Contents

• Introduction • Stratigraphic principles

• Unconsolidated clastic sediments • Sequence stratigraphy
• Sedimentary rocks • Sedimentary basins
• Diagenesis • Models in sedimentary geology
• Sediment transport and deposition • Applied sedimentary geology
• Sedimentary structures • Reflection
• Facies and depositional environments
• Glacial/eolian/lacustrine environments
• Fluvial/deltaic/coastal environments
• Shallow/deep marine environments

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 Unconsolidated clastic sediments

• Particles (or ‘clasts’) are the basic elements of any sediment

• Clastic (terrigenous clastic or siliciclastic) sediments (80-85% of
the stratigraphic record) consist of particles derived from pre-
existing rocks, as opposed to non-clastic sediments
• Texture
• Grain (particle) size
• Grain shape
• Clast/matrix relationships
• Fabric
• Lithology is the general characterization of a sediment or a
sedimentary rock (e.g., coarse sand, mudstone)

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 Unconsolidated clastic sediments

• The Udden-Wentworth grain-size scale is based on factors of

two: = -log
log22 (mm)
• Mud (<63 m; >4 )
• Clay (<4 m; >8 )
• Silt (4–63 m; 4–8 )
• Sand (63–2000 m; -1–4 )
• Gravel (>2000 m; <-1 )

• Grain-size (particle-size, granulometric) analysis

• The old-fashioned way: direct measurement (gravel) and
sieve/pipette analysis (sand and mud)
• The modern technology: laser particle sizing (sand and mud)

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 Unconsolidated clastic sediments

• The Udden-Wentworth grain-size scale is based on factors of

two: = -log
log22 (mm)
• Mud (<63 m; >4 )
• Clay (<4 m; >8 )
• Silt (4–63 m; 4–8 )
• Sand (63–2000 m; -1–4 )
• Gravel (>2000 m; <-1 )

• Grain-size (particle-size, granulometric) analysis

• The old-fashioned way: direct measurement (gravel) and
sieve/pipette analysis (sand and mud)
• The modern technology: laser particle sizing (sand and mud)

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 Unconsolidated clastic sediments

Moment measures
• First moment: mean (cf. median, mode)
• Premier measure of the grain size
n
μ   x i /n
i1

• Second moment: variance (cf. standard deviation)

• Measure of the degree of sorting
n
σ   (x i  μ)2 /n
2 ( = standard deviation)
i1

• Third moment: skewness

• Measure of the symmetry of the grain-size distribution
n
sk   (x i  μ)3 /n
i1
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 Unconsolidated clastic sediments

• Grain shape
• Roundness (well rounded to very angular)
• Sphericity (high or low)

• Clast/matrix proportion
• The matrix is the relatively fine-grained material that lies between
the relatively coarse-grained clasts
• Clast-supported sediments (clasts are in direct contact)
• Matrix-supported sediments (clasts are entirely surrounded by matrix)

• Fabric
• Preferential orientation of particles in a sediment or tendency of a
rock to break in specific directions

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 Unconsolidated clastic sediments

• Sediment composition
• Detrital mineral grains (quartz, feldspar, mica, heavy minerals)
• Lithic fragments (polymineral grains or rock fragments)
• Detrital mineral grains dominate in silts, lithic fragments dominate
in gravels

• Sediment maturity (degree of change compared to original

bedrock: provides evidence on the history of a sediment)
• Textural (mud content, sorting, grain shape)
• Mineralogical (proportion of stable or resistant minerals)
• Pitfalls! (depends strongly on the nature of the original bedrock)

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 Unconsolidated clastic sediments

• Sediment composition
• Detrital mineral grains (quartz, feldspar, mica, heavy minerals)
• Lithic fragments (polymineral grains or rock fragments)
• Detrital mineral grains dominate in silts, lithic fragments dominate
in gravels

• Sediment maturity (degree of change compared to original

bedrock: provides evidence on the history of a sediment)
• Textural (mud content, sorting, grain shape)
• Mineralogical (proportion of stable or resistant minerals)
• Pitfalls! (depends strongly on the nature of the original bedrock)

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 Unconsolidated clastic sediments

Clay minerals

• Clay minerals are phyllosilicates with layered crystal structures

• Kandite group (two layers): kaolinite
• Smectite group (three layers): montmorillonite, illite, chlorite
• Key physical and chemical characteristics of clay minerals
• Platy shape (easy to keep in suspension, very slow settling rates)
• Strong cohesion due to electrostatic charge (relatively difficult to
erode, tendency to flocculate)

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 Unconsolidated clastic sediments

Clay minerals

• Clay minerals are phyllosilicates with layered crystal structures

• Kandite group (two layers): kaolinite
• Smectite group (three layers): montmorillonite, illite, chlorite
• Key physical and chemical characteristics of clay minerals
• Platy shape (easy to keep in suspension, very slow settling rates)
• Strong cohesion due to electrostatic charge (relatively difficult to
erode, tendency to flocculate)

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