19th Century Russia – Modernization in a Multi-Ethnic

Empire
Russia was not as advanced as the rest of the world – begins to modernize, but was a little late
[setting the stage for World War 1]
Was a conservative regime
Agrarian Society
Serfdom – nobles called the shots, were influenced by liberal ideas, censorship in
the government, no constitutional reforms
Autocracy – no limits to the power of the czar
No real middle class – some people were merchants, vast gulf between the nobility and
the serfs
Minimal industrialization – focuses mostly on military capabilities and mining that
helped to support the military, no textile mills, etc
Multi ethnic empire – trend that continued, Russian czars continued to expand, but
were quite weak in other ways.

19th c Expansion
Muslim Centrial Asia – take over the “Stans” [Kazakstan, etc]
Further into the Caucus Mountains – very mountainous region  very strategic location
Fiercely independent small ethnic groups
Chechnya – was Muslim?  subdued in the 19th c, brought into Russian empire,
these areas were demanding independence from the defeat of USSR
Refused to let Checnyans become independent – went to war, basically
brutally defeated them  embarked on campaigns to blow up Russia
Not just multi-ethnic empire, but also multi-confessional
Different religions, different races  catholics, Christians, Muslims
Many lands formerly belonged to the Ottoman Empire – taking land from the Balkins
[Serbia, Greece, Macedonia, etc]
This three way conflict between the Austrians, Ottoman, and Russians for
territory, control and influence in this area is what sparks WW1 – as the Ottomans lose the
ability to control the Balkins, the Austrians step in, and wants to take over Serbia and Bosnia.
However, the Russians come in to support the independence of
Serbia [Orthodox Christian – Third Rome Ideal  taking care of all the
other Orthodox churches]
Originally, it was only Austria and Russia, but due to the complex
system of allies that were set up, the other countries became involved in
WW1 as well.
Created tensions with other powers – disastrous conflict for Russia
Crimean War [1850’s] – vs. Britain, France, and Ottomans
Russia – bad technology got routed by the British, French, and Ottomans 
convinced the Russian government to begin to industrialize in order to compete militarily
 This decision helped drive the force to emancipate the serfs
Conflict between Russia/British in Afghanistan – the Great Game
The Tsars – Alexander I, Nicholas I, and Alexander II
Alexander I [1801-1925] – Napoleanic Wars
Influenced by the spirit of liberalism in W. Europe
Bureaucratic reforms to improve government
NOT Enlightenment-inspired liberal reforms, but rather how to be more efficient
to make sure that they progress economically.
Many worried new bureaucrats – agents of tyranny [now it looked like the
government was in everyone’s business]
became worried about the spread of ideas about cultural autonomy, etc – sweeping
through Europe after the Napoleonic Wars – after Napoleon was defeated, became
more conservative  joined the Holy Alliance with the other conservative monarchies in
Europe [Hapsburgs in Austria, in Germany] – stop the Napoleonic ideals
but those who were nobles, or of lower gentry was influenced by the liberal
romantic ideals – for the first time in the Napoleonic Wars
had been thinking of their serfs as subhuman, and saw humanity for the
first time in their serfs – began to think differently about Russia in the world.
That Russia was a monarchy; that it was wrong – form of constitutional
government should exist
Needed to address the issue of the serfs
When Alexander dies, the people rebel
Decembrist Revolt [1825] – wanted to prevent Nicholas I [Alexander I’s younger
brother]  knew that he was even more conservative, or that he would be interested in
anything that might limit the tsar’s power.
Motto: Constantine and the Constitution – tried to stage a coup
Constantine – was the third brother
Very poorly organized, assumed that the serfs they fought with, would rise up
and support them – not popular
The rebels had to go to Siberia, were exiled.
Nicholas I [1825-1855] – Crimean War
Suspicious of Reform  might lead to anarchy or worse
New conservative agenda
Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality
Orthodoxy – the Church, Autocracy – his unlimited power, Nationality –
Russian nationality, taking care of the different minorities.
Repression of political dissent – censorship, secret police expanded [the Okhrana]
Fear of liberal ideas stalled spread of literacy and industrialization [unlike what was
happening in England]  no support for innovation, experimentation – none of that occurred in
Russia
Russia’s economy began to lag even further
Slavophiles – Romantic idea of Russian uniqueness
Celebrate the uniqueness of every culture, but there were certain aspects of Russia that was
unique, and just focus on what makes Russia so much better [very Utopian]
Orthodox Christianity – counterposed to Roman Catholicism and Protestantism –
in both religions, they were very hierarchal, etc.
But in Orthodoxy, everyone was together, and a tendency to celebrate
suffering – accepting of one’s place in life.
Peasant-based culture – idea that was based on humility and love
Was an ideal, and that these people were ruled over by the tsar
Tsar – autocracy  benevolent father figure [the people were being taken care]
HOWEVER, this was a threat to the tsar, because the expansion of the
secret police was not what they should be doing, but rather the tsar
should be taking care of their peasants instead of trying to compete with
Europe.
Crimean War [1854-1856] – disaster for Russia
British and French intervened to protect the Ottomans
The reason that the Russians were so unsuccessful  outdated technology/battle
tactics  supply lines weren’t able to be brought down to the battle front
Crisis of confidence and a desire to modernize to better compete with W. Europe
Way to do this was to industrialize, but one problem – the serfs
The vast majority of the labor couldn’t be tied to the land, or it wouldn’t be
possible

Alexander II [1855-1881] – Tsar Liberator/Emancipator – freed the serfs

Post-Crimean War Reforms
Tsar Alexander II – the Abolition of Serfdom [1861]  memorize!
Motives – part humanitarian/part practical
How do you emancipate them properly? – comprised of the vast majority of the
wealth of the nobility; land was worthless without the serfs working on them – the nobles
would be poor, and then the serfs would be as well, because they had no way of making money
Decided to give the peasants individual pieces of land, but were forced to
pay a “redemption tax” to the nobility. [Price of labor/freedom]
Left the peasants in permanent debt ... like indentured servants
Were ill equipped to do well – peasants were unhappy
Social/Political/Legal Reforms
The creation of local assembles/self government – Zemstvos [1864]
Were supposed to deal with local issues – taxes, etc
In reality, although it was supposed to be egalitarian, the nobles
only called the shots because of the longstanding deference, and
because the nobles tended to be more educated, and buy up land,
etc.
Trial by jury, independent courts, appellate courts
The judges were corrupt, etc – universities were established, and turn out
all these new lawyers and judges
 Principle of trial by jury – borrowed from western European ideas.
System of appellate – could appeal the decision to a higher authority –
creation of a legal culture in Russia
Peasant schools – most of the peasants were illiterate  to try to provide a
means of self betterment and economic empowerment for the peasants.
Helped create a sense of patriotism and nationalism
Effective way of helping to create a combined Russian identity

Industrialization – Alexander also tried to jumpstart industrialization

Motivations – military and politics – was extremely successful
By the time WW1 began, Russia was the 3rd most successful steel
producers
Trans-Siberian Railway  extremely long, went from the Pacific
Ocean to Moscow – helped open up the interior of Russia to
economic exploitation
Also helped to integrate the country in the same way that
the new transportation helped to integrate other countries
Count Witte [Minister of Finance – 1890’s]
-Helped Russia to build a modern banking sector
-Take out extensive loans from Western nations to finance the
construction
-high protective tariffs – taxes on imports – can build up own indigenous
manufacturing capacity
-modern factories
But rapid industrialization left most workers in misery; there was a lot of
economic prosperity, but no protection for the workers, little pay, etc.
This created a lot of political discontent and misery
The actual size of the working class – was relatively small

Political Culture
University education grew in 1850’s
Designed to train professionals and scientists
Arts began to thrive
Dostoevsky and Tolstoy – arts became the vehicle for discussing political and
social issues because of the government censorship
Wasn’t censoring books, and art, only actual newspapers/articles
Creation of the “Intelligentsia”
Members were really active in discussions

Strands of Intellectual Thought

Slavophiles [Russian uniqueness] – what made Russia unique could be used in order to
renew and revive Russia.
Western-style liberalism
 Political rights, free press, constitutional monarchies, and eduation
Though that peasants were lazy and stupid, and not interested in progress.
Radicals [Anarchists/Socialists]
Anarchists – abolition of all government  very utopian, need small villages and
stuff
Best way was to go out to the people and explain how the government was
repressing them, and wanted them to understand and rebel – known as the Going to
the People campaign [1860’s]
Often, the peasants turned them into the government and the
government came and arrested them – negative effect on the students
Only way to change Russia was to become violent
Assassination of Alexander II – in 1881
Socialists – both utopian socialists and Marxists [Lenin]
Advocating for Marxist ideas in Russia – socialism was more of what Marx
had established  stage in which urban proletariat had overthrown the bourgeoisie 
overthrown by workers.
Leader was Lenin – became radicalized when his older brother [member
of the People’s Will]

Ethnic Minorities and Nationalism

Ethnic minorities wanted political autonomy and freedom to celebrate their cultures
Desire for ethnic separatism – celebrate their culture, educate their children in
their own language, etc
Government was worried about stability

Crackdown on anarchists in 1870’s and ethnic separatism  Russification campaign

Autocracy worried about stability
Repression of local cultures
In Ukraine – Pogroms [Jewish]  the Russian government made people
become anti-Semitic, isolated the Jewish  whipped up mobs, [non governmental militias] 
set these villages on fire, etc
Created a wave of terror  mass migration [to US & Europe]
Revolution of 1905
Russo-Japanese War [1904-1905]
-Both were trying to create spheres of influence in the pacific region  both
trying to become major imperialist countries
-Japan won – Russians were incompetent  parked their entire naval fleet in
the Baltic Sea [had to sail all around to get to Japan]
Japan is waiting for them, and sunk their entire fleet
Mass Protests in Russia
Extreme poverty, hunger, bad factory conditions, etc
People needed help  mass protests erupted throughout Russia
 Thousands of people were going to go ask the tsar for help, was led by a priest.
-There was this view – tsar was the “little father” – many people were convinced
that the tsar wasn’t bad, if the tsar knew what was going on, they would help
-tsar isn’t at the residence, but the imperial army is there.
-Get nervous about the people – fire into the crowd, Kill huge numbers of people
“Bloody Sunday” – Jan. 1905
All hell broke loose – everything went on strike, people’s perception of
the tsar switched over night  became an oppressor
-tsar had no idea of what was going on
Tsar had to agree to a series of concessions – address peoples’ most pressing concerns
Russia’s first Parliament – the Duma
Stolypin reforms – were designed to alleviate the worst plight of the peasants
Ended the last of the Redemption Payments, tried to give more land, created a
situation where the peasants could take out loans, sell excess crops, invest in
new technology, etc
Were called kulaks [a richer peasant?]
However, this wasn’t the way of the Russian peasant mentality – shared
prosperity and shared pain – people are looked on suspiciously if you did better
than your neighbors.
But wasn’t enough to contain the frustrations of the Liberals, intelligentsia, working
class, and peasants.