i m e i n t h e upper

atmosphere?

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l
 -42-

0 What a r e t h e roles o f g l o b a l c i r c u l a t i o n and l o c a l

t u r b u l e n c e i n s t a b i l i z i n g t h e u p p e r atmosphere?

0 What a r e t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e n e u t r a l p a r t i c l e s on iono-
s p h e r e composition?

0 How h i g h d o e s s u p e r r o t a t i o n ( f o u r - d a y r o t a t i o n ) of t h e
cloud tops extend?

0 S i n c e Venus h a s no m a g n e t i c f i e l d , t h e s o l a r wind i n t e r -
a c t s d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e . What mechanisms
d o e s t h i s c r e a t e , and do t h e y a f f e c t t h e l o w e r atmosphere?

0 Where d i d Venus' a t m o s p h e r e come from and where i s i t

going?

The main s o u r c e s of Venus' a t m o s p h e r e p r o b a b l y a r e o u t -

g a s s i n g from t h e i n t e r i o r , g a s e s from t h e o r i g i n a l s o l a r
n e b u l a and some s o l a r wind p a r t i c l e s .

0 Where i s t h e water t h a t may h a v e o n c e been on Venus?

The o b v i o u s a n s w e r s a r e t h a t i t e i t h e r " l e a k e d " t o s p a c e

b e c a u s e o f h i g h Venus h e a t i n g , o r i t w a s n e v e r t h e r e .
B u t numerous q u e s t i o n s r e m a i n .

0 Why does Venus' a t m o s p h e r e d i f f e r so much from t h a t of

i t s "twin" p l a n e t , Earth?
0 I s a l l Venus t e r r a i n r e l a t i v e l y low compared t o E a r t h and
Mars o r d o e s Venus' " i n v i s i b l e hemisphere" c o n t a i n h i g h
m o u n t a i n s a n d deep canyons c o m p a r a b l e t o t h o s e on E a r t h
and Mars?

0 Is Venus a s c l o s e t o a p e r f e c t s p h e r e as t h e e q u a t o r i a l
measurements s u g g e s t ?

0 Does Venus' i n t e r i o r c o n t a i n l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of h i g h
density material.

The l o c k i n g o f Venus' r o t a t i o n t o E a r t h ' s o r b i t s u g g e s t s

such m a s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .

0 What i s t h e s u r f a c e topography?

0 What i s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e ?

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H I S T O R I C A L D I S C O V E R I E S ABOUT VENUS

684 BC Ninevah t a b l e t s record o b s e r v a t i o n s of Venus.

1610 Using t h e newly-invented t e l e s c o p e , G a l i l e o

f i n d s t h a t Venus e x h i b i t s p h a s e s l i k e those of
t h e Moon.

1761 M i k h a i l V . Lomonosov ( U . S .S .R) i n t e r p r e t s optical

e f f e c t s o b s e r v e d d u r i n g t r a n s i t of Venus as due
t o a n atmosphere on t h e p l a n e t .
1792 .
Johann H S c h r o t e r (Germany) c o n c l u d e s Venus h a s
a n atmosphere b e c a u s e t h e c u s p s a t t h e c r e s c e n t
p h a s e e x t e n d beyond t h e g e o m e t r i c a l c r e s c e n t .
1807 Johann Wurm (Germany) d e t e r m i n e s t h e d i a m e t e r of
t h e v i s i b l e d i s c of Venus a s 1 2 , 2 9 3 km (7,639 m i . ) .

1890 S c h i a p a r e l l i concludes from h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t

Venus r o t a t e s i n 225 d a y s .
1 9 20 Edward S t . J o h n ( U . S . ) and S e t h B . N i c h o l s o n
(U.S.) s u g g e s t t h a t Venus i s a d r y , d u s t y w o r l d
b e c a u s e t h e y c a n n o t d e t e c t any water vapor i n i t s
atmosphere.
1922 L y o t measures t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n of s u n l i g h t re-
f l e c t e d from t h e c l o u d s of Venus and i n t r o d u c e s
a new method of i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e s i z e and n a t u r e
of p a r t i c l e s i n i t s c l o u d s .

1932 Walter S . A d a m s (U.S.) and Theodore Dunham (U.S.)

d e t e c t c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n t h e atmosphere of Venus.

1942 Rupert W i l d t (U.S.) shows t h a t t h e h i g h s u r f a c e

t e m p e r a t u r e of Venus c o u l d a r i s e from a g r e e n -
house e f f e c t i n a n atmosphere w i t h a h i g h p r o p o r -
t i o n of c a r b o n d i o x i d e .

1955 F r e d Hoyle ( U n i t e d Kingdom) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e

Venus c l o u d s a r e a photochemical hydrocarbon smog.

1 9 56 Radio waves a t 3-cm wavelength a r e d e t e c t e d from

Venus and show t h a t t h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e is
v e r y h i g h ; a b o u t 330 d e g r e e s C (625 d e g r e e s F . ) .
1957 C h a r l e s Boyer ( F r a n c e ) d i s c o v e r s a four-day r o t a -
t i o n p e r i o d of t h e u l t r a v i o l e t markings i n t h e
c l o u d s of Venus.

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l
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1960 Adouin D o l l f u s [France) d e t e r m i n e s p r e s s u r e a t

c l o u d t o p s as 9 0 m i l l i b a r s , u s i n g p o l a r i m e t r y .

1960 C a r l Sagan ( U . S . I c a l c u l a t e s h e a t i n g i n atmos-

p h e r e w i t h l a r g e amounts of c a r b o n d i o x i d e and
w a t e r v a p o r , c o n c l u d e s s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e can
be r a i s e d by g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t t o above t h e b o i l -
i n g p o i n t of w a t e r , 1 0 0 d e g r e e s C ( 2 1 2 d e g r e e s F . ) .

1962 Low r a d a r r e f l e c t i v i t y of Venus r u l e s o u t any

p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e r e b e i n g l a r g e b o d i e s of w a t e r
on t h e p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e .

1962 Radar o b s e r v a t i o n of Venus e s t a b l i s h e s r o t a t i o n

a s r e t r o g r a d e i n a p e r i o d of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 4 0
days.

1962 Mariner 2 f l y b y confirms high s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e -

( a t l e a s t 75 a t m o s p h e r e s ) a n d t e m p e r a t u r e ( a b o u t
650 d e g r e e s K) and shows no s u b s t a n t i a l m a g n e t i c
field.

1967 M a r i n e r 5 f l y b y u s e s r a d i o o c c u l t a t i o n t o measure
s t r u c t u r e of upper atmosphere and l o c a t e h e i g h t
of c l o u d s above s u r f a c e ; d i s c o v e r s i o n o s p h e r e and
f i n d s t h a t c a r b o n d i o x i d e i s major compound of
atmosphere.

1967 James P o l l a c k ( U . S . ) and Sagan c a l c u l a t e g r e e n -

house e f f e c t f o r m a s s i v e Venus atmosphere, show-
i n g t h a t s o l a r energy a l o n e can h e a t s u r f a c e t o
above 450 d e g r e e s C (845 d e g r e e s F . ) .

1968 Radius of Venus s u r f a c e d e t e r m i n e d from r a d a r

t o b e 6,050 km ( 3 , 7 5 0 m i . ) w i t h u n c e r t a i n t y of
l e s s t h a n 5 km ( 3 m i . ) .

1968 S u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e s and p r e s s u r e s a r e e s t i m a t e d
from r a d i o and r a d a r d a t a a s 4 7 7 d e g r e e s C ( 8 9 0
d e g r e e s F . ) and 9 0 a t m o s p h e r e s .

1 9 69 U.S.S.R. probes,Venera 5 and 6 , s u c c e s s f u l l y l a n d

on s u r f a c e , d e t e r m i n e a c c u r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e (750
d e g r e e s K) and p r e s s u r e ( 9 0 a t m o s p h e r e s ) , a l s o
s t r u c t u r e of lower atmosphere.

1 97 1 A n a l y s i s of p o l a r i z a t i o n d a t a by James Hansen
and A l b e r t Arking ( U . S . ) shows t h a t t h e c l o u d
p a r t i c l e s are s p h e r i c a l with a r e f r a c t i v e index
of 1 . 4 4 , r a d i u s of 1 . 0 5 pm and a l o c a t i o n a t a
p r e s s u r e l e v e l of 50 m i l l i b a r s .

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 -45-

1972 A.T. Young and G . S i l l ( U . S . ) independently

c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n d a t a imply t h a t
Venus c l o u d s a r e composed of s u l p h u r i c a c i d
droplets.

1972 U.S.S.R. Venera 8 l a n d e r measures r a d i o a c t i v e

c o n t e n t of s u r f a c e r o c k s , c o n c l u d e s Venus i s
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . Also d e t e r m i n e s t h a t s u n l i g h t
( a few p e r c e n t ) p e n e t r a t e s t o s u r f a c e .

1973 O b s e r v a t i o n s of c a r b o n d i o x i d e a b s o r p t i o n s i n
Venus atmosphere show a 20 p e r c e n t f l u c t u a t i o n
o v e r a four-day p e r i o d , i n t e r p r e t e d a s upward
and downward motions of c l o u d deck p l a n e t w i d e .

1973 R a d a r s c a n s of Venus r e v e a l huge s h a l l o w c r a t e r s

on t h e p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e .

1973 P o l l a c k makes o b s e r v a t i o n s of Venus from h i g h -

f l y i n g a i r c r a f t and c o n c l u d e s t h a t c l o u d s a r e
deep h a z e s of s u l f u r i c a c i d d r o p s .

1974 R i c h a r d G o l d s t e i n ( U .S .) p r o d u c e s h i g h r e s o l u -
t i o n r a d a r images of s m a l l areas of t h e p l a n e t ' s
s u r f a c e showing many t o p o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s .

1974 Mariner 1 0 ( f l y b y ) o b t a i n s d e t a i l e d u l t r a v i o l e t
photographs of c l o u d s , determined c i r c u l a t i o n
p a t t e r n s i n upper atmosphere.

1976 U.S.S.R. Venera 9 and 1 0 l a n d e r s photograph

s u r f a c e a t t w o l o c a t i o n s , showing exposed r o c k s
and e v i d e n c e of e r o s i o n p r o c e s s e s .

1976 Arvydas K l i o r e ( U . S . ) and c o l l e a g u e s c o n c l u d e

from r a d i o o c c u l t a t i o n d a t a t h a t a d d i t i o n a l
d i s c r e t e c l o u d l a y e r s e x i s t below t h e main s u l -
f u r i c acid clouds.

1977 Radar images w i t h t h e upgraded A r e c i b o r a d a r

i n d i c a t e l a r g e v o l c a n o e s and c r a t e r s on p l a n e t .

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EXPLORATION OF VENUS BY SPACECRAFT

Venus h a s b e e n e x p l o r e d by 1 3 s p a c e c r a f t of which t h r e e
w e r e American and 1 0 w e r e R u s s i a n . F i v e o f t h e s e s p a c e c r a f t
were f l y b y s and e i g h t were l a n d e r s . S e v e r a l of t h e R u s s i a n
s p a c e c r a f t c o n s i s t e d of b o t h o r b i t e r s and l a n d e r s which sepa-
r a t e d on a r r i v a l a t Venus. The r e c o r d i s a s f o l l o w s :

Venera 1 (U.S.S.R.) A f l y b y s p a c e c r a f t ; p a s s e d Venus

May 1 9 6 1 . N o s c i e n c e d a t a w e r e
returned, according t o r e p o r t s .

Mariner 2 ( U . S . )
A f l y b y s p a c e c r a f t ; p a s s e d Venus
December 1 9 6 2 . D i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e
temperature averages 426 degrees C
( 7 9 9 d e g r e e s F . ) on b o t h n i g h t and
day h e m i s p h e r e s , and t h a t t h e p l a n e t
h a s v i r t u a l l y no magnetic f i e l d and
no r a d i a t i o n b e l t s .

Venera 2 (U.S.S.R.) A f l y b y s p a c e c r a f t : p a s s e d Venus

F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 6 . An a t t e m p t t o photo-
g r a p h Venus a p p a r e n t l y was n o t
successful.

Venera 3 (U.S.S.R.) A lander spacecraft: entered t h e

atmosphere March 1 9 6 6 . N o r e p o r t s
o f any s c i e n t i f i c d a t a b e i n g r e t u r n e d .

Venera 4 (U.S.S.R.) A l a n d e r s p a c e c r a f t ; e n t e r e d atmos-

p h e r e of Venus O c t o b e r 1967, and
returned data during descent t o a
f e w a t m o s p h e r e s . Determined t h e
atmosphere i s mainly c a r b o n d i o x i d e .

M a r i n e r 5 (U.S.) A f l y b y s p a c e c r a f t ; passed October

1 9 6 7 . P r o v i d e d t e m p e r a t u r e and
p r e s s u r e p r o f i l e s t o 527 d e g r e e s C
( 9 8 1 d e g r e e s F . ) and 1 0 0 atmospheres
a t t h e s u r f a c e . Determined t h e de-
t a i l e d s t r u c t u r e of t h e i o n o s p h e r e ,
and d i s c o v e r e d t h e atomic hydrogen
corona.

Venera 5 (U.S.S.R.) A lander spacecraft; descent capsule

e n t e r e d t h e atmosphere i n May 1 9 6 9 .
Measured t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and
atmospheric composition.

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Venera 6 (U.S.S.R.)
Venera 7 ( U . S . S . R . )
Venera 8 (U.S.S.R.)
Mariner 1 0 ( U . S . )
Venera 9 (U.S.S.R.)
Venera 1 0 ( U . S .S . R . )
-47-
A lander spacecraft; capsule entered
t h e a t m o s p h e r e May 1 9 6 9 . Determined
low w a t e r v a p o r c o n t e n t ; s u g g e s t e d
p r e s e n c e o f n i t r o g e n . Measured car-
bon d i o x i d e a s 9 3 t o 9 7 p e r c e n t of
a t m o s p h e r e , and oxygen l e s s t h a n 0 . 4
p e r c e n t ; s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e of n e a r l y
100 atmospheres.
A lander spacecraft; entry capsule
p e n e t r a t e d t h e a t m o s p h e r e December
1971; data w e r e transmitted for 23
m i n u t e s from t h e s u r f a c e . Measured
a s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e o f 543 d e g r e e s C
( 1 , 0 0 9 d e g r e e s F . ) and a p r e s s u r e of
9 0 atmospheres.
A lander s p a c e c r a f t ; capsule landed
J u l y 1 9 7 2 , and t r a n s m i t t e d s u r f a c e
d a t a f o r 1 0 7 m i n u t e s . Determined
amounts o f uranium, t h o r i u m and p o t a s -
sium i n s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l s and showed
t h e y w e r e s i m i l a r t o amounts i n t e r -
r e s t r i a l r o c k s . Measured a s u r f a c e
t e m p e r a t u r e o f 530 d e g r e e s C (986
degrees F.) .
Mercury-bound s p a c e c r a f t ; passed Venus
February 1974. Obtained f i r s t pic-
t u r e s from s p a c e c r a f t . Revealed t h e
s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l s of t h e c l o u d s i n
u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t . Confirmed t h e c-,
y- and p s i - s h a p e d c l o u d m a r k i n g s ,
and f o u r - d a y r o t a t i o n o f t h e s e mark-
i n g s . Found s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f
h e l i u m and c o n f i r m e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f
hydrogen i n t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e .
Photographed h i g h - a l t i t u d e haze l a y e r s .
A lander s p a c e c r a f t . Capsule reached
s u r f a c e O c t o b e r 1 9 7 5 a t 33 d e g r e e s N .
l a t i t u d e , 293 d e g r e e s l o n g i t u d e . R e -
t u r n e d f i r s t p i c t u r e from t h e s u r f a c e
o f Venus. Measured wind s p e e d s , p r e s -
s u r e , t e m p e r a t u r e and s o l a r r a d i a t i o n
f l u x throughout t h e atmosphere t o t h e
s u r f a c e . O r b i t e r surveyed p l a n e t .
A lander s p a c e c r a f t ; capsule reached
s u r f a c e October 1975 a t 1 5 degrees N .
l a t i t u d e , 295 d e g r e e s l o n g i t u d e . R e -
t u r n e d second s u r f a c e p i c t u r e . O r b i t e r
s u r v e y e d p l a n e t and l o o k e d a t s u r f a c e
w i t h b i s t a t i c radar. Determined s u r f a c e
e l e v a t i o n s d i f f e r e d b o n l y a few k i l o -
meters a l o n g o r b i t e r Track.
 -48-

THE PIONEER VENUS SPACECRAFT

The P i o n e e r Venus m i s s i o n w i l l b e accomplished by two

s e p a r a t e s p a c e c r a f t , t h e 3 r b i t e r and t h e M u l t i p r o b e . The
Orbiter, carrying 1 2 s c i e n t i f i c instruments, w i l l globally
s u r v e y Venus' atmosphere and s u r r o u n d i n g environment. It
w i l l s t u d y t h e Venusian s u r f a c e and p e r f o r m one a s t r o n o m i c a l
experiment .
The M u l t i p r o b e w i l l d i v i d e i n t o f i v e atmosphere e n t r y
c r a f t as it a p p r o a c h e s Venus from E a r t h . These a r e t h e
t r a n s p o r t e r Bus, t h e Large and t h r e e Small P r o b e s . The
f o u r p r o b e s w i l l measure Venus' atmosphere from i t s t e n u o u s
b e g i n n i n g s down t o t h e d e n s e s u p e r h e a t e d r e g i o n s a t t h e s u r -
face. A f t e r l a u n c h i n g t h e p r o b e s , t h e B U S , t o o , w i l l e n t e r
and measure c o m p o s i t i o n o f Venus' u p p e r atmosphere.

Together t h e f i v e atmospheric entry c r a f t w i l l carry

1 8 s c i e n t i f i c instruments. The Large Probe c a r r i e s s e v e n
i n s t r u m e n t s ; t h e Small P r o b e s , t h r e e e a c h , and t h e BUS, two.

To meet t h e P i o n e e r Venus r e q u i r e m e n t f o r two r e l a t i v e l y

s i m p l e and l o w c o s t s p a c e c r a f t , d e s i g n e r s chose s p i n n i n g ve-
hicles. Spinning c y l i n d r i c a l s p a c e c r a f t provide s t a b i l i t y
w i t h minimum w e i g h t , good s o l a r c e l l deployment, v i e w i n g
f o r e x p e r i m e n t s i n a f u l l c i r c l e and s p i n s c a n f o r t h e
imaging system.

The B a s i c Bus

T h e Venus O r b i t e r and Venus M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t s h a r e

a ''basic bus" design. T h r e e q u a r t e r s of t h e s y s t e m on t h e
b a s i c b u s e s a r e common t o b o t h s p a c e c r a f t . I n t h e Multi-
p r o b e d e s i g n , t h e f o u r atmosphere e n t r y p r o b e s a r e mounted
on t h e f l a t s u r f a c e which i s t h e t o p o r f o r w a r d end o f t h e
bus c y l i n d e r .
The common s y s t e m s on t h e - b a s i c b u s f o r b o t h s p a c e c r a f t
i n c l u d e a t h e r m a l l y - c o n t r o l l e d equipment and e x p e r i m e n t s c o m -
p a r t m e n t : s o l a r - e l e c t r i c p a n e l s , b a t t e r i e s and power d i s -
t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m ; f o r w a r d and a f t "omni" a n t e n n a s ; communi-
c a t i o n s s y s t e m ; d a t a - p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m ; Sun and s t a r s e n s o r s
f o r o r i e n t a t i o n r e f e r e n c e d u r i n g c r u i s e and maneuvers; hy-
d r a z i n e p r o p e l l a n t t a n k s ; and t h r u s t e r s f o r o r i e n t a t i o n ,
c o u r s e changes and s p i n - r a t e c o n t r o l .

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Structure

T h e b a s i c bus p o r t i o n s of b o t h s p a c e c r a f t a r e t h e i r
main b o d i e s , f l a t c y l i n d e r s , 2 . 5 m ( 8 . 3 f t ) i n d i a m e t e r and
1 . 2 m (4 f t . ) high.

The b u s e s p r o v i d e a s p i n - s t a b i l i z e d p l a t f o r m f o r
s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s , s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s and i n t h e c a s e
of t h e M u l t i p r o b e , t h e f o u r probe c r a f t . A c i r c u l a r e q u i p -
ment s h e l f w i t h an a r e a of 4 . 3 7 sq. m ( 5 0 s q . f t . ) i s l o c a t e d
i n t h e upper o r foward end of t h e bus c y l i n d e r . The s h e l f
i s mounted on t h e f o r w a r d end of t h e t h r u s t t u b e , t h e r i g i d
s t r u c t u r e which c o n n e c t s t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o t h e l a u n c h ve-
hicle. Twelve e q u a l l y spaced s t r u t s s u p p o r t t h e equipment
s h e l f p e r i m e t e r from t h e b a s e of t h e t h r u s t t u b e . The
c y l i n d r i c a l s o l a r a r r a y i s , i n t u r n , a t t a c h e d t o t h e equip-
ment s h e l f w i t h 2 4 b r a c k e t s .

Thermal l o u v e r s ( f i f t e e n on t h e O r b i t e r and e l e v e n on
t h e M u l t i p r o b e ) a t t a c h e d t o t h e lower s u r f a c e of t h e e q u i p -
ment s h e l f , open and c l o s e ( w i t h heat-sensitive-bimetallic
s p r i n g s ) t o c o n t r o l h e a t r a d i a t i o n from t h e equipment
compartment. Large h e a t p r o d u c e r s , such a s r a d i o ampli-
f i e r s , a r e l o c a t e d o v e r s e v e r a l of t h e s e l o u v e r s .

Maneuver System

The maneuvering system o f t h e b a s i c bus c o n t r o l s s p i n

r a t e s , makes c o u r s e and o r b i t c o r r e c t i o n s , and m a i n t a i n s
spin axis position--usually perpendicular t o the e c l i p t i c
f o r both spacecraft.

Beneath t h e equipment compartment, a l s o a t t a c h e d t o t h e

t h r u s t tube, a r e t w o conical-hemispheric p r o p e l l a n t tanks,
3 3 cm. ( 1 2 . 8 i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r . The t a n k s s t o r e h y d r a z i n e
p r o p e l l a n t f o r two a x i a l and f o u r r a d i a l t h r u s t e r s . These
can change s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t i a t i o n , s p i n r a t e o r v e l o c i t y .

The maneuver s y s t e m h a s one mid-range Sun s e n s o r , two

extended-range Sun s e n s o r s , and a s t a r s e n s o r t o s e n s e
s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t a t i o n and p r o v i d e a r e f e r e n c e f o r f i n d i n g
spin-axis angle. The s t a r s e n s o r i s mounted on t h e e q u i g -
ment s h e l f and h a s a l o o k a n g l e of a b o u t 5 7 d e g r e e s t o t h e
s p i n a x i s . Sun s e n s o r s are a l l a t one p o i n t on t h e e q u i p -
ment s h e l f p e r i m e t e r . They look r a d i a l l y t h r o u g h an open-
i n g i n t h e s o l a r a r r a y and see t h e Sun on e a c h r o t a t i o n .

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Redundant d a t a p r o c e s s o r u n i t s f o r m a t t h e Sun and

star sensor outputs f o r telemetry transmission t o the Earth,
t o calculate spacecraft orientation. These d a t a p r o c e s s o r s
a l s o p r o v i d e sequenced f i r i n g commands t o t h e t h r u s t e r s t o
make o r i e n t a t i o n , v e l o c i t y and s p i n r a t e changes.

The s y s t e m ' s two a x i a l t h r u s t e r n o z z l e s a r e a l i g n e d

w i t h t h e s p i n a x i s , and a r e l o c a t e d a t t o p and bottom o f
t h e b u s c y l i n d e r , d i a g o n a l l y o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r . They p o i n t
i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s , and t o t u r n t h e b u s s p i n a x i s ,
both fire i n pulses i n opposite directions. To s p e e d up o r
s l o w down t h e b u s a l o n g t h e d i r e c t i o n o f i t s s p i n a x i s , o n l y
one t h r u s t e r i s p u l s e f i r e d a t two p o i n t s 1 8 0 d e g r e e s a p a r t
around t h e c i r c l e o f b u s r o t a t i o n . Either the top o r
b o t t o m t h r u s t e r can be p u l s e d d e p e n d i n g on d e s i r e d d i r e c -
t i o n of v e l o c i t y change.

The O r b i t e r h a s a t h i r d a x i a l t h r u s t e r . This i s loca-

t e d on t h e bottom o f t h e b u s c y l i n d e r and a l l o w s c o n t i n u o u s
f i r i n g o f two b o t t o m t h r u s t e r s t o make t h e moves i n an a x i a l
d i r e c t i o n needed f o r o r b i t changes.

The f o u r r a d i a l t h r u s t e r s a r e a r r a n g e d i n two p a i r s ,
with the pairs pointing i n opposite directions. They a r e
mounted a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n a p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e s p i n
a x i s , and t h i s p l a n e p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y .
The r a d i a l t h r u s t e r s change t h e v e l o c i t y i n a d i r e c t i o n
perpendicular t o t h e spin axis.

These r a d i a l t h r u s t e r s a l s o have been p l a c e d a t f o u r

e q u i d i s t a n t p o i n t s a r o u n d t h e p e r i m e t e r o f t h e bus c y l i n d e r .
T h i s h a s t h e e f f e c t o f p o i n t i n g them a t o p p o s i t e a c u t e an-
g l e s t o t h e c i r c l e of r o t a t i o n . The r e s u l t i s t h a t f i r i n g
two o f them 180 d e g r e e s a p a r t , t o g e t h e r , w i l l s l o w down
t h e s p i n r a t e . The o t h e r two w i l l s p e e d i t up.

Power Svstem

The b u s s o l a r power s y s t e m p r o v i d e s 2 8 - v o l t DC elec-

t r i c power t o O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s
and s p a c e c r a f t s u b s y s t e m s . Seven r e s i s t i v e s h u n t l i m i t e r s
h o l d t h e maximum v o l t a g e a t 30.8 v o l t s . When t h e v o l t a g e
d r o p s below 2 7 . 8 v o l t s , t h e b a t t e r i e s s t a r t t o s h a r e t h e
load through discharge c o n t r o l l e r s . Small s o l a r a r r a y s re-
charge t h e batteries.

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A s w i t c h p r o t e c t s t h e main power bus f r o m c u r r e n t

o v e r l o a d s o r u n d e r v o l t a c e by a u t o m a t i c a l l y t u r n i n g
o f f i n s t r u m e n t s , switched l o a d s , and t r a n s m i t t e r buses.
T h e s y s t e m ’ s a r r a y of s o l a r c e l l s i s s l i g h t l y s m a l l e r f o r
t h e M u l t i p r o b e bus t h a n f o r t h e O r b i t e r bus b e c a u s e of t h e
h
- i.g h e r power demands of O r b i t e r ’ s 1 2 e x p e r i m e n t s . - T h e O r b i t e r
s o l a r a r r a y h a s 7 . 2 sq. m ( 7 7 . 8 sq. f t . ) of 2 x 2 c m ( .8 x .8 i n . )
c e l l s . When a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e Sun l i n e , these p r o v i d e 226
w a t t s n e a r E a r t h and 3 1 2 w a t t s a t Venus. The M u l t i p r o b e s o l a r
a r r a y h a s 6 . 9 sq. m ( 6 5 . 7 sq. f t . ) of c e l l s and p r o v i d e s 2 1 4
w a t t s n e a r E a r t h and 2 4 1 w a t t s a t Venus.
The power s y s t e m ’ s two 7 . 5 ampere-hour nickel-cadmium
b a t t e r i e s p r o v i d e a t o t a l o f 252 w a t t h o u r s of e l e c t r i c a l
energy. P o w e r i s provided t o i n s t r u m e n t s from t h e s c i e n c e
power bus t h r o u g h r e d u n d a n t b u s e s i n t h e power i n t e r f a c e
unit. On-off power s w i t c h i n g i s performed i n t h e i n d i v i -
d u a l i n s t r u m e n t s f o r f l e x i b i l i t y i n s t e a d of c e n t r a l i z e d
s w i t c h i n g i n t h e power i n t e r f a c e u n i t . T h e power
i n t e r f a c e u n i t p r o v i d e s on-off s w i t c h i n g f o r p r o p u l s i o n
heaters.

Communications System

The communications system f o r t h e two b u s e s can r e c e i v e

commands from E a r t h i n any s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t a t i o n t h r o u g h
two r e d u n d a n t S-hand t r a n s p o n d e r s , connected t o two omni
d i r e c t i o n a l antennas. (A t r a n s p o n d e r i s a r a d i o system
w h i c h r e c e i v e s incoming s i g n a l s and t u n e s t h e o u t g o i n g
t r a n s m i t t e r t o a f r e q u e n c y which i s a t a c o n s t a n t r a t i o
t o t h e incoming s i g n a l . ) T h i s means t h a t Doppler s h i f t
i n r a d i o f r e q u e n c y due t o s p a c e c r a f t motion can be measured
p r e c i s e l y o n r a d i o t r a n s m i s s i o n s from b o t h E a r t h t o space-
c r a f t and s p a c e c r a f t t o Earth--because f r e q u e n c i e s , b o t h
l e a v i n g t h e E a r t h and a r r i v i n g a t t h e E a r t h a r e known p r e -
cisely. T h i s a l l o w s s p a c e c r a f t v e l o c i t y neasurements ac-
c u r a t e t o .003 kph.

The r e c e i v e r p o r t i o n of e a c h t r a n s p o n d e r i s frequency-
a d d r e s s a b l e ( r e s p o n d s o n l y t o c e r t a i n f r e q u e n c i e s , and
t h e r e c e i v e r s a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e v e r s e d by t h e command pro-
cessor l o g i c i f no command i s r e c e i v e d f o r 36 h o u r s . Hence,
i f one f a i l s t h e o t h e r t a k e s o v e r . The two r e c e i v e r o u t -
p u t s a r e c r o s s - c o n n e c t e d t o r e d u n d a n t e x c i t e r s , e i t h e r of
which can be s e l e c t e d by ground command. The t r a n s p o n d e r
p r o v i d e s e i t h e r a f i x e d - r a t i o incoming t o o u t g o i n g c a r r i e r
f r e q u e n c y , o r a f i x e d - f r e q u e n c y c a r r i e r s i g n a l i n c a s e of
f a i l u r e of t h e two-way system.

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The s p a c e c r a f t - t o - E a r t h r a d i o l i n k i s p r o v i d e d by an
S-band t r a n s m i t t e r , which can r a d i a t e a t 10 o r 20 w a t t s , w i t h
r e d u n c a n t power a m p l i f i e r s o p e r a t i n g t h r o u g h e i t h e r t h e
f o r e o r a f t "omni" a n t e n n a s . The omnis c o v e r a hemisphere
looking forward o r a f t . Both O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e space-
c r a f t h a v e , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e two Bus omnis, s p e c i a l i z e d
a n t e n n a s which w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n s on t h i e r com-
munications. E i t h e r omni a n t e n n a can be s e l e c t e d by ground
command. One omni a n t e n n a i s c o n n e c t e d t o one o f t h e two
r e d u n d a n t receivers, and t h e o t h e r omni ( o r o t h e r s p a c e c r a f t
a n t e n n a d e s i g n a t e d by command) i s connected t o t h e o t h e r
receiver. T h i s arrangement can b e r e v e r s e d by command.

Command Svstem

The b a s i c bus command s y s t e m a c c e p t s incoming commands

from t h e bus r a d i o r e c e i v e r s . Command demodulators t u r n on
t h e system, convert t h e s i g n a l t o a usable b i n a r y b i t
s t r e a m , and p a s s i t on t o c r o s s - c o n n e c t e d command p r o c e s s o r s .
Commands a r e e i t h e r s t o r e d f o r l a t e r e x e c u t i o n , o r e x e c u t e d
immediately. S p a c e c r a f t u n i t s r e c e i v e commands from re-
dundant command o u t p u t modules. The command system a c c e p t s
a pulse-code-modulated/frequency-shift-keyed/phase-modulated
(PCM/FSK/PM) d a t a s t r e a m a t f o u r b i t s p e r second.

Each command word c o n s i s t s of 4 8 b i t s i n c l u d i n g 1 3

b i t s f o r s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n , which g i v e s a o n e - i n - a - m i l l i o n
p r o b a b i l i t y of a f a l s e command. T h e system h a s a t o t a l of
1 9 2 p u l s e commands and 1 2 magnitude commands. The command
memory c a n s t o r e up t o 1 2 8 commands ( r e d u n d a n t l y ) f o r l a t e r
execution.

Data Handlina Svstem

The t e l e m e t r y p r o c e s s o r f o r t h e bus d a t a h a n d l i n g system

samples s c i e n t i f i c and e n g i n e e r i n g measurement s o u r c e s i n
sequence. I t t r a n s m i t s an i n s t r u c t i o n word t o t h e P i o n e e r
Command Module (CM) e n c o d e r which a d d r e s s e s a d a t a module
t o read o u t t h e s e l e c t e d c h a n n e l .

The i n t e r r o g a t e d c h a n n e l can be e i t h e r a n a l o g , s e r i a l
d i g i t a l o r b i n a r y o n e - b i t (yes-no) i n f o r m a t i o n . The PCM
e n c o d e r s h i p s t h e encoded measurement t o t h e t e l e m e t r y pro-
c e s s o r , where i t i s f r a m e - f o r m a t t e d , c o n v o l u t i o n a l l y coded
and used t o b i p h a s e modulate a s u b c a r r i e r . The s u b c a r r i e r
t h e n phase m o d u l a t e s t h e o u t g o i n g c a r r i e r s i g n a l .

The t e l e m e t r y p r o c e s s o r s and PCM e n c o d e r s a r e c r o s s -

connected and f u l l y r e d u n d a n t .

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C r i t i c a l t e l e m e t r y measurements a r e a s s i g n e d d a t a chan-
n e l s on two d i f f e r e n t d a t a modules. The d a t a h a n d l i n g
s y s t e m s can a c c e p t up t o 256 c h a n n e l s o f d a t a .

A l l P i o n e e r Venus t e l e m e t r y d a t a a r e b i n a r y ( a s e r i e s
o f o n e s and z e r o e s ) , and a l l d a t a "words" c o n s i s t of e i g h t
o n e s and z e r o e s a r r a n g e d i n t h e o r d e r d e t e r m i n e d by t h e i n -
f o r m a t i o n t h e y c a r r y . Analog d a t a a r e c o n v e r t e d t o e i g h t -
b i t words. D a t a i n p u t s a r e m u l t i p l e x e d and f o r m a t t e d i n t o
frames o f 6 4 e i g h t - b i t s words. Of t h e 6 4 w o r d s , t h r e e a r e re-
q u i r e d f o r s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and t h r e e
a r e subcommutated f o r s p a c e c r a f t h o u s e k e e p i n g d a t a .

The o u t p u t of t h e d a t a s y s t e m i s an 8 t o 2048 b i t p e r
second PCM/PSK c o n v o l u t i o n a l l y coded d a t a s t r e a m , b i p h a s e
modulated on a 16384 H z s u b c a r r i e r .

The O r b i t e r S p a c e c r a f t

The Venus O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e b a s i c P i o n e e r
Bus. I t a l s o c o n s i s t s o f a despun, h i g h - g a i n d i s h a n t e n n a on a
3-m ( 1 0 - f t . ) m a s t t o r e t u r n t h e l a r g e volume of
O r b i t e r e x p e r i m e n t s and imaging d a t a t o E a r t h . The ' 3 r h i t e r
carries 1 2 s c i e n t i f i c instruments, a million-bit d a t a
memory t o s t o r e o b s e r v a t i o n s (when t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s b e h i n d
Venus, o r t h e y c a n n o t b e t r a n s m i t t e d t o E a r t h f o r o t h e r
r e a s o n s ) , and a s o l i d - f u e l r o c k e t motor f o r i n s e r t i o n i n t o
orbit a t the planet.

The % b i t e r , i n c l u d i n g a n t e n n a m a s t , i s n e a r l y 4.5 m
(15 f t . ) high. The b a s i c b u s c y l i n d e r making up i t s
main body i s a b o u t 2.5 m ( 8 . 3 f t . ) i n d i a m e t e r , and 1 . 2 m
(4 f t . ) h i g h . Launch w e i g h t o f t h e O r b i t e r i s a b o u t 582 kg
(1280 l b s . ) w i t h 45 kg ( 1 0 0 I b s . ) of s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s .
Weight a f t e r o r S i t a l i n s e r t i o n i s 368 kg (810 l b s . ) .

T h r e e i n s t r u m s n t s ( t h e magnetometer e l e c t r o n t e m p e r a t u r e
p r o b e and e l e c t r i c f i e l d d e t e c t o r ) have s e n s o r e l e m e n t s
mounted on booms. The magnetometer s e n s o r s are mounted on
t h e t h r e e - s e c t i o r L , d e p l o y a b l e 4 . 7 m ( 1 5 . 5 f t . ) boom. A
s i n g l e s e n s o r i s mounted a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s of t h e way o u t
from t h e bus c y l i n d e r . snc? 3 B e r - z n d i c u l a r p a i r are mounted
a t t h e boom's e n d . The boom 1 s d e p l o y e d a f t e r l a u n c h by
f i r i n g p y r o t e c h n i c d e v i c e s , and e x t e n d s r a d i a l l y from t h e
u p p e r r i m of t h e c y l i n d e r . The boom p o s i t i o n s t h e s e n s o r s
a t a p o i n t of minimum m a g n e t i c i n t e r f e r e n c e from t h e s p a c e -
craft.

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ORBITER SPACECRAFT

MAGNETOMETER
BOOM

BACKUP HIGH GAIN

ANTENNA

MECHANICALLY DESPUN
ANTENNA ASSEMBLY

HIGH GAIN ANTENNA

FORWARD AXIAL
THRUSTER

SUN SENSOR

STAR SENSOR

SOLAR ARRAY DESPIN BEARING

RADIAL THRUSTER EQUIPMENT SHELF

ORBIT INSERTION MOTOR AFT OMNl ANTENNA

 -55-

The b a l l - l i k e s e n s o r s ( a n t e n n a s ) f o r t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d
detector spring out 0.6 m (26 i n . ) a f t e r j e t t i s o n of t h e
launch f a i r i n g . The e l e c t r o n t e m p e r a t u r e p r o b e u s e s two
s e n s o r e l e m e n t s mounted a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o one a n o t h e r .
The a x i a l s e n s o r i s mounted p a r a l l e l t o t h e s p i n a x i s and
extends through t h e thermal t o p cover. The r a d i a l s e n s o r
i s on a 1 . 0 m ( 4 0 i n . ) boom, d e p l o y e d a f t e r o r b i t i n s e r t i o n .

The gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r u s e s two d e t e c t o r s mounted

on t h e equipment s h e l f a b o u t 1 8 0 d e g r e e s a p a r t . T h i s a l -
lows complete c o v e r a g e o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e f o r a l l po-
s i t i o n s of spacecraft r o t a t i o n .

Orbiter S c i e n t i f i c Instruments

A l l 1 2 s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s a r e mounted d i r e c t l y on
t h e t o p s i d e o f t h e equipment s h e l f . E i g h t o f t h e i n s t r u -
ments view t h e p l a n e t t h r o u g h e i t h e r t h e s i d e o r t o p o f
t h e bus c y l i n d e r . Of t h e e i g h t , two ( t h e c l o u d Photo-
p o l a r i m e t e r and t h e r a d a r mapper) employ s c a n n i n g s e n s o r s
which move t h r o u g h a r a n g e o f 1 4 0 d e g r e e s i n a p l a n e p e r -
p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e bus e x p e r i m e n t s h e l f .

O r b i t e r Antenna Systems

A b a s i c p a r t of t h e O r b i t e r system, n o t p a r t of t h e
b a s i c b u s , i s t h e despun, high-gain p a r a b o l i c - r e f l e c t o r
a n t e n n a , which f o c u s e s a 7 . 6 degree-wide r a d i o beam on t h e
E a r t h throughout t h e mission. The a n t e n n a d i s h i s 1 0 9 c m
( 4 3 i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r , and a m p l i f i e s t h e O r b i t e r r a d i o s i g -
n a l 316 t i m e s . Venus and t h e O r b i t e r w i l l be 2 0 3 m i l l i o n k m
( 1 2 6 m i l l i o n m i . ) f a r t h e r from E a r t h a t t h e end o f t h e
243-day O r b i t e r p r i m a r y m i s s i o n t h a n a t D l a n e t - a r r i v a l .
The a n t e n n a i s needed t o r e t u r n d a t a a t h i a h r a t e s o v e r
t h e s e d i s t a n c e s . The h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a d i s h , a s l e e v e
d i p o l e a n t e n n a , and t h e f o r w a r d 'Iomni" a n t e n n a a r e a l l
mounted on t h e despun 2 . 9 - m ( 9 . 8 - f t . ) m a s t G r o j e c t i n g up
a l o n g t h e s p i n - a x i s from t h e t o p of t h e O r b i t e r c y l i n d e r .
The s l e e v e d i p o l e a n t e n n a b r o a d c a s t s a r a d i o beam which
forms a p a n c a k e - l i k e p a t t e r n around t h e s p a c e c r a f t , p e r -
p e n d i c u l a r t o i t s s p i n a x i s . T h i s p r o v i d e s a backup f o r
t h e narrow-beam d i s h a n t e n n a i n case of f a i l u r e o f t h e d e s p i n
system. The bus a f t omni a n t e n n a p r o v i d e s t h e f o u r t h O r -
b i t e r a n t e n n a . The omnis b r o a d c a s t i n a h e m i s p h e r i c p a t -
t e r n , forward o r a f t .

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S i n c e t h e O r b i t e r d i s h a n t e n n a does n o t s p i n , as does
t h e s p a c e c r a f t below i t , it c o n s t a n t l y f a c e s E a r t h , b o t h on
c r u i s e and o r b i t . The despun c o n d i t i o n of t h e a n t e n n a and
i t s m a s t i s m a i n t a i n e d by b e a r i n g , e l e c t r i c motor, and
s l i p - r i n g arrangement.

A q u a d r i p o d s t r u c t u r e , mounted on t h e upper end of t h e

bus t h r u s t t u b e , s u p p o r t s t h e B e a r i n g and Power T r a n s f e r
Assembly (BAPTA) which m e c h a n i c a l l y d e s p i n s t h e a n t e n n a s .
The m a s t i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e despun f l a n g e of t h e b e a r i n g
assembly. T h e t h r e e a n t e n n a s on t h e m a s t a r e c o n n e c t e d t o
t r a n s m i t t e r s and r e c e i v e r s by a s e r i e s of t r a n s f e r s w i t c h e s
through t h e d u a l frequency r o t a r y j o i n t . P u l s e commands
from E a r t h t o t h e s e s w i t c h e s a r e p r o v i d e d t h r o u g h t h e BAPTA
s l i p r i n g s and b r u s h e s .

The c o n t r o l s y s t e m p r o v i d e s r e d u n d a n t d e s p i n c o n t r o l
e l e c t r o n i c s t o d r i v e one of two r e d u n d a n t BAPTA motors t o
d e s p i n and p o i n t t h e h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a toward t h e E a r t h .
The d e s p i n c o n t r o l s y s t e m f u n c t i o n s as a c l o s e d l o o p ,
autonomously o p e r a t i n g t h e system t o m a i n t a i n a n t e n n a
pointing.

Motor t o r q u e commands a r e g e n e r a t e d by t h e d e s p i n con-

t r o l e l e c t r o n i c s based upon Sun o r s t a r sensor and BAPTA
master index pulses. An e l e v a t i o n d r i v e m a i n t a i n s a n t e n n a
pointing during occultations.

F o r t h e o c c u l t a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e O r b i t e r c a r r i e s an
e x t r a 750 m i l l i w a t t X-band t r a n s m i t t e r , whose s i g n a l f r e -
quency i s always m a i n t a i n e d a t a r a t i o of 1 1 . 3 t o t h a t of
t h e main S-band t r a n s m i t t e r . Both S and X-Band s i g n a l s a r e
t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e d i s h a n t e n n a , which can be moved 15 de-
g r e e s from t h e E a r t h l i n e as t h e O r b i t e r p a s s e s behind. Venus.
T h i s p e r m i t s k e e p i n g t h e r a d i o beam t o b e aimed a t Venus'
]upper atmosphere f o r a l o n g e r t i m e . R e f r a c t i o n by t h e a t -
mosphere bends t h e narrow-beam s i q n a l around t h e p l a n e t so
it r e a c h e s E a r t h d e s p i t e t h e s e p o i n t i n g a n g l e s .
The X-band s i g n a l c a n n o t be modulated, and i s o n l y f o r
s t u d y of atmosphere e f f e c t s on r a d i o s i g n a l s a t t w o wave-
l e n g t h s . The X-band beam w i d t h i s 2 . 2 d e g r e e s compared w i t h
t h e S-band 7 . 6 d e g r e e s .

Ground commands c o n t r o l t h e a n t e n n a p o i n t i n g a n g l e .
The e l e v a t i o n d r i v e f o r t h e a n t e n n a d i s h c o n s i s t s o f a
motor-driven j a c k s c r e w . E l e c t r o n i c s con7iert commands i n t o
d i s c r e t e p u l s e s t o c o n t r o l t h e motor.

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O r b i t e r Data S t o r a g e

F o r p e r i o d s when t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s b e h i n d Venus and ra-

d i o communication i s c u t o f f , t h e d a t a memory c a n s t o r e up
t o a m i l l i o n d a t a b i t s . O c c u l t a t i o n s l a s t up t o 2 6 m i n u t e s ,
and a m i l l i o n - b i t memory a l l o w s d a t a t o b e t a k e n a t a min-
imum r a t e o f a b o u t 7 0 0 b i t s p e r second i n t h i s t i m e . The
d a t a s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y c a n a l s o h e l p when Deep Space Network
(DSN) s t a t i o n s a r e n o t l i s t e n i n g t o the O r b i t e r f o r v a r i o u s
r e a s o n s . S t o r e d d a t a are p l a y e d back a t a minimum r a t e of
1 7 0 b p s , and t h e O r b i t e r c a n p l a y back d a t a w h i l e t a k i n g
and t r a n s m i t t i n g new d a t a .

O r b i t e r Data-Handlinu Svstem

The O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t d a t a - h a n d l i n g s y s t e m u s e s t h e
b u s d a t a s y s t e m components, p l u s i t s m i l l i o n - b i t memory. It
a c c e p t s i n f o r m a t i o n from s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s and t h e 1 2
s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s i n s e r i a l d i g i t a l , a n a l o g and one-
b i t b i n a r y ( y e s - n o ) form. I t c o n v e r t s a n a l o g and yes-no
i n f o r m a t i o n t o s e r i a l d i g i t a l form, and a r r a n g e s a l l i n f o r -
mation i n formats f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n . T h i s c o n s i s t s of a
c o n t i n u o u s s e q u e n c e o f major t e l e m e t r y f r a m e s , e a c h composed
o f 6 4 minor f r a m e s . Each minor frame c o n t a i n s 6 4 e i g h t -
b i t words (512 b i t s p e r minor f r a m e ) . The words i n a minor
frame a r e a r r a n g e d i n t o one o f 1 3 preprogrammed f o r m a t s ,
s e l e c t a b l e by command. Each minor frame c o n t a i n s w i t h i n
it:
0 H i g h - r a t e s c i e n c e o r e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a ( i n one
of t h e 13 formats);
0 Sub-commutated d a t a f o r m a t s :
0 S p a c e c r a f t d a t a ; and
0 Frame s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n d a t a .

The t h r e e sub-commutated d a t a f o r m a t s i n each minor

frame c a r r y d a t a which can b e r e p o r t e d a t low r a t e s . One
i s f o r l o w - r a t e s c i e n c e and s c i e n c e h o u s e k e e p i n g d a t a , and
t h e two o t h e r s a r e f o r l o w - r a t e s p a c e c r a f t e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a .

T h e O r b i t e r ' s 1 3 high-rate data formats include seven

s c i e n c e f o r m a t s f o r u s e on o r b i t . The o t h e r h i g h - r a t e f o r -
m a t s a r e Data memory p l a y b a c k ( c o n t a i n i n g some r e a l - t i m e
s c i e n c e ) , Data memory r e a d o u t ( s t o r e d d a t a o n l y ) , Launch-
c r u i s e , Engineering-only f o r m a t , A t t i t u d e c o n t r o l system
f o r m a t ( f o r m a n e u v e r s ) , and Command memory r e a d o u t f o r m a t .

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The d a t a s y s t e m o p e r a t e s i n r e a l - t i m e f o r t e l e m e t r y
s t o r a g e mode. I t s memory s t o r e s b o t h s c i e n c e and e n g i n e e r i n g
data. Twelve t e l e m e t r y s t o r a g e p l a y b a c k and r e a l - t i m e d a t a
r a t e s between 8 and 2 0 4 8 bps a r e a v a i l a b l e . A r a t e o f
1 0 2 4 bps i s used d u r i n g i n t e r p l a n e t a r y c r u i s e .

Of t h e s e v e n s c i e n c e f o r m a t s used on o r b i t , f i v e a r e f o r
t h e c l o s e - i n p e r i a p s i s s e c t i o n of t h e o r b i t . Two a r e f o r
t h e f a r - o u t a p o a p s i s p o r t i o n of t h e o r b i t .

Of t h e f i v e c l o s e - i n f o r m a t s , t w o emphasize a c q u i s i -
t i o n of aeronomy d a t a . A t h i r d g e n e r a l f o r m a t a l l o w s d a t a
t a k i n g by v i r t u a l l y a l l e x p e r i m e n t s .
The f o u r t h c l o s e - i n f o r m a t , t h e O p t i c a l , i s f o r j u s t
two i n s t r u m e n t s . I t a l l o c a t e s 73 p e r c e n t of t h e d a t a
stream t o t h e i n f r a r e d r a d i o m e t e r , t h e r e s t of t h e photo-
polarimeter. The l a s t f o r m a t , t h e Mapping f o r m a t , g i v e s
4 4 p e r c e n t of t h e d a t a stream t o t h e r a d a r mapper, and t h e
r e s t i s d i v i d e d among f o u r o t h e r "mapping" t y p e i n s t r u m e n t s .

Of t h e two s c i e n c e f o r m a t s f o r t h e f a r - o u t a p o a p s i s
o r b i t a l segment, t h e Imaging f o r m a t p r o v i d e s 6 7 p e r c e n t of
t h e d a t a s t r e a m f o r c l o u d p h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r p i c t u r e s of
Venus' c l o u d s , and t h e r e s t f o r f o u r s p a c e environment i n -
struments. The General f o r m a t f o r a p o a p s i s c a r r i e s d a t a f o r
a l l i n s t r u m e n t s e x c e p t t h e i n f r a f e d and imaging i n s t r u m e n t s ,
b u t makes b i g a l l o c a t i o n s t o t h e s p a c e environment measure-
ments of t h e magnetometer, s o l a r wind i n s t r u m e n t and t h e
gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r .

O r b i t a l I n s e r t i o n Rocket

The o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n motor r e d u c e s O r b i t e r v e l o c i t y
by 3,816 kph (2,366 mph) f o r o r b i t a l c a p t u r e by Venus.
I t i s a s o l i d p r o p e l l a n t e n g i n e , a t t a c h e d t o t h e bus t h r u s t
t u b e below t h e equipment compartment. The e n g i n e h a s
1 8 , 0 0 0 Newtons ( 4 0 0 0 l b s . ) o f t h r u s t , and t h e i n s e r t i o n ro-
c k e t b u r n r e d u c e s O r b i t e r w e i g h t by 1 8 1 kg (398 l b . ) .

The Multiprobe S p a c e c r a f t

The f i r s t s i m u l t a n e o u s m u l t i p l e - e n t r y c r a f t measure-
ments of t h e atmosphere of a n o t h e r p l a n e t w i l l be accomplished
by t h e Venus M u l t i p r o b e .

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I-
LL
a
U
0
w
0
a
e
v)
w
Qo
0
U
e
I-
J
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The f o u r p r o b e s w i l l b e l a u n c h e d from t h e M u l t i p r o b e
Bus 1 3 m i l l i o n km ( 7 . 8 m i l l i o n m i . ) from t h e p l a n e t and
w i l l t h e n f l y t o t h e i r e n t r y p o i n t s , two on t h e day s i d e
and two on t h e n i g h t s i d e o f Venus.

The M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t weighs 9 0 4 kg ( 1 , 9 9 0 l b . )
and c a r r i e s 5 1 kg ( 1 1 2 l b s . ) o f s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s . The
s p a c e c r a f t c o n s i s t s o f t h e P i o n e e r Venus b a s i c bus m o d i f i e d
t o c a r r y t h e f o u r atmosphere Drohes. Its diameter i s t h a t
o f t h e Bus, 2.5 m ( 8 . 3 f t . ) . From t h e b o t t o m o f t h e Bus t o
t h e t i p o f t h e main p r o b e , i t i s 2 . 9 m ( 9 . 5 f t . ) h i g h .

During t h e f l i g h t t o Venus, t h e f o u r p r o b e s a r e c a r r i e d
on t h e Bus by a l a r g e i n v e r t e d cone s t r u c t u r e and t h r e e
e q u a l l y - s p a c e d c i r c u l a r clamps s u r r o u n d i n g the cone. These
a t t a c h m e n t s t r u c t u r e s are b o l t e d t o t h e Bus t h r u s t t u b e ,
t h e s t r u c t u r a l l i n k t o t h e launch v e h i c l e . The Large Probe
i s c e n t e r e d on t h e Bus s p i n a x i s , and i s l a u n c h e d toward
Venus by a p y r o t e c h n i c - s p r i n g s e p a r a t i o n s y s t e m . The r i n g
s u p p o r t clamps a t t a c h i n g t h e S m a l l P r o b e s a r e h i n g e d . For
l a u n c h o f t h e S a m 1 1 P r o b e s , t h e clamps open by t h e f i r i n g
of e x p l o s i v e n u t s . When open, t h e y a l l o w t h e p r o b e s t o
s p i n o f f t h e Bus i n a t a n g e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n due t o Bus r o -
tation. C o n t r o l l e r s i n c r e a s e Bus s p i n from 1 5 t o 48 rpm
f o r Small Probe launch.

The M u l t i p r o b e ' s f o r w a r d omni a n t e n n a e x t e n d s above t h e

t o p o f t h e Bus c y l i n d e r , and an a f t omni e x t e n d s down below
i t . Both omni a n t e n n a s have h e m i s p h e r i c r a d i a t i o i - p a t t e r n s .
A t t a c h e d t o t h e equipment s h e l f i s an a f t - p o i n t i n g , medium-
g a i n h o r n a n t e n n a , f o r use d u r i n g c r i t i c a l maneuvers when
t h e a f t end o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s p o i n t e d toward t h e E a r t h ,
a s i t i s when t h e ? r o b e s are l a u n c h e d toward Venus.

The r e m a i n i n g s y s t e m s on t h e M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t a r e
t h o s e c a r r i e d on b o t h O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e b u s e s . These com-
mon b u s s y s t e m s a r e : T h e i n s t r u m e n t - e q u i p m e n t compartment and
b a s i c b u s s t r u c t u r e ; t h e s o l a r a r r a y , b a t t e r i e s and power d i s -
t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m ; t h e Sun and s t a r s e n s o r s , p r o p e l l a n t s t o r a g e
t a n k s and t h r u s t e r s of t h e b u s maneuvering and s t a b i l i z i n g s y s -
tem. O t h e r Bus s y s t e m s a r e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s , r e c e i v e r s and p r o -
c e s s o r s o f t h e b u s communications, command and d a t a h a n d l i n g s y s t e m .
These s y s t e m s a l l o w t h e Bus t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e M u l t i -
p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t , as i t d o e s f o r t h e O r b i t e r , a s t a b l e , r o -
t a t i n g p l a t f o r m and a p r o t e c t i v e , t e m p e r a t u r e - c o n t r o l l e d
e n v i r o n m e n t f o r t h e s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s and s p a c e c r a f t
systems.

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They a l s o p r o v i d e e l e c t r i c power, make maneuvers, re-

ceive commands, p r o c e s s e x p e r i m e n t d a t a , and t r a n s m i t d a t a
t o Barth.

M u l t i p r o b e D a t a System

The d a t a s y s t e m f o r t h e M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t u s e s t h e
s t a n d a r d b u s components. However, d a t a f o r m a t s a r e o r -
g a n i z e d t o m e e t r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e M u l t i p r o b e m i s s i o n .
The M u l t i p r o b e d a t a s y s t e m h a n d l e s d a t a from b o t h Bus and
probes b e f o r e probe launch. A f t e r probe launch, it handles
Bus d a t a o n l y . The p r o b e s h a v e t h e i r own d a t a s y s t e m s .
(See s e c t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e s e . )

The M u l t i p r o b e d a t a s y s t e m a c c e p t s e n g i n e e r i n g and
m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e f o u r p r o b e s a b o a r d
t h e s p a c e c r a f t , u n t i l p r o b e l a u n c h , as w e l l as from t h e
Multiprobe bus i t s e l f . I t a l s o h a n d l e s d a t a from t h e two
e x p e r i m e n t s c a r r i e d on t h e M u l t i p r o b e b u s . A s on t h e O r -
b i t e r , t h e s y s t e m a c c e p t s d a t a i n s e r i a l d i g i t a l , analog
and o n e - b i t b i n a r y s t a t u s (yes-no) form. It converts t h e
a n a l o g d a t a t o s e r i a l d i g i t a l b i n a r y from and a r r a n g e s a l l
information f o r transmission t o Earth i n t h e standard P i -
o n e e r Venus s e r i e s o f m a j o r t e l e m e t r y f r a m e s , e a c h composed
o f 6 4 minor f r a m e s .

Each minor frame i s composed o f a s e r i e s o f 6 4 e i g h t -

b i t words. The words i n a minor f r a m e a r e a r r a n g e d i n
s e v e r a l formats. Each minor frame c o n t a i n s h i g h - r a t e
s c i e n c e o r e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a , p l u s sub-commutated f o r m a t s ,
s p a c e c r a f t d a t a , and frame s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n d a t a . One sub-
commutated f o r m a t c a r r i e s l o w - r a t e s c i e n c e and s c i e n c e
h o u s e k e e p i n g d a t a ; two are f o r l o w - r a t e s p a c e c r a f t i n f o r -
mation. Twelve r e a l - t i m e (no d a t a s t o r a g e o n t h e M u l t i -
p r o b e ) d a t a t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t e s b e t w e e n 8 and 2 0 4 8 bps can
b e used. Like t h e O r b i t e r , t h e Multiprobe a l s o has high-
d a t a - r a t e f o r m a t s f o r A t t i t u d e c o n t r o l ( u s e d d u r i n g maneu-
v e r s ) , f o r E n g i n e e r i n g d a t a o n l y , and f o r command- memory
readout. A s i n g l e format f o r atmosphere e n t r y t r a n s m i t s
h i g h - r a t e s c i e n c e d a t a . Assuming t h e e x p e c t e d d a t a r a t e
of 1 0 2 4 b p s a t e n t r y , d a t a r a t e f o r t h e t w o M u l t i p r o b e Bus
experiments w i l l be 256 bps f o r t h e n e u t r a l m a s s s p e c t r o -
meter, and 1 1 2 b p s f o r t h e i o n mass s p e c t r o m e t e r .

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M u l t i p r o b e Bus Experiments

A f t e r l a u n c h of i t s f o u r p r o b e s 2 0 days o u t from
Venus, t h e M u l t i p r o b e Bus becomes a probe i t s e l f , p r o v i d i n g
t h e m i s s i o n ' s o n l y h i g h upper atmosphere composition
measurements. These o p e r a t e a s t h e Bus e n t e r s b u t b e f o r e
i t s t a r t s t o b u r n up a t 115 km ( 7 1 m i . ) a l t i t u d e .

These two m a s s s p e c t o m e t e r i n s t r u m e n t s are a t t a c h e d t o

t h e equipment s h e l f w i t h t h e i r i n l e t s p r o j e c t i n g above
t h e f l a t t o p of t h e Bus c y l i n d e r .

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 -63-

VENUS ATMOSPHERIC PROBES

Because of its high pressures (nearly 100 times Earth's),

high temperatures and corrosive constituents, Venus'
atmosphere presents a difficult problem for flight designers.
The high entry speeds of about 4 1 , 6 0 0 kph ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph) add
to the problem.
The Large and Small Probes are geometrically similar.
The main component of each is a spherical pressure vessel,
which houses the scientific instruments and the following
spacecraft systems: communications, data, command and power.
The Large Probe weighs about 3 1 6 kg ( 6 9 8 lbs.); the Small
Probes, 93 kg ( 2 0 6 lbs.) each.
Conical aeroshells provide stable flight paths and heat
protection for all four probes during atmospheric entry. The
heat shield-carrying aeroshells are 45-degree cones with spheri-
cally blunted tips, whose radii are equal to half the base radii
of the cones.
All instruments within the pressure vessels of all four
probes require either observing or direct sampling access to
the hostile Venusian atmosphere. This access is one of the
hardest problems of the mission. The Large Probe has 14
sealed penetrations of several types. Each Small Probe has
seven. Pressure vessel penetrations for all probes include
15 sapphire and one diamond window.

The Large Probe

The Large Probe weighs about 3 1 6 kg (695 lbs.) and is
about 1.5 meters (5 feet) in diameter. It returns data at
2 5 6 bps. Its seven scientific instruments weigh 2 8 kg
( 6 2 lbs.). These include two instruments to identify atmos-
phere components. The other five instruments will measure
the clouds, atmospheric structure, energy distribution and
circulation. The probe enters at the equator on the day side
of the planet.

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1
 -64-

Large Probe Structure

The Large Probe consists of the forward aeroshell-heat
shield, the pressure vessel and the aft cover. Both aero-
shell and aft cover are jettisoned at main chute deployment.
The spherical pressure vessel is 73.2 cm ( 2 8 . 8 in.) in
diameter, and is made of titanium for light weight and high
strength at high temperatures. Because it is jettisoned at
relatively cool, high altitudes, the aeroshell can be made
of less heat-resistant aluminum.
The weight limits on interplanetary spacecraft and the 14
hull penetrations required that the pressure vessel be designed
with great care and machined with precision for both lightness
and strength. The flight vessel has been tested successfully
under Venus-like conditions of 100 Earth atmospheres of pressure
and 470 degrees C (900 degrees F) temperatures. Test vessels
have withstood higher pressures.
The vessel is made in three pieces, joined by flanges,
seals and bolts. Sections are the aft hemisphere, a forward
cap and a flat ring section between the two. The vessel has
14 sealed penetrations (one for the antenna, four for electri-
cal cabling, two for access hatches and seven for scientific
instruments). Four instruments use nine observation windows
through four of the hull penetrations. Eight windows are of
sapphire, and one of diamond. These materials admit light or
heat at the wavelengths being measured, while withstanding
Venusian heat and pressure. The solar flux radiometer has
five windows through one hull penetration; the nephelometer,
two windows and the infrared and cloud particle instruments,
one window each.
Three vessel penetrations are inlets for direct atmosphere
sampling by three instruments--mass spectrometer, gas chroma-
tograph and atmosphere structure experiment. At its aft pole
the spherical vessel has a hemisphere pattern antenna for
communication with Earth. Two four-inch arms on one side hold
the reflecting prism for the cloud particle instrument. A
single arm on the other side has a temperature sensor at its tip.
Three parachute-shroud towers are mounted above aerodynamic drag
plates, spaced equally around the equator of the sphere. The
vessel has an electronics access port for system checkout, and
a cooling port used in ground tests.

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 LARGE PROBE
RADIO
TRANSPARENT WINDOW -???-A AFT
PR ESSUR E
VESSEL/DECEL MOD
UMBILICAL
CLOUD PARTICLE
CABLE CUTTER
SPECTROMETER
PARACHUTE TOWER WINDOW

SOLAR FLUX DESCENT MODULE

RADIOMETER
WINDOW
I
PYROTECHNIC cn
UI
MASS SPEC. INLET CONNECTOR I
PRESSURE VESSEL
AERO FAIRING’ SEPARATION ASSEMBLY

CUT OUT FOR

TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
ATMOSPHERE
STRUCTURE
PILOT CHUTE
AND MORTAR
DECELERATION PRO@E/BUS IN FLIGHT
MODULE DISCONNECT
 LARGE PROBE PRESSURE VESSEL

ANTENNA
\

I
cn
r
n
I

PRESSURE VESSEL'
 -67-

F l i g h t Sequence

About 2 0 m i n u t e s b e f o r e a t m o s p h e r i c e n t r y , w i t h t h e p r o b e
t r a v e l i n g a t s p e e d s of a b o u t 4 1 , 6 0 0 kph ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph), t i m e r
commands t u r n on and w a r m up t h e Large Probe i n s t r u m e n t s and
systems. The c r a f t e s t a b l i s h e s i t s r a d i o l i n k w i t h E a r t h .
A t an a l t i t u d e of a b o u t 1 2 0 km ( 7 5 m i . ) , s i g n i f i c a n t
a t m o s p h e r i c b r a k i n g h a s begun, and t h r e e - a x i s a c c e l e r a -
t i o n s and h e a t s h i e l d t e m p e r a t u r e d a t a a r e b e i n g s t o r e d
f o r l a t e r playback (providing s p a c e c r a f t f l i g h t d a t a f o r
u s e by t h e a t m o s p h e r i c s t r u c t u r e e x p e r i m e n t ) . E n t r y
o c c u r s w i t h peak d e c e l e r a t i o n o f 320 G a t a b o u t 7 8 k m ( 4 9
mi.). A s deceleration forces slack o f f , a G-switch s t a r t s
a t i m e r , e n d i n g d a t a s t o r a g e and s t a r t i n g a t i m i n g sequence
f o r a e r o s h e l l and h e a t s h i e l d j e t t i s o n .

J u s t below 6 8 kn?, ( 4 2 m i . ) , when t h e Large Probe h a s slowed t o

a b o u t 6 8 0 kph ( 4 2 0 mph), t h e p i l o t c h u t e i s m o r t a r - f i r e d
from a s m a l l compartment i n t h e s i d e of t h e a e r o s h e l l . T h i s
s m a l l p a r a c h u t e i s a t t a c h e d by l i n e s t o t h e a f t c o v e r which
i s s e p a r a t e d by an e x p l o s i v e n u t and p u l l e d f r e e . The c o v e r ,
i n t u r n , i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e main p a r a c h u t e . The p i l o t c h u t e
t h e n e x t r a c t s t h e main c h u t e from i t s compartment w i t h i n t h e
c o n i c a l a e r o s h e l l . The m a i n c h u t e t h e n o p e n s . A f t e r v e h i c l e
s t a b i l i z a t i o n , m e c h a n i c a l and e l e c t r i c a l t i e s t o t h e a e r o s h e l l
a r e s e v e r e d by e x p l o s i v e n u t s , o r by c a b l e c u t t e r s , and t h e
main c h u t e p u l l s t h e s p h e r i c a l p r e s s u r e v e s s e l o u t of i t s
s u r r o u n d i n g a e r o s h e l l . The a e r o s h e l l f a l l s away.

O n c e t h e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l i s f r e e d of t h e a e r o s h e l l and a f t
c o v e r , t h e s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s have f u l l access t o Venus'
atmosphere, and t h e p a r a c h u t e h a s slowed i t s d e s c e n t r a t e t o
2 7 0 kph ( 1 6 5 mph). Seventeen m i n u t e s l a t e r , a t 4 7 km ( 2 8 m i . )
a l t i t u d e , t h e main c h u t e i s j e t t i s o n e d , and t h e a e r o d y n a m i c a l l y
s t a b l e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l descends t o t h e s u r f a c e i n 39 minutes.

Thermal p r o t e c t i o n d u r i n g atmosphere e n t r y i s p r o v i d e d
by t h e carbon p h e n o l i c h e a t s h i e l d c o v e r i n g t h e forward f a c i n g
c o n i c a l a e r o s h e l l , and by c o a t i n g a l l o t h e r s u r f a c e s of t h e
a e r o s h e l l and a f t c o v e r w i t h a l o w d e n s i t y e l a s t o m e r i c m a t e r i a l .
The c o n i c a l a e r o s h e l l i s a o n e - p i e c e aluminum s t r u c t u r e w i t h
i n t e g r a l l y - m a c h i n e d s t i f f e n i n g r i n g s . The a b l a t i v e carbon
p h e n o l i c h e a t s h i e l d i s bonded t o t h i s s t r u c t u r e . The a e r o s h e l l
cone h a s a b a s e d i a m e t e r of 1 4 2 c m ( 4 . 7 f t . ) .

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 -68-

The 4.9 meter (16.2 ft.)-diameter dacron main parachute is

of the conical ribbon type. Located in a curved compartment
on one side of the aeroshell, the mortar-deployed dacron pilot
chute is 76 cm (2.5 feet) in diameter. After separation of
the aeroshell, aft cover and main chute have occurred, the
pressure vessel descends to the surface. The motion is sta-
bilized by locating the center of gravity of the pressure
vessel well forward and by an airflow separation ring around
the sphere's equator. Drag plates on the flow separation ring
slow the descent rate, and vanes attached to the airflow ring
maintain spin f o r continuous viewing in a full circle by the
experiments during descent. A fairing covers the forward
hemisphere of the pressure vessel, providing a smooth aerody-
namic surface during descent.

Heat Protection
The Large Probe pressure vessel is made of titanium-for
heat resistance. Within the spherical vessel, instruments and
systems are mounted on two parallel shelves made of beryllium
to serve as heat sinks. Equipment inside the vessel is further
protected from heat by a 2.5 cm (1 in.)-thick kapton blanket,
which completely lines the interior.

Scientific Instruments
The seven scientific instruments on the Large Probe include
the gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer, which measure the
composition of Venus' atmosphere directly. The other five instru-
ments either "look out" windows or sense vehicle motions and/
or temperature with accelerometers and a wire-connected heat
sensor, respectively.
The infrared radiometer requires a diamond window because
diamond is the only material transparent to the appropriate
wavelengths and able to withstand the high temperatures and
pressures of the atmosphere. This window is about three-
quarters of an inch in diameter and an eighth of an inch thick
(about the size of a quarter). It weighs 13.5 carats and was
shaped by diamond cutters in The Netherlands from a 205-carat
industrial grade rough diamond. The nephelometer (cloud-sensor)
uses two sapphire windows. The cloud particle instrument directs
a laser beam through a sapphire window to an outside reflecting
prism and back to its sensor. The solar flux radiometer has five
sapphire windows.

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 -69-

Communications System

S c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t and s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s d a t a a r e
r e t u r n e d by t h e communications system. Spacecraft data in-
c l u d e i n t e r n a l t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e measurements, e l e c -
t r i c a l c u r r e n t f l o w and v o l t a g e and on-or-off s t a t u s of
s y s t e m s and i n s t r u m e n t s .

The p r o b e ’ s s o l i d s t a t e t r a n s m i t t e r and h e m i s p h e r i c a l
c o v e r a g e a n t e n n a r e t u r n a 256-bps d a t a stream t o E a r t h . The
system u s e s f o u r 1 0 - w a t t s o l i d s t a t e a m p l i f i e r s p r o v i d i n g a
t r a n s m i t t e r power o f 4 0 w a t t s .

A t r a n s p o n d e r r e c e i v e s a n S-band c a r r i e r wave a t 2 . 1 G H z ,
and s e t s t h e p r o b e t r a n s m i t t e r t o s e n d a t 2 . 3 G H z . The t r a n s -
ponder r e c e i v e r i s u s e d o n l y f o r two-way Doppler t r a c k i n g .
The incoming s i g n a l c a r r i e s no i n f o r m a t i o n , and t h e p r o b e d o e s
n o t r e c e i v e commands.

Command System

Once t h e L a r g e P r o b e h a s s e p a r a t e d from t h e Bus, onboard

e l e c t r o n i c s p r o v i d e a l l p r o b e commands. The command s y s t e m
c o n s i s t s o f a command u n i t , a p y r o t e c h n i c c o n t r o l u n i t and
t h e s e n s o r s t o s e r v i c e t h e command u n i t .

The s y s t e m can p r o v i d e 6 4 s e p a r a t e commands f o r s p a c e c r a f t

s y s t e m s and s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s . I t c o n t a i n s t h e c r u i s e
t i m e r ( t h e o n l y o p e r a t i n g u n i t d u r i n g t h e 24-day p e r i o d be-
tween Bus s e p a r a t i o n and e n t r y ) , a n e n t r y s e q u e n c e programmer
and a command d e c o d e r . Commands are i n i t i a t e d by a c l o c k
g e n e r a t o r o r a G-switch t o s e n s e d e c e l e r a t i o n f o r c e s . A t e m -
p e r a t u r e s w i t c h p r o v i d e s backup f o r t h e t i m e r a t p a r a c h u t e
jettison.

The p y r o t e c h n i c c o n t r o l u n i t i s made up o f 1 2 s q u i b d r i v e r s
which p r o v i d e c u r r e n t t o f i r e e x p l o s i v e n u t s f o r s e p a r a t i o n
o f t h e a e r o s h e l l , t h e a f t c o v e r and main c h u t e ; and a c t u a t o r s
f o r t h e c a b l e c u t t e r , p i l o t c h u t e m o r t a r and m a s s s p e c t r o m e t e r
i n l e t cover.

D a t a Handling System

The L a r g e P r o b e d a t a h a n d l i n g u n i t can a c c e p t 3 6 a n a l o g ,
1 2 s e r i a l d i g i t a l , and 2 4 o n e - b i t (yes-no) s t a t u s c h a n n e l s ’ f r o m
s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s and p r o b e s y s t e m s . The u n i t c o n v e r t s
t h e a n a l o g and yes-no d a t a t o s e r i a l d i g i t a l form and a r r a n g e s
a l l d a t a i n m a j o r t e l e m e t r y f r a m e s composed of 1 6 minor frames
f o r t i m e - m u l t i p l e x e d t r a n s m i s s i o n t o E a r t h . Each minor frame
i s composed o f a s e r i e s o f 6 4 e i g h t - b i t words ( 5 1 2 d a t a b i t s
p e r minor frame).

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 -70-

The data handling system provides for two data formats:

blackout and descent. A storage capacity of 3 0 7 2 bits is pro-
vided by a data memory, for use during entry blackout. Following
the blackout period, the stored data will be read out of the
memory and telemetered in the descent format. Data are stored
at 1 2 8 bps. In the descent format, transmission will be at
2 5 6 bps. Allocation of this bit rate among the seven Large
Probe experiments will range from 1 6 to 44 bps per experiment.
Only the atmospheric structure and nephelometer experiments
will use the entry blackout storage format at 72 bps and 4 bps,
respectively. Two subcommutated formats for lowrate phenomena
also provide housekeeping data, and additional data for the
atmospheric structure, nephelometer, cloud particle spectro-
meter and solar flux radiometer experiments.

Power System
The power system uses a silver-zinc battery, providing
40 ampere hours of energy at 2 8 volts. The system consists
of a battery, a power interface unit and a current sensor.
The power interface unit controls power and contains fuses
and power switching relays for vehicle systems. Power for
probe checkout and heating is provided by the Bus prior to
probe to probe separation. During this time, the batteries
are open-circuited by switches in the power interface unit.

The Small Probes

Atmosphere entry points for the Small Probes are spread
over the face of Venus--two on the night side at high northern
and mid-southern latitudes, and the third at mid-southern lati-
tudes on the day side.
Like the Large Probe, each of the Small Probes consists
of a forward heat shield, a pressure vessel and an afterbody.
The three small probes are identical. Each is 0 . 8 m ( 3 0 in.)
in diameter and weighs 90 kg ( 2 0 0 lb.). Each carries three
scientific instruments, weighing 3.5 kg ( 7 . 7 lb.). The three
Small Probe instruments return less detailed information than
the seven on the Large Probe. But except for the atmospheric
composition measurements, made only by two Large Probe instru-
ments, Small Probe atmosphere measurements are in many respects
comparable to Large Probe data. The Small Probes transmit
data at 64 bps during flight down to 3 0 km ( 1 8 mi.) altitude
and 1 6 bps from there to the surface.

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 -71-

Neither forward aeroshell nor afterbody of the Small

Probes ever separates from the pressure vessel, nor is a para-
chute used for deceleration as with the Large Probe. The
Small Probes are slowed entirely by aerodynamic braking, and
instruments gain access to the atmosphere through doors in the
integral afterbody. Both aeroshell and pressure vessel are
made of titanium for light weight and strength at high tempera-
tures. The afterbody is made of aluminum.

Small Probe Structures

The pressure vessel nests into the aeroshell and is
permanently attached to it. The afterbody also is permanently
attached to the pressure vessel, and its shape closely follows
the contours of the vessel's aft hemisphere, protecting it from
atmosphere heat. As in the case of the Large Probe, the pres-
sure vessels for the three small probes had to be very careful-
ly designed and machined because of weight limitations, the seven
hull penetrations required and the strength requirements at high
Venusian pressures and temperatures.
The pressure vessels are fabricated in two hemispheres
and joined with flanges, bolts and seals. The flight vessels
were tested at Venus surface temperatures and pressures, and
the test vessels tested even under more severe conditions.
Three doors in the afterbody open after entry heating
at about 70 km altitude (44 mi.), providing access by the three
instruments to the atmosphere. Two of these doors open out
from each of two protective housings--one for the atmospheric
structure and the other for the net flux radiometer instrument.
These housings project like ears from each side of the pres-
sure vessel sphere. The temperature sensor and atmospheric
pressure inlet for the atmospheric structure instrument extend
10 cm (4 in.) from the door of one housing, and the nex flux
radiometer sensor extends similarly on the opposite side.
When the doors to these two housings open after atmospheric
entry at 70 km (44 mi.) altitude, they are retained, rather than
jettisoned, and serve to slow spacecraft spin rate. A vane, less
than one square inch, is attached to the pressure sensor inlet
to assure that the vehicle will spin throughout the descent,
S O that instruments can see in a full circle as the probe
rotates. The cloud sensor (nephelometer) cover opens and
folds down. As with the Large Probe, a hemispherical-pattern
antenna is mounted at the aft pole of the pressure vessel
sphere.

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1
 -72-

SMALL PROBE
NET FLUX ATMOSPHERE
STRUCTURE DOOR

ATMOSPHERE

INLET AND
SPIN CONTROL VANE

NEPHELOMETER YO-YO

(SHOWN CLOSE

CABLE

CARBON PHENOLIC
CLAMP HEAT SHIELD

DECELERATION MODULE
 -73-

Each S m a l l Probe p r e s s u r e v e s s e l h a s a t o t a l of seven

sealed penetrations: one f o r t h e a n t e n n a , one for t h e t w o
s a p p h i r e nephelometer windows, one f o r t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s -
c - i r e i n l e t and a h a t c h f o r ground t e s t c o o l i n g and s y s t e m s
checkout. The o t h e r t h r e e vessel p e n e t r a t i o n s a r e f e e d -
t h r o u g h s f o r e l e c t r i c a l c a b l e s . Each e x t e r n a l r a d i o m e t e r
s e n s o r on e a c h s m a l l probe h a s t w o diamond windows.

F l i g h t Sequence

For t h e t h r e e S m a l l P r o b e s , a t m o s p h e r i c e n t r y s p e e d s
a r e a b o u t 4 2 , 0 0 0 kph ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph), and peak d e c e l e r a t i o n s v a r y
i n entry f l i g h t path angles.

Twenty m i n u t e s b e f o r e e n t r y , a l l s y s t e m s and i n s t r u m e n t s
a r e a c t i v a t e d and communications w i t h E a r t h a r e e s t a b l i s h e d .
J u s t b e f o r e e n t r y , s p i n r a t e s a r e c u t a b o u t t h r e e t i m e s from
48 t o 1 4 rpm The 48-rpm s p i n r a t e i m p a r t e d by s p i n - o f f
l a u n c h from t h e Bus d i s p e r s e s t h e p r o b e s o v e r t h e p l a n e t t o
desired entry points. But i t a l s o means t h a t t h e p r o b e s
e n t e r t h e upper atmosphere somewhat t i l t e C t o t h e i r e n t r y
f l i g h t paths. W i t h t h e s l o w e r 15-rpm r o t a t i o n , aerodynamic
f o r c e s q u i c k l y l i n e up t h e a x e s of t h e p r o b e s w i t h t h e i r e n t r y
h e a t i n g damage c o u l d o c c u r on t h e e d g e s of t h e p r o b e s c o n i c a l
heat s h i e l d s .

A yo-yo system s p i n s down t h e p r o b e s . Two w e i g h t s a r e

c u t l o o s e by a p y r o t e c h n i c c a b l e c u t t e r , and probe s p i n
swings t h e w e i g h t s o u t on 2 . 4 m ( 8 - f t . ) c a b l e s . With t h i s
w e i g h t moved r a d i a l l y outward, r o t a t i o n r a t e must slow t o
m a i n t a i n t h e s a m e r o t a t i o n a l momentum. Weights and cables
are t h e n j e t t i s o n e d .

I n o r d e r t o s a v e w e i g h t and a l s o b e c a u s e a l o n g e r s t a y -
t i m e a t upper a l t i t u d e s i s n o t needed, t h e s m a l l p r o b e s do
not use parachutes. On t h e l a r g e p r o b e , more t i m e i s needed
f o r measurements of atmosphere a n d c l o u d c o m p o s i t i o n . The
s m a l l p r o b e s do n o t c a r r y a t m o s p h e r i c c o m p o s i t i o n i n s t r u m e n t s .

A s w i t h t h e Large P r o b e , h e a t s h i e l d t e m p e r a t u r e and
probe a c c e l e r a t i o n d a t a are s t o r e d f o r t h e a t m o s p h e r i c s t r u c -
t u r e e x p e r i m e n t d u r i n g t h e e n t r y communications b l a c k o u t . A
G-switch e n d s d a t a s t o r a g e a f t e r b l a c k o u t .

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 -74-

Flight Systems
Thermal protection during entry is provided by ablative
carbon phenolic heat shields, which are 45-degree cones with
the same geometry as the Large Probe heat shield. For fur-
ther heat protection, the entire afterbody is coated with
a low-density elastomeric material. The heat shield material
is bonded to the Small Probe titanium aeroshell. Base diameter
of the aeroshell heat shield cone is 7 6 cm (30 in.).
The conical aeroshell provides aerodynamic braking and flight
stability, as does location of the probe center of gravity well
forward in the vehicle. Designers chose the aeroshell cone
structure primarily for flight through the searing heat and
extreme deceleration of atmosphere entry. However, the cone
also provides stable flight and substantially slows descent
rate in Venus' thick lower atmosphere.

Heat Protection
As with the Large Probe, heat protection for the small
probes is provided by a kapton blanket completely lining the
interior of an 45 cm (18-in.) diameter spherical titanium pressure
vessel. It, too, has two shelves which carry all equipment
and scientific instruments, and are made of beryllium to
serve as heat sinks. Since the aeroshell descends to
the surface with the pressure vessel, it, too, is made of
light-weight, heat-resistant titanium.

Scientific Instruments
The three scientific instruments on the small probes
measure atmospheric structure (pressure, temperature and
acceleration from which altitude and density are determined),
cloud particles and layers and heat distribution in the
atmosphere. These measurements, and claculations based
on them, will allow characterization of Venus' atmosphere.
For the atmospheric structure experiment, the outside
inlet for the pressure sensor, and the arm carrying the harp-
like temperature sensor both extend from the experiment housing.
The pressure sensor itself and temperature-sensor electronics
internal, as are the accelerometers used for density cal-
culations.

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The c l o u d s e n s o r i n s t r u m e n t (nephelometer) i s e n t i r e l y
i n s i d e t h e pressure vessel, and l o o k s o u t t h r o u g h t w o s a p p h i r e
windows. For t h e n e t f l u x radiometer (heat d e p o s i t i o n i n s t r u -
ment) s e n s o r s a r e c o m p l e t e l y e x t e r n a l , mounted on a s m a l l boom
e x t e n d i n g from t h e experiment housing. The r a d i o m e t e r s e n s o r
w i t h i t s two diamond windows t u r n s c o n s t a n t l y i n a h a l f c i r c l e ,
f i r s t l o o k i n g up and t h e n down. I n s t r u m e n t e l e c t r o n i c s are
internal.

Communications
Communications systems f o r t h e S m a l l probes c o n s i s t of
s o l i d s t a t e t r a n s m i t t e r s and h e m i s p h e r i c a l coverage a n t e n n a s ,
i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h o s e f o r t h e Large Probe. Each t r a n s m i t t e r
has one 1 0 - W a t t , s o l i d s t a t e a m p l i f i e r . T h i s compares w i t h
4 0 w a t t s f o r t h e Large Probe. T h i s system can t r a n s m i t d a t a
t o t h e D S N ' s 64-m (210-foot) a n t e n n a s a t a r a t e of 6 4 bps above
30 k m ( 1 9 m i . ) a l t i t u d e and 1 6 bps below t h a t t o impact. The
S m a l l Probes do n o t c a r r y a r e c e i v e r f o r two-way Doppler t r a c k -
i n g as does t h e Large Probe, and Doppler t r a c k i n g i s done u s i n g
an o s c i l l a t o r ( s t a b l e t o approximately one p a r t i n a b i l l i o n )
on t h e probes a s a r e f e r e n c e frequency f o r ground t r a c k i n g
commltations.
D a t a r e t u r n e d i n c l u d e s c i e n t i f i c and e n g i n e e r i n g i n f o r -
mation. T h i s i n c l u d e s i n t e r n a l t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e measure-
ments, e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t flow and v o l t a g e s , and on-off s t a t u s
of i n s t r u m e n t s and probe systems.

Command System
The command system on t h e Small P r o b e s i s i d e n t i c a l t o
t h a t on t h e Large Probe. I t p r o v i d e s 6 4 commands, a l l o r i g i -
n a t e d on board t h e p r o b e s by t i m e r s , programmers, G - s w i t c h e s
and o t h e r l o g i c s and d e v i c e s .

Data Handling System

Components o f t h e d a t a h a n d l i n g system on t h e S m a l l
Probes are i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e f o r t h e Large Probe. The d a t a -
h a n d l i n g u n i t can a c c e p t 36 a n a l o g , 1 2 d i g i t a l and 2 4 one-
b i t c h a n n e l s from i n s t r u m e n t s and systems. Logic of d a t a
formats a l s o i s i d e n t i c a l .

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The system f o r e a c h S m a l l Probe p r o v i d e s f o r t h r e e

h i g h - r a t e d a t a formats: upper d e s c e n t , l o w e r d e s c e n t and
e n t r y blackout. A s w i t h t h e Large Probe, a s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y
of 3072 b i t s i s p r o v i d e d by t h e d a t a memory. Following t h e
e n t r y communications b l a c k o u t , s t o r e d d a t a w i l l be p l a y e d
back and t e l e m e t e r e d i n t h e u p p e r d e s c e n t f o r m a t a t 6 4 b p s .
R e a l t i m e t r a n s m i s s i o n w i l l occur i n i t i a l l y a t 64 bps i n t h e
upper d e s c e n t format, changing t o 1 6 bps a t 30 km ( 1 9 m i . )
a l t i t u d e ( l o w e r d e s c e n t f o r m a t ) . D a t a r a t e a l l o c a t l o n among
t h e t h r e e S m a l l Probe i n s t r u m e n t s r a n g e s from 6 t o 2 0 b p s i n
t h e upper f o r m a t and 1 . 5 t o 7 . 2 5 bps i n t h e lower f o r m a t .

Power Sys t e m s

Small Probe power s y s t e m s are s i l v e r - z i n c b a t t e r i e s

which p r o v i d e 11 ampere-hours of e n e r g y a t a normal 2 8
volts. The system j n c l u d e s a b a t t e r y , power i n t e r f a c e u n i t
and c u r r e n t s e n s o r . O t h e r components a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e
f o r t h e Large P r o b e .

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SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

Orbiter

Cloud P h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t measures t h e
v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c l o u d and h a z e p a r t i c l e s and ob-
s e r v e s u l t r a v i o l - e t a t m o s p h e r i c markings and c l o u d c i r c u l a -
tions. U l t r a v i o l e t images p r o v i d e t h e v i s u a l r e f e r e n c e f o r
d a t a from o t h e r O r b i t e r e x p e r i m e n t s and f o r t h i s i n s t r u m e n t ' s
polarization readings.

A 3.7-cm (1.5-in.) telescope with a r o t a t i n g f i l t e r

wheel o b s e r v e s t h e p l a n e t a t f i x e d a n g l e s , u s i n g t h e O r b i t e r
r o t a t i o n f o r scans a c r o s s t h e p l a n e t and motion a l o n g t h e
s p a c e c r a f t t r a j e c t o r y around Venus f o r complete p l a n e t a r y
mapping. The a n g l e of t h e t e l e s c o p e may be v a r i e d by ground
command f o r s e l e c t o b s e r v a t i o n s from any p o i n t i n o r b i t .

The i n s t r u m e n t u s e s a n u l t r a v i o l e t (UV) f i l t e r ( f o r
maximum c o n t r a s t ) t o t r a c k t h e p u z z l i n g fast-moving UV
a b s o r b i n g m a r k i n g s . F i v e p l a n e t a r y images c a n be made i n
each s p a c e c r a f t o r b i t . The f i e l d of view i s a b o u t one-half
m i l l i r a d i a n , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a r e s o l u t i o n of a b o u t 3 0 km
(19 m i . ) d i r e c t l y below t h e O r b i t e r .

The i n s t r u m e n t measures s c a t t e r e d s u n l i g h t p o l a r i z a t i o n
based on c l o u d and h a z e p a r t i c l e s i z e , s h a p e and d e n s i t y .
V e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of c l o u d and h a z e p a r t i c l e s i n r e l a -
t i o n t o a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i s e x t r a c t e d from t h i s d a t a .

While t h e O r b i t e r i s a t p e r i a p s i s t h e i n s t r u m e n t o b s e r v e s
i n v i s i b l e l i g h t t h e high-haze l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere.
These " l i m b s c a n s " have a r e s o l u t i o n as s m a l l a s . 5 k m ( . 3 m i . ) .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 5 kg (11 l b . ) and u s e s 5 . 4 w a t t s .

S u r f a c e Radar Mapper -- The r a d a r mapping e x p e r i m e n t

makes f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e s t u d i e s of l a r g e p o r t i o n s o f t h e
p l a n e t ' s hemisphere n o t v i s i b l e from E a r t h . T h i s e x p e r i m e n t
w i l l p r o v i d e t h e o n l y d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e s u r f a c e t o
be o b t a i n e d from t h e O r b i t e r . From o b s e r v i n g t h e echo of
s e v e r a l radio frequencies, experimenters d e r i v e s u r f a c e
h e i g h t s along t h e o r b i t a l t r a j e c t o r y t o an accuracy of 1 0 0 m
( 3 0 0 f t . ) o r b e t t e r , g i v i n g a good e s t i m a t e of g l o b a l topo-
graphy and s h a p e . S u r f a c e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y can a l s o
b e d e r i v e d from t h e r a d a r d a t a .

A low power ( 2 0 w a t t s peak p u l s e power) S-band (1.757

GHzlradar system o b s e r v e s t h e s u r f a c e f o r o n e o u t of e v e r y
1 2 seconds of s p a c e c r a f t r o t a t i o n .

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-
I
 ORBITER EXPERIMENTS

MAGNETOMETER MAGNETOMETER
SENSOR BOOM

R ETARDl NG
POT ENTlAL
ELECTRIC FIELD

SPECTROMETER I
4
03
I
ULTRAVIOLET
SPECTROMETER

Pt ELECTRON
TEMPERATURE

NEUTRAL MASS
SPECTROMETER GAMMA BURST
DETECTOR ON
SHELF NOT
VISIBLE
RADAR MAPPER ANTENNA
 -79-

Measurements a r e made whenever t h e O r b i t e r i s below

3 , 0 0 0 km ( 1 , 8 6 0 m i . ) , s u b j e c t t o c o n s t r a i n t s s e t by t h e
r e v o l v i n g r a d a r a n t e n n a and by c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r ex-
p e r i m e n t s f o r t h e l i m i t e d t e l e m e t r y c a p a c i t y . The i n s t r u -
ment a u t o m a t i c a l l y compensates f o r Doppler s h i f t caused
by t h e r a d i a l motion of t h e O r b i t e r .

T e a m s c i e n t i s t s s u b t r a c t t h e o b s e r v e d d i s t a n c e between
t h e O r b i t e r and t h e s u r f a c e from t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s o r b i t a l
r a d i u s ( o b t a i n e d from D S N t r a c k i n g ) t o f i n d a b s o l u t e topo-
g r a p h i c a l measurements. S u r f a c e r e s o l u t i o n i s b e s t a t a p e r i a p s i s
a l t i t u d e of 2 0 0 km ( 1 7 4 m i . ) : 2 0 km ( 1 2 m i . ) l o n g and 1 6
km ( 9 . 6 m i . ) a c r o s s t h e s u b o r b i t a l t r a c k . D a t a g a t h e r e d
by t h e i n s t r u m e n t and t e l e m e t e r e d t o E a r t h w i l l b e computer-
assembled i n t o r a d a r maps of t h e p l a n e t .

R e s o l u t i o n i s comparable t o t h e E a r t h - b a s e d r a d a r
s t u d i e s ; enough t o d i s c e r n major s u r f a c e f e a t u r e s .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 9 . 7 kg ( 2 1 . 3 l b . ) and u s e s 1 8

watts.
I n f r a r e d Radiometer -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t measures t h e
"heat." ( i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n ) e m i t t e d by t h e atmosphere a t
v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s from 6 0 k m (36 m i . ) a t t h e t o p of t h e
d e n s e c l o u d l a y e r s o u t t o 1 5 0 km ( 9 0 m i . ) . I n addition,
t h e i n s t r u m e n t s e a r c h e s f o r water vapor above t h e c l o u d
l a y e r s , m e a s u r e s t h e s i z e of h e a t t r a p p i n g c l o u d l a y e r s
and m e a s u r e s t h e p l a n e t a r y s o l a r r e f l e c t a n c e ( a l b e d o ) .
The r a d i o m e t e r ' s d a t a y i e l d s a v e r t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e
of t h e upper atmosphere a s w e l l as a h o r i z o n t a l t e m p e r a t u r e
p r o f i l e a l o n g t h e s u b o r b i t a l t r a c k . Such i n f o r m a t i o n i s
i m p o r t a n t i n u n c o v e r i n g t h e e x t e n t and d r i v i n g f o r c e s of
t h e seeming four-day c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e upper atmosphere.

The i n s t r u m e n t f e a t u r e s e i g h t d e t e c t o r s , each s e n s i t i v e
t o a d i f f e r e n t f r a c t i o n of t h e i n f r a r e d spectrum. Five
d e t e c t o r s measure t h e i n f r a r e d e m i s s i o n s a t f i v e s e l e c t e d
w a v e l e n g t h s of t h e ( m i c r o m e t e r s ) , a b s o r p t i o n band of
c a r b o n d i o x i d e . Each wavelength samples a s p e c i f i c d e p t h
i n t h e atmosphere, depending on h e a t a b s o r b i n g c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s o f t h e C 0 2 m o l e c u l e and t h e v a r i a t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e
w i t h a l t i t u d e . One d e t e c t o r e x c l u s i v e l y d e t e c t s and maps
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of w a t e r v a p o r ( i f i t e x i s t s ) i n t h e
upper atmosphere. Another d e t e c t o r measures t h e s i z e and
s h a p e of c l o u d l a y e r s , and t h e l a s t d e t e c t o r measures t h e
t o t a l solar reflectance.

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A 48-mm-aperture t e l e s c o p e m i r r o r f e e d s a l l e i g h t
c h a n n e l s . The t e l e s c o p e i s set a t 45 d e g r e e s t o t h e
O r b i t e r s p i n a x i s s o t h a t s c a n s are made by s p a c e c r a f t
r o t a t i o n . When l o o k i n g a t one p l a n e t ' s limb t h e narrow
f i e l d o f view g i v e s v e r t i c a l r e s o l u t i o n of 5 km ( 3 m i . )
a t p e r i a p s i s . When t h e O r b i t e r i s i n b e s t p o s i t i o n f o r
limb s c a n n i n g o f t h e p l a n e t ' s a t m o s p h e r i c " e d g e , " t h e
i n s t r u m e n t o b t a i n s a d d i t i o n a l d a t a on c l o u d l a y e r s and
t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of w a t e r v a p o r .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 5.9 kg ( 1 3 l b . ) and u s e s 5 . 2

watts.

Airglow U l t r a v i o l e t S p e c t r o m e t e r -- The u l t r a v i o l e t
s p e c t r o m e t e r o b s e r v e s t h e numerous a t m o s p h e r i c markings
which c a n b e s e e n o n l y t h r o u g h u l t r a v i o l e t (UV) f i l t e r s .
The i n s t r u m e n t t r a c k s t h e UV a b s o r b i n g masses which r o t a t e
i n f o u r d a y s , measures the e s c a p e r a t e of atomic hydrogen
from t h e o u t e r atmosphere and measures t h e u l t r a v i o l e t -
s c a t t e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c l o u d t o p s and h a z e s a t a b o u t
80 km ( 5 0 m i . ) a l t i t u d e .

A b s o r p t i o n of UV r a d i a t i o n i n t h e upper atmosphere
produces o p t i c a l UV e m i s s i o n s known as t h e " a i r g l o w " .
V a r i o u s a i r g l o w e m i s s i o n s are c a u s e d by d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l
p r o c e s s e s ( e . g . , s p l i t - u p of m o l e c u l e s i n t o e l e c t r o n i c a l l y
e x c i t e d a t o m s ) . By viewing day and n i g h t a i r g l o w a t wave-
l e n g t h s between 1 , 1 0 0 Angstroms and 3,400 Angstroms, t h e
s p e c t r o m e t e r c a n t h u s i d e n t i f y t h e mechanism which e x c i t e s
t h e g a s e s of t h e upper atmosphere. The t e m p e r a t u r e s of
t h e upper atmosphere a t v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s c a n a l s o be
i n f e r r e d from d a t a from limb s c a n s a t t h e a t m o s p h e r e ' s
edge, a t s e l e c t e d w a v e l e n g t h s .

The i n s t r u m e n t measures t h e Lyman Alpha corona t o f i n d

hydrogen e s c a p i n g from t h e f a r t h e s t r e a c h e s of Venus'
atmosphere. These d a t a a r e i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e e s c a p i n g
atomic hydrogen i s t h e l a s t s t e p when a p l a n e t i s l o s i n g
water.

The s p e c t r o m e t e r f e a t u r e s a 125-mm t e l e s c o p e and mono-

chromator t o r e s t r i c t (upon ground command) t h e viewing
spectrum t o any UV wavelength. P h o t o m u l t i p l i e r t u b e s con-
v e r t t h e impinging W r a d i a t i o n t o e l e c t r i c a l i m p u l s e s ,
which a r e t h e n t e l e m e t e r e d t o E a r t h f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t o
u l t r a v i o l e t p l a n e t a r y maps.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 3 . 1 kg ( 6 . 9 lb.) and u s e s 1 . 7

watts.

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N e u t r a l M a s s S p e c t r o m e t e r -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s
t h e d e n s i t i e s o f n e u t r a l i o n i z e d atoms and m o l e c u l e s i n
V e n u s ' u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e b e t w e e n 1 5 0 km ( 9 0 m i . ) a t p e r i -
a p s i s and 2 0 0 k m ( 1 2 0 m i . ) . F i n d i n g t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i -
z o n t a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e n e u t r a l gas molecules w i l l h e l p
d e f i n e t h e chemical state of t h e upper atmosphere. V a r i a -
t i o n s of h y d r o g e n a n d h e l i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i l l t e l l t h e
e x t e n t of g a s escape f r o m t h e atmosphere. Researchers w i l l
f i n d t h e h e i g h t o f t h e homopause ( a b o v e w h i c h a t m o s p h e r e
m i x i n g s t o p s ) by c c m p a r i n g t h e d e n s i t i e s o f i n e r t g a s e s a t
t h e O r b i t e r a l t i t u d e s w i t h m e a s u r e m e n t s made by t h e L a r g e
P r o b e a n d Bus n e u t r a l mass s p e c t r o m e t e r s below 1 5 0 km ( 9 3 m i . ) .

Noble g a s e s , o t h e r n o n - r e a c t i v e g a s e s a n d c h e m i c a l l y
a c t i v e gases up t o 4 6 a t o m i c mass u n i t s a r e i d e n t i f i e d a n d
measured. G a s molecules are f i r s t i o n i z e d and t h e n d e f l e c t e d
by a m a g n e t i c f i e l d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r m a s s . The a v e r a g e
v e r t i c a l s p a c i n g o f sample p o i n t s i s approximately 400 m
( 2 4 0 f t . ) a t 500 km (300 m i . ) a l t i t u d e w h i l e t h e h o r i z o n t a l
s p a c i n g f o r s a m p l i n g a l o n g t h e O r b i t e r p a t h i s a b o u t 2 km
(1.2 m i . ) .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 4 . 5 kg ( 9 . 8 lb.) a n d u s e s 1 5 w a t t s .

I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- The i o n m a s s s p e c t r o m e t e r
measures t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o s i t i v e l y
c h a r g e d i o n s i n t h e V e n u s i a n u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e from 1 5 0 km
( 9 0 m i . ) t o t h e i o n o s p h e r e . The i n s t r u m e n t d i r e c t l y m e a -
s u r e s i o n s i n a m a s s r a n g e from h y d r o g e n i o n ( p r o t o n ) t o
i o n s o f i r o n , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o from 1 t o 5 6 a t o m i c m a s s
units. Such d a t a a r e i m p o r t a n t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e b a s i c
n a t u r e of t h e i o n o s p h e r e a n d i t s r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e s o l a r w i n d .

The i n s t r u m e n t makes f i r s t a n e x p l o r a t o r y sweep o f 1 . 5

s e c o n d s , d u r i n g which a s e a r c h i s made f o r up t o 1 6 d i f -
f e r e n t i o n s . I t t h e n makes a series of s w e e p s , r e p e a t i n g
t h e sampling of t h e e i g h t most prominent i o n s i d e n t i f i e d
d u r i n g t h e e x p l o r a t o r y sweep. (The Bus i n s t r u m e n t i s i d e n -
tical t o t h e Orbiter version except t h a t these operating
s e q u e n c e s c a n n o t b e m o d i f i e d by g r o u n d command a s t h e y c a n
on t h e O r b i t e r . )

I n f l i g h t , a s e n s o r i s e x p o s e d t o a stream o f , a t m o s -
p h e r i c i o n s , which f l o w i n t o a n aluminum c y l i n d e r e n c l o s i n g
a s e r i e s o f p a r a l l e l w i r e g r i d s . Each i o n s p e c i e s i s accel-
e r a t e d b y a s p e c i f i c v o l t a g e a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d s so t h a t
t h e i o n s impinge on a c o l l e c t o r a t t h e rear o f t h e s e n s o r
c y l i n d e r . The i o n s t r e a m ' s a c c e l e r a t i n g v o l t a g e w i l l y i e l d
i t s i d e n t i t y and i t s amplitude w i l l r e v e a l i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n .

The i n s t r u m e n t w e i g h s 3 kg ( 6 . 6 l b . ) and u s e s 1 . 5 w a t t s .

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S o l a r Wind Plasma Analyzer -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t measures

p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s o l a r wind and i t s i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h
Venus' i o n o s p h e r e and upper atmosphere. The i n s t r u m e n t
measures v e l o c i t y , flow d i r e c t i o n and t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e
s o l a r wind. Such f i n d i n g s s h o u l d h e l p e x p l a i n how t h e
i o n o s p h e r e r e a c t s w i t h t h e s o l a r wind a n d p o s s i b l y t h e
r o l e t h e s o l a r wind p l a y s i n Venus' w e a t h e r p a t t e r n s .

The r e g i o n around Venus, t h e c a v i t y "shadowed" by t h e

s o l a r wind, i s d e t e r m i n e d t o t h e e x t e n t a l l o w e d by t h e
s p a c e c r a f t o r b i t . T h e i n s t r u m e n t s e a r c h e s f o r streams o f
s o l a r p a r t i c l e s i n t h i s region.

The plasma a n a l y z e r i s a n electrostatic/energy-per-

u n i t c h a r g e s p e c t r o m e t e r . The s o l a r wind f l u x ( r a t e of
f l o w of t h e s o l a r wind) i s measured by t h e d e f l e c t i o n of
i n - r u s h i n g p a r t i c l e s by a n e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d b e t w e e n
t w o metal p l a t e s . I f t h e p a r t i c l e s a r e w i t h i n t h e e n e r g y
r a n g e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e p l a t e s ' v o l t a g e d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e y
e x i t between t h e p l a t e s , h i t t i n g one of f i v e d e t e c t o r s .
Which t a r g e t t h e p a r t i c l e s h i t d e t e r m i n e s t h e s o l a r wind
d i r e c t i o n . By v a r y i n g t h e v o l t a g e between t h e p l a t e s , t h e
i n s t r u m e n t y i e l d s a complete p a r t i c l e spectrum of t h e s o l a r
wind.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 3 . 9 kg ( 8 . 6 l b . ) a n d u s e s 5.2

watts.

Magnetometer -- The magnetometer s t u d i e s Venus' mag-

n e t i c f i e l d and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e s o l a r wind w i t h t h e
planet. I t " s e a r c h e s " f o r s u r f a c e - c o r r e l a t e d magnetic f e a -
t u r e s , such a s r e g i o n s of c r u s t magnetized i n t h e p a s t p e r -
h a p s when Venus had much s t r o n g e r m a g n e t i c p r o p e r t i e s . The
measurements of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of E a r t h ' s s i s t e r p l a n e t
may s h e d l i g h t on what i n t e r n a l f l u i d m o t i o n s produce p l a n e -
t a r y magnetic f i e l d s . ( I t i s s t i l l n o t known what motions
are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r E a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d s . )

I t a p p e a r s Venus h a s a v e r y weak m a g n e t i c f i e l d ; y e t ,
i t may p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e i o n o s p h e r e - s o l a r wind
i n t e r a c t i o n . The magnetometer s h o u l d f i n d whether i t i s
t h e weak i n t r i n s i c m a g n e t i c f i e l d , a n induced m a g n e t i c
f i e l d o r t h e i o n o s p h e r e i t s e l f which d e f l e c t s t h e s o l a r
wind.

The i n s t r u m e n t c o n s i s t s of t h r e e s e n s o r s on 4.7-m
( 1 5 . 5 - f t . ) booms, long enough t o i s o l a t e them from much
of t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s own m a g n e t i c f i e l d . The i n b o a r d s e n s o r ,
t i l t e d 45 d e g r e e s t o t h e s p i n a x i s e x c l u s i v e l y measures
t h e O r b i t e r ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d , which w i l l b e s u b t r a c t e d from
t h e outboard s e n s o r s ' readings.

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Each s e n s o r c o n s i s t s of a r i n g around which i s wrapped

a r i b b o n of permeable m e t a l . Any e x t e r n a l magnetic f i e l d
c a u s e s t h e core t o produce a n e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l . A f e e d -
back s i g n a l t h e n c a n c e l s t h e e x t e r n a l f i e l d so t h a t t h e
magnetometer always o p e r a t e s i n a zero f i e l d c o n d i t i o n .
T h e s t r e n g t h of t h e feedback s i g n a l i s a measure of t h e
e x t e r n a l magnetic f i e l d .
The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 kg (4.4 l b . ) and u s e s 2 . 2
w a t t s power.

E l e c t r i c F i e l d Detector=-- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t w i l l h e l p
answer q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e i n t e r -
a c t i o n s between Venus and t h e s o l a r wind, t h e m i l l i o n - m i l e -
an-hour i o n i z e d g a s t h a t c o n t i n u a l l y streams outward f r o m
t h e Sun t o t h e s o l a r system.
T h e d e t e c t o r w i l l d e t e r m i n e t h e k i n d s of i n t e r a c t i o n s
between t h e plasma ( t h e mass of i o n s and e l e c t r o n s ) of
Venus' i o n o s p h e r e and the s o l a r wind, t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h
t h e s o l a r wind i s deflected around Venus, t h e e x t e n t t o
w h i c h t h e s o l a r wind h e a t s t h e i o n o s p h e r e , t h e e x t e n t of
i o n i z a t i o n caused by e x o s p h e r e - s o l a r wind i n t e r a c t i o n and
s o l a r wind t u r b u l e n c e . The i n s t r u m e n t a l s o s e a r c h e s f o r
n w h i s t l e r s ' ' -- e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c d i s t u r b a n c e s which t r a v e l
a l o n g a p l a n e t ' s magnetic f i e l d l i n e s .

T h e i n s t r u m e n t measures e l e c t r i c components of plasma

waves and r a d i o e m i s s i o n s i n t h e frequency r e g i o n from
1 0 0 t o 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 H e r t z which i n d u c e a c u r r e n t i n t h e i n s t r u -
m e n t ' s V-type e l e c t r i c d i p o l e a n t e n n a . The c u r r e n t i s
a m p l i f i e d and t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e d and r e l a y e d back
to Earth. Four 30 p e r c e n t bandwidth c h a n n e l s are employed;
each i s u s e f u l a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s a l o n g t h e O r b i t e r t r a -
j e c t o r y , as i t p a s s e s through v a r y i n g d e n s i t i e s of t h e
s o l a r wind. T h e 0 . 6 - m ( 2 6 - i n . ) - l o n g antenna i s d e s i g n e d
t o l e a n on t h e O r b i t e r shroud and deploy a u t o m a t i c a l l y
when the shroud i s e j e c t e d .
T h e i n s t r u m e n t weighs 0 . 8 kg ( 1 . 7 4 l b . ) and u s e s 0 . 7
w a t t s of power.
E l e c t r o n Temperature Probes -- T h e p r o b e s measure t h e
t h e r m a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Venus' i o n o s p h e r e : e l e c t r o n
t e m p e r a t u r e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n and i o n plasma m a s s and con-
c e n t r a t i o n , a s w e l l a s t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s own e l e c t r i c a l
p o t e n t i a l . Such measurements w i l l h e l p s c i e n t i s t s under-
s t a n d the h e a t i n g mechanisms of Venus' i o n o s p h e r e , c u r r e n t l y
b e l i e v e d t o i n c l u d e h e a t i n g a t h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s by t h e s o l a r
wind and a t lower a l t i t u d e s by s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n .
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Two c y l i n d r i c a l p r o b e s 7 c m ( 3 i n . ) by 0.25 c m ( 0 . 5
i n . ) a r e used. One p r o b e i s mounted p a r a l l e l t o t h e space-
c r a f t s p i n a x i s on a 0 . 4 - m ( 1 6 - i n . ) boom, and t h e o t h e r
p r o b e i s mounted p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e s p i n a x i s on a 1-m
( 4 0 - i n . ) boom. (The booms a r e long enough t o p l a c e t h e
s e n s o r s beyond much of t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o n c l o u d and i o n
s h e a t h s u r r o u n d i n g t h e s p a c e c r a f t which m i g h t d i s t o r t r e a d -
ings.) The l o n g e r boom a l l o w s measurement of e l e c t r o n con-
t e n t and t e m p e r a t u r e f o r c o n d i t i o n s of v e r y low e l e c t r o n
concentrations.

Each p r o b e h a s i t s own power g e n e r a t o r w h i l e s h a r i n g

i n f l i g h t d a t a a n a l y s i s c i r c u i t r y . A s a w t o o t h v o l t a g e sweeps
each p r o b e t w i c e p e r second and i s e l e c t r o n i c a l l y a d a p t e d t o
match t h e e x i s t i n g e l e c t r o n d e n s i t y and t e m p e r a t u r e b e i n g
measured.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 . 2 kg ( 4 . 7 6 lb.) and u s e s 4 . 8

w a t t s of power.

Charged P a r t i c l e R e t a r d i n g P o t e n t i a l Analyzer -- T h i s
i n s t r u m e n t measures t h e t e m p e r a t u r e , c o n c e n t r a t i o n and v e l o -
c i t y of t h e m o s t abundant i o n s i n t h e i o n o s p h e r e (presumably
c a r b o n d i o x i d e and oxygen i o n s . ) I t a l s o measures t h e con-
c e n t r a t i o n , t e m p e r a t u r e and e n e r g y of s u r r o u n d i n g photo-
e l e c t r o n s i n t h e ionosphere.

The i n s t r u m e n t i s d e s i g n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r d e t e c t i n g
t h e l o w energy plasma p a r t i c l e s i n Venus' i o n o s p h e r e , a s
opposed t o t h e much more h i g h l y e n e r g i z e d s o l a r wind p a r -
t i c l e s . However, t h e a n a l y z e r s h o u l d p r o v i d e d a t a concern-
i n g t h e s o l a r wind-ionosphere i n t e r a c t i o n a t a n a l t i t u d e of
4 0 0 t o 5 0 0 km ( 2 4 0 t o 3 0 0 m i . ) a t t h e p o i n t where t h e s o l a r
wind streams i n t o t h e i o n o s p h e r e .

By v a r y i n g e l e c t r i c a l p o t e n t i a l s , c o l l e c t o r g r i d s of
6 cm (2.5 i n . ) diameter s e l e c t i v e l y allow various ionospheric
particles t o s t r i k e a detector. C u r r e n t induced i n t h e de-
t e c t o r i s a m p l i f i e d by a n e l e c t r o m e t e r .

Measurements a r e t a k e n a t i n t e r v a l s a l o n g a 120-km ( 7 2 -
m i . ) o r b i t segment t h r o u g h t h e i o n o s p h e r i c plasma r e g i o n .
Onboard a n a l y s i s s e l e c t s t h e optimum p o i n t i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t
r o t a t i o n a t which t o sample t h e i o n o s p h e r i c plasma, s o t h a t
e a c h s c a n i s completed i n a s m a l l f r a c t i o n of a s p i n p e r i o d .
The i n s t r u m e n t a c h i e v e s a 20-km ( 1 2 - m i . ) r e s o l u t i o n f o r
t o t a l ion concentration.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 . 8 kg ( 6 . 3 l b . ) and u s e s 2 . 4

w a t t s of power.

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G a m m a R a y B u r s t D e t e c t o r -- The gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r
o b s e r v e s t h e i n t e n s e s h o r t d u r a t i o n ( o n e - t e n t h second t o a
f e w t e n t h s of s e c o n d s ) " b u r s t s " o f h i q h e n e r q y p r o t o n s from
o u t e r s p a c e . T h i s phenomenon w a s n ' t d i s c o v e r e d u n t i l 1 9 7 3 ,
a n d t h e n a t u r e a n d o r i g i n of t h e s o u r c e s a r e s t i l l unknown.
T h e gamma r a y b u r s t s o c c u r randomly i n t i m e ( r o u g h l y 1 0 p e r
y e a r ) a n d a p p e a r t o o r i g i n a t e from random p o i n t s i n t h e u n i -
v e r s e . T h e gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r i s t h e o n l y e x p e r i m e n t
on P i o n e e r Venus which i s n o t i n v o l v e d i n t h e d i r e c t s t u d y
o f Venus a n d i t s e n v i r o n s .

The Venus O r b i t e r , s e p a r a t e d from E a r t h by r o u g h l y o n e

a s t r o n o m i c a l u n i t ( 1 4 9 m i l l i o n km o r 9 3 m i l l i o n m i . ) p r o v i d e s
a means t o o b t a i n a " f i x " o n t h e s t r a n g e b u r s t s , by c o r r e l a -
t i n g i t s o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h t h o s e made by o r b i t i n g E a r t h
satellites. Measurements of t h e gamma r a y s o u r c e s w i l l be
made w i t h a n a c c u r a c y o f less t h a n o n e a r c m i n u t e , p r e c i s e
enough f o r a n a t t e m p t a t o p t i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s o u r c e s .

Two sodium i o d i d e p h o t o m u l t i p l i e r d e t e c t o r u n i t s s e n -
s i t i v e t o photons i n t h e 0 . 2 t o 2.0 m i l l i o n e l e c t r o n volts
(MeV) e n e r g y r a n g e p r o v i d e a c o n t i n u o u s t i m e h i s t o r y f o r
t h o s e b u r s t s i n t e n s e enough t o b e detected a n d g i v e a c o a r s e
p r o f i l e o f t h e gamma b u r s t e n e r g y r a n g e . A memory u n i t o f
20,000 "bits" f o r s t o r i n g d a t a f o r later readout i s required
t o accommodate t h e v e r y h i g h d a t a r a t e s t h a t o c c u r d u r i n g a
brief burst.

The i n s t r u m e n t w e i g h s 2 . 8 kg ( 6 . 3 5 l b . ) a n d u s e s 1 . 3
w a t t s of power.

O r b i t e r Radio S c i e n c e

I n t e r n a l D e n s i t y D i s t r i b u t i o n E x p e r i m e n t -- T h i s e x p e r i -
ment d e t e r m i n e s V e n u s ' s i n t e r n a l m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e pro-
cesses which h a v e p r o d u c e d t h a t d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e p l a n e t ' s
g l o b a l s h a p e and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Venus' surface
f e a t u r e s and t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n t e r n a l d e n s i t i e s . Re-
s e a r c h e r s h o p e t o c o n s t r u c t a model o f t h e p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s
w h i c h g o v e r n e d V e n u s ' p l a n e t a r y e v o l u t i o n w i t h t h e h e l p of
t h i s experiment's data.

S c i e n t i s t s u s e t h e two-way D o p p l e r t r a c k i n g o f t h e
O r b i t e r , which i s a l s o u s e a f o r n d v i y a t i o n , t o f i n d v e r y
s m a l l c h a n g e s i n i t s o r b i t . They u s e t h e s e o r b i t c h a n g e s
t o c h a r t Venus' g r a v i t y f i e l d . T h i s g r a v i t y i n f o r m a t i o n
can t h e n b e used t o c a l c u l a t e v a r i a t i o n s i n p l a n e t d e n s i t y .

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An S-band s i g n a l of 2 . 2 G H z i s t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m a D S N
a n t e n n a , r e c e i v e d by t h e O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t and r e t r a n s -
m i t t e d back t o t h e D S N a n t e n n a . Doppler s h i f t s i n frequency
of these s i g n a l s mean changes i n spacecraft v e l o c i t y . M o s t
of t h e v e l o c i t y changes a r e due t o t h e r e l a t i v e o r b i t a l
motions of E a r t h , Venus and t h e P i o n e e r Venus O r b i t e r . How-
e v e r , l o c a l anomalies i n t h e i n t e r n a l m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n of
Venus i n d u c e a d d i t i o n a l v e l o c i t y changes. A n a l y s i s of t h e
v e l o c i t y changes therefore p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e i n -
t e r n a l mass d i s t r i b u t i o n of Venus.

Comparison of t h i s d a t a w i t h t h e r a d a r mapping d a t a
may s u p p o r t t h e e x i s t e n c e of basic on-going p h y s i c a l pro-
cesses, such a s E a r t h - l i k e p l a t e t e c t o n i c s ( t h e movement
of massive c r u s t a l p l a t e s s l o w l y p a s t one a n o t h e r ) . T h e
d a t a a l s o w i l l i n f e r t h e l i k e l y composition and t e m p e r a t u r e
of Venus' i n t e r i o r .
C e l e s t i a l Mechanics Experiment -- The c e l e s t i a l mechanics
experiment s t u d i e s Venus' g r a v i t y f i e l d , l e a d i n g t o c a l c u -
l a t i o n s of i t s g l o b a l shape and i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t t h e dynamics
of t h e p l a n e t ' s upper atmosphere and i o n o s p h e r e . The experi-
ment a l s o measures t h e d i r e c t i o n of Venus' s p i n a x i s , r o t a -
t i o n of t h e p l a n e t ' s p o l e s , d e n s i t y of t h e upper atmosphere,
r e l a t i v i s t i c e f f e c t s of s o l a r g r a v i t y on t h e O r b i t e r t r a c k i n g
s i g n a l and improves o u r knowledge of t h e e x a c t p l a n e t a r y t r a -
jectories of Venus and E a r t h .

S c i e n t i s t s u s e Doppler t r a c k i n g t o c h a r t t h e p l a n e t ' s
g r a v i t y f i e l d . A DSN a n t e n n a on E a r t h t r a n s m i t s a r a d i o
s i g n a l of 2 . 2 G H z t o t h e O r b i t e r , which r e t r a n s m i t s t h a t
s i g n a l , m u l t i p l i e d by 240/221 ( t o d i s c r i m i n a t e o u t g o i n g from
incoming s i g n a l s ) . Unexpected frequency s h i f t s i n t h e s e
s i g n a l s mean changes i n s p a c e c r a f t p o s i t i o n . These changes
a r e caused by t h e m a s s and g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d of Venus,
g r a v i t y f i e l d of the Sun and Venus' own atmosphere, which
e x e r t s a d r a g on t h e O r b i t e r . More d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s of t h e
atmosphere are p o s s i b l e j u s t before and a f t e r t h e o c c u l t a -
t i o n s of t h e O r b i t e r by Venus, when t h e r a d i o s i g n a l must
p a s s q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e p l a n e t s u r f a c e on i t s way t o E a r t h .
D i s t o r t i o n s ( s c i n t i l l a t i o n s ) of t h e O r b i t e r s i g n a l d u r i n g
these p e r i o d s r e v e a l v a r i a t i o n s i n upper atmosphere d e n s i t y .

Simultaneous r a d i o t r a c k i n g of t h e O r b i t e r w i t h e x t r a -
g a l a c t i c r a d i o s o u r c e s w i l l allow v e r y p r e c i s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
o f t h e o r b i t s of E a r t h and Venus w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e e x t r a -
galactic objects.

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D u a l F r e q u e n c y R a d i o O c c u l t a t i o n E x p e r i m e n t -- T h i s
e x p e r i m e n t s t u d i e s t h e a t m o s p h e r e of Venus by o b s e r v i n g
how O r b i t e r X- a n d S-band r a d i o s i g n a l s p e n e t r a t e V e n u s '
a t m o s p h e r e o n t h e way t o receivers o n E a r t h . The 4 0 o c c u l -
t a t i o n s w i t h Venus which t h e O r b i t e r t r a j e c t o r y e n c o u n t e r s
o v e r i t s m i s s i o n l i f e t i m e w i l l p r o d u c e 80 p r o f i l e s o f t h e
s i g n a l d i s t o r t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of t h e p l a n e t ' s l o w e r a n d u p p e r
atmosphere and i o n o s p h e r e .

By a n a l y z i n g t h e s c i n t i l l a t i o n s i n r a d i o s i g n a l s c a u s e d
by v a r i o u s a t m o s p h e r i c l a y e r s , i n v e s t i g a t o r s c a n i n f e r t h e
r e f r a c t i o n , t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e a n d d e n s i t i e s o f t h e atmos-
p h e r e from 3 4 km ( 2 0 m i . ) a l t i t u d e up t h r o u g h t h e i o n o s p h e r e .
A s t h e r a d i o s i g n a l s p i e r c e t h e ionosphere, i n v e s t i g a t o r s
c a n m e a s u r e s i g n a l d i s t o r t i o n d u e t o v a r y i n g e l e c t r o n den-
s i t i e s i n t h i s barely-known r e g i o n . S i n c e most of t h e s e
m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e made o n V e n u s 1 : n i g h t s i d e , d a t a i s p r o v i d e d
on t h e r e p o r t e d l y v a r i a 5 l e Venusian n i g h t t i m e i o n o s p h e r e .

The O r b i t e r h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a i s s p e c i a l l y aimed d u r i n g
o c c u l t a t i o n s so t h a t t h e r e f r a c t e d r a d i o s i g n a l i s o p t i m a l l y
aimed a t E a r t h . DSN s t a t i o n s on E a r t h a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h
s p e c i a l r e c e i v e r s t o t r a c k t h e i n c o m i n g s i g n a l s as t h e i r
phase and f r e q u e n c i e s are modified during transmission
through Venus's atmosphere.

A t m o s p h e r i c a n d S o l a r Wind T u r b u l e n c e E x p e r i m e n t -- The
experiment o b s e r v e s t h e s m a l l scale t u r b u l e n c e (less t h a n 1 0
km o r 6 m i . ) i n t h e V e n u s i a n a t m o s p h e r e above 3 5 km ( 2 2 m i . )
altitude. I t w i l l r e v e a l t h e v a r i a t i o n of atmospheric t u r -
b u l e n c e w i t h l a t i t u d e , l o n g i t u d e and a l t i t u d e changes d u r i n g
t h e 4 0 o c c u l t a t i o n s when O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t s i g n a l s m u s t
p a s s through Venus' a t m o s p h e r e o n t h e i r way t o E a r t h t r a c k -
ing stations. Because t h e s i g n a l s t r a v e l through t h e iono-
s p h e r e a s w e l l , f l u c t u a t i o n s i n e l e c t r o n d e n s i t y c a n a l s o be
i n f e r r e d from t h e d a t a .

Following c o n c l u s i o n of t h e normal m i s s i o n l i f e t i m e
( a r o u n d August 1 9 7 9 ) , t h e O r b i t e r w i l l p r o v i d e d e n s i t y and
v e l o c i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e s o l a r wind n e a r t h e S u n . Venus
w i l l t h e n a p p r o a c h s u p e r i o r c o n j u n c t i o n ( E a r t h a n d Venus
w i l l b e on o p p o s i t e s i d e s of t h e S u n ) . T h i s i s a n i d e a l
t i m e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s o l a r w i n d , t h e stream o f i o n i z e d
p a r t i c l e s c o n s t a n t l y s w i r l i n g o f f t h e Sun. Because t h e s o l a r
wind i s s o c h a n g e a b l e , r e p e a t e d O r b i t e r o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e
s o l a r wind n e a r t o a n d f a r from t h e Sun w i l l p r o v i d e n e e d e d
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s o l a r wind d e n s i t y , t u r b u l e n c e a n d v e l o c i t y
uniformity. Two D S N s t a t i o n s w i l l a n a l y z e t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s
( s c i n t i l l a t i o n s ) i n t h e O r b i t e r S - a n d X-band s i g n a l s as t h e y
p a s s t h e s o l a r wind o n t h e i r way t o E a r t h .

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l
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Atmospheric Drag Experiment -- T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n t a k e s

d r a g measurement f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e of a n o t h e r p l a n e t ' s atmos-
p h e r e , a s t h e atmosphere " f r i c t i o n " of Venus s l o w s t h e O r b i -
t e r . E x p e r i m e n t e r s w i l l u s e d r a g measurements t h r o u g h o u t
t h e O r b i t e r m i s s i o n t o s e a r c h f o r any v a r i a t i o n s i n atmos-
p h e r i c d e n s i t y t h a t c o r r e l a t e w i t h s o l a r wind a c t i v i t y changes
i n s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n and d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e n s i t y on
t h e p l a n e t ' s night s i d e . I n addition, p r o j e c t s c i e n t i s t s are
l o o k i n g f o r e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e seeming four-day r o t a t i o n of t h e
lower atmosphere e x t e n d s i n t o t h e upper atmosphere.

D S N s t a t i o n s a n a l y z e t h e Doppler e f f e c t on t h e s p a c e -
c r a f t ' s X- a n d S-band r a d i o s i g n a l , caused by a t m o s p h e r i c
drag-induced change i n t h e O r b i t e r ' s d i r e c t i o n and s p e e d .

T h e e n t i r e s p a c e c r a f t , e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s h a p e of a c y l i n -
d e r , a c t s a s t h e t e s t i n s t r u m e n t . Atmospheric d e n s i t y i s
d e t e r m i n e d b e s t i n t h e v i c i n i t y of p e r i a p s i s (between 1 5 0
and 2 5 0 km o r 9 3 a n d 1 5 5 m i . ) , where t h e d r a g e f f e c t i s much
g r e a t e r than elsewhere along t h e O r b i t e r t r a j e c t o r y . A s t h e
p e r i a p s i s a l t i t u d e changes, v a r i a t i o n s of a t m o s p h e r i c d e n s i t y
w i t h a l t i t u d e can b e p l o t t e d .

Knowledge of a t m o s p h e r i c d e n s i t y a i d s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
m a s s s p e c t r o m e t e r f i n d i n g s , i n f e r s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n and t e m -
p e r a t u r e of t h e upper atmosphere and a i d s i n c o n s t r u c t i n g a
model of Venus' upper atmosphere.

L a r g e P r o b e Experiments

N e u t r a l Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- The n e u t r a l m a s s s p e c t r o -
meter measures t h e a t m o s p h e r i c c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e lower 6 0 km
(36 m i . ) of Venus I atmosphere ( l a r g e l y t h e atmosphere below
t h e m a s s i v e c l o u d l a y e r s ) a s t h e Large Probe d e s c e n d s by
p a r a c h u t e . Knowledge o f t h e r e l a t i v e abundances of g a s e s
w i l l h e l p answer q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e e v o l u t i o n , s t r u c t u r e
and h e a t b a l a n c e of Venus.
The i n s t r u m e n t d e t e r m i n e s t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of n o n - r e a c t i v e gases, c h e m i c a l l y a c t i v e g a s e s
and r a t i o s of i n e r t g a s i s o t o p e s . Water v a p o r ( i f i t e x i s t s )
i s a l s o measured.
The i n s t r u m e n t i s mounted i n s i d e t h e L a r g e Probe p r e s -
s u r e v e s s e l . I t r e c e i v e s a c o n t i n u o u s flow of a t m o s p h e r i c
g a s t h r o u g h two u n i q u e ceramic i n l e t t u b e s t h a t p r o t r u d e
through t h e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l w a l l . The i n l e t t u b e s a r e c a l l e d
C e r a m i c Micro Leaks (CMLS) and a r e made t o g r e a t l y l i m i t t h e
amount of g a s e n t e r i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t , w i t h o u t c h e m i c a l l y
a l t e r i n g it.
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 LARGE PROBE EXPERIMENTS

I
co
W
I

SOLAR FLUX ERIC STRUCTURE

ELECTRONICS A T M O ~ P H
RADIOMETER (BEHIND MASS SPECTROMETER
 -90-

The CMLs a r e p a s s i v e d e v i c e s and t h e amount of g a s

f l o w i n g t h r o u g h them i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a t m o s p h e r i c
p r e s s u r e . To p r e v e n t " f l o o d i n g " of t h e i n s t r u m e n t , one CML
i s s e a l e d when t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i s a b o u t 1 . 5 b a r s .
A f t e r e n t e r i n g t h e instrument, t h e atmospheric g a s i s f i r s t
i o n i z e d and t h e s e p a r a t e d i o n s s o r t e d o u t f o r m a s s and
q u a n t i t y of e a c h c o n s t i t u e n t by t h e i r d i f f e r e n t d e f l e c t i o n s
i n p a s s i n g through magnetic f i e l d s .

The s p e c t r o m e t e r can i d e n t i f y g a s e s w i t h masses up t o

208 atomic m a s s u n i t s , b e l i e v e d t o b e a l a r g e enough m a s s
range f o r a l l molecules l i k e l y t o be encountered i n t h e
lower atmosphere. S e n s i t i v i t y i s one p a r t p e r m i l l i o n .
S i x t y a t m o s p h e r i c s a m p l i n g s a r e p l a n n e d , w i t h a m a s s spectrum
t a k i n g 6 4 s e c o n d s . An onboard m i c r o p r o c e s s o r c o n t r o l s t h e
instrument and accumulates data f o r t e l e m e t r y t o E a r t h .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 1 0 . 9 kg ( 2 4 l b . ) and u s e s 1 4 w a t t s .

G a s Chromatograph -- The g a s chromatograph measures t h e

g a s e o u s c o m p o s i t i o n of Venus' lower atmosphere. By f i n d i n g
t h e major s o u r c e s of i n f r a r e d o p a c i t y ( t h o s e g a s e s t h a t t r a p
h e a t ) , s c i e n t i s t s s h o u l d b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d why Venus has 4 8 0 -
d e g r e e C (900-degree F . ) s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e s . From t h e
measurement of g a s e s produced by r a d i o a c t i v e d e c a y , s c i e n -
t i s t s c a n i n f e r t h e d e g r e e of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h i n Venus'
i n t e r i o r . E x p e r i m e n t e r s w i l l a l s o b e a b l e t o deduce t h e
s i m i l a r i t y of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e solid p a r t s of Venus
and E a r t h by t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of v a r i o u s s u l f u r i c g a s e s .

T h e i n s t r u m e n t samples t h e lower atmosphere t h r e e t i m e s

d u r i n g t h e L a r g e P r o b e ' s d e s c e n t . The atmosphere f l o w s i n t o
a t u b e p e n e t r a t i n g t h e e x t e r i o r of t h e L a r g e Probe and i n t o
a helium g a s s t r e a m , which sweeps t h e sample i n t o t w o chroma-
t o g r a p h columns. Atmospheric g a s e s a r e i d e n t i f i e d by t h e
t i m e i t t a k e s them t o f l o w through t h e columns. A s a C a l i -
b r a t i o n c h e c k , t w o samples of f r e o n ( a g a s n o t l i k e l y t o b e
e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e atmosphere) a r e added t o t h e t h i r d sample,
and t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n n o t e d .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 6 . 3 kg ( 1 3 . 8 l b . ) and u s e s 4 2

w a t t s , t h e most of any P i o n e e r Venus i n s t r u m e n t .

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 -91-
S o l a r F l u x Radiometer - - T h i s i n s t r u m e n t measures where
s o l a r energy i s d e p o s i t e d i n the l o w e r Venusian atmosphere,
g i v i n g a v e r t i c a l p r o f i l e of s u n l i g h t i n p u t . I t r e v e a l s
how much s u n l i g h t i s absorbed by t h e c l o u d s and h o w much
s u n l i g h t reaches t h e s u r f a c e , i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n f o r re-
s o l v i n g whether Venus h a s a greenhouse weather machine and
e x p l a i n i n g why i t s s u r f a c e i s so h o t .
T h e i n s t r u m e n t c o n t i n u a l l y measures t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
s u n l i g h t i n t e n s i t y d i r e c t l y above and below t h e Large Probe
horizon as t h e probe d r i f t s t o t h e p l a n e t s u r f a c e . F i v e
q u a r t z l e n s e s of 3 mm (1/8 i n . ) d i a m e t e r i n s i d e f i v e f l a t
s a p p h i r e windows c o l l e c t t h e l i g h t and t r a n s m i t i t by q u a r t z
rods t o an electronic l i g h t detector. S u n l i g h t i n t e n s i t y i s
d e t e c t e d i n t h e s p e c t r a l r a n g e of 0 . 4 t o 1 . 8 p m ( m i c r o m e t e r s ) ,
t h e wavelength r a n g e f o r most s o l a r energy. V e r t i c a l reso-
l u t i o n i s 7 0 0 t o 1 , 0 0 0 m ( 2 , 3 0 0 t o 3 , 3 0 0 f t . ) . Lenses a r e
p o s i t i o n e d b o t h up and down t o f i n d t h e amount of s o l a r
energy absorbed i n l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere. To a v o i d having
t h e p r o b e o r i t s p a r a c h u t e i n t h e f i e l d of view, t h e radio-
meter samples s u n l i g h t i n narrow 5-degree f i e l d s of view.
T h e i n s t r u m e n t weighs 1 . 6 kg ( 3 . 5 l b . ) and u s e s 4 w a t t s .

I n f r a r e d Radiometer -- The i n f r a r e d r a d i o m e t e r measures

t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n i n t h e atmos-
p h e r e from Large Probe p a r a c h u t e deployment a t 6 7 km ( 4 0 m i . )
down t o t h e s u r f a c e . I t a l s o d e t e c t s c l o u d l a y e r s and water
v a p o r , b o t h of w h i c h may w e l l be t r a p p i n g enormous amounts
of h e a t and p r e v e n t i n g t h e i r r e r a d i a t i o n back i n t o s p a c e .
F i n d i n g major h e a t s o u r c e s (and t r a p s ) i s e s s e n t i a l t o proving
Venus h a s a greenhouse h e a t i n g mechanism.

S i x p y r o e l e c t r i c i n f r a r e d d e t e c t o r s w e r e chosen because
t h e y do n o t need s p e c i a l c o o l i n g equipment f o r t h e i r u s e i n
t h e extreme a t m o s p h e r i c h e a t . Each detector views t h e atmos-
p h e r e v i a r o t a t i n g l i g h t p i p e s through a d i f f e r e n t i n f r a r e d
f i l t e r between 3 and 50 microns. T h e views of t h e detectors
i s d i r e c t e d a t 4 5 degrees above and below t h e probe h o r i z o n
through a diamond window heated t o p r e v e n t p a r t i c l e contami-
n a t i o n d u r i n g p a s s a g e through c l o u d s . The d i f f e r e n c e i n i n f r a -
red r a d i a t i o n , c l o u d o p a c i t y and w a t e r vapor between t h e two
viewing a n g l e s i s telemetered t o E a r t h e v e r y 6 s e c o n d s , g i v i n g
a v e r t i c a l i n f r a r e d s p a t i a l r e s o l u t i o n of 250 m ( 8 2 5 f t . ) o r
better.

Two of t h e s i x detectors m o n i t o r t h e t e m p e r a t u r e and

o p t i c a l u n i f o r m i t y of t h e diamond viewing window, two d e t e c -
t o r s d e t e c t and measure water v a p o r , one d e t e c t o r measures
c l o u d o p a c i t y and t h e remaining d e t e c t o r measures t h e i n f r a r e d
i n t e n s i t i e s of t h e a t m o s p h e r i c l a y e r s t h e Large Probe p a s s e s
through.
T h e i n s t r u m e n t w e i g h s 2 . 6 kg ( 5 . 8 l b . ) and u s e s 5 . 5 w a t t s .
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Cloud P a r t i c l e S i z e S p e c t r o m e t e r--
This instrument
measures t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e and s h a p e and d e n s i t y of Venus'
c l o u d s i n t h e l o w e r atmosphere from 6 7 k m ( 4 0 m i . ) down t o
the surface.

Through measurements o f p a r t i c l e s i z e and mass, t h e

i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r o v i d e s a v e r t i c a l p r o f i l e of p a r t i c u l a t e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r 34 d i f f e r e n t s i z e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , ranging
from 1 t o 500 microns i n d i a m e t e r ( a micron i s o n e m i l l i o n t h
of a meter o r r o u g h l y t w o t e n - t h o u s a n d t h s o f an i n c h ) . Such
measurements w i l l g i v e c l u e s t o b a s i c c l o u d f o r m a t i o n p r o -
cesses and c l o u d - s u n l i g h t i n t e r a c t i o n s on Venus. The s p e c t r o -
m e t e r a l s o d i f f e r e n t i a t e s ice c r y s t a l s -- i f any a r e p r e s e n t
-- from o t h e r c r y s t a l l i n e p a r t i c u l a t e s by d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
i c e ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c " a s p e c t r a t i o " -- t h e r a t i o of p a r t i c l e
thickness t o s i z e .

The i n s t r u m e n t d i r e c t s a l a s e r beam o n t o a n e x t e r n a l
m i r r o r s u p p o r t e d 1 5 c m ( 6 i n . ) from t h e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l ' s
o u t e r s u r f a c e . The m i r r o r d i r e c t s t h e beam back i n t o a
backscatter detector. A s a p a r t i c l e e n t e r s the instrument's
f i e l d of view, i t s shadow i s imaged o n t o a p h o t o d i o d e a r r a y
d e t e c t o r , where i t s shadow s i z e i s measured and r e c o r d e d .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 4 . 4 kg ( 9 . 6 l b .) and u s e s 20 w a t t s .

L a r u e and S m a l l Probe I n s t r u m e n t s

Atmospheric S t r u c t u r e Experiments -- These i n v e s t i g a t i o n s

d e t e r m i n e Venus' a t m o s p h e r i c s t r u c t u r e from 2 0 0 km ( 1 2 0 m i . )
t o impact a t f o u r e n t r ; s i t e s w e l l s e p a r a t e d from one a n o t h e r .
Temperature, p r e s s u r e and a c c e l e r a t i o n s e n s o r s on a l l f o u r
p r o b e s y i e l d d a t a on t h e l o c a t i o n and i n t e n s i t i e s of atmos-
p h e r i c t u r b u l e n c e , t h e v a r i a t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e s w i t h p r e s -
s u r e and a l t i t u d e , t h e a v e r a g e a t m o s p h e r i c m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t
and t h e r a d i a l d i s t a n c e t o t h e c e n t e r o f Venus. I f t h e
Probes s u r v i v e impact ( a remote p o s s i b i l i t y ) , t h e y w i l l re-
v e a l any seismic a c t i v i t y i n t h e c r u s t of t h e p l a n e t .

The t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r s a r e d u a l r e s i s t a n c e thermometers.
Each h a s one f r e e w i r e e l e m e n t p r o t r u d i n g i n t o t h e atmosphere
f o r maximum s e n s i t i v i t y and o n e e l e m e n t bonded t o t h e s u p p o r t
frame f o r maximum s u r v i v a b i l i t y . I t s extreme t e m p e r a t u r e
r a n g e p e r m i t s i t t o r e c o r d t e m p e r a t u r e s from below f r e e z i n g
t o 4 7 0 d e g r e e s C ( 9 0 0 d e g r e e s F.).
P r e s s u r e s e n s o r s are m u l t i p l e range, m i n i a t u r e s i l i c o n
diaphragm s e n s o r s . The wide r a n g e needed from 30 m i l l i b a r s
t o 1 0 0 b a r s p r e s s u r e i s a c h i e v e d by 1 2 s e n s o r s of o v e r l a p p i n g
s e n s i t i v i t y . T h i s a l s o p r o v i d e s redundancy i n case of a
sensor malfunction.
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A c c e l e r a t i o n s e n s o r s ( f o u r on t h e l a r g e r probe, one
o n each of t h e s m a l l p r o b e s ) have a p e n d u l o u s mass, main-
t a i n e d i n n u l l ( z e r o ) p o s i t i o n b y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of a
c u r r e n t i n a c o i l i n s i d e t h e mass w i t h a m a g n e t i c f i e l d .
The n u l l i n g c u r r e n t i s t h e measure of a c c e l e r a t i o n .

An e l e c t r o n i c s p a c k a g e d i s t r i b u t e s power t o a l l s e n -
s o r s , s a m p l e s t h e i r o u t p u t , c h a n g e s t h e i r r a n g e s a n d stores
data.

The i n s t r u m e n t s o n t h e L a r g e P r o b e weigh 2.3 kg ( 5 . 1

l b . ) and u s e 4 . 9 w a t t s . On e a c h o f t h e S m a l l P r o b e s t h e
i n s t r u m e n t s w e i g h 1 . 2 kg ( 2 . 7 l b . ) a n d u s e 3.5 w a t t s .

N e p h e l o m e t e r -- The n e p h e l o m e t e r s e a r c h e s f o r c l o u d
p a r t i c l e s ( s o l i d o r l i q u i d ) i n t h e l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e from
6 7 km ( 4 0 m i . ) t o t h e s u r f a c e . By p r o v i d i n g a l l f o u r p r o b e s
w i t h nephelometers, i n v e s t i g a t o r s can determine whether
c l o u d l a y e r s v a r y from l o c a t i o n t o l o c a t i o n o r a r e u n i f o r m l y
distributed across the planet.

A l i g h t e m i t t i n g d i o d e (LED) o f 9 , 0 0 0 Angstroms t o g e t h e r
with a p l a s t i c Fresnel lens f o r focusing the l i g h t illuminate
t h e a t m o s p h e r e t h r o u g h a window mounted i n t h e p r o b e p r e s s u r e
v e s s e l . The t r a n s m i t t e d l i g h t beam i s p r o j e c t e d a d i s t a n c e
beyond t h e t u r b u l e n t a t m o s p h e r e s u r r o u n d i n g t h e p r o b e s a s
t h e y d e s c e n d . Through a s e c o n d window, a r e c e i v e r m e a s u r e s
t h e i n t e n s i t y of l i g h t b a c k s c a t t e r e d ( a b o u t 1 7 5 d e g r e e s ) b y
atmospheric p a r t i c l e s . Both windows a r e p r o t e c t e d from t h e
s e a r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s o f t h e V e n u s i a n a t m o s p h e r e and f r o m
stray light.

I n v e s t i g a t o r s w i l l u s e t h e backward l i g h t s c a t t e r i n g
p r o p e r t y of c l o u d s a n d h a z e s t o c o n s t r u c t a v e r t i c a l p r o -
f i l e o f p a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e lower a t m o s p h e r e . I n
a d d i t i o n , t h e two s m a l l p r o b e s d e s c e n d i n g i n t h e s u n l i t
s i d e w i l l b e measuring t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of solar
s c a t t e r e d l i g h t a t 3 , 5 0 0 Angstroms a n d 5 , 3 0 0 A n g s t r o m s .

The i n s t r u m e n t w e i g h s 1.1 kg ( 2 . 4 l b . ) and uses 2 . 4

watts.

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S m a l l Probe Experiments

N e t F l u x Radiometer -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t maps t h e plane-

t a r y p o s i t i o n s of s o u r c e s and absorbers of r a d i a t i v e energy
and t h e i r v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of r a d i a -
t i v e energy ( h e a t and s u n l i g h t ) powers t h e a t m o s p h e r i c c i r -
c u l a t i o n on Venus a s w e l l a s E a r t h . T h e i n s t r u m e n t data w i l l
b e r e l a t e d t o t h e observed a t m o s p h e r i c motions, t e m p e r a t u r e
s t r u c t u r e and c l o u d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f r o m o t h e r P i o n e e r Venus
experiments t o g a i n a m o r e a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e of Venus' w e a -
t h e r machine.

The i n s t r u m e n t s o n each of t h e t h r e e S m a l l Probes are

i d e n t i c a l and can o p e r a t e e q u a l l y i n e i t h e r day o r n i g h t
hemispheres. Following d e s c e n t i n t o t h e lower atmosphere
below 7 2 km ( 4 5 m i . ) t h e i n s t r u m e n t ' s s e n s o r i s deployed
from a p r o t e c t i v e e n c l o s u r e t o a p o s i t i o n l o c a t i n g i t beyond
t h e t u r b u l e n c e n e a r t h e base of t h e h e a t s h i e l d . D a t a c o l -
l e c t i o n c o n t i n u e s u n t i l impact.
The i n s t r u m e n t ' s f l u x p l a t e i s o r i e n t e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e
p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e . A d i f f e r e n c e between upward a n d downward
r a d i a n t energy f a l l i n g on t h e two s i d e s of t h e p l a t e produces
a t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t through i t , which i n d u c e s a n e l e c t r i c a l
c u r r e n t . The p l a t e i s f l i p p e d 1 8 0 degrees e v e r y second t o
a s s u r e even d a t a c o l l e c t i o n .
The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 1.1 kg ( 2 . 4 l b . ) and u s e s 3 . 8 w a t t s .
M u l t i p r o b e Bus Experiments
N e u t r a l Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- T h e n e u t r a l m a s s s p e c t r o -
meter measures t h e v a r i o u s components (atoms and m o l e c u l e s )
of t h e atmospheres and t h e i r v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n f r o m
a b o u t 1 , 0 0 0 k m ( 6 0 0 m i . ) t o 1 3 0 km ( 8 0 m i . ) , emphasizing
t h e a l t i t u d e r a n g e 1 5 0 t o 1 2 0 km ( 9 0 t o 7 5 m i . ) w h i c h n e i t h e r
t h e O r b i t e r nor t h e f o u r p r o b e s reach. (The Bus i s e x p e c t e d
t o b u r n up a t a n a l t i t u d e of a b o u t 1 2 0 km ( 7 5 m i . ) .
From t h e i n s t r u m e n t d a t a , i n v e s t i g a t o r s c a n d e r i v e t h e
h e i g h t of t h e t u r b o p a u s e ( t h e r e g i o n above which a t m o s p h e r i c
gases do n o t m i x ) , f i n d t h e r a t i o s of atmospheric i s o t o p e s
and d e r i v e eddy d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s (mathematical e x p r e s -
s i o n s d e s c r i b i n g how r a p i d l y t h e atmosphere i s m i x e d ) . T h e
composition of t h e i o n o s p h e r e ' s maximum d e n s i t y can a l s o be
determined, as w e l l a s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e exosphere, t h e
o u t e r m o s t f r i n g e of Venus ' atmosphere.

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The i n s t r u m e n t i o n i z e s a t m o s p h e r i c components up t o 4 6
a t o m i c m a s s ( h y d r o g e n t o i r o n ) b y e l e c t r o n bombardment. It
t h e n s e p a r a t e s them a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r masses b y how f a r
t h e y a r e d e f l e c t e d b y a m a g n e t i c f i e l d . The i n s t r u m e n t fea-
t u r e s a f a s t d a t a sampling and t e l e m e t e r i n g capaci-ty t o cope
w i t h t h e 3 km-per-second ( 1 1 0 mph) Bus d e s c e n t s p e e d . One
d a y b e f o r e Venus e n c o u n t e r , a known amount of g a s i s released
i n t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d m e a s u r e m e n t , t o be
u s e d as a r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e s p e c t r o m e t e r ' s s e n s i t i v i t y .

The i n s t r u m e n t w e i g h s 6 . 8 kg ( 1 5 l b . ) a n d u s e s 5 w a t t s .

I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- The i o n m a s s s p e c t r o m e t e r
measures t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p o s i t i v e l y
c h a r g e d i o n s i n t h e u p p e r Venus a t m o s p h e r e from- 1 2 0 km ( 7 5
m i . ) up t h r o u g h t h e i o n o s p h e r e .
(See O r b i t e r I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r f o r i n s t r u m e n t
description.)

M u l t i p r o b e Radio S c i e n c e Experiments

D i f f e r e n t i a l Long B a s e l i n e I n t e r f e r o m e t r y -- T h i s
i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s t h e v e l o c i t y a n d d i r e c t i o n o f Venus
winds as t h e f o u r p r o b e s descend through t h e atmosphere.
By c o m p a r i n g t h e d e s c e n t p a t h s o f t h e p r o b e s w i t h s i m u l -
t a n e o u s measurements o f a t m o s p h e r i c t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s -
s u r e from p r o b e s e n s o r s , i n v e s t i g a t o r s c a n assemble a b e t t e r
model o f V e n u s ' atmospheric c i r c u l a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
r e g a r d t o wind s p e e d s .

W h i l e t h e f o u r p r o b e s d e s c e n d t o t h e s u r f a c e , t h e Bus
follows a b a l l i s t i c t r a j e c t o r y i n t h e upper atmosphere.
T h i s t r a j e c t o r y s e r v e s as a reference. Probe v e l o c i t i e s
c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d and measured v e r y a c c u r a t e l y r e l a t i v e
t h e b u s , and a b s o l u t e probe v e l o c i t i e s c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d
from t h e known b u s v e l o c i t y . I n v e s t i g a t o r s assume d e v i a -
t i o n s of t h e p r o b e t r a j e c t o r i e s from a n a t m o s p h e r e l e s s
m a t h e m a t i c a l model a r e c a u s e d by a t m o s p h e r i c w i n d s .

Two w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d D S N s t a t i o n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t r a c k i n g
a l l s p a c e c r a f t d e t e r m i n e t h a t p a r t of t h e v e l o c i t y vector
a l o n g t h e E a r t h - V e n u s l i n e of s i g h t . D i f f e r e n t i a l l o n g - b a s e d
i n t e r f e r o m e t r y u s e s t h r e e D S N s t a t i o n s t o f i n d t h e o t h e r two
components of t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r t o t r i a n g u l a t e o r g e t a
" f i x " i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s on t h e c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g p a t h s
of t h e f a l l i n g p r o b e s .

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Atmospheric P r o p a g a t i o n Experiment -- T h i s i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n a t t e m p t s t o g l e a n i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t Venus' surface
and atmosphere by t h e e f f e c t s of t h e atmosphere on t h e
p r o b e s ' r a d i o s i g n a l s . A s t h e p r o b e s descend, P i o n e e r
s c i e n t i s t s s e a r c h f o r e v i d e n c e of a v e r y weak s i g n a l t h a t
t r a v e l s downward, r e f l e c t s o f f t h e s u r f a c e of Venus and
t h e n bounces t o E a r t h . Such a d i s t o r t e d s i g n a l i s Doppler
s h i f t e d away from t h e p r o b e s i g n a l of 2 , 3 0 0 MHz ( m i l l i o n
H e r t z ) by less t h a n Hz and i s a l m o s t u n d e t e c t a b l e . I f t h i s
s i g n a l i s discovered, it should r e v e a l information about
t h e Venusian s u r f a c e -- hence, a i d i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of t h e r a d a r mapping d a t a .

The d e s c e n d i n g p r o b e s a l s o r e v e a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
t h e atmosphere. Probe r a d i o s i g n a l s weaken w i t h d e c r e a s i n g
a l t i t u d e due t o COi! a b s o r p t i o n , atmosphere r e f r a c t i o n and
a d d i t i o n a l a b s o r p t i o n from c l o u d l a y e r s o r some o t h e r ab-
s o r b e r . The s t r e n g t h of t h e p r o b e s i g n a l s s h o u l d r e v e a l
t h e unknown a b s o r b e r ; i f i t i s a c l o u d l a y e r , i n v e s t i g a t o r s
can measure t h e h e i g h t and t h i c k n e s s of t h e l a y e r .

Atmospheric T u r b u l e n c e Experiments -- T h i s i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n s t u d i e s t h e t u r b u l e n c e i n t h e Venusian atmosphere, t h u s
a i d i n g i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e dynamics of Venus' atmos-
p h e r e c i r c u l a t i o n . A s a l l f o u r p r o b e s descend t o t h e s u r f a c e ,
t h e i r t r a n s m i t t i n g s i g n a l s w i l l l i k e l y b e d i s t o r t e d by s m a l l
r e g i o n s of t u r b u l e n c e c a u s e d by t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and
v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s . D S N r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n s on E a r t h w i l l
a n a l y z e t h e s i g n a l s f o r d i s t o r t i o n c a u s e d by a t m o s p h e r i c t u r -
b u l e n c e . The probe d a t a complements a t m o s p h e r i c t u r b u l e n c e
d a t a above 35 km ( 2 1 m i . ) t a k e n by t h e O r b i t e r .

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P R I N C I P A L I N V E S T I G A T O R S AND SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

Orbiter Spacecraft

D r . James Hansen Cloud P o l a r i m e t e r , Imaging

Goddard I n s t i t u t e of S p a c e Experiment
Studies

Dr. Gordon P e t t e n g i l l Radar Mapper

(Team Leader) , Massachusetts
I n s t i t u t e of Technology

D r . Fredric Taylor Temperature Sounding

J e t Propulsion Laboratory I n f r a r e d Radiometer

Dr. Ian Stewart U l t r a v i o l e t Spectrometer

U n i v e r s i t y of C o l o r a d o
D r . Hasso Niemann N e u t r a l Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r
Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

Harry T a y l o r I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r
Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

D r . J o h n Wolfe S o l a r Wind/Plasma A n a l y z e r
A m e s Research C e n t e r

Dr. Christopher R u s s e l l Magnetometer

U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ,
L o s Angeles

D r . Frederick Scarf E l e c t r i c F i e l d Detector

TRW, I n c .

L a r r y Brace E l e c t r o n Temperature Probe

Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

D r . W i l l i a m Knudsen Retarding P o t e n t i a l Analyzer

Lockheed Missiles and
Space C o .

D r . W . D . Evans Gamma Ray B u r s t D e t e c t o r

Los A l a m o s S c i e n t i f i c
Laboratory

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O r b i t e r Radio S c i e n c e
Radio s c i e n c e experiments measure i n t e r a c t i o n of
s p a c e c r a f t r a d i o s i g n a l s w i t h Venus and i t s atmosphere,
u s i n g t h e O r b i t e r and f i v e probe c r a f t as i n s t r u m e n t s .
D r . Gordon P e t t e n g i l l , M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e of Tech-
nology, i s team l e a d e r .
D r . Roger P h i l l i p s Venus I n t e r n a l Density
J e t Propulsion Laboratory Distribution

D r . I . I . Shapiro C e l e s t i a l Mechanics
Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e
of Technology

D r . Arvydas K l i o r e Radio O c c u l t a t i o n
J e t Propulsion Laboratory

Dr. Thomas C r o f t Radio Occultation

S t a n f o r d Research I n s t i t u t e

D r . Richard Woo Atmospheric and S o l a r Corona

J e t Propulsion Laboratory

D r . Gerald Keating Atmospheric Drag

Langley Research C e n t e r

M u l t i p r o b e S p a c e c r a f t (Large Probe)
D r . J o h n Hoffman M a s s Spectrometer
U n i v e r s i t y of Texas, D a l l a s
Vance Oyama G a s Chromatograph
Ames Research C e n t e r
Alvin S e i f f Atmosphere S t r u c t u r e
Ames Research C e n t e r

Dr. M a r t i n Tomasko S o l a r F l u x Radiometer

U n i v e r s i t y of Arizona

Robert Boese I n f r a r e d Radiometer

Ames Research C e n t e r

D r . R o b e r t Knollenberq Cloud P a r t i c l e S i z e
P a r t i c l e Measuring Systems, I n c . Spectrometer
Dr. B o r i s Ragent Nephelometer ( c l o u d s e n s o r )
Ames Research C e n t e r

Dr. J a c q u e s Blamont Nephelometer

U n i v e r s i t y of P a r i s -more-
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M u l t i p r o b e S p a c e c r a f t [ T h r e e S m a l l Probes)
Alvin S e i f f Atmosphere S t r u c t u r e
Ames Research C e n t e r

D r . B o r i s Ragent Nephelometer
Ames Research C e n t e r

D r . J a c q u e s Blamont Nephelometer
U n i v e r s i t y of P a r i s

D r . Verner Suomi N e t Flux Radiometer

U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin

M u l t i p r o b e S p a c e c r a f t (Bus)
Dr. U l f von Zahn Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r
U n i v e r s i t y of Bonn,
West Germany
Harry T a y l o r I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r
Goddard Space F l i g h t C e n t e r

M u l t i p r o b e Radio S c i e n c e (All P r o b e s )
D r . C h a r l e s C . Counselman D i f f e r e n t i a l Long-Baseline
M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e of I n t e f erometry
Techno logy
Dr. Thomas Croft Atmospheric A t t e n u a t i o n
S t a n f o r d Research I n s t i t u t e
Dr. R i c h a r d Woo Atmospheric Turbulence
J e t Propulsion Laboratory

Interdisciplinary Scientists
I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y s c i e n t i s t s have been selected f o r
b o t h t h e Multiprobe and O r b i t e r Missions t o p r o v i d e assis-
t a n c e i n a n a l y s e s of t h e Venusian atmosphere. They are:
Dr. S i e g f r i e d Bauer
Goddard Space F l i g h t C e n t e r
D r . Thomas Donahue
U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n

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l
.
 -100-

D r . R i c h a r d Goody
Harvard U n i v e r s i t y

Dr. Donald Hunten

U n i v e r s i t y of A r i z o n a
D r . James P o l l a c k
A m e s Research C e n t e r

N e l s o n Spencer
Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

H a r o l d Masursky
U .S . Geological Survey

Dr. George M c G i l l
U n i v e r s i t y of M a s s a c h u s e t t s

Dr. Andrew Nagy

U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan

Dr. Gerald Schubert

U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , L o s Angeles

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LAUNCH VEHICLE

The A t l a s C e n t a u r i s N A S A ' s s t a n d a r d l a u n c h v e h i c l e
f o r intermediate weight payloads. I t i s used f o r t h e launch
o f l u n a r , E a r t h o r b i t a l , E a r t h s y n c h r o n o u s and p l a n e t a r y
missions.

Developed a n d l a u n c h e d u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f N A S A ' s
L e w i s R e a e a r c h C e n t e r , C l e v e l a n d , O h i o , C e n t a u r was t h e
n a t i o n ' s f i r s t h i g h - e n e r g y , l i q u i d h y d r o g e n - l i q u i d oxygen
propelled launch vehicle. I t became o p e r a t i o n a l i n 1 9 6 6
w i t h t h e l a u n c h of S u r v e y o r 1, t h e f i r s t U . S . s p a c e c r a f t t o
s o f t l a n d o n t h e Yoon's s u r f a c e .

S i n c e t h a t t i m e , b o t h t h e A t l a s b o o s t e r and C e n t a u r
s e c o n d s t a g e h a v e u n d e r g o n e many i m p r o v e m e n t s . A t p r e s e n t ,
t h e v e h i c l e c o m b i n a t i o n c a n p l a c e 4 , 5 3 6 kg ( 1 0 , 0 0 0 lb.) i n
low E a r t h o r b i t , 1,882 kg ( 4 , 1 5 0 l b . ) i n a s y n c h r o n o u s
t r a n s f e r o r b i t and 9 0 7 k g ( 2 , 0 0 0 l b . ) on a n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y
trajectory.

T h e A t l a s C e n t a u r , s t a n d i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 m (131 f t . )
h i g h , c o n s i s t s o f a n A t l a s SLV-3D b o o s t e r a n d C e n t a u r D-1A
s e c o n d s t a g e . The A t l a s b o o s t e r d e v e l o p s 1 , 9 1 3 k i l i n e w t o n s
( 4 3 0 , 0 0 0 l b . ) o f t h r u s t a t l i f t o f f , u s i n g two 8 2 2 , 9 2 0
newton ( 1 8 5 , 0 0 0 l b . ) t h r u s t b o o s t e r e n g i n e s , Q n e
266,890 N ( 6 0 , 0 0 0 lh.) t h r u s t s u s t a i n e r e n g i n e a n d two
v e r n i e r e n g i n e s d e v e l o p i n g 2,976 U ( 6 6 9 l b . ) t h r u s t e a c h .
The two RL-10 e n g i n e s o n C e n t a u r p r o d u c e a t o t a l o f
1 3 1 , 2 2 2 1\J ( 2 9 , 5 0 0 l b . ) t h r u s t . Both t h e A t l a s and t h e
Centaur are 3 m ( 1 0 f t . ) i n diameter.

C e n t a u r c a r r i e s i n s u l a t i o n p a n e l s which are j e t t i s o n e d
j u s t b e f o r e t h e v e h i c l e l e a v e s t h e E a r t h ' s atmosphere. The
i n s u l a t i o n p a n e l s , w e i g h i n g a b o u t 553 k i l o g r a m s (1,220 l b . )
surround t h e second s t a g e p r o p e l l a n t t a n k s t o p r e v e n t h e a t
o r a i r f r i c t i o n from c a u s i n g b o i l - o f f o f l i q u i d h y d r o g e n
d u r i n g f l i g h t through t h e atmosphere.
The s p a c e c r a f t w i l l b e e n c l o s e d i n a n 8.8-m
(2n-cL_.) l o n n , 3-m (l?-ft.)-dianete~ f i ? e r g l a - , s 2ose-
f a i r i n g which i s j e t t i s e a 2 . d a f t e r l e a v i n g t h e a t m o s p h e r e .

U n t i l e a r l y 1974, C e n t a u r w a s u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y i n
c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e A t l a s booster. I t w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y
u s e d w i t h a T i t a n I11 b o o s t e r t o l a u n c h h e a v i e r P a y l o a d s
onto interplanetary trajectories.

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The Centaur D-1A has an i n t e g r a t e d e l e c t r o n i c system

which h a n d l e s n a v i g a t i o n and guidance t a s k s , c o n t r o l s
p r e s s u r i z a t i o n and v e n t i n g , p r o p e l l a n t management, t e l e -
metry f o r m a t s and t r a n s m i s s i o n and i n i t i a t e s v e h i c l e
e v e n t s . Most o p e r a t i o n a l needs can be m e t by changing t h e
computer s o f t w a r e .

LAUNCH FLIGHT SEQUENCE

A t l a s Phase

A f t e r l i f t o f f , AC-50 w i l l r i s e v e r t i c a l l y f o r about 15
seconds b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g i t s p i t c h program. S t a r t i n g a t
two seconds a f t e r l i f t o f f and c o n t i n u i n g t o T p l u s 15 se-
conds, t h e v e h i c l e w i l l r o l l t o t h e d e s i r e d f l i g h t azimuth.
A f t e r 139 seconds of f l i g h t , t h e b o o s t e r e n g i n e s a.re
s h u t down (Booster Engine C u t o f f , BECO) and j e t t i s o n e d .
BECO o c c u r s when an a c c e l e r a t i o n o f 5 . 7 G ' s is s e n s e d by
a c c e l e r o m e t e r on t h e Centaur and t h e s i g n a l i s i s s u e d by t h e
Centaur guidance system. (The b o o s t e r package i s j e t -
t i s o n e d 3 . 1 seconds a f t e r BECO.) The A t l a s s u s t a i n 9 r engine
c o n t i n u e s t o burn f o r approximately 79 seconds a f t e r BECO
p r o p e l l i n g t h e v c h i c l e t o an a l t i t u d e of about 1 4 6 k m
(91 m i . > , a t t a i n i n g a speed o f 13,659 km/hr ( 8 , 4 8 7 m p h ) .

P r i o r t o s u s t a i n e r e n g i n e c u t o f f , Centaur i n s u l a t i o n
p a n e l s and t h e n o s e f a i r i n g are j e t t i s o n e d .
The A t l a s and Centaur s t a g e s a r e t h e n s e p a r a t e d . An
explosive charge slices through t h e i n t e r s t a g e adapter.
R e t r o r o c k e t s mounted on t h e A t l a s slow t h e s p e n t s t a g e .

Centaur Phase
A t 4 minutes 2 6 seconds i n t o t h e f l i c r h t , t h e Cen-
t a u r ' s t w o RL-10 e n g i n e s i g n i t e f o r a planned 5 minute 1 0
second burn. The Centaur e n g i n e s t h e n s h u t down and O r b i -
t e r and Centaur w i l l coast f o r 9 t o 1 0 m i n u t e s , depending
on t h e d a t a of l a u n c h , i n a c i r c u l a r p a r k i n g o r b i t . A t t h e
end of t h e c o a s t p e r i o d , t h e Centaur e n g i n e s r e s t a r t and
burn f o r 2 minutes and 1 7 s e c o n d s , p u t t i n g t h e O r b i t e r on
i t s Venus f l i g h t p a t h .

A t t h e end of t h e second Centaur burn t h e Centaur w i l l

o r i e n t t h e s p i n a x i s of t h e s p a c e c r a f t such t h a t it i s
w i t h i n n i n e d e g r e e s of p e r p e n d u c u l a r t o t h e E a r t h ' s o r b i t p l a n e ,
and t h e P i o n e e r Venus O r b i t e r w i l l s e p a r a t e from Centaur.

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 LAUNCH VEHICLE-CHARACTERISTICS

*Liftoff weight including spacecraft: 146,972 kilograms (324,018 l b s . )

Liftoff height: 40.3 m (132 ft.)
launch complex: 36A
Launch azimuth sector: 93-108 degrees

SLV- 3D Booster Centaur S t a s e

Weight: 130,390 kg (287,509 lbs.) 17,678 kg (38,981 1bs.I

Height: 22.9 m_(75 ft.) 14.6 m (48 ft.)

(including interstaye
adapter)
Thrust: 1,917,174 Newtons
(431,000 lbs.) sea level
Propellants: Liquid oxygen and R P - 1
Propulsion: MA-5 system two 822,920-newton
(185,000-lbs.)-thrust engines,
one 266,893-newton (60,000-lb.)
sustainer engine and two 2,976-
newton (669-lb.)-thrust vernier
engines)
Velocity: 9,122 km/hr (5,668-mph) at BECO;
13,659 km/hr. (8487 mph) at SECO
(with payload fairing)
I
131,200 N e w t o n s P
0
(29,500 lbs.) vacuum W
I
Liquid hydrogen and
liquid oxygen
Two 65,611-newton (14,750-1b.l-
thrust RL-10 engines. Twelve
- small hydrogen peroxide thrusters
26.7 newton (6 lb.) thrust each
26,580 km/hr (16,516) at MECO-1
41,127 km/hr (25,555 m p h ) at
MECO-2

Guidance : Pre-programmed pitch rates through Inertial guidance

BECO .
Switch to Centaur inertial guidance
f o r sustainer phase.

* Measured at 5.08 centimeters (two inches) of r i s e .

 ATLAS CENTAUR FLIGHT SEQUENCE (AC-51)

Time A1 ti t u d e S u r f a c e Range Relative Velocity

Event (Sec ). Km Mi. Km Mi. Km/Hr Mph
Liftoff 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

B o o s t e r Engine C u t o f f 139.3 57.7 35.9 81.2 50.5 9,109 5,660

J e t t i s o n Booster 142.4 60.8 37.8 88.3 54.9 9,190 5,710

J e t t i s o n I n s u l a t i o n Panel 184.3 98.5 61.2 193.5 120.2 10,386 6,454

Jettison N o s e Fairing 224.3 127.5 79.3 311.6 193.6 12,010 7,463

Sustainer/Vernier Cutoff 251.5 144.5 89.8 404.1 251.1 13,463 8,366

Atlas/Centaur Separation 253.5 145.6 90.5 411.3 255.6 13,465 8,367

I
Centaur I g n i t i o n 1 263.0 150.8 93.7 445.6 276.9 13,416 8,336 P
0
C e n t a u r Main Engine C u t o f f 1 582.9 170.2 105.7 2,079.1 1,291.9 26,595 16,525 I

Centaur I g n i t i o n 2 * 165.1 102.6 * * 26,663 16,568

C e n t a u r Main Engine C u t o f f 2 * 186.0 115.6 * * 39,566 24,585

Spacecraft Separation * 361.1 224.4 39,064 24,273

*Depends on P a r k i n g O r b i t C o a s t T i m e , 1 4 - 2 0 m i n u t e s .

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LAUNCH OPERATIONS

A NASA-contractor team under the direction of Kennedy

Space Center's Expendable Vehicles Directorate is responsible
for the preparation and launch of unmanned space vehicles
from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.
The Atlas Centaur rocket to be used for the second
Pioneer Venus flight -- AC-51 -- will be launched from Pad A,
northernmost of the two pads at Launch Complex 3 6 .
AC-51 was erected on Pad A June 1-2. The Pioneer
Venus Multiprobe was delivered to the Cape June 6 and under-
went initial processing in Hangar AO. The Probe craft was
moved to Spacecraft Assembly and Encapsulation Facility-2
(SAEF-2) in the KSC Industrial Area in mid-July, where it
was scheduled to be encapsulated within its payload shroud
the third week of July and taken to the pad for mating with
AC-51 on July 26. A series of electrical and functional
tests are designed to clear the space vehicle for launch
about Aug. 7.

MISSION OPERATIONS

For Pioneer Venus, mission controllers will be operat-

ing simultaneously two different spacecraft on two different
missions. The Orbiter and Multiprobe are launched within
three months of each other and arrive at the planet less
than a week apart.

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D u r i n g t h e Venus e n c o u n t e r p e r i o d , l a u n c h o f t h e
f o u r p r o b e s from t h e t r a n s p o r t e r Bus t o t h e i r a t m o s p h e r i c
e n t r y p o i n t s w i l l b e a c c o m p l i s h e d : t h e Bus w i l l b e r e t a r -
g e t e d for i t s e n t r y ; t h e O r b i t e r w i l l be p l a c e d on i t s
24-hour, h i g h - i n c l i n a t i o n , h i g h l y e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t . Five
d a y s a f t e r O r b i t e r e n c o u n t e r , p r o b e e n t r y w i l l b e moni-
t o r e d , and t h e c r i t i c a l p r o b e d a t a r e c e i v e d and s t o r e d
f o r later a n a l y s i s .

With c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e M u l t i p r o b e m i s s i o n - - a f t e r i m - -
p a c t of t h e p r o b e s on t h e s u r f a c e and burn-up o f t h e Bus
c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l c o n t i n u e t o o p e r a t e t h e Orl-)iter f o r t h e
e i g h t months o f i t s p r i m a r y m i s s i o n . C o n t r o l l e r s may make
s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n t h e o r b i t d u r i n g t h i s extended
mission period.
S i n c e a l l P i o n e e r s are r e l a t i v e l y unadtomated space-
c r a f t , m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s o f t e n r e q u i r e 24-hour-a-day
c o n t r o l and c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s a n d p l a n n i n g i n s h o r t t i m e
spans. Ground-controlled s p a c e c r a f t provide f l e x i b i l i t y
f o r c h a n g i n g p l a n s and o b j e c t i v e s . They a l s o o f f e r e c o n -
o m i e s i n s p a c e c r a f t d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n .

p i o n e e r Venus c o n t r o l a n d s p a c e c r a f t o p e r a t i o n s w i l l
be a t t h e P i o n e e r Mission O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r ( P M O C ) , Ames
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , Mountain V i e w , C a l i f . , f r o m t h e t i m e b o t h
s p a c e c r a f t s e p a r a t e from t h e i r l a u n c h v e h i c l e s t h r o u g h
t h e end of t h e Orbiter m i s s i o n .

P i o n e e r Venus o p e r a t i o n s w i l l b e made somewhat more

complex by t h e c o n t i n u e d o p e r a t i o n a t t h e PMOC o f t h e
p r e v i o u s l y launched Pioneer s p a c e c r a f t . Pioneers 6 t o 9
c o n t i n u e t o c i r c l e t h e Sun and r e t u r n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y d a t a .
Pioneer 1 0 continues t o e n t e r p r e v i o u s l y unexplored
s p a c e on i t s way o u t o f t h e s o l a r s y s t e m ( i t i s now ap-
p r a c h i n g U r a n u s ' o r b i t ) . P i o n e e r 11 i s d e s c e n d i n g b a c k
toward t h e e c l i p t i c a n d m a n ' s f i r s t e n c o u n t e r w i t h S a t u r n
i n September 1 9 7 9 .
The PMOC i s t h e c e n t r a l m i s s i o n c o n t r o l c e n t e r . It
i s u n d e r o p e r a t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n of t h e F l i g h t D i r e c t o r .
T h i s a r e a w i l l o r i g i n a t e a l l command i n f o r m a t i o n and re-
ceive and d i s p l a y t e l e m e t r y d a t a r e q u i r e d f o r m i s s i o n con-
t r o l . A l t h o u g h a l l commands a r e o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e PMOC,
emergency p r o c e d u r e s i n c l u d e b a c k u p command g e n e r a t i o n a t
t h e DSN s t a t i o n s , i f n e c e s s a r y .

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The PMOC h a s computing c a n a b i l i t y b o t h f o r commanding

t h e t w o s p a c e c r a f t and f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e d a t a s t r e a m
as it i s r e c e i v e d from t h e DSN s t a t i o n s f o r u s e by f l i g h t
c o n t r o l l e r s m o n i t o r i n g s p a c e c r a f t performance.

S e v e r a l groups of s p e c i a l i s t s d i r e c t and s u p p o r t launch

i n t e r p l a n e t a r y , o r b i t a l and a t m o s p h e r i c e n t r y o p e r a t i o n s .

The P i o n e e r Mission O p e r a t i o n s team c o n s i s t s of p e r -

s o n n e l from government and c o n t r a c t o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and
o p e r a t e s under c o n t r o l of t h e P r o j e c t Manager and Mission
O p e r a t i o n s S y s t e m Manager.

Because P i o n e e r Venus i n c l u d e s two m i s s i o n s , two

f l i g h t o p e r a t i o n s g r o w s have been named f o r each--an O r -
b i t e r group and a M u l t i p r o b e group. Both groups have t h e
same e l e m e n t s . The S c i e n c e A n a l y s i s Team i n e a c h group
i s composed o f science o p e r a t i o n s p e o p l e from t h e p r o j e c t
and t h e p r i n c i p a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s ( o r t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s )
f o r e a c h e x p e r i m e n t on board t h e O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e .
They d e t e r m i n e t h e s t a t u s of each s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t ,
and f o r m u l a t e command s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e i n s t r u m e n t s .

Both groups a l s o have S p a c e c r a f t Performance Analy-

s i s teams, made up of e n g i n e e r i n g s p e c i a l i s t s on s p a c e -
c r a f t systems such as: communications, t h e r m a l c o n t r o l
a n d power. T h e s e teams a n a l y z e and e v a l u a t e s p a c e c r a f t
performance and p r e d i c t s p a c e c r a f t r e s p o n s e s t o commands.

A t h i r d organization serves both spacecraft. This is

t h e N a v i g a t i o n and Maneuvers g r o u p , which h a n d l e s s p a c e -
c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n i n s p a c e ; o r b i t a l i n j e c -
t i o n , t r i m , and changes and p r o b e - t a r g e t i n g and l a u n c h .
T h i s group i s made up of e n g i n e e r i n g s p e c i a l i s t s i n
s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t a t i o n geometry, t r a j e c t o r i e s , and maneu-
vers. The J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y , under c o n t r a c t t o
Ames, d o e s computer a n a l y s i s of D S N t r a c k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n
t o determine s p a c e c r a f t t r a j e c t o r i e s .

The Mission O p e r a t i o n s T e a m a l s o i n c l u d e s a l a u n c h
s p e c i a l i s t , a hardware e x p e r t and a computer systems de-
velopment and o p e r a t i o n s group.

S u p p o r t groups a t Ames and o t h e r YASA f a c i l i t i e s a s -

s i s t t h e m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s team t o perform computer s o f t w a r c
development, m i s s i o n c o n t r o l and o f f - l i n e d a t a p r o c e s s i n g .

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 -108-

DATA RETURN. COMMAND AND T R A C K I N G

N A S A ' s Deep S p a c e Network (DSN) w i l l t r a c k and re-

c e i v e d a t a d i r e c t l y from a l l s i x P i o n e e r Venus s p a c e c r a f t
( t h e O r b i t e r , t h e Bus a n d t h e f o u r p r o b e s ) . Commands a r e
t r a n s m i t t e d t o s p a c e c r a f t f r o m t h e P i o n e e r M i s s i o n Opera-
t i o n s C o n t r o l C e n t e r t h r o u g h t h e DSN s t a t i o n s .

T r a c k i n g w i l l be by t h e D S N ' s g l o b a l n e t w o r k o f 26-m
( 8 5 - f t . ) a n d h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e 64-m ( 2 1 0 - f t . ) a n t e n n a s . The 6 4 s
w i l l b e used d u r i n g c r i t i c a l p h a s e s o f t h e m i s s i o n s u c h as
r e o r i e n t a t i o n , v e l o c i t y c o r r e c t i o n s , o r b i t i n s e r t i o n , and
e n t r y o f t h e f o u r p r o b e s i n t o V e n u s ' a t m o s p h e r e -- a s w e l l
as f o r s p e c i a l s c i e n c e e v e n t s s u c h as o c c u l t a t i o n . A t t h e
e n d o f t h e O r b i t e r p r i m a r y m i s s i o n , Venus w i l l b e 2 0 3
m i l l i o n km ( 1 2 6 m i l l i o n m i . ) f a r t h e r f r o m E a r t h t 5 a n a t
Orbiter arrival.

D u r i n g t h e c r i t i c a l two-hour p e r i o d of a t m o s p h e r i c
e n t r y by t h e Bus and f l i g h t s down t o t h e s u r f a c e by t h e
f o u r p r o b e s , b o t h t h e 64-m ( 2 1 0 - f t . ) a n t e n n a s a t G o l d s t o n e ,
C a l i f . , and a t C a n b e r r a , A u s t r a l i a , w i l l b e u s e d t o re-
ceive and r e c o r d Venus a t m o s p h e r e d a t a , coming i n s i m u l -
t a n e o u s l y from a l l f i v e p r o b e c r a f t .

The Deep S p a c e Network w i t h f a c i l i t i e s l o c a t e d a t

approximately 120-degree i n t e r v a l s around t h e E a r t h , w i l l
s u p p o r t t h e P i o n e e r Venus s p a c e c r a f t . The p r i m a r y m i s s i o n
o f t h e O r b i t e r i s 1 5 months: s i x months i n t r a n s i t a n d e i g h t
months i n o r b i t . A s t h e O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e " s e t " a t
one s t a t i o n due t o t h e E a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n , t h e y w i l l rise
a t t h e n e x t one.

The D S N , o p e r a t e d by t h e J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y
( J P L ) , P a s a d e n a , C a l i f . , h a s s i x 26-ml ( 8 5 - f t . ) p a r a b o l i c - r e -
f l e c t o r d i s h a n t e n n a s , two a t G o l d s t o n e , i n C a l i f o r n i a ' s
Mojave Desert; two a t M a d r i d , S p a i n a n d two a t C a n b e r r a .
T h e r e a r e a l s o t h r e e 6 4 - m ( 2 1 0 - f t . ) a n t e n n a s , o n e e a c h a t Gold-
s t o n e , Madrid and C a n b e r r a .

Rarlio s c i e n c e e x p e r i m e n t e r s w i l l e s t i m a t e wind s p e e d s
a n d d i r e c t i o n s i n t h e Venus a t m o s p h e r e by compiitinq t h e
t h e e x a c t f l i g h t p a t h s o f t h e f o u r p r o b e s u s i n g DSN d a t a .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e G o l d s t o n e and C a n b e r r a s t a t i o n s , t w o
NASA STDN s t a t i o n s a t Guam and S a n t i a g o , C h i l e , w i l l s u p -
port this effort. Radio i n t e r f e r o m e t r y i n a t r i a n g u l a t i o n
p r o c e s s w i l l be u s e d i n t h i s c o m p u t a t i o n . ( S e e M u l t i p r o b e
E x p e r i m e n t s - Radio S c i e n c e . )

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 PIONEER V E N U S COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK
GOLDSTON E,
DEEP SPACE MADRID,
NETWORK (DSN) DSN

I
P
0
W
I

SANTIAGO, SPACECRAFT GUAM, CANBERRA,

TRACKING A N D D A T A STDN DSN
NETWORK (STDN)

i
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During l a u n c h , t r a c k i n g w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t by t h e
DSN w i t h t h e a i d o f o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s . These a r e t r a c k i n g
a n t e n n a s of t h e A i r Force E a s t e r n T e s t Range and e l e m e n t s
of N A S A ' s S p a c e c r a f t T r a c k i n g Data Network ( S T D N ) toge-
ther w i t h s u p p o r t by f o u r i n s t r u m e n t e d a i r c r a f t , t h e
Apollo Range I n s t r u m e n t e d A i r c r a f t ( A R I A ) . The a i r c r a f t
are o p e r a t e d by Wright P a t t e r s o n A i r Force Base.
A t a l l t i m e s , incoming t e l e m e t r y d a t a from t h e
s p a c e c r a f t i s f o r m a t t e d a t DSN s t a t i o n s f o r high-speed
t r a n s m i s s i o n t o Ames computers. These computers w i l l
check f o r unexpected o r c r i t i c a l changes i n d a t a and pro-
v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a n a l y s i s by s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e space-
c r a f t , e x p e r i m e n t s and ground s y s t e m . T h e i r a n a l y s e s
w i l l be used for s p a c e c r a f t c o n t r o l . Outgoing commands
a r e v e r i f i e d by Ames computers and s e n t t o D S N s t a t i o n s
where t h e y are r e v e r i f i e d by computer and t h e n t r a n s m i t t e d .
N a v i g a t i o n d a t a and t r a j e c t o r y computations f o r t h e P i o n e e r
s p a c e c r a f t i s f u r n i s h e d by JPL's N a v i g a t i o n System S e c t i o n
under c o n t r a c t t o Ames. They do computer a n a l y s i s o f DSN
Doppler and range t r a c k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t o p r o v i d e space-
c r a f t t r a j e c t o r i e s for c a l c u l a t i o n of Venus o r b i t and
planetary targeting .
For P o i n e e r Venus, t h e DSN has made a number of spe-
c i a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s . Added receivers a r e needed t o handle
t h e f i v e d i f f e r e n t d a t a s t r e a m s a t once of t h e f o u r probes
and Bus. S p e c i a l wideband recorders a r e r e q u i r e d t o
cope w i t h t h e l a r g e frequency s h i f t s which w i l l happen
w i t h t h e changes i n v e l o c i t y a t entry--and a t m o s p h e r i c
e f f e c t s on s i g n a l p r o p a g a t i o n as t h e probes descend t o
Venus' s u r f a c e . To s a v e a l l of t h e one-change-only d a t a ,
due t o v a r i a n c e s o u t s i d e t h e p r e d i c t e d range o f frequency
changes, t h e D S N h a s p r o v i d e d s p e c i a l equipment t o auto-
m a t i c a l l y t u n e t h e r e c e i v e r s t o t h e s i g n a l t r a n s m i t t e d by
each probe.

Incoming t e l e m e t r y i s f o r m a t t e d a t D S N s t a t i o n s f o r
t r a n s m i s s i o n v i a NASA Communications System (NASCOV)
high-speed c i r c u i t s t o t h e P i o n e e r Y i s s i o n Tomputing
C e n t e r (PMCC). T h e r e i t i s p r o c e s s e d t o s u p p l y v a r i o u s
t y p e s of r e a l t i m e d i s p l a y i n f o r m a t i o n on s p a c e c r a f t and
instruments s t a t u s .

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 -111-

I n a d d i t i o n t o use of telemetry f o r providing m i s -

s i o n o p e r a t i o n s and q u i c k - l o o k d a t a , a l l t e l e m e t r y w i l l
be p r o c e s s e d a t t h e PMCC t o p r o v i d e d a t a r e c o r d s f o r t h e
i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i m e n t e r s i n t h e form of E x p e r i m e n t e r Data
Records. P r o v i d e d t o P r i n c i p a l I n v e s t i g a t o r s , i t becomes
t h e raw m a t e r i a l f o r u s e by them i n p r o d u c i n g m i s s i o n
findings .
F o r a l l o f N A S A ' s unmanned m i s s i o n s i n d e e p s p a c e ,
t h e D S N p r o v i d e s t r a c k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on c o u r s e and d i -
r e c t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t , v e l o c i t y and r a n g e from t h e E a r t h .
I t s g l o b a l s t a t i o n s a l s o r e c e i v e e n g i n e e r i n g and s c i e n c e
t e l e m e t r v and s e n d s comani?s. 911 c o m m u n i c a t i o n s l i n k s
a r e i n S-band f r e q u e n c y ( t h o u g h Venus Q r h i t e r o c c u l t a t i o n
e x p e r i m e n t s are X-band c a r r i e r o n l y . No t e l e m e t r y d a t a
are s e n t .

DSN s t a t i o n s r e l a y s p a c e c r a f t Doppler t r a c k i n g t o
JPL. High s p e e d d a t a l i n k s a l l o w r e a l t i m e t r a n s m i s s i o n
o f a l l d a t a f r o m s p a c e c r a f t d i r e c t l y t o t h e PMOC a t Ames.
T h r o u g h o u t t h e m i s s i o n , s c i e n t i f i c d a t a r e c o r d e d on mag-
n e t i c t a p e w i l l be s e n t from DSN s t a t i o n s t o A m e s f o r pro-
cess i n g .
NASA's n e t w o r k s a r e d i r e c t e d by t h e O f f i c e of T r a c k -
i n g and D a t a A c q u i s i t i o n , NASA H e a d q u a r t e r s , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .

J P L manages t h e D S N f o r NASA, w h i l e STDN and NASCOM

are managed by NASA's Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r , Green-
b e l t , Md.

The G o l d s t o n e D S N s t a t i o n s a r e o p e r a t e d by J P L , as-
s i s t e d by t h e B e n d i x F i e l d E n g i n e e r i n g C o r p o r a t i o n . The
C a n b e r r a s t a t i o n i s o p e r a t e d by t h e A u s t r a l i a n D e p a r t m e n t
of Supply. The Madrid s t a t i o n i s o p e r a t e d by t h e S p a n i s h
government's I n s t i t u t o Nacional de Tecnica Aerospacial
(INTA) .
 -112-

PIONEER VENUS TEAM

NASA H e a d u u a r t e r s

Dr. Noel H i n n e r s Associate A d m i n i s t r a t o r

f o r Space S c i e n c e

Andrew J . S t o f a n Deputy A s s o c i a t e A d m i n i s -
t r a t o r f o r Space S c i e n c e
A. Thomas Young D i r e c t o r , P l a n e t a r y Programs

Dr. Geoffrey A. Briggs Deputy D i r e c t o r , P l a n e t a r y

Programs

Fred D. Kochendorfer P i o n e e r Venus Program Manager

P a u l Tarver Deputy P i o n e e r Venus Program

Manager

D r . R o b e r t E . Murphy P i o n e e r Venus Program

Scientist

John F. Yardley Associate Administrator f o r

S p a c e T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Systems

J o s e p h B . Mahon D i r e c t o r , Expendable Launch

V e h i c l e Programs

F . R o b e r t Schmidt Manager, A t l a s C e n t a u r

Dr. W i l l i a m C. Schneider Associate A d m i n i s t r a t o r f o r

Space T r a c k i n g and Data
Systems

Arnold C . B e l c h e r Network O p e r a t i o n s

Maurice E . B i n k l e y Network S u p p o r t

A m e s Research C e n t e r

C . A. Syvertson Director

Dr. Dean R . Chapman Director o f A s t r o n a u t i c s

Charles F. H a l l P i o n e e r Venus P r o j e c t Manager

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 -113-

Ames Research C e n t e r ( c o n t ' d . )

Dr. Lawrence C o l i n P i o n e e r Venus P r o j e c t

Scientist

Ralph W . H o l t z c l a w S p a c e c r a f t Systems Manager

J o e l Sperans Experiment Sys t e m s Manager

Robert U . H o f s t e t t e r M i s s i o n O p e r a t i o n s Manager

Henry Asch R e l i a b i l i t y and Q u a l i t y

Assurance

Ernest J. Iufer Magnetics

J e t Propulsion Laboratory

Dr. Bruce C . Murray Director

Richard B. M i l l e r T r a c k i n g and D a t a Systems

Manager

Eugene S . Burke, J r . Supervisor, DSN Operations

P l a n n i n g Group

L e w i s Research C e n t e r

Dr. B e r n a r d Lubarsky Acting D i r e c t o r

Dr. Seymour C . H i m m e l Associate Director

Lawrence J . R o s s Chief, Vehicles Engineering

Division

C a r l B . Wentworth C h i e f , Program I n t e g r a t i o n
Division

Edwin Muckley Mission Project Engineer

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1
 -114-

Kennedy S p a c e C e n t e r

Dr. L e e R. Scherer Director

Gerald D. Griffin Deputy Director

D r . Walter J . Kapryan D i r e c t o r o f Space V e h i c l e

Operations

George F . Page D i r e c t o r , Expendable V e h i c l e s

John D. Gossett Manager, C e n t a u r O p e r a t i o n s

Donald C . Sheppard Manager, S p a c e c r a f t and

Support Operations Division

C . A. Terhune Chief Engineer, A t l a s Centaur

Barry Olton KSC P r o j e c t E n g i n e e r f o r

P i o n e e r Venus

Hushes A i r c r a f t C o .

S . D. Dorfman P i o n e e r Venus P r o j e c t Manager

f o r Hughes

CONTRACTORS

Hughes A i r c r a f t C o . ( P r i m e contractor) S p a c e c r a f t
S p a c e and Communications Group and Radar Mapper
E l Segundo, C a l i f .

Hughes A i r c r a f t C o . Data S t o r a g e U n i t
D a t a Systems D i v i s i o n
Culver C i t y , C a l i f .

General Electric C o . D e c e l e r a t i o n Modules

Philadelphia, Pa.

Motorola, I n c . Transponders
Phoenix, A r i z .

T h i o k o l Chemical C o . O r b i t I n s e r t i o n Motor
E l k t o n , Md.

B a l l B r o t h e r s R e s e a r c h Corp. S t a r Sensors
B o u l d e r , Colo.

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 -115-

N o r t h r o p Corp. Thermal Louvers

L o s Angeles, C a l i f .

Frequency E l e c t r o n i c s , I n c . Stable Oscillators

N e w Hyde P a r k , N . Y .

General Electric Co. Nickel-Cadmium Battery C e l l s

Gainesville, F l a .
Eagle-Picher Industries, Inc. Silver-Zinc Battery C e l l s
J o p l i n , Mo.

Spectrolab, Inc. S o l a r C e l l s and Covers

Sylmar, C a l i f .

A r c t u r n s Manufacturing C o . Pressure V e s s e l Forgings

Oxnard, C a l i f .

Newbrook Machine Corp. P r e s s u r e V e s s e l Yachining

S i l v e r Creek, N . Y .
Southwest Research I n s ti t u t e Pressure V e s s e l Testing
S a n A n t o n i o , Texas

Siliconix, Inc. Input Buffers

Santa Clara, C a l i f .

U n i v e r s i t y of Texas a t Large P r o b e N e u t r a l Mass

Dallas Spectrometer

Western Aerospace L a b o r a t o r i e s L a r g e and S m a l l Probe A t m o s -

Gardena, C a l i f . phere S t r u c t u r e Instruments,
Orbiter Plasma Analyzer

Sys tron-Donner L a r g e and S m a l l P r o b e

Concord, C a l i f . Accelerometers

U n i v e r s i t y of A r i z o n a Large Probe S o l a r Flux

Tucson, A r i z . Radiometer S e n s o r

M a r t i n M a r i e t t a Corp. Large Probe S o l a r Flux

Denver, C o l o . Radiometer E l e c t r o n i c s

B a l l B r o t h e r s Research Corp. Large Probe I n f r a r e d Radiometer

Boulder, C o l o . and Cloud P a r t i c l e S i z e
Spectrometer

TRW Systems Group L a r g e P r o b e G a s Chromatograph,

TRW, I n c . L a r g e and Small Probe Nephelo-
Redondo Beach, C a l i f . m e t e r s , Orbiter Electric
F i e l d Detector

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1 -
 -116-

University of Wisconsin S m a l l Probe N e t F l u x

Madison, W i s . Radiometer

Aiken I n d u s t r i e s , I n c . M u l t i p r o b e Bus and O r b i t e r

C o l l e g e P a r k , Md. I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r s

Lockheed Missiles and S p a c e C o . O r b i t e r Retarding P o t e n t i a l

Sunnyvale, C a l i f . Analyzer

IPW O r b i t e r Retarding P o t e n t i a l
F r e i b u r g , West Germany Analyzer Sensor

U n i v e r s i t y of C o l o r a d o O r b i t e r U l t r a v i o l e t Spectrometer
B o u l d e r , Colo.

U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a a t O r b i t e r Magnetometer
L o s Angeles

Westinghouse, I n c . O r b i t e r Magnetometer
B a l t i m o r e , Md.

J e t Propulsion Laboratory O r b i t e r I n f r a r e d Radiometer

Pasadena, C a l i f .

Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e M u l t i p r o b e and O r b i t e r Ground

o f Technology Based Radio S c i e n c e
Cambridge, Mass. Experiments

P a r t i c l e Measuring S y s t e m s , I n c . L a r g e P r o b e Cloud P a r t i c l e
Boulder, C o l o . S i z e Spectrometer

DCA R e l i a b i l i t y L a b o r a t o r y E l e c t r o n i c P a r t s Procurement
Mountain V i e w , C a l i f . and S c r e e n i n g

Bendix F i e l d E n g i n e e r i n g Corp. M i s s i o n s O p e r a t i o n s and

Sunnyvale, C a l i f . S o f t w a r e Development

General Dynamics Launch V e h i c l e s

Convair D i v i s i o n
S a n Diego, C a l i f .
Los Alamos S c i e n t i f i c O r b i t e r G a m m a Ray B u r s t
Laboratory Detector
L o s A l a m o s , N.M.

Sandia L a b o r a t o r i e s O r b i t e r G a m m a Ray B u r s t
Albuquerque, N .M. Detector

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 -117-

S a n t a B a r b a r a Research O r b i t e r Cloud P h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r
Center
S a n t a Barbara, C a l i f .

U n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota M u l t i p r o b e Bus N e u t r a l Mass

M i n n e a p o l i s , Minn. Spectrometer

U n i v e r s i t y of Bonn M u l t i p r o b e Bus N e u t r a l M a s s
Bonn, Germany Spectrometer

J e t Propulsion Laboratory M u l t i p r o b e and O r b i t e r Ground

Pasadena, Calif. Based Radio S c i e n c e
Experiments

SRI I n t e r n a t i o n a l M u l t i p r o b e and O r b i t e r
Menlo P a r k , C a l i f . Ground Based Radio Science
Experiments

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 -118-

VENUS STATISTICS

Orbital

Mean d i s t a n c e from Sun: .723 a s t r o n o m i c a l u n i t s

1 0 8 . 2 m i l l i o n km
67.2 m i l l i o n m i .

I n c l i n a t i o n of o r b i t t o
p l a n e of e c l i p t i c : 3.3 degrees

Sidereal period ( r e l a t i v e
t o stars): 225 E a r t h d a y s

Mean o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y : 126,180 km/hr

7 8 , 4 0 8 mph

C l o s e s t approach t o E a r t h : 4 2 m i l l i o n km
26 m i l l i o n m i .

Planetary

D i a m e t e r ( s o l i d s u r f ace) : 1 2 , 1 0 0 km
7,519 m i .

D i a m e t e r ( t o p of c l o u d s ) : 1 2 , 2 4 0 km
7,606 m i .

Mass: 0.815 E a r t h masses

Density : 5.26 gm/cm3

Axial r o t a t i o n period 243.1 E a r t h d a y s

(retrograde)
Rotation p e r i o d , cloud tops: 4 .O E a r t h days ( a p p r o x . )
(retrograde)

Length of s o l a r day: 116.8 E a r t h days

I n c l i n a t i o n of r o t a t i o n a x i s : 6.0 degrees

Surface atmospheric pressure: 9 5 atmospheres

9 , 6 1 6 kPa
1;396 p s i

S u r f a c e temperature:

-end-