SUBJECT: NEUROPHYSIOLOGY

TOPIC: HEMISPHERIC ORGANIZATION

LECTURER: DR. SIMBULAN

DATE: MARCH 2011

CEREBRAL CORTEX I. THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

A. Overview of the cerebral cortex: Basic Neural
Circuitry of the 6-layered Neocortex
Cortical Layers Characteristics/ Function
(note: there are many
interneurons in different
layers)
Layers I – III (Molecular, Numerous stellate cells,
External Granular, External which indicate that these
Pyramidal) three layers are important for
association and higher
Layer I also contains functions such as memory,
Horizontal cells of Cajal; interpretation of sensory
Pyramidal cells in various input and certain
layers discriminative functions..
Receives association and
commissural fiber inputs;
Pyramidal cells from these
layers also send efferents to
In the figure above the white portion is the cerebral cortex other cortical areas as
which contains 6 layers and is also known as neocortex which association and commissural
is sometimes known as the seat of intelligence. The limbic fibers. Layers I – IV also
system (the blue portion) is a 3 layered cortex and its function receive non-specific afferents
has something to do with instinctual behavior. There are also (reticular afferents and
transition areas between the white and blue portion which afferent inputs from
consists of 5-6 layers. Comparing with other mammalian midline/intralaminar thalamic
cortex, human’s have thicker neocortex. Though animals like nuclei).
dolphin and elephants which have certain amount of
Layer IV (Internal Granular Mainly a RECEPTIVE
intelligence akin to those of humans.
Layer) LAYER (thalamocortical
ascending fibers end
There are 3 species that have bigger brain waves than humans. here).Mainly specific
Examples are sperm whales, dolphins and elephants. Though afferents from sensory
humans have a bigger brain waves to body ratio. The frontal pathways
and prefrontal cortex plays as a central executive function in Layer V and VI (Internal Primarily efferent layers that
animals not only humans. Pyramidal and contain nerve cell bodies
Multiforum/Fusiform Layer) whose axons enter the
Another important feature of the neocortex especially of the corticospinal tract
humans is the increase in foldings which allows for highly (descending fibers)..
packed neuronal circuit just like computer chips. Foldings Martinotti cells in Layer VI
also increases surface area underneath are circuits which sends afferents to superficial
might be the secret of intelligence in humans. layers. Main Projection
neurons to subcortical
Cortical associations areas are areas in the brain adjacent to structures are pyramidal, plus
the motor and sensory cortex which is important for motor and fusiform cells. In motor
sensory signal processing . It also plans out patterns for cortex, Betz cells are the
movements and other actions in the body. The cortical large pyramidal cells located
association areas also have something to do with higher order here here.
processing of somatosensory information. Example there is an
expanded frontal association area here compared to other
mammalian species. The limbic association and the
parietooccipital association areas are also expanded areas.

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B. How the various cortical regions are
interconnected with each other, and with
subcortical regions: Through Association,
Commisural and Projections Fibers
 Association Fibers – are nerve fibers that interconnect
cortical regions of the same cerebral hemisphere
 Commisural Fibers – cross the midline and interconnect
similar cortical regions in the two cerebral hemispheres
 Projection Fibers – connect cortical areas of the
cerebrum with subcortical regions.
Below are major association and commisural fibers of the
cerebrum:
 ASSOCIATION FIBERS on the LATERAL aspect
of the cerebral hemisphere
o UNCINATE FASCICULUS (uncinate
means hook-shaped) – interconnects the
cortex of the uncus (of hippocampal gyrus)
and temporal pole with the inferior frontal
region
o INFERIOR OCCIPITOFRONTAL
FASCICULUS – is locaed along the
inferior portion of the extreme capsule,
dorsal to the uncinate fasciculus. It
interconnects the cortex of the lateral or
inferolateral portion of the frontal lobe and
cortex of the occipital lobe, with
connections along the way, including the
inferior temporal and fusiform gyri of the
temporal lobe
o Superior Longitudinal Fasciculus – is
located along the dorsolateral border of the
putamen, lateral to the internal capsule. It
underlies and interconnects the cortices of
the frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes and
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY: HEMISPHERIC ORGANIZATION
arches inferiorly and anteriorly with
connections in the temporal lobe cortex.
o Arcuate Fasciculus - curves over and
around the posterior part of the insula to
pass into the temporal lobe. It is a
continuation of the superior longitudinal
fasciculus (synonym for superior
longitudinal fasciculus).
o Lateral Occipital Fasciculus (also known
as vertical or perpendicular occipital
fasciculus and as the fasciculus of
Wernicke) - passes vertically through the
occipital lobe and interconnects the fusiform
gyrus of the temporal lobe and the posterior
part of the parietal lobe.
o Inferior Longitudinal Fasciculus -
interconnects occipital lobe cortex and
temporal lobe cortex in the inferior and
lateral portion of the hemisphere.
 ASSOCIATION FIBERS on the medial aspect of
the cerebral hemisphere
o Stratum Calcarium – refers to a well-
developed sheet of fibers curving around the
bottom of the calcarine fissure from the
cuneus above to the lingual gyrus.
o Cingulum (means girdle) – is an
association bundle of the cerebrum located
within the cingulate gyrus. It has
connections all along its course with
adjacent frontal, parietal and temporal lobe
cortex.
 Superior Occipital Fasciculus - is
located along the caudate nucleus
medial to the interdigitating fibers of the
internal capsule and corpus callosum. Its
fibers interconnect the cortex of the
occipital and temporal lobes with those
of the frontal lobe and insula (synonym
for subcallosal fasciculus).
 ASSOCIATION and COMMISURAL FIBERS in
coronal section of cerebral hemisphere
o Corpus Callosum (Means hard body) – is
the thick band of commisural fibers
interconnecting areas of the neopallium
(cerebral cortex and underlying white
matter)
o Cingulum
o Superior and Inferior Occipitofrontal
Fasciculi
o Superior Longitudinal Fasciculus
o Arcuate Fasciculus
o Uncinate Fasciculus
o Anterior Commisure
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 anatomic
arrangement, occipital
C. Overview of localization of Cerebral functions lobe lesions may
(Sensory, Motor< and Integrative, Higher produce discrete
Functions) Below is a partial listing of effects quadrantic visual field
of lesions: defects (upper and
STRUCTURE FUNCTION EFFECTS of lower quadrants of
LESION/ABLATIO each half visual field).
N
Frontal Lobe Resonating, Effects of lesions Macular sparing, ie,
Motivation, in orbitofrontal loss of peripheral
modulation of cortex or vision with intact
emotions, parts Prefrontal macular vision, is also
of speech and lobotomy – inability common with
movement to solve complex occipital lesions,
(motor cortex) , problems; unable to because the macular
and problem string together representation is
solving..... sequential tasks to separate from that of
reach a specific the peripheral fields
goal; decreased and very large relative
aggressiveness; to that of the
loss of ambition and peripheral fields.
motivation; lack of
social inhibition; Occipital lesions must
comprehend extend considerable
language but distances to destroy
unable to carry macular as well as
through a peripheral vision.
conversation; mood Bilateral destruction
swings; purposeless of the occipital cortex
activities; lack of in humans causes
general concern.
subjective blindness.
Temporal Lobe Concerned with See also other
Lesions in the
perception and effects in tables
ventromedial
recognition of below and above
portions of Frontal
auditory stimuli this. Note too that
Lobe – is called
(hearing), there is a ventral
Confabulation.
memory (temporal)
Individuals with this
(hippocampus), pathway from the
condition perform
as well as occipital lobe in
poorly on memory
emotions visual signal
tests, but they
(amygdala and processing
spontaneously
periamygdaloid extending into the
describe events that
structures) temporal lobe.
never occurred
(honest lying).
Parietal Lobe Concerned with See also other (Learning and
perception of effects in tables memory functions,
stimuli related below and above which involve the
to touch, this (Especially with hippocampus, and
pressure, regards to visuo- various cortical
temperature spatial processing; areas, as well as
and pain note that there is a the basal ganglia
dorsal (parietal) and cerebellum, are
pathway from the considered in detail
occipital lobe in in a separate
visual signal handout and
processing lecture.)
extending into the Corpus Connecting Intercortical
parietal lobe) Callosum bridge between Transfer of Memory
Occipital Lobe Concerned with Fibers from the lateral two
many aspects geniculate body that hemispheres If a cat or monkey is
of vision subserve macular conditioned to
vision separate from respond to a visual
those that subserve stimulus with one eye
peripheral vision and covered and then
end more posteriorly tested with the
on the lips of the blindfold transferred
calcarine fissure. to the other eye, it
Because of this performs the
conditioned response.
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 This is true even if the
optic chiasm has been
cut, making the visual
input from each eye
go only to the
ipsilateral cortex.

In split-brain animals
(sectioned optic
chiasma, ant. and
post. commisure and II. HEMISPHERIC SPECIALIZATION and the
corpus callosum), no CATEGORICAL HEMISPHERE: COGNITIVE
memory transfer ASPECTS of LANGUAGE; MATH LOGIC
occurs. (NEURAL CIRCUITRY of LANGUAGE)
A. LANGUAGE is one major fundamental process
Parital callosal section in which man differs biologically from animals
experiments indicate
that the memory Since no experimental animal has highly developed
transfer occurs in the language skills, the study of language is difficult.
anterior portion of the There are no simple anatomic differences between
corpus callosum. the brains of man and other animals to account for
Similar results have language, yet subtle differences between the two
been obtained in hemispheres of man’s brain do exist and are related
humans in whom the to the fact that, in adults, language functions occur
corpus callosum is predominantly in the left dominant hemisphere
congenitally absent or
in whom it has been B. LANGUAGE is separable in two components:
sectioned surgically in conceptualization and expression. These two
a n effort to control components have neuroanatomical bases (See
epileptic seizures. neural circuitry of language at the last page)
(neural coding for C. Description of Language-related Areas in the
“remembering with Catergorical Hemisphere (in majority, the
one eye what has been Left Hemisphere)
learned with the other
“ has been transferred **Generally, the left hemisphere is involved in: cognitive
to the opposite cortex aspects of Language, Math, Logic.
via the commisures)
**Language related structures and functions (left hemisphere);
Functions of the 3 major association areas [There are other Language Disorders arising from Lesions: [ APHASIAS –
models showing more elaborate subdivisions of the different abnormalities of language functions (not due to defects of
sensory, motor, and association cortices. For more, see section vision, hearing nor motor paralysis); Lesions commonly due to
VI. ANNEX, Major Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex]: embolism or blood clot in cerebral blood vessel. The
a) Prefrontal association area (also known as the frontal neurological literature is rich in information about other
lobe association area, anterior association area or effects (note that effects on other primary motor-sensory
prefrontal cortex)– rostral to the premotor area; concerned functions are not included for lack of space and focus)]
with motor planning, language production, judgement
(including control of emotions). Also known as a central
executive for working memory and other coordinating
functions, including receiving inputs from the rest of the
cerebral cortex.
b) Parietal-occipital-temporal association area– (also
known as the posterior association area) between the
somesthetic and visual cortices, extending into posterior
portion of temporal lobe; links several sensory modalities for
visuo-spatial perception (representational hemisphere
mainly) and language (categorical hemisphere mainly).

c) Limbic association area (sometimes called also as

the temporal association area) also known as the “limbic
cortex” – along the medial edge of the cerebral hemisphere,
from the lower portion of the temporal lobe to the limbic
system; concerned with emotions and memory formation. This
area is associated with the limbic system (see Neurobiology
of Instincts and Emotions, previous topic.) Structure Function Effects of
Lesion/Ablation
Angular gyrus Processes and ANOMIC
(Area 39) interprets visual APHASIA –
information prior difficulty in
to transmission to understanding
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 Wernicke’s area written language
(dyslexia or word 2. Bilateral lesions
blindness) or of intraparietal
pictures, because sulci: another
visual information impairment of
is not processed mathematically
and transmitted to ability also results
Wernicke’s area.
Wernicke’s Area Comprehension of FLUENT **Note: Stereognosis functions also exist in left posterior
(Area 22, left visual and APHASIA parietal cortex (somatosensory association area) for the
superior posterior auditory contralateral side of body, with corresponding deficits
temporal lobe) information (astereognosis) after lesions.
Arcuate Connects CONDUCTION
Fasciculus Wernicke’s area APHASIA (also
with Broca’s area type of Fluent or
Receptive or
Sensory Aphasia)
Broca’s Area Expressive area NONFLUENT
(Area 44, 45 in for speech APHASIA (also
Left frontal called expressive
cortex) or motor aphasia)
Planum This is bigger in
Temporale (left); left hemisphere
(left superior than in right-
temporal gyrus) handed
individuals; STRUCTURES concerned with expressve functions of
involved in language are: Broca’s Area, Structures associated with
language-related Phonation, Articulation and Expression of Language (body
auditory and sign language)
processing
STRUCTURES concerned with RECEPTIVE FUNCTIONS
The assymetry is of Language: Wernicke’s Area, Visual and Auditory Pathways
even larger in
musicians and
GLOBAL APHASIA – type of aphasia that involves both
others with perfect
receptive and expressive functions. Speech is scant as well as
pitch.
nonfluent
Left Temporal
 Unable to speak or comprehend language
lobe
- Lesions: inability  They cannot read, write, repeat, or name objects.
Area 8 (L) to retrieve names  Lesion in the entire perisylvian region, thereby
of places and compromising both Broca’s and Wenicke’s areas and
persons (but the Arcuate Fasciculus.
preserves ability to
retrieve common  Symptoms include right hemiplegia, right
nouns, verbs and hemisensory deficit and usually right homonymous
adjectives) hemianopsia. Usually these are the bedridden
patients: they can only open their eyes but cannot
talk, comprehend, and follow commands.

-Lesions: object
Areas 18, 20, 21 Part of a ventral
agnosia –
(L) (inferior temporal) WRITING IS ABNORMAL IN ALL APHASIAS IN
especially on left
pathway WHICH SPEECH IS ABNORMAL. Below is another
hemisphere
Two Left Left frontal lobe Forms of model of a neural circuit of language processing (Petersen‟s
hemisphere areas – concerened with Acalculia model, 1988) . (Deaf- mutes trained in sign language who
found associated number facts and (impairment of suffer damage to their language-related left hemishere also
with mathematical exact numebrs. mathematical have an impairment of their sign language abilites. )
ability ability arising from
Bilateral lesions in left (or
Infraparietal right) hemisphere:
sulci (parietal
lobe) – concerned 1. Left Frontal
with visuospatial Lobe lesions
representations of results in a
numbers and selective
finger counting. impairment of
mathematically
ability

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 Representational or right hemisphere – also involved in
processing mathematical operation; effects of lesions on the
angular gyrus- also produces Acalculia. Representational or
the right hemisphere also helps processes attentional focus on
over-all pattern of an image (global shifts in attention);
lesions will result in loss of this ability. Compare with the
visuo-spatial function of left hemisphere focusing on details of
object/ image.

(Stuttering – associated with right cerebral dominance, and

widespread activity in cerebral cortex and cerebellum.)

(see last page for bigger illustration)

Other known “:higher” functions of the Categorical

hemisphere:
Left / Categorical hemisphere – also involved in
processing mathematical operation; effects
of lesions on the angular gyrus- also produces Acalculia
- helps processes attentional focus on details of
an image (local shifts in attention); lesions will result in loss of
this ability. (Compare with the visuo-spatial processing
functions of right hemisphere).

III. HEMISPHREIC SPECIALIZATION and the

REPRESENTATIONAL HEMISPHERE; VISUO-
SPATIAL PROCESSING, AFFECTIVE
COMPONENTS of LANGUAGE and other functions.

GENERALLY, the RIGHT HEMPISPHERE is involved

in spatial abilities, face recognition, visual imagery, music
(although recent researchers say that musical functions
shared by both hemispheres.), as well as the affective
components (prosody) of language (prosody- elements of
stress, pitch and rhythm).

Representational Hemisphere: “Non-dominant” (in

majority, the Right hemisphere). Noted below are major
functions as far as higher cortical association visuo-spatial
processing (object recognition) is concerned , as well as
some affective components / emotional comprehension of
language. In general, though not discussed here in detail,
the right hemisphere seem to exercise dominance over
emotions and all aspects of social-emotional intelligence .
This is due to its stronger connections to the limbic
system.The neurological literature is rich in information
about other effects (note that effects on other primary
motor-sensory functions are not included). Other authors
may have slightly different locations for the lesions.

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IV. SUMMARY of MAJOR ASPECTS OF HEMISPHERIC SPECIALIZATION (LATERALIZATION) and
COMPLEMENTATION

This is as far as language and visuo-spatial processing functions are concerned; some aspects of emotions are also noted. (Note
that there are other differences not noted here, but abundant in the neurological literature. Other authors may indicate slightly different
location of lesions depending on source of scientific papers, but within the affected cortical association area.)

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**the text below the line “Perception (drawing by patient)” is “Left hemisphere functions dominate after right hemisphere”.

V. THE COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS OF CEREBROCEREBELLUMS AND BASAL GANGLIA

Basal Ganglia: The caudate nucleus, possibly because of its frontal cortical connections, have some cognitive roles. Lesions of the
caudate nucleus disrupt performance on tests involving object reversal and delayed alternation. The right caudate nucleus seem to
be involved in language processing, as shown by evidence where lesions produce a dysarthric form of aphasia that resembles but
different from Wernicke’s aphasia.
Cerebrocerebellum (neocerebellum): involved in planning and programming movements, together with the motor cortex and
associated frontal areas.

The cerebellum seem to be also involved with pure cognitive tasks independent of motor functions: a patient damaged in the
right cerebellum (due to a blocked posterior inferior cerebellar artery) could not learn a word association task. Also, it was observed in
other subjects using magnetic resonance brain imaging technique that the dentate nucleus increased its activity when subjects were
required to evaluate sensory information consciously.

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VI. ANNEX: MAJOR FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (see also section I. C)

WERNICKE’s AREA – the auditory association area (Area 41 and 42) of the categorical hemisphere is located here

BROCA’s AREA – premotor association area is located here

PARIETAL-OCCIPITAL-TEMPORAL association area - association area specialized for visuo-spatial perception that is located
in the representational hemisphere

PREFRONTAL ASSOCIATION AREA – function as the Central Executive or the working memory.

OTHER INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONS of PREFRONTAL CORTEX in HUMANS

1. Make forecasts/predict events based on analysis

2. Plan for the future
3. Delay action in response to incoming sensory signals
4. Consider consequences of motor actions
5. Solve complex problems – legal, mathematical, philosophical
6. Ethnical behavior – higher control of limbic responses

LESIONS in the PREFRONTAL CORTEX and PREFRONTAL LOBOTOMY results in:

1. Inability to solve Complex problems

2. Inability to string together consequential tasks to reach specific goals
3. Decreased aggressiveness
4. Loss of ambition

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 5. Lack of social inhibition with sexual and excretory behavior
6. Comprehend language, speak but unable to carry through a conversation
7. Mood swings
8. Purposeless execution of motor tasks learned in life

Figure 1: A region at the posterior end of the superior temporal gyrus called Wernicke's area is concerned with comprehension of
auditory and visual information. It projects via the arcuate fasciculus to Broca's area (area 44) in the frontal lobe immediately in
front of the inferior end of the motor cortex. Broca's area processes the information received from Wernicke's area into a detailed and
coordinated pattern for vocalization and then projects the pattern via a speech articulation area in the insula to the motor cortex, which
initiates the appropriate movements of the lips, tongue, and larynx to produce speech. The probable sequence of events that occurs
when a subject names a visual object is shown in the image above (lower right) The angular gyrus behind Wernicke's area appears to
process information from words that are read in such a way that they can be converted into the auditory forms of the words in
Wernicke's area.

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Figure 2. Take note that the Right (representational) hemisphere is concerned with the affective component language, called prosody
(the patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry). Expressive aprosodia (also known as motor aprosodia or Dysprosody) results from
lesion in the Right frontal Cortex. Manifestations include flat tone of one’s own voice and gestures (no emotional feelings). This
mirrors Broca’s Aphasia on the left side. Receptive aprosodia (also known as Sensory Aprosodia or Dysprosody) results from lesion
in the right posterior parietal cortex which manifests as inability to comprehend prosody. This also mirrors Wernicke’s aphasia on the
left side. An example is the inability to comprehend a joke.

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Below is a table showing a number of observed lesion effects of some right hemisphere cortical association areas showing some
resulting agnosias, as well as effects on affective components (prosody) of language (right hemisphere). Fore brevity, only a few
agnosias affecting some of the sensory association areas are shown. A listing of various apraxias (inability to voluntarily carry out
actions upon command, with intact primary sensory and motor pathways) have not been included in the table. [Agnosia - inability/
difficulty recognizing certain features of a sensory stimuli, despite intact primary sensory cortex and specific ascending pathways.]

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