Soil Dynamics and Machine Foundations Swami Saran - 2

óóóóóó
'0-
.
~"
SOIL DYNAMICS
. AND" '..
MACHINE FOUNDATIONS
By
Dr. SWAMI SARAN
Department of Civil Enginemng
University of Roorkee
Roorkee-247 667
(INDIA)
~ \.-:. ~) j JW' .:r-.~ J:'" 4i~ \;S"

,J}j~-4-'
.5357 :OJW
13!fi/3 11!2 :~Jt;
1999
iF Galgotia
Publications
pvt.ltd.
5,AnsarIRoad, Daryaganj,New Delhl-110 002
.
'" . ...
,I, " ,.
"'C','
;. .'
-,' c '. '0' , "~; ~
, ~
'.p', ,:'..
,; 11'
, ,~' >.~.:;~;~"!'ij:~,;~i::>A~~;. .:j : ~ :':"~~~:O~':i;~,~:~,,~~,
TA
"- - rl( -5
:. -<:: ",:::- 2/~ \:' ~"'~ ~ 5; ~~.;
."rz
~1J :,~--/
";: ~,>'
Or. Swami Saran ' '
,qqq
Soil Dynamics and Machine Foundatio~s~, ' , i
(' ~ \
.. .
... , .
,'- , };~ i-~ "-)f>; ~",;'~~
First Edition 1999
~ Reserved - 1999
No matter in full or part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means (exceptfor review
or criticism) without the written permission of the author and publishers.
Though much care has been taken by the author and the publishers to make the book error (factual or
printing) free. But neither the author nor the publisher takes any legal responsibility for any mistake
that might have crept in at any stage.
Published by .-
Suneel Galgotia for Galgotia Publications (P) Ltd.
5, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-ll0 002.
'"" , , ,.,. '0',"
,';.. ". .. ',.'

::::..',.- :. '"
Laser Typeset by .. "..
ADO Computer's
402 (RPS) DDA Flats Mansarover Park, Shahdara, Delhi-l 10 032. >. ..- "".
;."
Ph : 2292708 . .
Prinled al Cambridge PrintingWorks,New Dclhi-llO028 .

, PREFACE
During the last 25 years, considerable work in the area of soil dynamics and machine foundationshas been
reported.Courseson soil dynamicsandmachinefoundationsalreadyexistat graduatelevelin many institutions,
and its inclusion at undergraduate level is progressing fast.
The author is engaged in teaching the course on soil dynamicsand machine foundationsat gr'duate level
from last fLfteenyears. The text of this book has been developed mainlyout of my notes preparedfor teaching
the students.The consideration in developingthe text is its lucide presentationfor clear understandingof the
subject.The material has been arrangedlogicallyso that the reader can follow the developmentalsequenceof
the subject with relative ease. A number of solved examples have been included in each chapter. All the
formulae,charts and examples are given in SI units.
Some of the material included in this text book has been drawn from the works of other autors. Inspiteof
sincereefforts,somecontributionsmay nothavebeen acknowledged.The authorapologisesfor suchomissions.
The author wishes to express his appreciationto Km. Lata Juneja, Sri RaJeevGrover and Sri S. S. Gupta
for typing and drawing work. Thanks arealso due to the many collegues,friends and studentswho assistedin
wittingof thisbook. . .
The author would be failing in his duty it he does not aclaiowledge the support he received from his
family members who. encouraged him through the various stages. of study and writing.
The book is dedicated to author's Sonin law, (Late) Shri Akhil Gupta as a token of his love, affectionand
regards to him.
(Dr. Swami Saran)
11~f1 òò×æº¬þôòò¢ ,',. ..;'

: 1.:;;-,0,...::, c ,'t...,: '. '-~~' 1" f~ '.- .,-;'~O#y
':,':'
"~iJ ,.)~ ,
".,.~ i"""
,"",-:,,»"'" . ~""'t'j
, J
j ~'j.'W.,~",
~
.
.,~ oS
;"""""""',","_'"""~r""""',"""",,,.'o_-'
..; '.o..;oc;."" ;"'..., ,~'~:~~F~B

.:'l~
CONTENTS
.
PREFACE
1. INTRODUCTION 1-12
1.1 General I
1.2 Earthquake Loading 3
1.3 Equivalent Dynamic Load to an Actual Earthquake Load 6
1.4 Seismic Force for Pseudo-staticAnalysis 9
Illustrative Examples 12
References 12
Practice Problems 12
2. THEORY OF VIBRATIONS 13-66

2.1 General 13
2.2 Defmitions 14
2.3 Harmonic Motion 15
2.4 Vibrations of a Single Degree Freedom System 18
2.5 Vibration Isolation 32
2.6 Theory of Vibration Measuring Instruments 36
2.7 Vibration of Multiple Degree Freedom Systems 39
2.8 Undamped Dynamic VibrationAbsorbers 48
3. WAVE PROP AGATION IN AN ELASTIC, HOMOGENEOUS. êéóïïé

. AND ISOTROPIC MEDIUM
3.1 General 67
3.2 Stress, Strain and Elastic Constants 67
3.3 Longitudinal Elastic Waves in a Rod oflnfmite Length 70
3.4 Torsional Vibration ora Rod of Infmite Length 72
3.5 End Conditions 74
3.6 Longitudinal Vibrations of Rods of Finite Length 76
3.7 Torsional Vibrations of Rods of Finite Length 80
3.8 Wave Propagation in an lnfmite, HomogeneousIsotropic, Elastic Medium 81
3.9 Wave Propagation in Elastic, Half Space 86
3.10 Geophysical Prospecting 93
3.11 Typical Values of CompressionWave and Shear Wave Velocities 108
References..'. . ; 116
£i,.,
~
viii Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations
4. DYNAMIC SOIL PRO~ER~5. '-. ."' . --.118-186

4.1 General 118
4.2 LaboratoryTechinques 118
4.3 Field Tests 147
4.4 FactorsAffecting Shear Modulus, ElasticModulus and Elastic Constants 163
IllustrativeExamples 174
References 182
PracticeProblems 184
ëò DYNANnCEARTHPRESSURE ïèéóîíé
ëò ï General 187
ëòî Pseudo-static Methods 187
5.3 Displacement Analysis 201
References 236
PracticeProblems 237
6. DYNAMIC BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS îíèóîéè

6.1 General 238
6.2 Pseudo-static Analysis 238
6.3 Bearing Capacity of Footings 238 .
6.4 Dynamics Analysis 249
References 277
7. LIQUEFACTION OF SOILS îéçóííç

7. 1 General 279
7.2 Definitions 2.79
7.3 Mechanism of Liquefaction 281
7.4 Laboratory Studies 283
éòë DynamicTriaxial Test 288
7.6 Cyclic Simple Shear Test 296
7.7 Comparisonof Cyclic Stress Causing Liquefactionunder Triaxial and 300
Simple Shear Conditions
7.8 StandardCurves and Correlations for Liquefaction 301
7.9 Evaluationof Zone of Liquefactionin Field 306
7.10 VibrationTable Studies 309
7.11 Field Blast Studies 314
7.12 Evaluationof LiquefactionPotentialusing Standard Penetration Resistance 319
7.13 Factors Affecting Liquefaction - 323
Contents ' ix
7.14 AntiliquefactionMeasures 324

7.15 Studies on Use of Gravel Drains 326
IllustrativeExamples 332
References 336
. .
8. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MACIDNE FOUNDATION DESIGN 340-351
8.1 General 340
8.2 Types of Machines and Foundations 340
8.3 General Requirements of Machine Foundation 347
8.4 Perimissible Amplitude 348
8.5 Allowable Soil Pressure 349
8.6 Permissible Stresses of Concrete of Steel 349
8.7 Permissible Stresses of Timber 350
References 351
9. FOUNDATIONS OF RECIPROCATING MACHINES íëîóìîî
9.1 General 352
9.2 Modes of Vibrationof a Rigid FoundationBlock ~ 352
9.3 Methods of Analysis 353
9.4 Linear Elastic Weightless Spring Method 354
9.5 Elastic Half-space Method 370
9.6 Effect of Footing Shape on Vibratory Response 392
9.7 Dynamic Response of Embedded Block Foundation 394
9.8 Soil Mass Participating in Vibrations 400
9.9 Design Procedure for a Block Foundation 402
References 419 .
10. FOUNDATIONS OF IMPACT TYPE MACIDNES ìîíóììî
10.1 General 423
10.2 DynamicAnalysis . 426
10.3 Design Procedure for a Hammer Foundation 432
References 442
11. FOUNDATIONS OF ROTARY MACHINES ììíóìêð
11.1 General 443
11.2 Special Considerations 444
11.3 Design Criteria 445
,{"
'<~" .'.' , ", '",' ;;,' .'~
..~
, INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Geotechnical engineers frequently come across two types of problem in relation to the analysis and de-
sign of foundations namely (i) foundations subjected to static loads and (ii) foundations subjected to
dynamic loads. The characteristic feature of a static load is that for a given structure the load carried by
the foundation at any given time is constant in magnitude and direction ~.g. dead weight of the structure.
Live loads such as weight of train on a bridge and assembly of peopl{in a building are also classified as
static load, The characteristic feature of a dynamic load is that it varies with time. Dynamic loads on
foundations and engineering structures may act due to earthquakes, bomb blasts, operation of machines,
pile driving, quarrying, fast moving'traffic, wind or sea waves action. The nature of each dynamic load is
different from another. Figure 1.1 shows the variation of dynamic load with time in some typical cases,
Purely dynamic loads do not occur in nature. Loads ar~ always combinations of static and dynamic loads.
Static loads are caused by the dead weight of the structure, while dynamic loads may be caused through
the sources mentioned above. . '
0-3
01
.. 0.1
c:
-
0
0
...
CII
-v 0.1.
CIoJ
v
et 0.2
0-3
I I
.
I I I I I I I I I I I I I L...t-I. I I I I I I I I I I I I I
0 ~ 10' 15 ," . 20 25 30
Timt. . 5
(a) A.f~el~r9gramof F;.LCentro earthquake of May 18,1940NS component
Fig. 1,.1:.y,,-:i~J.ion
o(dyn_m'c load with time in some typical cases (...Contd.)
'---'--"-- ,_.
_.
2
Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations
+
1:)
0 Time
0
u
E
d
c
>-
a
Period of loading
T usually large
(b) Dynamic load due to steady state vibration
U
d
0 +
v
E
d
C
>- Time
a
~.T.I
.'
(c) Multiple impulse loading
Vertical
High frequency
predominates
(d) Trice ofvertical acceleration of ground due to pile driving
. Fig. 1.1: Variation of dynamic load with time in IOmetypical cases

Jntroduttion ¶
ïôîùÛßÎÌØÏË·ÄÕÛÔÑßÜ×ÒÙ -, ".-
Vibrations of earth's surface caused by waves coming from a source of disturbance inside the earth are
described as Earthquakes and are one of the ri1ostdestructive forces that nature unleashes on earth.
When, at any depth below tile gro~d surfa~e,the strain ene~gy'ac~~ulated due to deformations in earth
mass exceeds the resilience of the storing material, it gets release through rupture. The energy thus
released is propogated in the form of waves which impart energy to the media through which they pass
and vibrate the structures standing on the earth's..surface. The point inside the earth mass where slipping
or fracture begins is termed as focus and the point just above the focus on the earth's surface is termed as
epicentre. The position of the focus is determined,with the help of seismograph records (Fig: 1.2]'u:ti't'ising
the average velocities of different waves and time difference in reaching the waves at the ground surface.
Figure 1.3 explains the various terms in simple manner.
ITrace
1 amplitude)
Fig. 1.2. : A typical earthquake record
~ Epic.entric. distance ~
E Site ß
(,rou nd su rtace
" ô ô.,'ù
':', :,":
þù
',' :rr:
..-,'
-- ""
:' ',' ',.',:',
"
'"
,"","-'
,,'..'-
: " ..'"
"..-,".,"
" , .,'
. """
.:=- ':,. ...',,' ,
" .
.. e, /'fIIT.'" ,..-
'y.. .."" " ...'.
Epic.entre
I
I'
I
I ' //
/
/ /
/
/
/
,o.~
f..JfL
7 .
I ,"/ / . f:/'
I / c.'
<C°f..J
I / /
"
,
Foc.us
J '
.Fig, 1.3 : Definitions of focus and epicentre
"._.,~~""'- '=-'3"'",""""",'"""""'~,'.' ~"..",.c.,=.: "...""""~"",,...,,'.-,..,=,,====o,.-

- -l.., ' ~~ ~ ';1'
4- Soil Dynamics cl Machine Fo"nd4tio.ns
1.2.1 Intensity. The severity of shaking of an earthquake as felt or ob!jervedthrough damage is'described
as intensity ata certain place on an arbitrary scale. For this purpose modified Mercalli scale is more
common in use. It is divided into 12 degrees of intensity as presented in Table!.L
Table 1.1 : Modified MereaIli Intensity Scale (Abridged}
Classof
Earthquakes Description
Not felt except by a very few under specially favourable circumstances.

" Felt only by a few persons at rest, specially on upper floors of buildings; and delicately sus-
pended objects may swing.
fII Felt quite noticeably indoors, specially on upper floors of buildings but many people do not
recognize it as an earthquake; standing motor cars may rock slightly, and vibration may be felt
like the passing of a truck.
IV During the day felt indoors by many, outdoors by a few; at night some awakened,dishes, win-
dows, doors disturbed, walls make cracking sound, sensation like heavytruck striking the build-
ing; and standing motor car rocked noticeably.
V Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened; some dishes, windows, etc. broken; a few instances of
cracked plasters; unstable objects overturned; disturbance of trees, poles and other tall objects
noticed sometimes and pendulum clocks may stop. .
VI Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors; some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of
fallen plaster or damaged chimneys; damage slight.
VII Everybodyruns outdoors, damagenegligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight
to moderate in well built ordinary structures; considerable in poorly built or badly designed
structures; some chimneys broken; noticed by persons driving motor cars.
VIII Damage slight j!, spe~ially designed structures; considerable in' ordinary substantial buildings
with partial collapse; very heavy it) poorly built structures; panel walls thrown out of framed
structure; heavy furniture overturned; sand and mud ejected in small amounts; changes in well
water; and disturbs persons driving motor cars. .
IX Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well designed framed structures thrown
out of plumb; very heavy in substantial buildings with parti~1collapse; buildings shifted off
foundations; ground cracked conspicuously; and underground pipes broken.
X Some well built wooden structure~ destroyed; most masonry and framed structures with founda-
tions destroyed; ground badly cracked; rails bent; land-slides considerable from river banks and
steep slopes; shifted sand and mud; and water splashed over banks.
XI Few, if any, masonry structures remain standing; bridge destroyed; broad fissures in ground,
underground pipe lines completely out of service; earth slumps and landslips in soft ground; and
XII
rails bent greatly. ~ '-
Total damage; waves seen on ground surface; lines of sight and
'" , lever distorted; and objects thrown
upward into the air. , . 'H", .1
f'.'.HI",. ...
~,
®ãáåó¬ùÿþæáæ·ÄãþùÑãþù¢ù '
~.>.\;..:
~!
!,;,,; ~~~ j i:'.;,~,;:; J.!,
n
I"troduction f.:.~;) ~~f;; S ~\.h~ ",\1
".J j s
1.2.2 Magnitude.
-.-".
Magnitude
. ~"."""""",
of an earthquake ,.._"
is a measure of the size of an
,.,..,.._~,-,- ,
earthquake,
"..
based on the
-',",
amplitude of elastic waves it generates. Richter (1958) suggested the following relation. ~
M = loglOA -loglO Aa . ...(1.1)

where
M = Magnitude of earthquake
A = Trace amplitude in mm (Fig. 1.2)
Aa = Distance correction (F:ig.1.4) ,. , ,.
A relationship between strain energy released py an earthquake and its magnitude is given by Richter
(1958) as follows
loglo E = 11.4 + 1.5 M ...(1.2)
where
E = Energy released in earthquake in Ergs
A comparison of the magnitude M of an earthquake with maximum i tensity of the Modified Mer-
calli Scale is given in Table 1.2.
, ,
Table 1.2 : Comparison of the Richter Scale Magnitude with the Modified Mercalli Scale
Richter Scale Magnitude (AI) Maximum Intensity, Modified

Mercalli Scale
2 I, II
3 m
4 IV,V
5 VI, Vp
6 VII, VIII
7 , ' .IX, X
" ;
8 XI
The fault length, affected area and duration of earthquake also depend on the magnitude of earth-
quake (Housner, 1965; Housner, 1970). Table ,1.3 gives approximate idea about these. '
" '
Table 1.3 : Fault Length, Affected Area,~nd Duration of.Eart~quake

Magnitude oj Fault Length" i '. Affected. Duration of
Earthquake Area 'Earthquake
(Richter scale) ,(km) (/en?) (8)
5 1-2 20,000 '5
6 , , 2-5 . 60,000:,..., \ 15
7 25-50 . ;l J " : f,2()',000' 25-30
8 >250 2 ,00 ,OO
',<{'j ::.~: . , ;. 45-50 . .
, ' " ' , r.'t ~y~~~~
6, SoU DyIUlllfics & Mtrehille Foundations
"c:./:J
-
'c 5
0\
0:
E
-
.S 4
«
0
For teleseism$
surface waves
with time:
period 20 s '
0\
.For near
~ 3 earthquake
..!.-
c
0
.+:
v 2
~I-
0
U
~
c
1
0
..-
.-11\
0 0
1 10 100 1000 10000 \
Distance in km
. .
Fig. 1.4: Distaoce corredio.o for magnitude determination
1.3 EQUIVALENT DYNAMIC LOAD TO AN ACTUAL EARTHQUAKE LOAD

Figure 1.1 (a) shows the variation of dynamic load wi+htime observed during El Centro earthquake. The
loading is not periodic and the.peaks in anY two cycles are different. For the analysis and design of
foundations such a random variation is converted into equivalent number of cycles of uniformly varying
load [Fig. 1.1 (b)]. It means that the structure-foundation-soil system subjected to Ns cycles of uniformly
varying load will suffer same deformations and stresses as by the actual earthquakes. Most of the analyses
and laboratory teSting are 'carried out using this concept.' .
According to Seed and Idriss (1911), the average equivalent uniform acceleration is about 65 percent
of the maximum acceleration. The number of significant cycles, Ns depends on the magnitude of earth-
quake. They recommended the values ofNs as 10, 20 and 30 for earthquakes ofmagnitudes 1, 1.5 and 8
respectively.
Lee and Chan (1912) suggested the following procedure for ..converting the irregular stress-time
history to the equivalent number of cycles of cyclic shear stresses of maximum magnitude equal to
K 'tmax' ~ ~eing a constant less th~.1JP.ity :
; ': ~:"E,j~\ "Or.
Introduction, ',;. ' , H,

7
(i) Let Fig. 1.5 shows ~}Yl'icalea~CJ.uakereco.rd.Divide the s;t;essrange (0 to 'tmaX> or acceleration
range (0 to amax)into convenient number ofleveIs and note the mean stress or mean acceleration
within' each level as mentioned in column no. 2 of Table 1.4. Then the number of cycles with
peaks 'Yhichfall within each of these levels is counted and recorded. Note that because the actual
time history is not symmetric about the zero stress axis, the number of peaks on both sides are
counted and two peaks are equivalent to one cycle. For example, an earthquake record shown in
Fig. 1.5 has number of cycles in various ranges of acceleration levels as listed in Col. 3 of
Table 1.4.
Om ox :; + 0 . 12
.
1\
c:
-0 1\ 1\ A J\' A A 1\ A A
0
~
e:.I V VVV VVVV"
e:.I
U
u
<X
-
I I I I I I
9mox,= -0.12
. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time ( s )
.
Fig. 1.5 :, A typical earthquake record
'
(ii) Seed et al. (1975) gave a plot between stress ratio and conversion factor as sh!)wnin Fig.
1.6.
Conversion factor is defined as'the ratio of equivalentnumber of cycles for 0.65 'tmaxto equivalent
number of cycles for K . 'tmax'Referring to this curve (Fig. 1.6) determine the conversion factor
to each average stress level (Col. 4 of Table 1.4).
(iii) Determine the equivalen~number of unifofm cycles,at a maximum stress level of 0.65 'tma.xby
multiplying the values listed in Cols. 3 and 4. 'These are listed in Col. 5.
, , . . . t , . ' ,', , ,
(iv) Determine the total.,number of equivalent stress ,cycles at .0..65'tmaxby adding the values listed in
Col. 5. ,
," , - ". " .< ,.', >
. '. ".'/ <",,"'" , ", ,J1;' , . .:..I..;
, "
, . ' ',:""".". .,.,:'~c'"':"..' .'",:,.' "
. '
~- --'-" . . ._.n
. . " .'. ~.~.,>..,.. ~. ~,--... -- t--. - -- -,
..
8 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundatioiis"
Table 1.4 : Equivalent Cycles for Anticipated Eartbquake

Acceleration Average and Number Conversion Equivalent
level il/ level in of. factor number of cycles
percent of percent of cycles at 0.65 1"ma:c
(I) (2) (3) (4) (5)

- - ..
100- 80 90 5/2 = 2.5 2.6 '65

80 - 60 70 3/2 = 1.5 1.2 1.8
60 - 40 50 7/2 = 3.5 0.20 0.70
40 - 20 30 5/2 = 2.5 negligible 0.0
20 - 00 10 >100 negligible 0.00
Total numberof
cycles = 9,0
1.0
r-
' 0.8
>
-
111
111
..... 0.6:
I...
..... ,-C
111
u I 0
x 0.4
lt5 0.2
0
10 3 1 0-3 0'1 0-03 0'01
(Ns )0.65 Tmax.
Conversion factor,
( ~S)k Tmax
Fig. 1.6 : Conversion factor versus shear stress ratio
For getting the equivalent number of cycles for 0.75 'tmax'read the yalue of conversion factor (Fig.
1.6) corresponding to an ordinate value of 0.75. It comes out as 1.5. The value of equivalent number of
cycles obtained for 0.65 'tmaxas illustrated in Table 1.4 is divided by this conversion factor to obtain
equivalent number of cycles corresponding to 0.75 'tmaxi.e. 9.0/1.5= 6.0 cycles.
Seed and Idriss (1971) and Lee and Chan (1972) developed the above concepts specifically for lique-
facti~mstudies. More details of these procedures have been.discussed in Chapter 7.
- --""" "~.
..
j' ..
Introduction 9
1.4 SEISMIC FORCE FOR PSEUDO-STATIC ANALYSIS

For the purpose of determining seismic force, the country is classified into five zones as shown in
Fig. 1.7. Two methods namely (i) seismic coefficient method and (ii) response spectrum method are used
for computing the seismic force. For pseudo-static design of foundations of buildings, bridges and similar
structures, seismic coefficient method is used. For the analysis of earth dams and dynamic designs,
response spectrum method is used (IS- 1893 : 1975).
Equivalent modi fide

mercalli intensity
IX and above
Q) Iv. Vl1I
VII
VI
Less than VI
Bombay
0 0
~ Vo
.. ". 0 po rt
In : Blair
0
.:
0
'I)
Fig. 1.7 : Seismic zonesof India
in seismic coefficient method, the design value of horizontal seismic coefficient CJ.his obtained by the
'ollowing expression : ~
ah = ~I ao ...(1.3)
vhere
a() = Basicseismiccoefficient,Table 1.5
I. = Coefficient depe.ndingupon the unportance of structure,:Table 1.6
~ = Coefficient depending upon the soil-f~undation system, Table 1.7
-
.
:/ <",
~- ,- t-. -_. ----
~:
10 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations
The vertical seismic coefficient, <Xv shall be considered in the case of structures in 'which stability is
a criterion of design or for overall stability of structures. It may be taken as half of the horizontal seismic
coefficient. Therefore, . .
a
<x=---1L ...(l.4)
v 2
In response spectrum method, the response acceleration coefficient is 'first obtained for the natural
period and damping of the structure and the design value of horizontal seismic coefficient is computed
using the following expression:
Tab{e 1.5 : Values of Basic Seismic Coefficien~ <X/1
Zone No. ao
V 0.08
IV 0.05
III 0.04
11 0.02
I 0.01
,-
Table 1.6 : Values of Importance Factor, I
S No. Type oJ Structure Va/lIeoJI
I. Containment structure of seismic power reactor for preliminary design 3.0

2. Dam~ (all types) 2.0
3. Containers of inflammable or poisonous gases or liquids 2.0
4. Important service and community structures, such as hospitals, water towers
and tanks, schools, important bridges, emergency buildings like
telephone exchange and fire brigades, large assembly structures like
cinemas, assembly halls and subway stations \.5
5. All others 1.0
.Table 1.7 : Values of P for Different Soil-Foundation System
-----------------------------
Values off3Jor
Soil Isolated Combinedor Raft Pile Well

footings isolated foundation foundation foundation
without footings
tie beams with tie beams
-
Rock or \.0 1.0 \.0 1.0 1.0
Hard soil
Medium 1.2 1.0 1.0. 1.0 1.2
soils
.Soft 1.5 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.5
soils
.."".
/.. '; "~j~~";~f!" i;~', '. '.' " ;,j~. 'ltil,~' J~
Introduction 11
,:
, S
,ab ,= ~ ., I . F0 .;.,JL
g
...( L 1)
where
F0 = Seismic zoni1)gfactor for average acceleration spectra (Table 1.8)

S .
~g = average acceleration coefficient as read from Fig. 1.8 for appropriate natural period and
damping of the structure.
-c
~
- u
~ 0.6
0 .,
u
c
0 0.5
....
0
- L..
~
~
u
0'4
u
0 0 .3___-
~
01
0
L..
~
0.2----
>
<!
11 0.1
0
1 01 0
If) 0 0.4 1-6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3,0.
Natural vibration in seconds
Fig. 1.8: Average acceleration spectra
Table 1.8 : Values of Seismic Zoning Factor. Fo

Zone No. Fo
V 0.40
IV 0.25
III 0.20
U 0.10
I . 0.05
,.
tILL USTRATIVE EXAMPLES'
Example 1.1
The srandard torsion seismograph recorded an average trace amplitude of 8.0 mm. The distance to the
epicentre is. estimated about 100 km. Determine the magnitude of earthquake.
Solution:
From Fig. 1.4, the distance correction for 100 km is 3.0.
Hence,
M = 10glO8.0 + 3 = 3.9
ÎÛÚÛÎÛÒÝÛÍ
HousnCf, G. W. (1965), "Intensity of earthquake ground shaking near the causative fault", Proceedings 3rd World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, New Zealand, Vo\. 1.
Housner. G. W. (1970), "Design spectrum", in EarthquukeEngineering (R. W. Wiegel, Ed.), Prentice-HalI, Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, pp. 97-106.
IS I:s03-1975. "Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures", ISI, New Delhi.
Lee, K.. l.. and Chan, K. (1972), "Number of equivalent significant cycles in strong motion earthquakes", Proceed-
ings, International Conference on Microzonation, Seattle, Washington, vo\. H, pp. 609-627.
Richter, CF. (1958), "Elementary seismology", W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, California.
Seed. H. B. Idriss, I. M., Makdisi, F. and Banerjee, N. (1975), "Representation of irregular stress - time histories b)
equivalent uniform stress series in liquefaction analysis", Report No. EERC 75-29, Earthquake Engi-
neering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley.
Seed, H. B., and Idriss, 1. M. (1971), "Simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential"
J. Soil Mech. Found. Engg., ASCE, Vo\. 97, No. SM9, pp. 1249-1273.
F PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1.1 Explain the terms 'Intensity' and 'Magnitude' irt relation to earthquake. How are fault length an,
duration of earthquake depend on magnitude?
1.2 Describe a method of getting equivalent number of cycles of uniformly varying load for an actur
earthquake record,
1.3 Determine the equivalent number ef cycles for 0.75 Tmaxfor El Centro earthquake.
DC
!!JI!!'!!' :R'
"".'\'-<-,'~.",:~,,",:;""-',/'.'~',e: ,",- :",:;"" :..' ,'","" '..".'
THEORY OF VIBRATIONS
2.1 GENERAL
In order to understand the behaviour of a structure subjected to dynamic load lucidly, one must study the
mechanics of vibrations 'caused by the dynamic load. The pattern of variation of a dynamic load with
respect to time may be either periodic or transient. The periodical motions can be resolved into sinusoi-
dally varying components e.g. vibrations in the case of reciprocating machine foundations. Transient
vibrations may have very complicated non-periodic time history e.g. vibrations due to earthquakes and
quarry blasts.
A structure subjected to a dynamic load (periodic or transient) may vibrate in one of the following four
ways of deformation or a combination there-of:
(i) Extensional (Fig. 2.1 a) (ii) Shearing (Fig. 2.1 b)
(iii) bending (Fig. 2.1 c) (iv) torsional (Fig. 2.1 d)
t ~ . c:
-~J
(a) Extenslonal (b) Shearing (c) Bending (d) Torsional
,- .: , , : ,."
Fig. 2.1 : Different types oCvlbratlons
',:' " . '-1\";01
, ' ," ,.!
"
, . ,,{-';', " .H .
.
14
s.u /JyruuIfics & Machine Foundations
The forms of vibration mainly depend on the mass, stiffness distribution and end conditions of the
system.
To study the response of a vibratory system, in many cases it is satisfactory to reduce it to an idealized
system of lumped parameters. In this regard, the simplest model consists of mass, spring and dashpot
This chapter is framed to provide the basic concepts and dynamic analysis of such systems. Actual field
problems which can be idealized to mass-spring-dashpot systems, have also been included.
2.2 DEFINITIONS
2.2.1 Vibrations: If the motion of the body is oscillatory in character, it is called vibration.
. -, -
2.2.2 Degrees of Freedom: The number of independent co-ordinates which are required to define the
position of a system during vibration, is called degrees of freedom (Fig. 2.2).
D:
m
~
(a) One degree of freedom (b) Two degrees offreedom
KI
Z,
. .~
Z2
.
- -,
Z)
- J..,
~ óååó¢¢
.
¢óãÝí
-
(c) Three degrees of freedom' . (d) Six degrees 'offreedon~ (e) Infinite degrees offreedom
-' , , . .: .',n ,-, t ~ "'_~
Fig. 2.2' :'Systems with different degrees of freedom
Theory of Vibrations 15
2.2.3 Periodic Motion: If motion repeats itself at regular intervals of time, it is called periodic motion.
2.2.4 Free Vibration: If a system vibrates without an external force, then it is said to undergo free
vibrations. Such vibrations can be caused by setting the system in motion initially and allowing it to move
~~~~~. .
2.2.5 Natural Frequency: This is the property of the system and corresponds to the number of free
oscillations made by the system in unit time.
2.2.6 Forced Vibrations: Vibrations that are developed by externally applied exciting forces are called
forced vibrations. These vibrations occur at the frequency of the externally applied exciting force.
2.2.7 Forcing Frequency: This refers to the periodicity of the external forces which acts on the system
during forced vibrations. This is also termed as operating frequency.
2.2.8 Frequency Ratio: The ratio of the forcing frequency and natural frequency of the system is re-
ferred as frequency ratio.
2.2.9 Amplitude of Motion: The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from the mean position is
amplitudeof motion. . ,
2.2.10 Time Period: Time taken to complete one cycle of vibration is known as time period.
2.2.11 Resonance: A system having n degrees of freedom has n natural frequencies. If the frequel}cyof
excitation coincides with anyone of the natural frequencies of the system, the condition of resonance
occurs. The amplitudes of motion are very excessive at resonance.
2.2.12 Damping: All vibration systems offer resistance to motion due to their own inherent properties.
This resistance is called damping force and it depends on the condition of vibration, material and type
of the system..If the force of damping is constant, it is t&med Coulomb damping. If the damping force
is proportional to the velocity, it is termed viscous damping. If the damping in a system is free from its
material property and is contributed by the geometry of the system, it is called geometrical or radiation
damping.
2.3 HARMONIC MOTION

Harmonic motion is the simplest form of vibratory motion. It may be described mathematically by the
following equation:
Z = A sin (rot - 0) ...(2.1)
L
r- T:2!!-
Go)
N
Timq.t
'. .,
Fig. 2.3 : Quantities describing harmonic motion

;. :'~f,t;,\r.j
'~~!.
The Eq. (2.1) is plotted as function of time in Fig. 2.3. The various terms of this equation are as
follows:
Z = Displacement of the rotating mass at any time t
A = Displacement amplitude from the mean position, sometimes referred as single amplitude. The
distance 2 A represents the peak-to-peak displacementamplitude,sometimesreferred to as double
amplitude, and is the quantity most often measured from vibration records.
ro = Circular frequency in radians per unit time. Because the motion repeats itself after 21tradians,
the' frequency of oscillation in terms of cycles per unit time will be ro/21t.It is denoted by f
8 = Phase angle. It is required to specify the time relationship between two quantities having the
same frequency when their peak values ha'ving like sign do not occur simultaneously. In Eq.
(2.1) the phase angle is a reference to the time origin.
More commonly, the phase angle is used as a reference to another quantity having the same fre-
quency. For example, at some reference point in a harmonically vibrating system, the motion may be
expressed by
ZI = AI sin rot ...(2.2)
Motion at any other point in the system might be expressed as
Z,I = A,I sin ( rot-'e, )
I ...(2.3 )
with 1t ~ 8 ~ - 1t.
For positive values of 8 the motion at point i reaches its peak within one half cycle after the peak
motion occurs at point 1. The angle 8 is then called phase lag. For negative values of 8 the peak motion
at i occurs within one half cycle ahead of motion at 1, and 8 is called as phase lead.
The time period, T is given by
1 21t
T=-=- ...(2.4)
f ro
The velocity and acceleration of motion are obtained from the derivatives of Eq. (2.1.).
dZ .
Velocity = -dt = Z = roA cos (rot- 8) ...(2.5)
= roA sin (rot- 8 + ~)

2
d Z .. 2
Acceleration = -rdt = Z = ro A sin (rot- 8) ...(2.6)
= ro2A (sin rot - e + 1t)

Equations (2.5) and (2.6) show that both velocity and acceleration are also harmonic and can be
represented by vectors roA and ol A; which rotate at the same speed as A, i.e. ro rad/unit time. These,
however, lead the displacement and acceleration vectors by 1tI2and 1trespectively. In Fig. 2.4 vector
representation of harmonic displacement, velocity and acceleration is presented considering the dis-
placementas the referencequantity(8 = 0).
, .J (.,..~4",t-t
",C.. .,
.,~;< r'l!\"k. .
',", . ,~Ii<i"
N
..
+'
C
z,z,z ~
E
~
v TimtZ,t
0
a.
UI
0
oN
...
>-
+'
Ti mtZ,t
v
0
~
>
c Timcz,t
0
- 0
....
c:,I
c:,I
v
0
.et
Fig. 2.4: Vector representation of harmonic displacement. velocity and acceleration
When two harmonic motions having little different frequencies are superimposed. a non harmonic
motion as shown in Fig. 2.5 occurs. It appears to be harmonic except for a gradual increase and decrease
in amplitude. The displacement of such a vibration is given by:
Z = AI sin (0011- 91) + A2 sin (0021- 92) ...(2.7)
2Am\n 2A max
N
+'
.. .,/
D, - .,/ ./
C
c:,I
E TimtZ (t)
,~
v
0
a.
III
c ,--- '-'" --- """'-

- ---
~T
.'J' ,.,
, b ~ " :' 3! j,;I',: ','"
. ~~ 'i; 'P1>1Flg;'2.5':Motion containi.ng a beat

;;" C," 'i'j{':-;,':::;;;~,.
The dashed curve (Fig. 2.5), representing the envelop of the vibration amplitudes oscillates at a
frequency, called the beat frequency, which corresponds to the difference in the two source frequencies:
I 1<01 -<021
fb = Tb = 21t ...(2.8)
The frequency of the combined oscillations is the average of the frequencies of the two components
and is given by
f = i = (2~)( 0) 1;1t0) 2 ) ...(2.9)
The maximum and minimum amplitudes of motion are the sum and difference of the amplitudes of
the two sources respectively.
Zmax = AI + A2 ...(2.10a)
"Zmin = IAI - A21 ,...(2.10b)
If the drive systems of two machines designed to operate at the same speed are not synchronized, they
may result vibrations having the beat frequency.
2.4 VIBRATIONS OF A SINGLE DEGREE FREEDOM SYSTEM

1
The simplest model to repre~ent a single degree of freedom system consisting of a rigid mass m supported
by a spring and dashpot is shown in Fig. 2. 6a. The motion of the mass m is specified by one co-ordinate
Z. Damping in this system is represented by the dashpot, and the resulting damping force is proportional
to the velocity. The system is sabject to an external time dependent force F (t).
Z - Dj splac(Zment
Z- V(Zlocity
Z- Ac c(z l(Zration
c
KZ+ Cl +1
..
mz
---- -, - LZ - - -'-
m
m
f F(t)
(I) Spring-mlss-dashpot system (b) Frcc-body diagram

~c ~ Pl8- 2.6, SI..,. ..,...' .,......
. .-.:.., . ...
, ,." ~ ,~.,_."..~'~--"'"
~
.,
>-":, ,;;[; /, '1\", ", ;,., "',c,...'" "-": ,,' ,.'r:,/'; ~:.: "'1~F"",';
Theory of Vibrations . 19
, ,
Figure 2.6 (b) shows the free body diagram offue mass m at allYinstant dunng the course~fvibra-'
tions. The forces acting on the mass m are:
(i) Exciting force, F (t): It is the externally applied force that causes the motion of the system.
(ii) Restoring force, F,.: It is the force exerted by the spring on the mass emutends to restore the mass
, to its originalposition.For a linear system,restoringforce is equiJ.'to K . Z, where Kis the
spring constant and indicates the stiffness. This force always acts towards the equilibrium posi-
tion of the system.
(iii) Damping force, Fi The damping force is considered directly proportional to the velocity and
given by C . Z where C is called the coefficient of viscous damping; this force always opposes
the motion.
In some problems in which the damping is not viscous, the concept of viscous damping is still
used by defining an equivalent viscous damping which is obtained so that the total the energy
dissipated per cycle is same as for the actual damping during a steady state of motion.
l It is due to the acceleration of the mass and is given by m Z. According to De-
(iv) Inertia force, F.: ,
-Alemberfs principle, a body which is not in static equilibrium by virtue of some acceleration
which it possess, can be brought to static equilibrium by' introduculg on it an inertia force. This
force acts through the centre of gravity of the body in the direction opposite to that of accelera-
tion. " '
The equilibrium of mass m gives

mZ + CZ + KZ = F (t) , .::(2.11)
which is the equation of motion of the system. ,
2.4.1 Undamped Free Vibrations. For undamped free vibrations, the damping force and the exciting
force are equal to zero. Therefore the'"equation of motion of the system becomes .."
m Z + KZ = 0: '
...(2.12a)
.. K
or Z+mZ=O
( ) ...(2.12b)
The solution of this equation can be obtained by substituting"

Z = A I cos con t + Az sin cont ...(2.B)
where AI and Az are both constant~ and conis undamped natural frequency.
Substituting Eq. (2.13) in Eq. (2.12), we get? ,
-(j)~ (AI cos (j) i + Az sin (j)nt

"
j+(~) (AI ~os oont + Az sin:oo~t) =0
~- .
"
or 'co =:1: ...(2.14)

,,'
,-,'
, "
,
n m
The values of constants A I and A2 are obtained by supstituting proper boundary conditions. We may
nave the following two boundary
'"
conditions:
.
' "' '
~
(i) At time t = 0, displacement Z = Zo' and
(ii) At time 1 = '0, velocity Z = V0
Substituting the first boundary condition in Eq. (2.13)
. "/,
',,'
; "'"..',', "'
Z
:. """':.!'",I;'j,d",.
,-"""".."Ar-r;"'O:iI'i),+.'nji;~:J}'i"..ql.d")Jiti..j}iJ'iI.J'!,';~";
,',:'}.., :';"h' ,,',", , " :!':"'"
>is:.:,,,,
'"
'
C. '
:;
... ( 2.15 )
j
Now, ...(2.16)
':,; 'z ,=: -:' AI" 00,; si~ cont + A2 C1)n'~os cont "
,
20
Soil Dymunics & Machine Fo"ndations
Substituting the second boundary condition.in Eq. (2.16)

V.
A =--2..
2 ~n ...(2.17)
Hence . Vo
2 = 20 cos oont +. -con sin oont ...(2.18)
Now let.
20 = Az cos 9 ...(2.19)
V
and --2.. = AZ sin 9
co n ...(2.20)
Substitution of Eqs. (2.19) and (2.20) into Eq. (2.18) yields

2 = Az cos (oont - 9) ...(2.21 )
where 9 = tan-I ~ ...(2.22)
( con20)
2
2 Vo
Az = ,/20 +
.
-
( con ) ...(2.23)
The displacement of mass given by Eq. (2.21) can be represented graphically as shown in
Fig. 2.7. It may be noted that
c+)
~ One cycle
Acceleration /.-0,
+Az
""
\ y,%
0'
'
.
:N
..
1'," /. 3
oN
..
/
N 2 "IT.~, 9 2lT +9 / Time,t
\
"~/. / / / '\'. /
'
e\
-- , "2~\ 0
,/ TI.r
-A
, '- -'"
0
V"
/
1'/
Z
0 isplacement
0
"
velocity
(-)
Fig, 2.7 : Plot of displacement. velocity and acceleration for the free vibration of a mass-spring system
I>
'reory ilf Jl"l6iatiOns 21
At time t equal to Displacement Z is ..
0 Az cos 8
8
(J)n Az
1t +8
L- 0
0) n
1I+8
0)
-AZ
3
-1t+8
2 .
0
(J)n
21t +8
O)n
AZ
It is evident from Fig. 2.7 that nature of foundation displacement is sinusoidal. The magnitude of
maximum displacement is Az. The time required for the motion to repeat itself is the period of vibration,
T and is therefore given by. .
T = 21t ...(2.24)
O)n
The natural frequency of oscillation, 1" is given by
J. =1- =~
n T 21t
=...!..
21t v-;;
(K ...(2.25)
Now -mg =-=0

W
...(2.26)
K K st .
Where g = Acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 mIs2

W = Weight of mass m
°st = staticdeflectionof the spring
Therefore
- I rg ...(2.27)
In - 21t Vfut
Eq. (2.27) shows that the natural frequency is a function of static deflection. The relation ofIn and
Os!given by Eq. (2.27) gives a curve as shown in Fig. 2.8.
The nature of variation of the velocity and acceleration of the mass is also shown in Fig. 2.7.
I,
-.
...~ ,.,.
~.~ .n
I
22 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundiuions . :~
40
30
,....
-N
:I: 20
c
.....
10 '-..
----
0-
0 2 4 6 8 10
. 6stat (mm)
Fig. 2.8 : Relationship between natural frequency and static deflection
2.4.2 Free Vibrations With Viscous Damping. For damped free vibration system (i.e., the excitation
force Fo sin (J)t on the system is zero), the differential equation of motion can be written as
mZ + Cl + KZ = 0 ...(2.28)
where C is the damping constant or force per unit velocity. The solution of Eq. (2.28) may be written as
'),.t . .
Z =A e ...(2.29)
where A and A are arbitrary constants. By substituting the value of Z given by Eq. (2.29) in Eq. (2.28),
we get
m A A2it + C A AIt + K A it = 0
2 C K
or A + () ni A + m = 0
...(2.30)
By solving Eq. (2.30)
.
C
= - 2m :i: V~~) -;;
A,1,2
The completesolutionof Eq.(2.28) is givenby
F) C 2 K
...(2.31 )
Z -- A le Alt + A 2e A2t
.
' '
...(2.32)
2
The physical significance of this solution depends upon the relative magnitudes 'of (C/2m) and
(K/m), which determines whether the exponents are real or complex quantities.
Case I :
(~2m) > Km2
The roots AI and A2are real and negative. The motion of the system is not oscillatory but is an
exponential subsiden~~(Fig. 2. 9). Because.of the relatively large damping, so much energy is dissipated
23
Theory of Vi!'rations ,
by the damping force that there is sufficient kinetic energy left t~ carry the mass and pass the equilibrium
position. Physically this means a relatively large damping and the system is said to be over damped,
z 2
C > 4 km ... -"
Tim(l,t
Fig. 2.9 : Free vibrations ofviscously overdamped system
Case 11 :
(~ ) = K
2m
2
m ,-
The roots Al and Az are equal and negative. Since the equality must be fulfilled, the solution is
given by
Z = (AI.+ Az t) le = (AI + Az t) e-Ct/Zm ...(2,33)
In this case also, there is no vibratory motion. It is similar to oyer damped case except that it is
possible for the sign to change once as shown in Fig. 2010.This,case is of little importance in itself; it
assumes greater significance as a measure of the damping capacity of the system. " '
z
c2=l"km
Time,t
.,
Fig. 2. to': Free vibrations of a vlscouslycritically damped system
When
(~2m) = K.m' C = C c
...(2.34)
Then Cc "=,2 ~Km". ...(2.35)

The system in this conditioon is known as ~ritically damped system anaC ~ is known as critical damp-
ing constant.' The ratio of the actual damping constant to the critical damping constant. is. defined as
damping ratio: ..
C
~=- ,..(2.36)
Cc
'Now C - C Cc - C 2JK"m_c:'fK ...(2.37)

2m - Cc . 2m - Cc' 2m - Cc'Vm
By substitutingthis valueof' 2: as ~(On in Eq. (2.31), ~~ ~et"

'
. ...
".~.
.- ",
, -
.. ".' r , . [.',
...(2.38)
AI, 2 =(_;:!:~;2-1) COn
Case III :
(~ )
2m
2 < K
m
The roots Al and Al are complex and are given by .
...(2.39)
= [-;:!:i~I-;2
AI,2 ]COn
The complete solution of Eq. (2.28) is given by
- (-~+j~I-~2 )O>i (-~-j~l-e )(J)"I

Z - AI e + Az e ...(2.40)
r:-:2 r ,
or Z = e-~o>"t A j"I-~2 0>,,1+ A e-;~I-~- O),i' ...(2.41 )
the Eq. (2.41) can be written as I e z
...(2.42)
Z = e-~O)", [Cl sin( (J)n~ t)+Cz cos( (J)1I~t)]
or Z = e-~O)II' [Cl sin(J)ndt+CZ COS(J)ndt] ...(2.43 )
where wild = (01/ ~ 1- ; z = Damped natural frequency.

The motion of the system is oscillatory (Fig. 2.11) and the amplitude of vibration goes on decreasing
in an exponential fashion.
z
2
C < 41<m
Fig. 2.11 : Free vibrations of a viscously underdamped system
As a convenient measure of damping, we may compute the ratio of amplitudes of the successive
cycles of vibration
Z e-0> "f,1
---L = e-0>n f,(t+Zn/o>"cI) ...(2.44 a)
Z2
or -Z I= en0> f,.21t/o)ncl ...(2.44 b)

Zz r:2
or -ZI =e Znl;!"l-f,- ...(2.44 c)
Zz
or ZI - 21t;
...(2.44 d)
loge 22.- ~
~ }, ",inF1': j'/," " 't~.. ' .~t .o,~; ',.
Tlreory of Vtb",tiolU ,-
-:)
. . Natural logarithm of ratio of two successive peak amplitudes {i,e, log, (~)} is called as logarith-
mk. ,decrement. .
1 Z\ r:-:2
or ~= 2x loge ~ ' As for small valuesof~, V1- ~- :: 1 ...(2.44 e)
tbus, damping of a system can be obtained from a free vibration record by knowing the successive
amplitudes which are one cycle apart. .'
If the damping is very small, it may be convenient to measure the differences in peak amplitudes for
a number of cycles, say n.
In such a case, if Z" is the peak amplitudes of the n,h cycle, then
Zo Zl Z2 Zn-I 0
- = - =- =...=- = e where~ = 2x ~
Z\ Z2 ZJ Zn
Therefore, Zo, = Zo ~ Z2
.. Z"-I = eno
Zn [ Z, ] [ Z2 ] [ Z) ] [ Z" ]
1 Z
Hence I 0 .. ...(2.441)
~ = -n oge Zn
1 Z0..
or I
~}: = -2xn oge.z n ...(2.44 g)
Therefore, a system is
over damped if ~ > 1;
critically damped if ~ = 1 and
under damped if ~ < 1.
2.4.3 Forced Vibrations Of Single Degree Freedom Syst~m. In many cases of vibrations caused by
rotating parts of machines, th~ systems are subjected to periodic exciting forces. Let us consider the case
of a single degree freedom sys~.:mwhich is acted upon by a steady state sinusoidal exciting force having
magnitude F and frequency 0>(i.e. F(t) = Fosin rot). For this case the equation of motion (Eq. 2.11) can
be written as :
.. .
111Z + C Z + K Z = Fo Sin ro t ...(2.45)
Eq-;(2.45) is a linear, non-homogeneous, second order differential equation. The solution of this
equation consists of two parts namely (i) complementary function, and (ii) particular integral. The
complementary function is obtained by considering no forcing function. Therefore the equation of motion
in this case will be :
.. .
m Z, + C Z, + K Z, = 0 ...(2.46)
The solution of Eq. (2.46) has already been obtained in the previous st?ctioIland is given by,
ZI = e-O>/"(C\sinrondt+C2cosrondt) ...(2.47)
Here ZI represents the displacement of mass m at any instant t when vibrating without any forcing
function. .
The particular integral is obtained by rewriting Eq. (2.45) as ~
.;Y,
m 2:2+ C 22 + K Z2 = Fo sin rot ...(2.48)
where Z2 = displacement of mass m a~~nYinstant t when vibrating with forcing function.

8111;1'
"
"--H,' " "

26 Soil Dynamics & Mac/line Foundations
; The,solution
,,',
of Eq. (2A8).,\~
" . ~
gi'{en by'.
',", ,,' '"
" ,
t,; "
22 = AI sin 00t + A2cos 00't , ...(2.49)

where AI and A2 are two, arbitrary constants. "...~ ,'" . . .:'
, "
Substituting Eq. (2.49) in ~q. (2.48) ',' -
m (- At 002sin 00t - A2002cos (0t) + C (AI 00cos 00t - A2 ID;in 00t) + K (AI sin 00t + A2 cos 00t) ,
,",,' ""'='Fosin'ro,t':. : , ,..'(2.50:
Considering .sine and Cosine functions in Eq. (2.50) separately, , ' ' , ,'.,
2 " " ,; , , ' (,. ' ',' ", ,"~ .
(- m AI 00 + KAt - CA2 00) sin 00t = Fo sin 00t . ...(2,51 a)

(- m A2 002+ KA2 + CA! 00).I::osffi t,~ O. 'J" ",'
,..(2.? 1 b)
From Eg. (2.51 a), .,
. F. 0,
Al(~ - o}) - A2(~

m =
) : ',n
Q. 0
",(2,52 a)
and from Eg. (2,51 b)
A{~-W )+A2(~-w2) =0 ...{2.52 b)

Solving Egs, (2,52 a) and (2.52 b), we get
At- - (K-moo2) Fo
2 0.. '.)2.53 a)
(K - mm2) + C2m2
"
and A2 = - CmFo ...(2,53 b)

t
.
'
" ". '<c, "',, >, (K-~~2)2+c"2m2,"."

By substitutingJhe
" ,
values
,:
'of Al and A~"inEq::2'.49;:'
' , "',.."
""" ' ," ','
~, ':22 '...(2.54)
':°2" ~ 2 {(K'-mm2)sinmi-cwcosmt}
(K - m m ) + Cm"
-
let, ' tan e = 'C 0) , '
.,.(2.55)
K-l~cd2
By substituting Eg. (2.55) in Eg. (2.54), one can obtain
...(2.56)
22 = Fo . sin(mt - e)
,,' ,
~(K~';'m2t+'c2 cii1' :" :,., "

Eg. (2.56) may be written as t .. " , ,
" ..~
, ,'!
22 = . '.ccFo!K , . 'sin{~t -"'er . " ...(2.57)
~(I:!12)+(2Tl~)~.. "I , -"~; . '"

,,'
. W ,',
Where
11 = Frequency ratio =;- n "',,;, ".,:.' ,
-,' ':Ci"","'G'}""::"',',_:;,~'-',
c c .:;=
~ = Dam p ing ratio = - ,
.., 0"'2' ';JKi{i

'Km ' .' '
""""'~!i1I"1!",?' ~"" "".",..1d."" "~~",...""."..",""."""",."""""""",-,,i""'-~-' .

~J'(,,~\'k
27
Theory of Vibrations
. . ,'..,
The complete solution is obtained by adding the compJimentary function and the particular integral.
Since the 'coriipliIne~tarYfti~l(!tioh:lsan'expJnenii~nf'decayin~ function,:iit'will die out'soon and the
motion will be des~ribed by only the p~uticula:rmtegral(Fig. 2:i 1)'.:The syStemwill vibrate harmonically
,with the same frequency as the forcing and the pe~ ap11'1!tu4~.,is,g~ven
by
F. /K '. ...(2,58)
Az = 0 " oi
. . ", ..., ~(l~ 1]2)2+(21]~)2 ",,"', ;;"
N .., ,~ '~','--' '
"I
+'
C
~
E
~
u
0
a.
UI ....
.... Transi~nt , ,
,.,..
0
211"
~ (;) ~
N
N
..
+'
C
~ Time.t
E
~ . "
u
0
a. -,
UI 'h ..'
0 :'1
." ..i
;. -;
. . /'
. ..i , ,- #" "
'.'. -' ,.;" ~,: ,~~#"st'~c;!:t>~tatcz
"
4;i;"':~~.~.",;..'
"
'---'- ~,'
, :~~.::
\
N
'I\ " .
+'
C
~ Time,t
E
c:.I
u
0
a. '..,
q , ','" .),
" .
III
< ," "
0
. "! ".' '.', ,', .
Co mpl~t~ solu tion
Fig. 2.12 Superpos,ition of transient and steady state vibrations
i, - ~ rr"'- "'-T--'1iiiiii[-'
~-
, "" ~>;;;<~i:«.~..,'
" .". ,( '. ;:
28 SoU Dyrul",ks & Maehi"e Foundlltions
The quantity FelK is equal to the static deflection of the mass under force Fo' Dynamic magnification
factor, f.1is derIDedas the ratio of the dynamic amplitude Az to the static deflection. and is given by
~ = ~(1-112)2 1+(211~)2 . -- ...(2.59)

-
The variation of f.1versus 11is shown in Fig. 2.13 for different values of damping ratio ~.It would be
seen that near 11= 1, the value of f.1is maximum. This is called resonance and the forcing frequency J at
which it occurs is called the resonant frequency.
~=o
t.
-
... I 1 "0.1
0 3
u
c
....
c
I I 11 0)
.-
0
..c
u
.- 2
....
.-
c
Cl
c
0
0 1.5
Frc&quc&ncy ratio. "\.
Fie. 1.13 : Macnlficatlon factor (J&)vcnus freqllcacy ratio (11)
"0 1
Differentiating Eq. (2.59) with respect to 11and equating to zero, it can be shown that resonance will
occur at a frequency ratio given by
11 = ~1-2~2 ...(2.60 a)
which is approximately equal to unity for small values of ~.
or ffind = ffin ~1-2~2 ...(2.60 b)

where ffind = Damped resonant frequency
180°
150°
120°
<D
c:.J
C'I
C
0
c:.J
\11
90°' r =0.707
0 ~ = 0-5
.J:
a..
600
30
°
0
0 '1.0 2.0 3.0
FrczquQncy ratio# -rz.
Fig.
, 2.14: Phase
. Jagversus
' . , frequency
: " ratio for ..,'
different amounts
~ .of damping
;':J '
<'., ~ ,";~,'~',{f.(;"..
'By substituting Eq. (2.60) in Eq. (2.59), the maximum value of magnification factor is obtained. It
is given by ,
I
...(2.61 )
J.lmax = 2E,~I-E/
I
(For small values of;) ...(2.62)
- 2E,
Assuming a damping of 5% in a structure, its amplitude at resonance will be 10 times the static
deflection. This indicates that systems will be subjected to very large amplitudes at resonance which
should be avoided.
. '. --- - -
The phase angle e given by Eq. (2.55) indicates the phase difference between the motion and the
exciting force: It can}e.-writt~.n~s .
e = Tan-I 1- 2
'" ( T\ )
_211E,
.
...(2.63 )
Variation of e with respect to 11is shown in Fig. 2.14

2.4.3.1 Rotating mass type excitation. Machines with unbalanced rotating masses develop alternating
force as shown in Fig. 2.15 a. Since horizontal forces on the foundation at any instant cancel, the net
vibrating force on the foundation is vertical and equal to 2 me ero2sin rot, where me is the mass of each
rotating element, placed at eccentricity e from the centre <,>f
rotating shaft and ro is the angular frequency
of masses. Fig. 2.15b shows such a system mounted on elastic supports with dashpot representing viscous
damping. .
12m~. ~~
Forc~ gczn~rat~d
(a) Rotating mass type excitation (b) Mass-spring-das~ot system
Fig. 2.15 : Single degree freedom system with rotating mass type excitation
The equation of motion can be written as

-. 2
m Z +. C. Z- + K Z = 2 111ero
e. sin rot .. ...(2.64)
where m is the mass 'of foundation including 2 me' Equations (2.64) imd (2.48) are similar, except that
2 Ill" ero2 appears in Eq. (2.64) in place of Fo' The solution of Eq. (2.64) may therefore be written as,
'.'; :~,(i:', '.'),' '<'F '" ". ,." ',', , ". .(\~.tJi;"":
Z = A; sin (0)t + 0') . ...(2.65)
(2mee/ m)'T}2
where ..(2.66)
Az = I 2 2
(1-T}2) +(2~T})
2
Since F=2m
0 e
.eO)
F (J) 2 0)2
or
K = 2 me . e K = 2 me . e (mro~) = (2 me :}T}2
e = Tan-I 2T}\ ...(2.67)

1-11 ( )
3.0
0.10
2.0
.---.
';Iile
1.0
0-
0 1..0 ' ,2.0, '. 3.0 4.0 5.0
Frequency ratio. 1) .
(a) Az 1(2m~elm) versus Irequency rauo 11
180°.
0.05
'(D
...
aI I 0.25'
0.50
C7I
c:
0 90°
aI
U\
0
.s::.
a..
0° -
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Frqquqncy ratio., - 't
(b) Phase angle versus frequencYT&tio11
Fig. 2.16 : Response,oh system with rotating unbalance
The Eq. (2.66) can be expressed in non-dimensional form as given below:

A~- 1"\2
/
(2mee m) = ~ (1-1"\2)2+(21"\1;)2 ...(2.68)
The value of A=/(2me elm) is plotted against frequency ratio 1"\in Fig. 2.16 a. The curves are similar
in shape to those in Fig. 2.13 except that these starts from origin. The variation of phase angle e with 11
is shown in Fig. 2.16 b. Differentiating Eq. (2.68) with respect to 11and equating to zero. it can be shown
that resonance will occur at a frequency ratio given by
1
1"\=- ...(2.69 a)
F-2e
0011
or ro =- ...(2.69 b)
nd .JI=21;2 .
By substituting Eq. (2.69 a) in Eq. (2.68), we get
Az - l' ...(2.70)
( 2meelm ) max - 21;~1-1;2
...(2.71 )
~ 2\ for small damping
2.5 VIBRATION ISOLATION
In case a machine is rigidly fastened to the foundation, the force will be transmitted directly to the
foundation and may cause objectionable vibrations. It is desirable to isolate the machine from the foun-
'dation through a suitably designed mounting system in such a way that the transmitted force is reduced.
For example, the inertial force developed in a reciprocating engine or unbalanced forces produced in any
other rotating machinery should be isolated from the foundation so that the adjoining structure is not set
into heavy vibrations. Another example may be the isolation of delicate instruments from their supports
which may be subjected to certain vibrations. In either case the effectiveness of isolation may be mea-
sured in terms of the force or motion transmitted to the foundation. The first type is known as force
isolation and the second type as motion isolation.
2.5.1 Force Isolation. Figure 2.17 s~ows a machine of mass m supported on the foundation by means of
an isolator having an equivalent stiffness K and damping coefficient C. The machine is excited with
unbalanced vertical force of magnitude 2 me eci sin 00t . The equation .ofmotion of the ~achine can be
written as:
... 2
m Z + C Z + KZ = 2 me eoo sin 00t ...(2.72)
The steady state motion of the mass of machine can be worked out as
2
2m eoo /K .
...(2.73)
Z = r e2 .sm(oot-8)
(1-'12). +(21"\1;)2
w~ere 8 = Tan-I ...(2.74)

2'11;2
[ 1-.1"\ ]
':;0:"<\',:,-;' '-' ,'t "t" "',"',' '1
Theory of Jlibrlltions 33
;;::
--'-~, '
~~~
Ma chine
K K Iso lata r
c 2
2'
Foundation Ground surfac~
Fig. 2.17 : Machine-isolator-roundation systcm
The only force which can be applied to the foundation is the spring force KZ and the damping force
. '
C Z; hence the total force tqmsmitted to the foundation during steady state forced vibration is
Ft = KZ + CZ ..,(2.75)
Substituting Eq. (2.73) in Eq. (2.75), we get
2
2m em .
F = e . sm(mt- e)+ C.2me em2 /K '00 cos(mt-e)
2 2
t~ (1-1l) 2 +(211~)2 , (1-112) +(211~)
...(2.76)
Equation (2.76) can be written as:
2 Jl+(211~)2
F t = 2me em , . sin(mt - P) ...(2.77)
2 2
. (1-112) +(211~)
where p is the phase difference between the exciting force and the force transmitted to the foundation and
is given by , ' i
coo
- P ~-e --=~-~~-l ...(2.78)
'"
, r",[ J -]
K, ~
;"": ','"o/,,'n1.."n" ',' i J " ".

34
Soil Dynamics & Machine. Foundations
Since the force 2 m e e ol is the force which would be transmitted if springs were infinitely rigid, a
.
measure of the effectiveness of the i~olation mounting system is given by

. ' Ft ~1+(211~)2
IlT =2 2 meem = ~ (1-112)2 + (211~)2 ...(2.79)

IlT is called the transmissibility of the system. A plot of IlTversus 11for different values of ~is shown
in Fig. 2.18. It will be noted from the figure that for any frequency ratio greater than 12, the force
transmitted to the foundation will be less than the exciting force. However in this case, the presence of
damping reduces the effectiveness of the isolation system as the curves for damped case are above the
undamped ones for 11>12. A certain amount of damping, however, is essential to maintain stability
under transient conditions and to prevent excessive amplitudes when the vibrations pass through reso-
nance during the starting or stopping of the machine. Therefore, for the vibration isolation system to be
effective 11should be greater than 12.
4.5
4.0
. ~ =0 ~ =0
f =0.125 ~ =0.125
1- 3.0
=<.
»
....
-
.-
oD
U\
.-U\
E 2-0
III
C ~ =0.5
0
...
I- ~ =1.0
~ =2.0
1.0
~ : 0.125'
0 -
I ~ =0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0
Frczquczncyr(:itio I 1'\.
Fig. 2.18: Transmissibility (J.1-r)versus freqeuncy ratio (Tt>
:~";
,f "c"'" f ','" ,,': ,r:,,<"f:' ';:£'4/ l',,' tt~~7T{~:,';:s:",.:';
, . . : ';' , ' ' '
2.5.2. Motion Isolation. In many situations, it would be necessary to isolate structure or mechanical
systems from vibrations transmitted from the neighboring machines. Again we require a suitable mount-
ing system so that least vibrations are transmitted to the system due to the vibrating base. We consider a
system mounted through a spring and dashpot and attached to the surface which vibrates harmonically
with frequency (I)and amplitude Y0 as shown in Fig. 2.19.
Machina
z " .
Foundation
., ,
Iso lator
v = Yo Sin GJt
Vi brating ground.
d u (l to n (l i9 h bo u r in 9
machines
Fig. 2.19: Motion isolation system
Let Z be the absolute displacement of mass; the equation of motion of the system can be written as:
m Z + C (2 - Y) + K (Z -:- Y) = 0 ...(2.80)
or m Z + K 2 .+ K Z = C Y .+ K Y = C (I) Y0 cos (I) 1 .+ K Y0 sin (I) 1
or m Z'+ C 2.+ KZ = Yo ~K2.+(Cro)2 sin (rol'+ ex) ...(2.81)
h T -I CO)
ere ex =, an K ...(2.8?)
l:he solution of Eq. (2.81) will give the maximum amplitude as:
Z - . ~1.+(21l~)2 ,
...(2.83)
,. max - , Vo'~
" (l'-1l2)2+(21l~l " " . ,,' ",
",. ) ..,' -'. ,~
18E:.
36 SoU Dynamics & Machine Foundations
The effectiveness of the mounting system (transmissibility) is given by
- Zmax ~ ~1 + (2T\~)2
...(2.84)
~T - -y; - ~(1-T\2)2+(2T\~)2
Equation (2.84) is the same expression as Eq. (2.79) obtained earlier. Transmissibilityof such system
can also be studied from the response curves shown in fig. 2.18. It is again noted that for the vibration
isolation to be effective, it must be designed in such a way that T\> .fi.
2.5.3. Materials Used In Vibration Isolation. Materials used for vibration isolation are rubber, felt.
cork and metallic springs. The effectiveness of each depends on the operating conditions.
1.5.3.1. Rubber. Rubber is loaded in compression or in shear, the latter mode gives higher flexibility.
With loading greater than about 0.6 N per sq mm, it undergoes much faster deterioration. Its damping
and stiffness properties vary widely with applied load, temperature, shape factor, excitation frequency
and the amplitude of vibration. The maximum temperature upto which rubber can be used satisfactorily
is about 65°c. It must not be used in presence of oil which attacks rubber. It is found very s' ".,ble for high
frequency vibrations.
2.5.3.2.Felt. Felt is used in compressfun only and is capable of taking extremely high loads. It has very
high damping and so is suitable in the range of low frequency ratio. It is mainly used in conjunction with
metallic springs to reduce noise transmission.
2.5.3.3. Cork. Cork is very useful for accoustic isolation and is also used in small pads placed under-
neath a large concrete block. For satisfactory working it must be loaded from 10 to 25 N/sq mm. It is not
affected by oil products or moderate temperature changes. However, its properties change with the fre-
quency of excitation.
1.5.3.4. Metallic springs. Metallic springs are not affected by the operating conditions or the environ-
ments. They are quite consistent in their behaviour and can be accurately designed for any desired
conditions. They have high sound transmissibility which can be reduced by loading felt in conjunction -
with it. It has negligible damping and so is suitable for working in the range of high frequency ratio.
2.6 THEORY OF VIBRATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

The purpose of a vibration measuring instrument is to give an output signal which represents, as closely
as possible, the vibration phenomenon. This phenomenon may be displaceme~t, velocity or acceleration
of the vibrating system and accordingly the instrument which reproduces signals proportional to these
are called vibrometers. velometers or accelerometers.
There are essentially two basic systems of vibration measurement. One method is known as the
directly connected system in which motions can be measured from a reference surface which is fixed.
More often such a reference surface is not available. The second system, known as "Seismic system" does
not require a fixed reference surface and therefore is commonly used for vibration measurement.
Figure 2.20 shows a Vibration measuring instrument which is used to measure any of the vibration
phenomena. It consists of a frame in which the mass ~ is supported by means of a spring K and dashpot
C. The frame is mounted on a vibrating body and vibrates al~ng with it. The system reduces to a spring
mass dashpot system having base on support excitation as discussed in Art. 2.5.2 illustrating motion
isolation.
. .(~
Thtory of VibratiOns 37
z
m
c
K
y = Yo Sin '->t
Fig. 2.20 : Vibration measuring instrument
Let the surface S of the structure be vibrating harmonically with an unknown amplitude Y 0 and an
unknown frequency (0. The output of the instrument will depend upon the relative motion between the
mass and the structure, since it is this relative motion which is detected and amplified. let 2 be the
absolute displacement of the mass, then the output of the instrument will be proportional to X = 2 - Y.
The equation of motion of the system can be written as
m Z + C (Z - Y) + K (2 - Y) = 0 ...(2.8S) ,
Subtracting m Y from both sides,
... .. 2
m X + C X + K X = - m Y = m Y0(0 sin (0 t ..:.(2.86)
The solution can be written as
2
...(2.S7)
X = ~ (1- TJ2)2+
TJ (2TJ~)2 Yo sin «(0 t- e)
(0.
where 11 =
(On
- = frequency ratio
~ = damping ,ratio
1 2 TJ~
and e = tan- ( 1- TJ2)
Equation(2.S7)ca~ be rewrittenas:
. ,
X = 1)2.J! Y0 sin «(0 t - 8) (2.,SS)

;°1 ">;(1..;>' ,
where
J! = ~1- TJ2)2+ (2T1~l
ill
38. Soil Dynamics & Machine
- -." '-" Foundlltions
.' . -. .
2.6.1. Displacement Pickup. The instrument will read the displacement of the structure directly if
1121.1= I and 8 = O.The variation o{Tl~ with-~'aiid'~-is shown in Fig-.2.21. The variation of8 with 1'\
is already given in Fig. 2.14. It is seen"'tnatwneifff is" large, 1'\21.1is approximately equal to 1 and 8 is
approximately equal to 180°. Therefore to design a displacement pickup, 1'\should be large which means
that the natural frequency of the instrument itself'shou~d be low compared to the frequency to be mea-
sured. Or in other words, the instrument should have a soft spring and heavy mass. The instrument is
sensitive, flimsy and can be used in a weak vibration environment. The instrument can not be used for
measurement of strong vibrations.
,- -t
I \
3.0 I \0 -- . -
I - -"
I
2 0
,
.
1 0
. .
0 -
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
FrequClncy ratio, '1.
Fig. 2.21 : Response of a vibration measuring instrument to a vibrating base
2.6.2. Acceleration Pickup (Accelerometer). Equation (2.88) can be rewritten as

. I 2
X =2 1.1 Yoro sin (rot - 8) ...(2.89)
(J,)n . '
The output of the instrument will be proportional to the acceleration of the structure if J.1is constant.
Figure 2.13 shows the variation of J.1with 1'\and;. It is seen that J.1is approximately equal to unity for
small values of 1'\.Therefore to design an acceleration pickt!p, 11should be small which means that th~'
" ",.~'n'7""~:"'"""'"
.'1::' 'lr~-r\f
........--.
<~
natural frequency of the instrument itself should be high compared to the frequency to be measured. In
other words, the instrument should have a stiff spring and small mass. The instrument is less sensitive
and suitable for the measurement of strong motion. The instrument size is small.
2.6.3 Velocity Pickup. Equation (2.88) can be rewritten as

1
X = - TIJ!Y0 (J)sin «(J)1 - 0) ...(2.90)
COn
The output of the instrument will be proportional to velocity of the structure if ~ 111l is a constant.
O)n
At 11 = 1, Eq. (2.90) can be written as
1 1 . .. .1
X =- ~ Yo(J) sm (0)1- 0) .: atTl = 1, f.1= - ...(2.91)
con 2 ':1 .. . . 2~
Since O)nand ~are constant, the instrument will measure the velocity at 11= 1.
It may be noted that the same instrument can be used to measure displacement, acceleration and
velocity in different frequency ranges. .,
Xa Y .. if TI» 1 Displacement pickup (Vibrometer~)
X a Y if 11 « lAcceleration pickup (Accelerometers)
X a Y if 11= 1 Velocity pickup (Velometers) .
Displacement and velocity pickups have the disadvantage of having rather a large size if motions
having small frequency of vibration are to be measured. Calibration of these pickups is not simple. Fur-
ther. corrections have to be made in the observations as the response is not flat in the starting regions.
From the point of view of small size, flat frequency response, sturdiness and ease of calibration, accelera-
tion pickups are to be favoured. They are relatively less sensitive and this disadvantage can easily be
overcome by high gain electronic instrumentation..
. .
2.6.4. Design of Acceleration Pickup. The relative displacem~nt between, the mass an~ the support
would be a measure of the support acceleration ifTl is less than 0.75 an4 ~ is of the order of 0.6 to 0.7.
Of the various methods of measurement of relative displacement, .electrical gauging,:in 'whIch {he me-
chanical quantity is converted into an equivalent electrical quantity is best suited for a~.<;elerationpick-
ups. Electrical gauging offers the possibility of high magnification of ~e signals which are usually weak
because the spring is stiff and the displacements are small. The mechanica,l quantity alters either the
resistance, or capacitance or the inductance of the circuit which consequently alters the current in the
circuit. '
2.7 VIBRATION OF MULTIPLE DEGREE FREEDOM SYSTEMS

In the preceding sections, vibrations of systems having single degree of freedom have been discussed. In
many engineering problems, one may come across the systems which may have more than one degree of
freedom. Two degrees freedom cases arise when the foundation of the system is yielding thus adding
another degree of freedom or a spring'mass system is attached to the main system to reduce its vibrations.
In systems when there are a number of masses con~ected with each other, even if each mass is con-
strained to have one degree of freedom, the system as a whole h~s as many degrees of freedom as there
are masses. Such an idealization is done for carrying out
ô dyn,!mic analysis of multistoreyed
ø buildings.
'--'i.
, ,
(a) Four storeyed (b) Idealisation (c) First mode (d) Second mode (e) Third mode (t) Fourth mode
frame
Fig. 2.22 : A four storeyed frame with mode shapes
Figure 2.22 a shows the frame work of a four storeyed. building. It is usual to lump the masses at the
floor levels and the lumped mass has a value corresponding to weight of the floor, part of the supporting
system (columns) above and below the floor and effective live load. The restoring forces are provided by
the supporting systems. Figure 2.22b shows such an idealization and it gives a four degrees of freedom
system. In free vibration a system having four degrees of freedom has four natural frequencies and the
vibration of the any point in the system, in general, is a combination of four harmonics of these four
natural frequencies respectively. Under certain conditions, any point in the system may execute har-
monic vibrations at any of the four natural frequencies, and these are known as the principal modes of
vibration. Figure 2.22<.to 2.221'show the four modes of vibration. If all the masses vibrate in phase (Fig.
2.22c), the mode is termed the first or lowest or fundamental mode of vibration and the frequency asso-
ciated with this mode would be the lowest in magnitude compared to other modes. If all adjacent masses
vibrate out of phase with each other (Fig. 2.22£), the mode is termed the highest mode of vibration and
the frequency associated with this mode would be highest in magnitude compared to other modes.
2.7.1. Two Degrees of Freedom Systems.
2.7.1.1. Undampedfree vibration: Figure 2.23 shows a mass-spring system with two degrees of free-
dom. Let Z\ be the displaceuent of mass ml and Z2 the displacement of mass m2' The equations of motion
of the system can be written:
In t Z\ + Kt ZI + K2 (Z\ - Z2) =0 ...(2.92)
1nl Z2 + K3 Zl + K2 (Z2 - Z,) = 0 ...(2.93 )

The solution of Eqs. (2.92) and (2.93) will be of the following form:
ZI=A\sinro,,( .
...(2.94 )
Z2 = A2 sin ro" t ...(2.9S)

Substitution of Eqs. (2.94) and (2.95), into Eqs. (2.92) and (2.93), yields:
(KI + K2 - ml C1)~)
Al - K2A2 =0 ...(2.96)
- K2 Al + (~ + KJ - m2 C1);)A2 = 0 ...(2.97)
I . ~!'\Wm
~heory of Vibrations ìï
×¦ô
Æï
ÕîøÆÆóÆ´÷
Jz~-
Z2
Fig. 2.23 : Free vibration of a two degrees freedom system
For nontrivial solutions of oon in Eqs. (2.96) and (2.97),

2
Kt + K2 -mt ron -K2
21 =0 .- f2 9;!)
- K2 K2 + K3 - ~ ron
or 00: _ Kt + K2 + K2 + K3 O)~+ K) K2 + K2 K3 + K3 K) - = 0 ...(2.99)

[ m) ~ ] ml~
Equation (2.99) is quadratic in ro2,
n and the roots of this equation are:
1/2
KI +K2 K2 +K3 2 + 4 K~
ro~= .!. K) +K2:t- K2 ~K3 +
2 m) "'2 ) {( m) ~ ) mj ~
[( } ]
...(2.100)
From Eq. (2.100), two valuesofnatura!~!!e9~~ncies oon)and oon2can be obtained. con)is correspond-
ing to the fIrst mode and COn2is of the second mode.
.,
- 11iiii
..,
42 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundatiofls
The general equation of motion of the two masses can now be written as
Z I = A (I)
I sin (0nl t + A (2)
I sin (0n2 t ...(2.101)
and Z 2 = A(I)
2 sin (0n I t + A(2)
2 sin (0n2 t ...(2.102)
The superscripts in A represent the mode.
The relative values of amplitudes AI and A2 for the two modes can be obtained using Eqs. (2.96) and
(2.97). Thus
(0 2
Al - K2 - K2 +KJ -"'2 ffinJ
...(2.103j
(i)- 2- K
A2 KI+K2-mlffinl 2
(2)' 2
AI - K2 - K2 + KJ - "'2 ffin2
...(2.10{
(2) - 2 - K
A2 KJ + K2 - m) ffin2 2
2.7.1.2. Undamped forced vibrations. Consider the system shown in Fig. 2.24 with excitation force Ft
sin (0 t acting on mass ml. In this case, equations of motion will be:
ml Zt + Kt Zt + K2 (Zl - Z2) = Fo sin (0 t (2.105)
1n2 Z2 + KJ Z2 + K2 (Z2 - Z\) = 0 ...(2.106
F0 sin G.)tl
21
22
Fig. 2.24 : Forced vibration of a two degrees freedom system
.. ',",y
leory of Vibrations 43
For steady state, the solutions will be as

21 = Al sin 00t ...(2.107)
2z = Az sin 00t ...(2.108)
Substituting Eqs. (2.107) and (2.108) in Eqs. (2.105) and (2.106), we get
Z
(KI + Kz - ml 00) AI - Kz Az = Fo ...(2.109)
z
- Kz AI + (Kz + K3 - mz 00) Az = 0 ...(2.110)
Solving for AI and Az from the above two equations, we get
z
AI = (Kz +K3 -rnz co ) Fo
...(2.111 a)
4 KI+Kz Kz+K3 z KIKz+KzK3+K3KI
ml rnz co - + co +
[ ( ml rnz ) mlrnz ]
and Az = K3Fo -
...(2.11Ib)
4 KI+Kz Kz+K3 Z' KIKz+KzK3+K3KI
mlrnz co - + co +
[ ( ml rnz ) m\rnz Ã
The above t\VOequations give steady state amplitude of vibration of the ~wo masses respectively, as
a function of 00. The denominator of the two equations is same. It may be noted that:
(i) The expression inside the bracket of the denominator of Eqs. (2.1110) and (2.111b) IS of the
same type as the expression of natural frequency given by Eq. (2,99). Therefore at 00 = oolll and
Cl) = Cl)nZ values of A laud Az will be infinite as the denominator will become zero.
(ii) The numerator of the expression for Al becomes zero when
Cl) = /K2 rnz

+KJ) ...(2.112)
Thus it makes the mass ml motionless at this frequency. No such stationary condition exists for
0 mass ml' The fact that the mass which is being excited can have zero amplitude of vibration under
certain conditions by coupling it to another spring -mass system forms the principle of dynamic vibration
absorbers which will be discussed in Art. 2.8. '
2.7.2. System With n Degrees of Freedom.
2.7.2.1. Undamped free vibrations: Consider a system shown in Fig. 2.25 having n-degree of freedom.
If Z \' 2z, Z3 ... 2n are the displacements of the respective masses at any instant, then equations of motion
are:
rn, 2( + K( Z\ + Kz (ZI - Zz) =0 ...(2.113)
mz 2z - Kz(Z( - 2z) + K3 (2z - 23) = 0 ...(2.114)
m3 23 - K3 (2z - 23) + K4 (23 - 24) ;: 0 ...(2.115)

'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......... .. ... .... ...........
mn 2n - Kn (2n - I -'- 2n) =0 ...(2.116)
".,'~'.,-..~,,-
",'" "' . ,c-"" '; '; . "', ..; . :--';co,,---, - ... n
181:.J
44
Z1
Z2
Z3
Kn -1
Zn-1
Zn
Fig. 2.25: Undamped free vibrations of a multi-degree freedom system

"'.'~..2,,~,.."t;,~.>, :"""',;,n rA';".!n~";'F."'" "'.,.,
- ~
The solution of Eqs. (2.113) to (2.116) will be of the follow:"'~ IO':n:

ZI = Al sin cont ...(2.117)
Z2 = A2 sin cont ...(2.118)
Z) = AJ sin cont ...(2.119)
....... .. .....
......... .....
Zn = An sin cont ...(2.120)

Substitution of Eqs. (2.117) to (2.120) into Eqs. (2.113) to (2.116), yields:
[(KI+K2)-mIID~] AI-K2~ =0 ...(2.121)
-K2A1 + [(K2+K))-~ID~] A2-KJAJ =0 ...(2.122)
- KJ Az + [(KJ + K4) - mJ ID~] A) - K4 A4 = 0 ...(2.123)
,. .,... .... ..... .... .. ............

........ ........... .. .............
- Kn An - I + (Kn -mnID~) An = 0 ...(2.124)
For nontrivial solutions of oonin Eqs. (2.121) to (2.124),
-Kz 0 0
[ (KI + Kz) - ml ID;]
-K2 0 0
[(Kz+KJ)-~ID;] '"
0 0 0 =0 (2.125) .
-K)
2
0 0 '" -Kn (Kn-mnIDn)
Equations (2.125) is of nthdegree in CI);and therefore gives n values of con correspondingto n natural
frequencies. The mode shapes can be obtained from Eq. (2.121) to (2.124) by using, at one time, one of
the various values of conas obt1incd from Eq. (2.125).
When the numht.'Tvi degreeS of freedom exceeds three, the problem of forming the frequency equa-
tion and s01";~jgit for determ41ation of frequencies and mode sh<1pesbecomes tedius. Numerical tech-
. J'iG.~esare invariably
. resorted to in such cases.
,
Holzer's numerical technique is a convenient method of solving the problem for the system idealized
as sho~ in Fig. 2.26. By sUI11II1iPgJfotcesat free end, .
'-, . --.
'O".::.,:-=C°'-:"~",_,- ;: "
~-::--===.::.~
-~:---==E'~--,'::.._~
If
46
..
m1 m1 Z1
.J
K1
I
ml m2 Zz
K2
m3 Z3
.
m.1-
1
K.
1-1 ~_1
m. . Kj-1(Zj-Zi-1)
I
K.J
m
i+1
Fig. 2.26 : An idealised multi-degree freedom system

Inertia force at a level below mass mi - I
= ".;-1 m. Z.
..
L...J=I } } ...(2.126)
Spring force at that level corresponding to the difference of adjoining masses
= K.1- I ( Z.1 - z.1-
1) ...(2.127)
Equating Eqs. (2.126) and (2.127) .
i-I ..
Lj=lmjZi = Ki-I (Zi- Zi-I) ...(2.128)
Putting Zi = Ai sin (()t in Eq. (2.128), we get
(
I'i~'t mi - Ai U)~ sin U)n t) = Ki - I (Ai sin (Unt - Ai - I sin (Unt)
'2
or U)n "i-I A
.' Ai = Ai-I - Ki-I £...j=lmj j ...(2.129)
Equation (2.129) gives a relationship b~tween any two succ~sive amplitudes. Starting with any
arbitraryvalueof AI' amplitudeof all othermassescanbe deterinined.A plot of An + 1 versus (0~ would
have the shape as shown in Fig. 2.27. Finally An + I should worked out to zero' ~ue to fIXityat the base.
The intersection of the curve with (0~ axis would give
.. various val~~s.pfQ);.~ode
.. -. $ape.can
. be obtained
by substituting the correct value of (O~in Eq. (2.129).
iI
1.0
'
~
..- (..)2
n.
J + 0
J c:
~«
~ t
1:
2 2
-1.0 wn1 ""nz
---
Fig.-~7: Residual a~a flinction of frequency in Holzer method
2.7.2.2. Forced vibration. Let an undamped n degree of freedom system be subjected to forced vibration,
and Fj (t) represents the for~e on mass mr The equation of motion for the mass mj will be
n
m. Z. + I K.. Z. = F. ( t) ...(2.130)
I I =1 IJ ) ,
where i = 1,2,3, ,n
The amplitude of vibration of a mass is the algebraic sum of the amplitudes of vibration in various
modes. The individual modal response would be some fraction of the total response with the sum of
fractions being equal to unity. If the factors by which the modes of vibration are multiplied are repre-
sented by the coordinates d, then for mass mj'
Z.'" -- A.(1) d 1 + A.(2) d2 + ... + A.1(r) dr +... + A.(n)
,n d ...(2.131 )
Equation (2.131) can be written as

n
Z. = I A~r) d ...(2.132)
-' r=l ' r
Substituting Eq. (2.132) in Eq. (2.130)
n (r) .. n n (r)-
Im. I A.,r d + I I K..'I A.1 d r - F., ( t) ...(2.133)
r=1 r=1 j=l . .
Under free vibrations, it can be shown

n (r) - 2 (r)
~ Kij A j
1=1
- oonr mj Aj
...(2.134)
Substituting Eq. (2.134) in Eq. (2.133), we get

n
ImjAj
r=1
(r) .. n 2 (r)
dr + I oonrmjAj dr
r=l
-- Fj(t) ..(2.135)
n (r)'. 2 -
or ImjAj (dr+oonr.dr) -Fj(t) ...(2.136)
r=l
l' -.-'T .~ ""}'- -")J'!!I~'

~,
Since the left hand side is a summation involving different modes of vibration, the right hand side
should also be expressed as a summation of equivalent force contribution in corresponding modes.
Let F; (t) be expanded as:
-
Fj (t) i
= r=1mj A~r) fr (t) ...(2.137 a) "J
where fr (t) is the modal force and given by

n
Ili (t) .A~r)
fr(t) = i~1 Z
(2.137 b)
Lm[(A~r»)]
;=1
Substituting Eq. (2.137 a) in Eq. (2.136), we get

.. z (2.138)
dr + O}nrd,. =fr (t)
Equation (2.138) is a single degree freedom equation and its solution can be written as
1 I
dr =- J fr Ct) sinO}nr(t -1:) dt where 0 < 1:< I ..(2.139)
0}nr 0
It is observed that the co-ordinate d, uncouples the n degree of freedom system into n systems of
single degree of freedom. The d's are termed as normal co-ordinates and this approach is known as
normal mode theory. Therefore the total solution is expressed as a sum of contribution of individual
modes.
2.8 UNDAMPED DYNAMIC VIBRATION ABSORBER

A system on which a steady oscillatory force is acting may vibrate excessively, especially when close to
resonance. Such excessive vibrations can be eliminated by coupling a properly designed spring mass
sytem to the main system. This forms the principle of undamped dynamic vibration absorber where the
excitation is finally transmitted to the auxiliary system, bringing the main system to rest.
Let the combination of K and M be the schematic representation of the main system under consid-
eration with the force F0 sin CJ}t
acting on it. A spring - mass (auxiliary) absorber system is attached to the
main system as shown in Fig. 2.28. The equations of motion of the complete system can be written as:
MZ1 + KZI + Ko (ZI-ZZ) = Fa sin rot ...(2.140)
moZZ+Ka(ZI-ZZ) =0 ...(2.141)
The forced vibration solution will be of the form
ZI = Al sin rot ...(2.142)
~ = Az sin rot ...(2.143)
Substitution of Eqs. (2.142) and (2.143) in Eqs. (2.140) and (2.141) yields
Al (-M0}2 õ Õ õ Ka)-KaAZ = Fa ...(2.144)
-KnAI + Az (-mnO}Z+ Kn) =0 (2.145)
óóþ þ þþóþùòóþóò
ó
Theory of Vibrations
.49
Z2
ma
Absor ber
syst <zm
Ka
Z1
M
Main
syst<zm
Fig. 2.28 : Vibration absorber

Subtituting:
F
ZSl = -2...
K = Staticdeflectionof main system
2
ro = -Ka = Natural freqeuncy of the absorber
na ma
K .
ro~ = M = Natural frequency of mam system
m
Ilm = -.Jl..
M = Mass ratio = Absorber massIMain mass
The Eqs. (2.144) and (2.145) can be written as
AI K{/
+--- <i -A 2 -K{/ =Z ...(2.146)
(1 K <.02
n) K SI
and A2 = ...(2.147)
1:~:
( äò±²¿ )
Solving Eqs. (2.146) and (2.147) for At and A2' we get
Cil
1-- 2
'
-ro ' ...(2.148)

~t. = ro'2
L
ro2
;
' no
Si K -
K
, <, n' " "--, ~-- -~ ,J I ".
, " .,".. ld"2. 1+ K" 2 K'
- ( rona )( ron )
. i , "..",.-, "-~t'u'",.'."',,
50 SoU Dynamics & Machine Foundlltions
...(2.149)
K
~~ ~ (1- OO~a i - oo~ ) -~
ro')(1+ ~..~'
lithe natural frequency oonaof the absorber is chosen equal to 00 i.e. frequency of the excitatipn force,
it is evident from Eq. (2.148) that Al = 0 indicating that the main mass does not vibrate at all. Further
Eq. (2.149) gives
Az - -K
Zst - Ka
or Az Ka = - K Zst ...(2.150)
Thus the absorber system vibrate in such a way that its spring force at all instmts is equal and
opposite to F0 sin 00 t. Hence, there is no net force acting on main mass M and the same therefore does
not vibrate.
The addition of a vibration absorber to a main system is not much meaningful unless the main
system is operating at resonance or at least near it. Under these conditions, 00= oon'But for the absorber
to be effective, 00should be equal to 00na .
Therefore, for the effectiveness of the absorber at the operating frequency corresponding to the natu-
ral frequency of the main system alone, we have
or oona = ,oon ...(2.151 a)
Ko =K ...(2.151 b)
ma M
K m
or -!L=-!!..=Ii ...(2.151 e)
K M t"'m
When the condition enumerated in Eqs. (2.151) is fulfilled, the absorber is known as a tuned
absorber. .
For a tuned absorber, Eqs. (2.148) and (2.149) become:
1- -002
( J
...(2.152)
1- --y- 1+ Jlm- --y- - Jlm

~,: ~ ( 00')
OOna ( OOnaJ
OO~a00'
..(2.153)
1- --y- 1+ Jlm- --y- - Jlm
~: = ( 00') (
OO"a I OOna)
00'
The denominators of Eqs. (2.152) and (2.153) are identical. At a value of 00when these denomina-
tors are zero the two masses have infinite amplitudes of vibration. Let when-00= oonl'the denominators
becomes zero. For this condition the expression for the denominators can be written as
- .. .~ ..., ~- .-.--
~.-
OOnt OOnt
4-<2+llm) 2 +1 =0 ...{2.154)
( OOna) ( <Ona )
The Eq. (2.154) is quadratic in <0;1'and therefore there are two values of oonlfor which the denomi-
nators ofEqs. (2.152) and (2.153) become zero. These two frequencies are the natural frequencies of the
3ystem. Solution of Eq. (2.154) gives:
(:J 1.6
~ (1+~2m)~J~m+~4~
...(2.155)
_1.4
1.2
_
c c
°
33 1
1.0
0.8
0.6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Mass ratio }.Im
Fig. 2.29: Natural frequency ratio versus mass ratio
The relationships of Eq. (2.155) is plotted in Fig. 2.29. From this plot, it is evident that greater the
mass ratio, greater is the spread between the two resonant frequencies. The frequency response curve for
the mainsystemis shownin Fig.2.30 fora valueof ~'" = 0.2. The dotted curves shown actually mean that
the amplitude is negative or its phase difference with respect to the exciting force is 1800. It can be
noticed from this figure that by attaching a vibration absorber {oona= (On)to the main system vibrating
at resonance reduces its vibration to zero. Now if the exciting frequency is absolutely constant, the
system will work efficiently. Any change in the exciting frequency will shift the operating point from the
optimum point and the main system response will no longer be zero. It may be noted that by adding the
vibration absorber, we have introduced two resonant points instead of one in the original system. Now
I --:::w;-' -Hr.
!IIZ~
if the variation of the exciting frequency is such that the operating point shifts near one of the new
resonant points, then amplitudes will be excessive. Thus depending upon the variation of the exciting
frequencies the spread between the two resonant frequencies has to be decided to remain reasonably away
from the resonant points. After deciding the spread between the resonant frequencies, a proper value of
!J.mcan be chosen from the curve of Fig. 2.29. Undamped dynamic vibration absorbers are not suitable for
varying forcing frequency excitation. To make the vibration absorber effective over an extended range of
frequencies of the disturbing force, it is advantageous to introduce a damping device in the absorber
system. Such an absorber system is called a damped dynamic vibration absorber.
8
...
<I~ 4,
}Jm=0.20
z
\
1.0
0
'---
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
G.)n l
øòË²¿
Fig. 2.30 : Response versus frequency of a vibration absorber
The Eq. (2.154) can also be written as
~m J~)-lr (J) nl
2
...(2.156)
( (J) //(/ )
t ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLEs!
Example 2.1
The motion of a particle is representedby the equationz = 20 sin rot. Show the relative positions and
magnitudes of the displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors at time t = 0, and ro = 2.0 rad/s and
0.5 rad/s.
Solution:
Z = 20 sin rot
Z = 20 l
= 20 ro sin rot + ~ )
-Z =- 20ro rocos2 sinrot rot 2
= 20 ro sin (w t + 1t)
The magnitudes of displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors are 10, 10 ro and 10 ro2 respec-
tively. The phase difference is such that the velocity vector leads the displacement vector by 1t/2 and the
acceleration vector leads the velocity vector by another 1t/2. Figures 2.31 a and 2.31 b show the three
vectors for ro = 2.0 and O.?Orad/s respectively. I 20 (V el.)
40 (Accln.)
10(oispl.)
(a) G..)= 2.0 rod/sec
s(Vel.)
. ~/z ".
2.S(Acc!n.) 10(OlspL)
( b) CV= 0.5 rod I se c

Fig. 2.31 : Vector diagram (Example 2.1)
21t 21t
Time period = -ill = -2 = 1t s for ro = 2.0 rad/s
21t 21t
Time perIod = -ill = -(0.5) = 41ts for ro = 0.5 rad/s
Example 2.2
A body performs,simultaneously,the motions
Zl (mm) = 20 sin 8.0 t
Z2 (mm) = 21 sin 8.5 t
Determine the maximwn an~ minimum )~1itude of the combuled motion, and the time period of the
periodic motion.
,.-,'!.,!,,~,~~
~~tm~f~dJ "T'f:ifrir" """"-";"~'.'.<f:;-:F;;':.;;,:Jijj~ . '111""
54 Soil Dynamics & Machine 'Foundations
Solution:
Z max = 21 + 20 = 41 mm
Z mm
. = 21 - 20 = 1 mm
The beat frequency is given by

8.5-8.0 0.5
1= 21t = 21t = 0.0795 Hz, and
T = 2.. - 21t
I - 0.5 = 41t = 12.57 s
Example 2.3
A mass of 20 kg when suspended from a spring, causes a static deflection of 20 mm. Find the natural
frequency of the system.
Solution:
Stiffness of the spring, K = W

~\t
20 x 9.81 ::::104 N/m

K = 20xl0-J
1[K
Natural frequency,In = 21t V;
~ 1 ~1O420
21t = 3.6 Hz.
K1
Example 2.4
For the system shown in Fig. 2.32, determine the natural
frequency of the system if
Kt = 1000 N/m KZ
Kz = 500 N/m
KJ = 2000 N/m
K4 = Ks = 750 N/m K3
Mass of the body = 5 kg
Solution:
Let Ket and Ke2represent respectively the effective stiffnesses

of the top three springs and the lower two springs, then
K4, KS
-1 =
1
-+-+-
1 1
Kel Kt Kz KJ
=~+~+~- .
1000 500 2000 -0.0035 ". 'Fig. 2.32:"MuHpriags system
~
.....- -~_'".,-~._........._-_....-
.- ..... ... -
Theory of Vibratimrs 55
Kel = 285.7 N/m

Ke2 = K4 + Ks = 750 + 750 = 1500 N/m
Now Kel and Ke2are two springs in parallel, therefore effective stiffness,
Ke = Kel + Ke2:;:: 285.7 + 1500 = 1785.7 N/m
f. n ~ 21tV;;
~. /K = ~~1785.7
21t 5.0 = 3.0Hz
Example 2.5
A vibrating system consists of a mass of 5 kg, a spring stiffness of 5 N/mm and a dashpot with a damping
coefficient of 0.1 N-s/m. Determine (i) damping ratio and (ii) logarithmic decrement.
Solution:
(i) Cc = 2 ~km = 2J5x 10-3 x 5 = 0.319 N-s/m
J: C 0.1
~=C=0.319=0.313
c
,,
(in 27t~ - 27t.x0.313 = 2.07
Lograthimic decrement = ~ 1- ~2 - ~ 1- 0.3132
Z
log ::,..l = 2.07
eZ 2
i.e. = 7.92 ~
Z2
Therefore the free amplitude in the next cycle decreases by 7.92 times.
Example 2.6
A mass attached to a spring of stiffness of 5 N/mm has a viscous damping device. When the mass was
displaced and released, the period of vibration was found to be 2.0 s, and the ratio 01 the consecutive
amplitudes was 10/3. Determine the amplitude and phase angle when a force F = 3 sin 4 t acts on the
system. The unit of the force is Newton. .
Solution:
. 27t~ ZI 10 .
(i)
1- ~2 = loge Z2 = loge 3 = 1.2
or, ~ = 0.195
(ii) TII = 2.0 S
21t 21t
(lJ n = T = '2 = 3.14 radls
(lJ = 4.0 rad/s
T1 ='~'= 4.0 = 1.273
. IDn 3.14
.' i.:' F 3.0
..
.
,
'.' .,',
Fo =.;..",fi..,;'!
3.0N;AsI= -9..= -5.0 = 0.6mm.
"."K. t:<,'..'""
'.
----. , -=., -,.;".,'~ -""'~-.~ ~~,,~,..-'>,:;<..."".

","..;g""~,,;,;~,,,,:.u ,.~~
56 Soil Dynamics & Machine' Foundations
From Eq. (2.58),

A
Az =; ~ (1-11)2 t+(2~11) . 2;. Asl = Static Deflection

" . . , '
= '. 0.6 , ~Q.755llll11
~(1-1.2732)2 +(2 x.0.195 x 1.273)2

-I 211~ -1' 2 x 1.273 x 0.195
e = T an ( --r
1-11 )
= Tan ( 1-1.273
2
) = 141.4°
Example 2.7
Show that, in frequency - dependent excitation the damping factor ~ is given by the followingexpres-
S1On:
): -.: ..!. 12 ~ 11
~ - 2 ( 2/n J
Where 11 and 12 frequencies at which the amplitUdeis 1/.J2 times the peak amplitude.
Solution:
In a forced vibration test, the system is excited with constant force of excitation and varying frequencies.
A response curve as shown in Fig. 2.33 is obtained.
0.09
Amox = 0.084
0.08
E
E" 0.07
C:I
"'0
-::J
c.
E 0.06
et
0.05 I
I
I I I
I I
I I
I
I I
0.04 f1 I fn Ifl
10 14 18 22 24
F r (Zq u (Zn c y .,0f (Zxci to t ion, Hz
. . n, ,
Fig. 2.33: Determination of viscous damping in forced vibrations by Bandwidth method
-.------
"
57
Th~o,.,ofv~,!s
At resonance, 11 = 1 ana A~I Zst = 1/2 ~ (for small values of ~). If the frequency ratio is T\when
amplitude of motion is 1/..[i times the peak amplitude, then fr~m Eq. 2.59, we get
I 1 1
.J2' 2~ = 4(1 :"112)2+4~2 ~2
or 114-2112(1 -2~2) + (1- 8~J) = 0
or 11~,2= ~[2(1-2~2):t~4(1-2~2)2_4(1-8~2)]
;, (1 - 2~2):f:2~~1 + ~2
Now 11~-11i = 4~~1-~2 = 4~ [for small values of~]
Also 1- 2 = Il- 112 = 12- 11 12+ I.

112 111 In2 ( In )( In )
= 2 I 2 - J;. since
12 + f . = 2
( In ) In
Iz - 11
Therefore ~=!
2 ( In )
This methodfor determiningviscous damping is knownas the band width method.
Example 2.8 .
A machine of mass 100 kg is supported on springs of total stiffness of 784 N/mm. The machine produces
an unbalanced disturbing force of 392 N at a speed 50 c/s. Assuming a damping factor of 0.20, determine
(i) the amplitude of motion due to unbalance,
(ii) the transmissibility, and
(iii) the transmitted force.
'Solution:
, 184 x 103
( i) (J)II = ~KI m = ..'/ " ==87.7 rad/s
, V 100
, 00= 21t x 50 = 314 rad/s
00 - ,314 = 3.58
,'n =;., UJln; ~ 87.7" ',
, Fi) '- 392 '= 0.5 'innl

" ~st ~ ~ - ,;784 , -
, ;. : :'?it .
, '
= ,0.5
Now '. - 2
.Az ==4(~.~2l'+(2T\~) '~(1-'3582)2 +(2 x 3.58 x 0.2)2 = 0.042 mm
" " .' , .

~'\, ",', ',','. ':;' cc:
..- --- - - .~ "'-; ~~~,~"F.
58 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foulldations
~1+(211~)2
(ii) Transmissibility JlT = ~(1-n2)2 +(211~)2
- ~1+(2X3.58XO.2)2
- ~(1-3.582)2 +(2 x 3.58 x 0.2)2
==0.1467
(hi) Force transmitted = 392 x 0.1467 = 57.5 N.
Example 2.9
The rotor of a motor having mass 2 kg was running at a constant speed of 30 c/s with an eccentricity of
160 mm. The motor was mounted on an isolatorwith damping factor of 0.25. Determine the stiffness of
the isolator spring such that 15% of the unbalanced force is transmitted to the foundation. Also ~etermine
the magnitude of the transmitted force. '.
Solution:
(i) Maximum force generated by the motOi

= 2 me eo:? = 7. x 2.0 x 0.16 x (21t x 30/ = 22716 N
= 22.72 kN
Force transmitted
:ii) Jl =
T unbalancedforce = 0.15
. ~1 +4112~2 .
I.e. ~ (1- 112)2+ (211~)2 . = 0.15

or 1 + 4112 x (0.25)2 = (0.15)2 [(1 -r 112)2+ (211 x 0.25)2]
or 114 - 12.84112 - 43.44 = 0
(0
It gives 11= 3.95 i.e. ;- " = 3.95
(0 601t
Therefore
(0" = .JK/ m = 3.95 = 3.95 = 47.7 rad/s
K = m (47.7)2 =:=2.0 x (47.7)2 = 4639 N/m
(iii) Force transmitted to the foundation
= 0.15 x 22.72 = 3.4 kN.
Example 2.10
A seismic instrument with a natural frequency of 6Hz is used tomeasure the vibration of a machine
running at 12.9rpm. The in~trumentgives the reading for th~r~lative displacement of the seismic mass
as 0.05 mm. Determine the amplitudes of displacement: velo'city and acceleration of the vibrating ma-
chine. Neglect damping.
~;,:,~ .;,~
59
'/reory 01 v.ibrations
';olution :
(i) CJJ
n = 6 Hz = 37.7 rad/s
120 x 21t
(J) = 120 rpm = 60 =' 12.57 rad/s
'1 = 12.57
37.7 = 0.333
1
~ =- for ~= 0
1- ,,2 ,
1
= = 1.125
1- (0.333)2
(ii) For displacement pickup, Eq. (2.88) gives
2
X=,,~yo
0.05 = (0.333)2 x 1.125 x Yo
or
or Yo = 0.40 mm
(iii) For velocity pickup, Eqo (2.91) gives'
1
X = -00 11~ (Y 0 00)
n
0.333 x 1.125x (Yo 00)

0.05 = (37.7)
or o. 0 (Y 000) = velocity = 5.03 ,mm/s

(iv) For acceleration pickup, Eq. (2.89) gives
X ='4 (YOOO2)
, OOn ' ,
or 0.05 = 1.125 (Y 002)

(37.7)2 0
I.e, (Y() 002) = Acceleration = (37.7)2 x 0.05

1.125 = 63.17 mm/S2
Example 2.11
Determine the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the system represented by a mathematical mod~1
shown in Fig. 2.34 a.
,/
. , co:" '1,,';
,- ~:::."'O'~,""""", ,~>=j"~
, i
J
60 Soil Dynamics & Machi'Je FOUlrilatiolls

j
+1
+ 1
(a) Two degrees freedom system (b) First mode (c) Second mode
Fig. 2.34 : Two degrees freedom system with mode shapes

Solution:
(i) The system shown in Fig. 2.34a is a two degree freedom system. The solution of such a system
has already been described in Art. 2.7. '
(ii) The two natural frequencies of the system can be obtained using Eq. (2.100) by putting KI = K,
Kz = 2 K and KJ = K, and m I = m2 = m. By doing this, we get
\l2
(02 = .!. 3K + 3K _ 4 ~ (2 K)2 =K

III 2 m m) { ,m2 } m
[( )
(02 = .!.r-6K + 4K = 5.K

112 2 l m, m ] , m,
Hence, COni= .JK/ m and CiJ~2?:, [sK/.m , " .,' '
(iii) The relative values of amplitudes Al and ~ 'for the two modes can be obtainedusing Eqs.
(2.103) and (2.104). . . '
,}~~r .
. ~." -;, ,:;. ..
,,"
' '-'--'
eory of Vtbtalions_/ 6i
A (1) K . 2K
-1-= 2 = =+1
A(l)
2 K1+ K2 -m 1 o:lnl K+2K-m x K/m
A~2) 2K
2 = K + 2 K - m x 5K / m
A (2) =- 1
. The mode shapes are shown in Fig. 2.34 band 2.34 c.
B:xample2.12
Determine the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the system represented by the mathematical moqel
shown in Fie. 2.35 a.
0.761
1.0
(a) Three degree freedom system (b) First mode (c) Second mode (d) Third mode
Fig. 2.35 : Three degrees freedom system with mod-e shapes
Solution:
(i) Equations of motion for the three masses can be written as

m 21 + K 21 + 2 K (21 - 22) =0 ...(2.157 a)
m 7..2 + 2 K (22 - 21) + K (22 - Z3) = 0 .~:(2.157 b)
m 23'+ K (23 - 22) = 0 ...(2.157 c)
For steady state, the solutionswit be as
2t = At sin ront ...(2.158 a)
~ =~ sin ron t ...(2.158 b)
.-"
23 = A3 sin ront . ...(2.1"58 c)
-'- "-;"-. ;-:- .1'
,
~;-.
'-~""~"~-=' ~ :::-."'::::""'c.::-- .:"

_._-
~
.~- ~ --
'W;;i'i~!~:t'jj
'11
,"
62
Soil Dynamics & Machine Follndations
substituting Eqs. (2.158) in Eqs. (2.157), we get

., .
(3 K - 111oo~) Al - 2 K A2 = 0 ...(2.159a),
óîÕßø +(3K-moo~)A2-KA3'=O ...(2.159 b)
- K A2 + (K - 111 co;) A3 =0 ...(2.159 c)

For nontrivial solutions of 00/1in Eqs. (2.159)
.,
3K-11l00 /I -2K 0
-2K -'"'K -moo/l2 -K 2 1=0 ...(2.160)
0 -K K-mcon
.,
" . IIIW-
Pllttll1~ A -= !l Eg . (2.160) become as
~ K
3-A -2 0
-2 3-A
-1 I =0 ...(2.161 a)
0 -1 I-A
or f.3 - 2
7 A + lOA - 2 = 0
...(2.161 b)
Eg. (2.161 b) is cubic in A. The values of A are worked out as
A( = 0.238; A2= 1.637; and A) = 5.129

Therefore,
00/1( = .J0.238Kl m; CO/l2= .J1.637 Kl m; and 00/13
= ~5.129 Kl m
(ii) Egs. (2.159) in terms of A can be written as
(3 - A) Al - 2 A2 = 0 ...(2.162a)
- 2 A I + (3 - A) A2 - A) = 0 ...(2.162 b)
- A2 + (1 - A) A3 =0 ...(2.162 c)
For r mode: A = 0.238
Eg. (2.162 a) gives
" AI
(3 - 0.238) AI - 2 A2 = 0 or A2 = 0.724
Eg. (2,162 h) gives
- 2 x 0.724 A2 -t-(3 - 0.238) Az - AJ =0

,,
.'
or A2 '
A3 = 0.761
-
"
,'.1 "iI; -' ", (..'
:," 'h, , .\
Assuming Al = a, A2 = 1.381 a and A) = 1.815 a

:. Al : A2 : A) = a : 1.381 a : 1.815 a
= 1: 1.381: 1.815
;::;0.551 : 0.761 : 1
Similarly,
For II mode; A. = 1.637
Al : A2 : A) = - 0.933: - 0.635 : 1, and
For III mode: A.= 5.129
Al : A2 : A) = 3.891 : - 4.14 : 1
The mode shapes are plotted in Figs. 2.35 b, 2.35 c and 2.35 d,
Example 2.13
A small reciprocating machine weighs 50 kg and runs at a constant sp~~d of 6000 rpm. After it was
installed, it was found that the forcing frequency is very close to th~}latural frequency of the system.
What dynamic absorber should be added if the nearest natural frequency of the system should be at least
20 percent from the forcing frequency.
Solution:
(i) 21t N 2 Tt x 6000 = 628 rad/s

ill =W "" 60
At the time of installation of machine,
Forcing frequency ==Natural frequency of system
Therefore,
or
~ = 628
K = m x 628 2
= 50 x 6282 = 201 x 105 N/m
(ii) Aner adding the vibration absorber to the system, the natural frequency becomes (1 :i:0.2) 628
i.e. 753.6 rad/s or 502.4 rad/s
For tuned absorber:
ma Ka
M = K = JIM
Now from Eq. (2.156)
J(:,:J-If
JInl- ~
l;;:))
illnl = 0.8
0)//(/
.
2 2
}
- {(0.8) 2-1 = 0.2025
J-lm- 0.8
and when (Onl = 1.2

(Ona
{(1.2)2 -1}2
J-l
m
= 1.2
2 = 0.134
Adopting the higher value of J-lm
Ka = 0.2025 x 201 x 105 = 40.7 x 105 N/m
ma = 0.2025 x 50 = 10.12 kg
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
2.1 A single degree (mass-spring-dashpot) system is subjected to a frequency dependent oscillatory

force (m eo (02sin (0f). Proceeding from fundamentals, derive the expression of the amplitude
of the system.
2.2 'Presence of damping reduces the effectiveness of the isolation system'. Is this statement true?
If yes, explain with neat sketches. .
2.3 Give two methods of determining 'damping factor' of,a single degree freedom system.
2.4 Starting from fundamentals~explain the principles involved in the design of (i) Displacement
pickup, (if) Velocitypickup,and (iif) Accelerationpickup. Illustrateyour answerwithneatsketches.
2.5 Describe the principles involved in a 'tuned dynamic vibration absorber'. Illustrate your answer
with neat sketches. Discuss clearly its limitations.
2.6 A mass of 25 kg when suspended from a spring, causes a static deflection of 25 mm. Find the
natural frequency of the system. Ans. (20 rad/s)
2.7 A spring mas system (K\, m) has a natural frequency of f\. ~fa second spring of stiffness K2 is
attached in series with the first spring, the natural frequency becomes f\/2. Determine K2 in
terms ofK\. Ans. (K/3)
2.8 A mass of 5 kg is attached to the lower end of a spring whose upper end is fixed. The nawral
period of this system is 0.40s. Determine the natural period when a mass of 2.5 kg is attached
to the mid point of this spring with the upper and lower ends fixed. Ans. (0.14 sec)
2.9 Determine the differential equation of motion of the system shown in Fig. 2.36. The moment of
inertia of weight W about the point 0 is Jo' Show that th~ system becomes unstable when:
K.a
b >-
- W
..
.'1
-..-
Theory of Vlbrations 65
K
Wt") T
b
0 -1
c A
a -1
l
~ .~
Fig. 2.36 : Mass-spring system
2.10 A body vibrating in a viscous medium has a period of 0.30 s and an inertial amplitude of30 mm.
Determine the logarithmic decrement if the amplitude after 10 cycles is 0.3 mm. Ans. (0.46)
2.11 A vibration system consists of mass of 6 kg, a spring stiffness of 0.7 N/m and a dashpotwith a
. dampingcoefficientof 2 N-s/m.Determine
., .
(a) Damping ratio
(b) Logarithmic decrement Ans. (0.488, 3.55)
2.12 Write a differential equation of motion for the .system shown in Fig. 2.37 and determine the
. natural frequencyof dampedoscillationsand the criticaldampingcoefficient.
b
w .,
r
a
K
Fig. 2.37 : Mass-spring dashpot system
2.13 A mass is attached to a spring of stiffness 6 N/mm has a viscous damping device. When the mass
was displaced and released, the period (jf vibration was found to be 1.8 s and the ratio of consecu-
tive amplitude was 4.2 to 1. Determine the amplitude and phase angle when a force F = 2 sin3t
N acts on the system. Ans. (0.708mm, 56.4°)
2.14 A sp~ingmass system is excited by a force Fa sin (J)t. At resonance the amplitudewas measured
. td be.100 mill..At 80%resonantfrequencythe amplitudewas measured80 mm.Determinethe
. d~mpingfactorof the system. Ans (0.1874)
2~r5:AssUnlfngsm~ll ~plitudes, set up differential equation of motion for double pendulum using
the coordinates shown in Fig. 2.38. Show that the natural frequencies of the system as given by
the equation. .
co' I = ~, g.(2 :1:/2)'

\11,.2 vi ;.:':!Z~,"'~.'T"""7~.. ,.
Determine. the ratio of the amplitudes xI/x2'

.. I. .I e. ,
~~...~..,.:",,!..,:.;..~
t .."'. ..~ r
':.."h. ,- "- - ! ..J
.. '1'1' '\""I\~ .,t;\.~;...t-

, )J .J ~ ~"V :; ~,. :.>'1;'"
; 1./uJ j
.:. ,:.:;. ..-'. ",. ;"
...
:i:
66 Soil Dynamics & Machine "Foundations
Fig.2.38: Doublependulumsystem
2.16 A motor weighs 220 kg and has rotating unbalance of 3000 N-mm. The motor ~s running at
constant sped of 2000 rpm. For vibration isolation, springs with damping factor of 0.25 is used.
Specify the springs for mounting such that only 20 percent of the unbalanced force is transmitted
to the foundation. -Also determine the magnitude of the transmitted force. .
Ans. (Ka = 931.22 kN/m, 26.3 kN)

2.17 A small reciprocating machine weighs 60 kg and runs at a constant speed of 5000 rpm. After it
was installed, it was found that the forcing frequency is very close to the natural frequency of the
system, What dynamic vibration absorber should be added if the nearest natural frequency of the
system should be at least 25 percent from the forcing frequency?
6
Ans. (15.3 kg, 4.2 x 10 N/m)
2.18 A mass of 1 kg is to be supported on a spring having a stiffness of 980 N/m. The damping
coefficient is 6.26 N-s/m. Detelmine the natural frequency of the system. Find also the logarith-
mic decrement and the amplitude after three cycles 'if the initial displacement is 0.3mm.
Ans. (31.14 rad/s, 0.628, 0.0456 mm)
2.19 A machine having a mass of 100 kg and supported on springs of total stiffness 7.84 x 105 N/m
has an unbalanced rotating element which results in a disturbing force of 392 N at a speed of
3000 rpm. Assuming a damping factor of 0.20 determine
(a) the amplitude of motion due to the unbalance,
(b) the transmissibility, and
(c) the transmitted force. Ans. (0.043 mm, 0.148, 58.2 N)
2.20 The static deflection of the vibrometer mass is 20 mm. The instrument .when attached to a ma-
chine vibrating with a frequency of 125 cpm records a relative amplitude of 0.03 mm. Find out
for the machine,
(a) the amplitude of vibration,
(b) the maximum velocity of vibration, and ,
(c) the maximum acceleration of vibration. Ans. (0.0576 mm, 0.754 mmlsec, 9.86 mmlsec2),
DD
. "
,::~,"'.,':"'.":"'V ",.. ,,;,,)' ~"<i:;','<' ",}~",,"'~., --- --- ..-
':~,{""J""'""",,,
--
,.,'", .." . ..
WAVE PROP AGA TION IN AN ELASTIC, HOMO-

GENEOUS AND ISOTROPIC MEDIUM
3.1 GENERAL
A sudden load applied to ~ body does not disturb the entire body at the instant of loading. The parts
closest to the source 'of disturbances are affected first, and the deformatio~s produced by the disturbance
subsequently spread through out the body in the form of stress waves. 'The propagation speed of seismic
waves through the earth depends on the elastic properties and density of materials. The phenomenon of
wave propagation in an elastic medium is of great importance in the study of foundations subjected to
dynamic loads.
In this chapter wave propagation in (i) an elastic bar, (ii) an elastic infinite medium and (iii) an
elastic half space have been discussed.
3.2 STRESS, STRAIN AND ELASTIC CONSTANTS
3.2.1 Stress. The external forces acting on a body constitute what is called the "load", No material is
perfectly rigid, therefore the application of a load on a body causes deforn1ation. In all cases internal
forces are called into play in the material to resist the load and are referred to as "stresses". The intensity
of the stress is estimated as the force acting on unit area of cross-section, and is expressed in such units
as N/mm2, KN/m2. etc. At right angles to the direction of the stress, the body dilates or contracts,
depending on whether the stress is compressional or tensile. The stresses preserve the shape of the body
but change the volume. Shear stress is said to exist on a section of body if on opposite faces of the section
equal and opposite forces exist.
3.2.2. Strain. Strain is a measure of the deformation produced by the application of the external forces.
In Fig, 3.1a, the deformation is an elongation of a bar by the amount t11, and if 1 is the initiai length of
the bar, then
, Tensile strain = £,= ~1 , ...(3.1a)

Similarly in Fig. 3.tb the deformation is a shortening of the bar by the amount t11, therefore
. . t11
3 1b
Compresslve steam = £c = T ...(. )
------
- R:.'
68 Soil Dynamics & ~~e FlHUldations
..i
6l
... f
l
l
1
III ; 1 ;
TL ~
t
F
(a) Tensile strain (b) Compressive strain
Fig.3.1 : Axialstrain
3.2.2.1. A transverse strain: A transverse strain tw is defined as the ratio of the expansion-or contrac-
tion 6 w perpendicular to the direction of the stress to the original width w of the body (Fig. 3.2). Thus
6w
Ew = -;- ...(3.2)
l- llW--I
F .-- --7I
,
I
I
I
I
w I
I
I
I
I
Fig. 3.2 : Transverse strain

3.2.3. Elastic Constants. An elastic material is one which obeys Hook's ~aw ofpruportionally between
stress and strain. For an isotropic elastic material subjected to normal stress Oxin the x-direction, the
strains in x, y, z directions are
C1
t =--!.
x E
t =e =-~
Y Z E
~
Wave'P,;op'agat;On"l" lin Ettistii!/llo",:rigeneous and Isotropic Medium , 69
If the element cif material i~:Subjected to normal stress O'x'O'y"O'z'then by superposition we obtain
1
Ex = E [O'x - Il (O'y + O'z)] ...(3.4 a)
, " 1 ; ,
Ey =E [O'y - Il (O'x + 0')] ...(3.4 b)

I".
Ez = E [O'z - Il (O'x + O'y)] ...(3.4 c)
In the above expressions, E is the modulus of elasticity and 11is Poisson's ratio. It may be noted that
here E is dynamic modulus of elasticity and ,not the static modulus.
'Equations (3.4 a), 3.4 b), an:d (3.4 c) can be rearranged so, that the stresses are expressed in terms of
the strains as follows: (Timoshenko and Goodier, 1951; Kolsly, 1963).
,'., ' IlE E
O'x = (1 +'Jl)(I-21.1) (Ex + Ey+ Ez) + 1 + Il Ex ...(3.5 a)
. ~..
JlE E
ay = (1 + Jl)(I-2Jl) (E.t + Ey + E) + 1 + r11 Ey ...(3.5 b)
.' JlE,.. E
az = (1 + Jl)(I-21.1) (Ex+ Ey+ Ez) -t: 1 + fl Ez ...(3.5 c)
For simplicity the equations may be written

a x =A. E+2GE x ...(3.6 a)
a =A. e+2Ge ...(3.6 b)
y y
a z =A. E+2Ge z ...(3.6 c)
in which
-
E = Ex+ Ey+ Ez ...(3.7)
I.1E
')..- ...(3.8)
.. ..,,'. - (1+fl)(I-2Jl)
.
. E
G.= 2(1 + 11) ...(3.9)

Similarly in an isotropic elastic material, there exists linear relation between shear stress and shear
strain. Thus
'txy
Yxy= G ...(3.10 a)
'tyz
. I'yz =. G ...(3.10 b)
Cr ,',
Y:x=6 ...(3.10 c)
G is the shear modulus or rigidity modulus and is the same as given by Eq. (3.9).
Equations (3.6) and (3.10) comprise six equations that define the stress-strain relationship.
,
8B:,1
70 Soil DyIUUlfics 4 Machint! Foundations
3.3 LONGITUDINAL ELASTIC WAYES IN A ROD OF INFINITE LENGTH
ax~ ~ OX + oOX b.x

ox
~ 6x ~
A = Area of crosseciion
Q
x
a b
x
~~x ~
~ u (Displacement)
Fig, 3.3 : Longitudinal vibration of a rod
Consider the free vibration of a rod with crossectional area A, Young's modulus E and unit weight r
(Fig. 3.3). Now let the stressalong sectionaa is crx and the stress on section bb is (crx+ °ocr;.6.x).
Assuming that the stress is uniform over the entire crossectional area and the crossection remain plane
during the vibration. the summation of force in x-direction is given by:
ocr ocr'
IF =-cr A+ cr + :L6,x A=---L.6,x.A ...(3.11)
x x ( x ox ) ox
If the displacement of the element in x-direction is u, the equation of motion for element can be
Nritten by applying Newton's second law of motion as given below:
ocrx .6,x.A = 6,x.A. 'Y .clu

ox ( g ) at2
or ocrx - 'Y a2u ...(3,12)

fu - g'dt2
Form stress-strain relationship E stram ~

= stre~s direction= ~
m xx --d~ection oula x
cr = E.-ou ...(3.13)
x ox
DifferentiatingEq, (3.13)with respectto x
ocr.t - E a2u ...(3.14)
ox - ox2
.,.::',
, --- - "
',',-Y-;'P{,,',-,-*"r'1,h~"";;:':'..~,""
-'""".*: ,,'*'" ""':;""':-' -,/ .,' <r'::" ,- .;o.,ft~:t-\>:~,:'
Wave 71
, " Prop~gationin
-- ' ." an. Elastic, H.omogeneous
.' and Isotropic Medium
Therefore, 'Y a2u = E clu ...(3.15)

g at2 ax2
, ,
Using the mass density p = 'Y, Eq. 3.15 can be written
g ,
, ,-;-
, a2u ,E clu i
...(3.16)
- .at2 = p ax2
or -a2u = v2 -clu ...(3,17)
at2 c ax2
E
where v; = P ...(3,18)
Vc is defined as the 10ngitudinal-wave-propagation-velocityin the rod. Equation (3,17) has the exact
form of the wave equation, and it indicates that during 10ngitudiIia~vibrations, displacement patterns are
propagated in the axial direction at the velocity vc~' : :; ;' '
The solution ofEq. (3.17) may be written'in the form' .

u=/l(vct+x)+/2(vct-x) .r,. ...(3.19)
where I1 and 12 are arbitrary functions. In this equation, the first term ?iepresents the wave travelling in
the positive x direction, and the second term represents the wave travelling in the negative x direction.
If the wave propagation in a rod is considered at SOIpt::interrpediate point in the bar, it can be noted
that at the instant a wave is generated, there is compressive stress of the fac~ in the positive direction of
x and tensile stress in the negative direction of x. Hence, when the compressive wave travels in one
direction, the tensile waves travel in the opposite direction.
To understand the difference between the wave propagation velocity Vcand the velocityof particles
in the stressed zone it, consider the stressed zone at the end of the bar as shown in Fig. 3.4 a. When a
uniformly distributed compressive stress pulse of intensity crxand duration: t".(Fig, 3.4 b) is applied to
the end of the bar, initially only a small zone of the rod will experience the compression. This compres-
sion will be transmitted to the successive zones of the bar as time increases. The transmission of the
, '
compressive stress from one zone to another occurs at the velocity of the wav~ propagated in the medium,
i.e. vc' During a time interval .1.t, the compressive stre~s will trave,l along the bar a distance (.1.x = vc'~ f).
At any time after In' a segment of the bar of length, xn = vctn, constitutes the compressed zone. The
amount of the elastic shortening?f this, zone is given by
cr cr
u=-Lx =-Lv ,t ...(3.20)
E n E c n
u cr
or t;: = E Vc ..' .., < , , ...(3.21)
The displacement u divided by In represents the velocity of.the ~nd of the bar or particle velocity.
Hence ,
. crx
u =-v ...(3.22)
E c
It is evident from Eq. (3.22), .that the particle waVevelo~ity
. .'it .dependson
.. , , ,theintensity
. of stress but
the wave propagation velocity Vc (Eq. 3.18),
'" is only a function of ','mate~ial
. '. ,~,,' properties. Further both
' wave
propagation velocity and particle velocity are in the same direction when a compressive stress'is applied
but the wave propagation velocity is opposite to the particle ve19cj~. when,a tensile,stress is applied.
. ,,', !', ," ( " . t.. ; " .'
~
72 's~u Dynamics & Machine Foundtiiions
~x
-.J I+-
OX....
(
x
Xn = Vc tli ,"
) .- x
(
u
(a) Stressed zone at the end of the rod

er
er
X
, "
- t
tn
(b) Uniformly distributed compressive stress
Fig. 3.4: Wave propagation velocityand particle velocity in a rod
. "
3.4.<TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF A ROD OF INFINITE LENGTH
In!if:.3.S G, a rod subjected to a torque T which produces angular rotation e is shown. The expression
fo~'t.:
1.
:toraue
- car. be written as
T = G I Be ...(3.23)
. " P Bx
where G = shear modulus or"thc'material of rod -,'
. I,p '= Polar moment o:f inertia of the
."
crossection Of rod
, ! .~ ,
ae'. _..,.'.;;A'""~,,,. jf,.'..«ft'll!"-
ex =:Angle of twist per unit length of rod.
- .-,.--'-' It
la B - _3i.;'1£h
73
. .
,!,-~e;Pr~g~!p,.;II#E.l!.t~~J.J:lfI'RlJIIeneous
,.,., ';' , .; '. ;.
an41sotrQpic Medium
' '-'-'---
.\ .
\
\
,I
x
x
~X r-
. (a) A rod siabjectedto torque T
,,
;';.'
T + aT
oX t::.x
, .. r
,,"
, fix
'...
": ': I'; '
,
.: (b) Motion of the element of rod of length Ax

Fig. 3.5 : Torsional vibration of a rod
The torque due to rotational inertia of an element of rod of length 6.x can be written as
#e .,,(3.24)
T = pI~x~
P :ot2
By applying Newton's,second law of.mo~onto.arielement oflength 6.x shown in Fig. 3.5b,
, aT-- , . #e" ".
) = p!p *x-yat
.. ,,
- T + ( T+ Ox 6.,x ',' ..
or aT =,oI,Jre " ,.,,(3.25) .

;"
~
ox P p:!>
,1'01 l\'1'.I
; "vt
2
,
o.
" , '.', ,,": '."': "'. " """. ' ""," "'" .,
74 Soil Dynamics & Machine' Foillldations
t. '
oT
From Eq. (3.23),
,
- =GI- a2a '..
...(3.26)
OX p ax2
Therefore, or a2a ,= pI cia

P ax2 P 8t2
or ia - 0 cia ,J3.27)
a? - P ox2 '~':' ..-.
"
, a2e - 2 a2e
. --z-
'~ ,J3.28)
at", - Vs
ax
--
"" is the shear wave velocity of the material of the rod.
3.5 END CONDITIONS
Free End Conditions, Consider an elastic rod in which a compression wave is travelling in the positive
,r-direction and an identical tension wave is travelling in the negative x-direction (Fig. 3.6 a). Wh;n the
t\\/O\vaves pass by each other in the crossover zone, the portion of the rod in which the two waves are
superposed has zero stress wit:.1:ltwice the particle veioc.~tyof either wave (Fig. 3.6 b). After the two waves
have passed the crossover zone the stress and velocity return to zero at the crossover point and both the
-:ompressive and tensile waves return to their initial shape and magnitUde (Fig. 3.6 c). It will thus be seen
that on the centre line cross-section, the stress is zero at all time. This stre~s condition is the same as that
\\hi-:h exists at the free end of the rod. By removing one-half of the rod, the centre line cross-section can
be considered a free end (fig. 3.6 d). Hence 'it can be seen that a compre,ssion wave is reflected from a free
l'l1d as a tension wave of the same m,agnitude and shape. Similarly, it can be observed that a tension wave
IS re Ikcled from a free end as a compression wave of the same magnitude and shape.
t
----
Vc.
Id-: 0
oo
Xt0
r=o sion
ien "0
-v c
(a) Compression and tension wave~ travelling in opposite directions
~~ 0-'=0
00 ~,.,,' . .
U = 2uO
~ y ~Xt1
--q-nrn
'---00
, Vc
(b) Waves at the crosso~'er zone
Fig. : 3.6 : Elastic waves in a rod with free end conditions (...Contd.)
'"
..,'..., ,..' --,
l4~' \~~)'" ,'" "'.~ :,. , y.~:,~. "~ ;i0: <~~- "';':;:~~!-""i"" ',' 'c: :,'"
f'ave.Propagation in ,an El~$tit;, Homogeneous and Isotropic Medium 75
.h
~
.
- Vc
"0'
.
I
er
u
=
=
a'
0
(c) Waves after passing the crossover zone
er
0
~ .. Xt2
Vc
~
Free enq
.. Xt3
.~~
-4
Vc
(d) Waves considering one half of the rod
Fig. : 3.6 :'Elastic waves in a rod with free end condWons
Fixed End Conditions. N°'Y,~onsider an,e.lasticrod in which a compression wave is travelling in positive
x-direction and an identical compression wave is travelling in the negative x-direction (Fig. 3.7 a),
Whe'nthe two waves pass by each other in the crossover zone, the centreline cross-section has stress equal
to twice the stress in each wave and zero particle velocity (Fig. 3.7 b). After the waves pass each other,
they return to their original shape and magnitude. The centre line cross-section r:~mainsstationary
, dur-
ing the entire process and hence, behaves like a fixed end of the rod. Considering left half of the rod (Fig.
3.7 d), it can be observed that a compression wave is reflected from a fixed a fixed end of a rod as a
compression wave of the same magnitude and shape, and that at'the fixed end the stress.is doubled.
'v
-4 I
. er=0 -
Vc
~
~o.
~u=o
I
~
~ .Xto
, (a) Two Identical waves travelling in opposite directions
Xt1
er = 20-0
, j' U = 0
(b) Waves at crossover zone
Fig. 3.7: Elastic waves in a rod with fixed end conditions (...Contd.)
- -,- -- - - - -----
III'JIE,J.
76 $Dil Dynamics & Machine Foundations.
Vc : Vc
~, I '--
G ".~ '-'- Xtz
"0 ~..
'. 0-::0 ..~ '
"/ u :: 6
(c) Waves after passing"the crossC)ver zone
Vc Vc
l
, '
~ " " ~
Fixed end
xt 3
(d) Waves
. considering
" one halfofthe rod "
Fig. 3.7: Elastic waves in arod ~ith fixed end conditions'
3.6 LONGITUDINAL VIBRA TIONSOF RODS OF FINITE LENGTH "
Consider a rod of length L vibrating' in, one of its normal mode~ The solution of t~e wave equation
(Eq. 3.17) can be written as '
u = U (AI cos (J)nt + Az ~ii1con1)

;
...(3.29)
where U = Displacement amplitude along the length of rod
AI' A2 = Arbitrary Constants
(I) 1/ = Natural frequency of therod
Substituting Eg. (3,29) in Eg. (3.17), we get
.,
2 U =0
~d2 U + oo~ ...(3.30)
dx Vc
OOnX OOIlX '

The solution of Eq. (3.30) is
,
U = A) cos -~ + A4 Sin -'"--
~
...(3.31)
.'\, and A4 are arbitrary constants which are detenrtined by satisfying the boundary conditions at the
ends of the rod.Three possible end conditions are:
1. Both ends free (free-free)
2. One end fixed and on~,end fr~e,(fixed-:fre~~

3. Both en~s fixed (fixed-fixed)', .' :" ,",
.. "
.
'"..
Free-Free Condition.
The stress and ,strainat both ends of ~ rod of finite lertgthin ~ree-freecondition (Fig. 3.8 a) will be
;/l:ro, Th'is means that dUMx= 0 at x ~'O x :i,;L-. ,- . '
, ,; ,.:' '" :: ' " . ' \ .

. ~','
,. ,',' , ':' ,,'~-j ,
.0
,,-
., .,
,:<
I.' ;; " - " ",,'!.. "
,_:::_, :;; ":_'~,;
~l~k'
77
Wave ,PropagaC;{}1Jin, an Elastic, H~m,9.geneous and Isotropic Medium
u
..
-x
0-1 El
l-x -I~dX
(a) Rod of finite length with free-free end conditions
Ô
~
ßÖ
´
T ßí U1= A~ cos ~x (n 1)
Ì
=
ø¾÷ First harmonic
U2 =A3 cos 2Tfx

L (n = 2)
,'~ (c) Second harmonic

0
U3=A3 cos 3Tfx

L (n = 3)
AJ
I
(d) Third harmonic
Fig. 3.8 : Normal modes of vibration of a rod of ~nite lengt~. ~Ith free-free ,end conditions
Differentiating Eq. (3.31) w:!-t"x,we get

. 'ro"x <o"X
-dU ron
= -\! - A 3sm-+A4cos-
)
dx cc'( ' V Vc
The condition ~~= .=;? g.ives

,,' "'.J! 0 at .~-l1:>,..!fi .A~=,O.
't"L}",t... , ;'.
.' , '. 0'
"
78 ", -
Soil Dynamics & Machine -Foundations
Putting -dU
dx
= 0 at x = L we get
'
. ro L
A sIn -!! =0 ...(3.33)
Jvc
roL
For a nontrivialsolution, -!! = n1t
Vc
- n1tvc
or ron - -r.-. n = 1, 2, 3 ... ...(3.34)
Equation (3.34) is the frequency equation'for the rod in free-free case. By substituting Eq. (3.34) in
Eq, (3,31). we get
n1tx
Un = AJ cos L ...(3.35)
l::c,:;,.' L::q,(3.35), the distribution of displacement along the rod can be found for any harmonic. The
rirsl three harmonics are shown in Figs. 3.8b, c and d.
Fixed-Free Condition.
[11Fixed-free case (Fig. 3.9 a), the end conditions of the ro<1are:
(i) At x = 0, Displacement i.e. U = 0, and
(ii) At x = 1, Strain i.e. d U/dx = 0
L -t
x
(a) Rod of finite length with fixed-free end conditions
~I~
A4 . TTx
)
= A4 sin =2L(n =1
TU)
(b) First harmonic
U2=A 4 s' In- 31Tx (n=2)

2L
(c) Second harmonic

Fig. 3.9: Normal modes of vibrations of a rod offinite length with fixed-free end conditions (...Contd.)
"<' >
,"'"
Wave Propagation in tin Elastic, Homogeneous and Isotropic Medium 79
, ; 'SlTX
U3=A, 4 slO ,,2L (n=3)
(d) Third harmonic
Fig. 3.9 : Normal modes ofvibrations ora rod of finite length with fixed-free end conditions
Putting the first end condition in Eq. 3.31, yields AJ = O. By substituting the second end condition
in Eq. 3.32, , " .
" W L
A cos -2L = 0 ...(3.36)
4 vc
wnL 1t
or -v = (2 n - 1) -2
c ' " .
1tVc ,. '.
or wn = (2 n - I) 2 L ' ...(3.37)
The displacement amplitude can be written as

U - A . (2n-I)1tX ...(3.38)
n - 4 sm 2L
The first three harmonics described by Eq. (3.38) are shown in Fig. 3.9 b, c and d.
Fixed - Fixed Condition.
In this case (Fig. 3.10 a) the end condition are:
(i) At x = O. U = 0 , and '
(ii) At x = L , U = 0
~ :L ..,
..x
~
(a) Rod ornnlte length with fixed-fixed end conditions
I
-A . TTx
U
, 1 - 4..SIn
.
(
L (
n =
1)
(b) First harmonic

Fig. 3. to: Normal modes ofvlbration oh rod of finite length with fixed-fixed end conditions (...Contd.)
~, ".~~£~
80 Soil, D.ynamics ~ Machine f~u~cJptions
. 21Tx
U2=A4Sln-C-(n =2)
(c) Second harmonic
_ . ,3TIx 3
3 - A4sIn L ( n
U
= )
(d) Third harmonic
Fig. 3.10: Normal modes of vibration ora rod of finite length with fixed-fixed end conditions
Putting these end conditions in Eq. (3.31), we get

A3 = 0, and
oonL
A4 sin - Vc = 0 ...(3.39)
n1tx
or oo=-n-1 23 ...(3.40)
n L' - , , , ...
' .. . n1tx
Th d I b U A ...(3.41)
e ISp ac,ement IS gIven y, n = 4 sm L
The first three harmonics described by Eq. (3.41) are shown in Fig. 3.10 b, c and d.
3.7 TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS .oF JlODSOF FINITE LENGTH
As the wave Eq. (3.28) is identic<\~t~ wave Eq. (3.17) , the proble'm' of torsional vibr~tions of rods of finite
length can be solved in the saITi~manner as foJ. tJ:le-case <?flo~gi,tudinal vibrati.ons discussed in the
previous section, Th,e solution .of Eq. (3.28) can be written as :
. e = eA(A I cos OOn
t + A2 sin oont) ...(3.42)
where eA = Rotational amplitude of angular vibration

I "
A I' A2 = Arbitrary constants

(j) n = Natural frequency of the rod
Substituting Eq. (3.42) in Eq. (3~28) , we get,
2 2
~ 2 + ~2...=0
e '
...(3.43)
. dx' v's
Wave-Propagation'in'an"Elilstic/ Homoggneous and Isotropic Medium 81-
The solution of Eq. (3.43) is
eA -- A3cos
,conx
-+A4
. COnX
sm- ...(3.44)
Vs: Vs
The values of arbitrary constants A3 andA4 can~eobtained by puttingoappropriate end conditions.

The solutionfor the three types.of end c.onditions.
are givenbelow: .
Free-Free Condition.
n 1tVs
con = L ...(3.45)
eAn -- A3cos-n7tx
L
...(3.46)
Fixed-Free condition.
(2n-I)7tvs
con = 2L ...(3.47)
" ,
eAn =A4sin (2n-l)7tx ...(3.48)

2L
Fixed - Fi,,<:edcondition.
n 1tVs
(On = L ...(3.49)
eAn = A4 ~1tXL ...(3.50)
3.8 WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN INFINITE, H~MOGENEOUS~ISOTROPIC,ELASJICME-

DIUM '
In:this section,;theprop~gation of stress waves,in:anj,nfinite"homogeneoou$~ ~~Qpic. elaiUc ,~di.um, ~

presented.'Eig 3.ll 'showsthe,stresse5Jicting:on a;S0il,eletneni.witb.sides~aucingdx, dy.'il~d<ftZ.The
solid vectors are acting on the visible faces ofthe element and the dotted vectors areacting,on:t.h~hidQ.~n
faces. For obtaining the differential equations of motion; the.sum of the forces acting parallel to each axis
is considered~In the x.,direction the ~quilibrium equation is
[", -(", + aa"; d X) ]<dYodz)+[V'( 'n + a;;)dz ]<dxody)
U't ilu
...(J..5.0
(
+ 'ty:c- ( 'tyx+ a;'dY. )] (dx.dz)+p(dx.dy.dz)at2:::10
,cf." aox' a~.xy':"~.tt'
or, p- =- +- +............ ..~{3.52 a)
. ':0l2 ox ay' j)z
,', .
-
" ".-..-....
8~~ ':' ,"', ~" .,' " ";":- ,~ . SIJU Dln9nUc;s. & Machine F o.ullllations
z ...
I ,~.
-." .."
'
( 1':+
ZI
~'tn
az
dZ}
, ,
,
crz+
itr..
~ ""
dy
,d-z ),
..
~ ,
~-ryz
't'yz+ ~,!lY),
t" yl I -r er.
,. I('tu + ~ax' IY
dl) ('I
I
cry
("",
I ,
II t t
t I ~IZ (GY + ~cry
C)y dy)
1:yz
('t'yx + ~f)~YX . dy)
~ax
I (cr. + ~.d.)
Fig. 3.11 : Stress on an element of an infinite elastic medium

Equations similar to Eq. (3.51) can be written for the y -and z -directions. These will give
p-;iv (h yx ocry
= -+-+- o't yz
...(3.52 b)
ot2 ox ay oz
2 .'
p-a w - --M...+-+---L
o't o'tzy' ocr
(3 52 c)
ot2 - ox ay 07 ' ... .
In the above expressions, p is the'imiss density of the soil, u, y'and ware :displacementsin the x, y,
and z directions respe'ctively.To express the right hand sides of Eqs. (3.52) , the relationship for an
elastic medium given by,Eqs.,(3.6) to' Eqs. (3.10) are used. The equations for strains and rotations of
elastic and isotropic :materials in terms of displacements are' as follows,:' '
Axial strains, " :;'
, . ou . ;,
Ex = ox . ,...(3.53 a)
av
...(3.53 b)
Ey ='ay
aw
...(3.53 c)
E;: = ay
Shear strains,
ov ou ...(3.54 a)
Yxy'" 0;C+ ay
.
ow' av','
--+- ...(3.54 b)
Yyz- ay oz
ou ow
yzx = OZ + ox ...(3.54 c)
~,
,-
) .., ,
~< 2.,:,'
"',,',"'l,:,". :,.",~,~: ":",),,'0' , :' .. J.....

Wave Propagation in an ElastIc, Homogeneous and IsotropIc MedIum 8'3
Rotations.
ow 8v'
2w = --- ...(3.55 a)
Xo y oz.. ';, "
iJu' .;iw
2wy -- ~--
oz ox .:.(3.55 b)
ov ou
2w =--- ,..(3,55 c)
z ox oy
In E:q,'(3.:~5);"wx
' w/ ,wz 'repie~~Ilt'the i~tati~rt~ 'aborttx;y~rid'~iaxes'respettivetY..'
: ,,' """"""""":'-"""':""'/:~";",""i' "",1"", ",' ',',"
3.8.1.CornpressiQD Waves. Subst.itut~onoff:qs.p,. 6 a), (3.10 a), ,an~;(~,lO b) into Eq. (3. 52 a) gives "' '
',' ~'-"' 'd d

"""j;U"d" ', '" '
( ",E+ 2G E..)+~ (O '1,' ) +-- (G '1 )

'
, p-,= -
, ,
"",ot2 ," .., " ..
"d.,J."' ",
,X,dy,xY"dZ ' 0,' ",. "
,xy
,
Now on substitutionof Eqs. (3.54 a) and (3.54,b) in Eq. (3.56), ~e get,
, ' ,', '~~i' ,

~'~(A<'~';~E,)+GM~:'
,', "",
"'
co" ,
~;r
~~;FG:z(~> -/,'
'2 2 '2' 2 2 2
or , 02u - A.d E + G a u + ~ + d w' + au+au+au ...(3.57)

p 0(2 ,-:
. .
ax ,,'.. [ ax2 dX,ay' dX'az ax2
.
'
al di ]
02u 02v azw"
As -+-+- -- OE ...(3.58)
ox2 OX'ay ox.fJz - ox
The Eq. (3. 57) can be written as , ..
azu ' o'E 2

...(3.59)
p ot2 = (A. + G) ox +? ~ u " ,
where
2 az az az
V u = -+-+---'- ...(3.60)
ox2 ay2 fJz2,
Similarly Eqs. '(3.51 b) and (3.52 c) can be expressed as
azv ... aE
-ay
'
p- = ( A. + G) + G V2 .'.~(3.61)
0(2
and " "
02W aE 2
,
P-y
&~,
= (A. + G) ~ + GV w
'
...(3.62)
Equations (3.59) , (3.61) and (3, 62) are the equations of motion of an infinite homogeneous, iso-
tropic, and elastic medium. On differentiating these equations with respect to x, y and z, respectively, and
, adding
"
fil au Ov Ow a2E 02£ file 2 au Ov Ow
P 0(2 ( Ox+ ay + Oz')
;'
"
, ',= (
(A + G)'fix2 + aji2 t"fJz2' ) + G V ( at'+ ay + fJz:) ",.
"'::"}J, :";"; !"..i-~),':J.'
(TE ','.' 'c,.'~';y:!..;, ';". '.:.',:~
or.,. ;, 2 '
2 ',. .
""(k +-, G)
"",..",,-,,'-=',' ""', """"""""q,,
, , '.."'. v ;" . ,~,p "2'" (V E) ,+ ,(GV E), '..d" ',J. ,".. '. ",C "I, ~ ':'J",)
",;,q~, \,-O~i'~',_",\,,;v~'
,P"",)..".I,;t"",'jl',ttf.~<l;.U;4;"d~,'H.
.".'" ""J r
'1-"'>""1';'_',,1,,1'1.,;,,,.,
"!'" ""
,'."
,,'
';.
.~f..'
n,...O~;'J1
'., < "," ,,', L«'\' ;,

84 "s.iJ ,J)yIUVflil:s..& MadMe' F~IIRd4tU1ns
Hem:e p ilE = (A.+ 2G) V2E ...(3.63 a)

&2
or
at2 -- (A.+2G)
<YE (V2£) = V;V2f, ..~(3.63 b)
. . p
where
2
A.+2G
Vp P= . ...(3~64)
vp is the ve1ocityofcompre~on waves which are: a1soreferredJls primary wave or:P-wave.
It is important to note the.difference in the wave velocities for an intmite.elasticmedium with those
obtainedfor an elasticrod. In the rod Vc= ~E/p: but in the infinite medium vp-~ ~(A.+2G)/p. This
means that Vp > Vcthat is 'compression wave travels faster in infmite medium. It is due to the fact that in
infinite medium, there are no lateral displacements, while.in the rod lateral displacements are possible.
. '" ,
3.8.2 Shear-Waves; DiffererniatingEq.'(3:61) with:resJrect to z and Eq. (3. 62) with respect to y, we get
2
a av a-E 2av
()
p at2 az: = (A.+ G) (ay)(az) + G V az
...(3.65) .
and
a2p aw ae 2 aw
...(3.66)
P;z ( -;- = (A.+ G) -;-;-+GV -
ut ay ) ayuZ ay
Subtracting Eq. (3.65) from Eq. (3.66), we get
.
p~ aw- av = G V2 aw- av ...(3.67)

at2( ay az) ( ay az) .
aw av -
From Eq. (3.55 a), ay - az = 2 wx' Therefore
rJw 2,
p--f
at = GV"wx
or -rJwx =.-"11
G 2-w = V'2 V2-w
...(3.68)
at2 p x s x
Similar expressions can be obtained for Wy and Wz as below:
rJWy
-=- . G "11 2-W 2 2-
y =vVw ...(3.69)
.8t2 P s y
'rJwz' = G V2w = v2V2w ...(3.70)

at2 p, z s z
The above expressioMindicate"thafithe'Totation .is.propagated with velocity Vs which is equal to
~G I p. Shear wave is also referred as distortion wave or s-wavoe.}tmay be noted that shear wave propa-
gates at the same velocity in both the-rod!andthe..infinite-niedium/Fig. 3.12 shows plots of shear wave
velocity and void ratio at several confuii,ng pressures for sands (Hardin and Richart, 1963).
W~ve :ProplIgiitionin 4" E/~'stic;"H~mogeneollS alid Isotropic Medium ,1.'85
- -( - -J ;.
,-
'N
,E
'"
- '."26.'0
"~
--
-
lA
::I
::I ,- ,
"tJ, 19:5
0
E ,,-
Con'1ini'ng
390
(pres'sore 0.5
30
0,+
360 ./11
/~<
Round grains -
Ottawa sand
--
330
--- Angular grains -.Crushed quartz
-E
\11
>
....
u
~ 270
~
>
~
,> 240
0
~
~. .
.'0 210'
~ '
s:.
V1
180
,150.'
I '
120 L..:
0.3 1.0 1. 1 1.2 '1.3
Void ,ratio
(a)
I'.g. 3.12: Variation of shear wavev~locity IIndshear modulus with void ratio
,"and coririnlng'press,jre for dry sands (Hardin ani:!Richart. 1963)
. ,I,.. .~ -.' ,. i. -'" . ; .,.
,, ,'.,-, "'".' .,'

..
, .,
..~---
Et.
.' :-86 . .i SoU :!)yntUlli~ &I Machine Foundtllions
3.9WAVEPROP AGATION INELASTIC IL\LF,SP ACE .' .-

In an elaspc~lly homogeneous gr~und, stressed shddenly' at a point 'S' near its surface (Fig. 3.13), three
elastic w~ves travel outwards at different speedS.Two are body waves; that is, they are propagated as
spherical,fronts affected only a minor extent by the free sUrfaceof the ground, and the'third is a surface
wave which'is confined to the region. near ~ fiee surface. ;
x
~ ,
vp t -I'
G ~,vst " Vrt t
Fig.3.13: Pulsefrontsofthe P,Sand R waves

The two b.ody waves as already d,escribed in the previous section differ in that !he ground motion
within t~e pulse is in the direction of propagation (i.e. radial) is the faster 'f' (primary) wave, but normal
to it (i.e.I tangential,to
,"
the pulse front) is the slower 'S' (secondary) wave (Fig. 3.13). The stresses in the
P wave~ which is ~fl°!lgitudinal wave like a sound wave in a~~,are thus due to uniaxial compression,
while during VIe passage' of an S wave the medium is su~jected to shear stres~. The surface wave travels
more slowly.than either body wave, and is generally complex.,This wave was' first studied by Rayleigh
(1885)and later was,describedin detailby Lamb(1904), It is refe,rred'asRayleighwaveor R-wave.The
influence of Raleigh'wave decreases rapidly with depth.
Equations (3.59) ,(3.61) and'(3.62) may be used to study the characteristics of Rayleigh wave, The
half space i,~defined as the x-y plane with z assumed to be positive toward the interior of the half-space
(Fig. 3.14) .Let u and w represent the displacements in the directions x and z, respectively and are
independent of y, then
~ " a",
u=~+- ...(3.71)
ax ,az
_a~
,w---- O\V ...(3.72)
" az. ax
',,' ",', ' av' ",.,". .
where ~ and 'If are two pot~nti~l,functions. As ay = 0, th~'dh~ti~n.e"~f the wave can be written as
atH'~'j;
" ,""
Wav'i"Propagaitoidli an ElaStic;'Ho,,;(/geneous and Isotropic Medium 87
- au,.:.,aw
,1:;'--+--
,
.. '- ' :c.:.. d24>
-+- #cpa2'V
d2'41 + ,---
"
'0 ,
dX dZ ( dx2 ,
dXdZJ
,
( ai, oxOzÖ
'or
-
I:; ãóõóãªùþ
a24>a2cp'
~1 ~
2
2'
'I' '
'. '
' "
...(3.73)
:-: 'U.A.' ,,0
Z '. ,
Plane wave front

,,'
I
r----
L..-
,)
/
/
I
I
x I
I ',.
I
/
//
.//
./
, /'
/
/
/
/
/'
.//'
Z .//
/'
/
/..
, Fig. '3.14: Wave prop~gat!on in ~Iastic half space

Similarly the rotation in x-z plane is given by
. Z 2 .
"""-"""& aw d'V + d'V oz'

'" " ""'
2 ;..(3.74)
" " "",'7'",W~;'=az-ox =~ ~=,v'V
,. ?..:'~,.;.j .",..",d?",dz".., "
Substituting u and w from Eqs. ~3.71) and (3.72) i~ e~s:,(~' 59) and (3.62), we get
,
l
',OX
(
-,'
,~2~
)
+ p~
,<"::"',>:":'{,~F,,>':r:'{..'~,:J:;~~:
(
,':.",az...2".i;J"",\",;,,.~-,ox,
, D.).~tj;.i:>~f};~:#~,alk-. l
az~ :'~ki\:,~:Cj)' ~;(V.Z~y~.p!G ,-2- (V2'V)
'6'!-'f,~'~"""J'"
~;"
L
'"
:"""":'"
rJ'1~rl"~
<-:' ",~/
:;Oz.,'
ll.":i!i'."~',"
::":""'"
,'"
",
:
, '"
','
0,'
't'
""
i"f:"
...(3.75 )
,
.. ~~,..~,.,...~~~=~..~ ,.,.,.., ""~""'j-'.,"~..-,. '-="..,
""-
...
88 Soil DylUlmics & Machine Foundations
&$
and p ~
Oz ( 8t2 )
- p ~ax &'V
( 8t2 J
= (A + 2 G) ~ (V2$) - v£.
G ! (V2'V)
UA.
...(3.76)
Equations(3.75) and (3. 76) are satisfiedif
&$ = A+2G V2$ = lV2$ ...(3.77)

8t2 P P
and &\jI G - 2 2 - 2
- = -'V 'V = v 'V 'V ...(3.78)
a t2 p s
Now, consider a sinusoidal wave travelling in positive x direction. Let the solutions of q>and 'V be
expressed as
~ = F (z) ei (wr- nx) ...(3.79)
-
'V =--G (z) ei (Wt - nx) ...(3.80)
F (z) and G (z) are the functions which describe the variation in amplitude of the wave with depth,
and 12is the wave number given by
21t
n =T ...(3.81)
Where L is the wave length.
Substituting Eq. (3.79) in Eq. (3.77), and Eq. (3.80) in Eq. (3.78), we get
- 0./ F (z) = v~ [Fit (l) -' n2 F (z)] ...(3.82)

2 2 2
- Cl) G (z) = vs [G" (z) - n G (z)] ...(3.83)
Equations (3.82) and (3.83) can be rearranged as
2
F" (z) - q F (z) = 0 ...(3.84)
2
G" (z) - 5 G (z) =0 ...(3.8S)
2
where 2 2 (J)
q =n - 2 ...(3.86)
vp
. 2
2 2 (J)
5=n-2 ...(3.87)
Vs
The solution of Eqs. (3.84) and (3.85) can be expressed in the form
F (z) = AI e-qz + A2 eqz ...(3.88 )
-5Z sz
G (z ) = B I e + B2 e ...(3.89)
where A I' A2' B I and B2 are Constants.
A solution that allows the amplitude of the wave to become infinity is not possible; therefore
A2 = B2 = O.HenceEqs.(3. 79) and (3. 80) can be writtenas
'" - A [-qz + i(CDI-nx»)
't' - le ...(3.90)
'"
- B [-J'z + j (wr - nx)]
- le. - ," . ...(3.9] )
Now at the surface of the half space i.e. at z = 0, °z, 1::xahd~1:~.are equal to zero.
IIi IIIi iI;{~d'~
"
Wave Propagation in an Elastic, Homogeneous and Isotropic Medium 89
Therefore, crz = A E + 2 G Ez==1 E + 2 G ;= 0 (3.92)

,
aw 00
and
, ,
't
zx
=G'"
IZX
=G
,
(
'
-+-
Ox az )=0 ...(3.93)
Combining Eqs. (3.71) and (3.72) and the solutions of cl>and 'I' from Eqs. (3.90) and (3.91). Eqs.
(3.92) and (3.93) can be written as' '
AI - 2iGns
- - 2 2 ...(3.94)
BI ' (A + 2G)q - An
, '2 2
and AI - -(Tt + S )
...(3.95)
BI - 2i n q
Equating the right hand sides of Eqs (3. 94) and (3.95)
2422 2 22 2 "I 22
16G n s q =(s +n) [(l,+2G)q -lI.n] ...(3.96)
Substituting q and s from Eqs. (3.86) and (3. 87) in Eq. (3. 96), and dividing both sides by G2 n8,
we get ,.
2 2
~\ =
16 1- 1- ~\ ) 2- (A+2G). ~\ 2- ~\ ...(3.97)
( vpn )( vsn ( G vpn )( vsn J
From Eq. (3.81)
Wave length = 21t = velocity of Wave - vr ...(3.98)

n (ID/2n) - (ID/21t)
ID
or n =- ...(3.99)
vr
where vr is the Rayleigh wave velocity.
Using the following relationships:
2 2 2
ID ro vr 2 2
2'2=2 2 2=2=a~ ...(3.100) ,
vpn vs(ro /vr) ,Vp
2 2 2
and ID - ro - vr - 2
2'2- 2 2 2 -2-~ ...(3.10t)
Vs n vs(ro Ivr) Vs
2
2 Vs
where ¿ãó® ...(3.102 a)
Yp
GIp
= (A,+2G)/p
t '
2.. G'~
or (3.102 b)
a"='(A,+2G) " .
. ,: ";} ,:J.~:~r2t.;~(: ,
t' ". " ',. ,. ",

':'i' ",+ . '/,: ::~:;,,; i;~'liJi,~n lJ'rU
..: i . :; ,',;.0 J-. ,. .'",. . , '", I ~..
- .c..=;--'-' ,- -- .,,' '; ,.

=- --~ ===
It
.. c"
" ,
.. "" '.,. --'-' .,. '.-' .',- ,},

, , , , , ,
, ,
-- ..'
Using the relations (3.8) and (3.9) , Eq. (3.10.2) can be written as
2 1-2)l
øÈ =2-2)l ...(3.10.3)
Sustituting Eqs. (3. 10.0.), (3. 10-1) and (3. 10.3) in Eq. (3.97),
16 (l-a2~2)(1-~2) ~ (2-~2)2 (2-~2)2 ...(3.10.4)

or ~6 -,8 ~4 - (16 a2 - 24) ~2 - 16 (1 - (X2):::;0. ...(3.10.5)
Equation (3. 10.5) is cubic in ~2. For a given value of ')l' Poisson's ratio, the value of ~2 can be
determined. Using Eqs. (3.10.0.)and (3.10.1), we may then obtain the values ofv,Jvp and v,Jvs' It may be
noted that the value of ~2 is independent to the frequency of the wave. Therefore the Rayleigh wave
velocity is also independent to the frequency and dependent only on the elastic properties of the medium.
S
>I
'0
c
0 3
>"-I >
....
0
2
tII
-:J
0
>
vr/vs
0 -
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
. J .
Polssons ratlo)v
Fig. 3.15: Variations ofv r / v. and vp / v. with Poisson's ratio, Jl
Figure 3.15 shows the variation of v,Jvs an~ v/vs withPoisson ratio Jl.
The three types of wave appear in order on idp..alized seismogram (Fig. 3.16), which is a graph of
ground motion against time at a particular geopho~e ~ at a distance x from the source '0'. The time zero'
is, of course, the time of the shot, and it is clear that ~he thr~e ve!ocities vp' Vsand vr could be found from
this record. In practice, this determinatiords made'byco'ITl.,j.ningihe}nformationJromseveral geophones
at various distances from the source on time-distance graph " as shown
' in
,0 Fig. 3.17.
a..,
91
rave Propagation in an Elastic, Homogeneous and Isotropic Medium
Ground
motion
'"
~
X/Vs
Time
x/vp --
x / vr ~
.'
Fig. 3.16 : I~alised seismogram ofthe ground motion at a distance x from the source
, ,
Stope 1 /vr
u
(\) Slope 1/vs
\J\
-..
stope 1/vp
X,) m
Fig. 3.17 : Travel time graph constructed from a set of seismograms
3.9.1. Displacement of Rayleigh Waves. Substituting the relations developed for 4>and 'V {Eqs. (3.90)
and (3. 91)} in Eqs. (3.71) and (3.72), we get . .'
. - q= + B - s= i(rot - not) ...(3.106)
A
11 =- ( In le (se ) e . .
- q= B . :. s: i{oot - not)
...(3.107)
(A )
w=- Iqe - "ne,. e
- -~ '. ~ .-
"...'. ., .11... "'dO".... .' "0 . ," ,i

. Now, substituting the value of BI in terms of Al from eq. (3.95) the above expressions can be
wntten as
- A . -qz+ 2qs -sz e i(oot-nx)
U - 1 m -e 2 2 e ...(3.108)
( s +n ).
. . 2
-qz 2n -
-sz i(OOt-nx) .
W - A I q -e2. + 2 e e ...(3.109)
( s +n )
From Eqs. (3.108) and (3. 109), the variation of u and w with depth can be expressed as
- <-qln)(l/z) 2(qln)(Sln» -(sIn) (nz)
U( Z} -e 2 2 e ...(3.110)
+( s In +1
.
)
W (Z) ---e -(qln) (nz) .+ 2 (-sin) (nz)
2 2 e ...(3.111 a)
s In +1
Uc;:Tlg Eqs. (3.99), (3.100) and (3. 101), eqs. (3.86) and (3. 87) can be written as :
2 . 2 2
q ro Vr 2 2
2" =1 -22=l-2"=l-a ~ ...(3.111 b)
n n vp Vp
2 2 2
and
s ~ 3:.. 2
2" =1- 22 =1- 2 =1-~ ...(3.112)
" n Vs Vs
Amplitude at depth z
Amplitude at surface
- 6 0.6 .0.8
H. rizontal
cc mponent
0 :
O.41-~(Z)J
.I:.
vertical
N.. component
0 g' 0.6
= ~ V: 0.25
.. [W(Z>]
.. > )) - 0.33
~C
0 1.J - O.40
'" o..t ~~ 0.50
1.0
1.2
1.4
Fig. 3.18 : Amplitude ratio versus dimensionless depth for Rayieigh wave
~or a given value of Poisson's ratio, the values of v/vr and v/vs can be obtained from Fig. 3.15
(Richart, 1962). Hence values of qln and sin are determinable for a given value of Po isson's ratio. As n
= (21t/wave length), the variation of U (z) and W (z) can then be studied with respect to a non-dimen-
sional term (z/wavelength). ,Such variation is shown in Fig. 3.18 for Poisson's ratio of 0.25, 0.33, 0.40
and 0.50.
The amplitude of body waves, which spread out along a hemispherical wave front, are proportional
to lIx,x being the distance from the s()urce. The amplitude of the rayleigh waves, which spread out in a
cylindrical wave front, are proportional to l/.r;. Thus the attenuation of the amplitude of the Rayleigh
waves is slower then that of the body waves. '
3.10 GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
3.10.1. General. Geophysical exploration is relatively new area of technology. It involves measurement
of some physical field such as electrical, magnetic etc. on the earth's surface and interpreting the data so
obtained in terms of properties of subsurface layers of soil. The geophysical techniques most widely
employed for exploration work are the Seismic, gravity, magnetic and electrical methods. Less common
methods
. involve the measurement of radioactivity and temperature at or near '. the earth's surface and in
an.
In this section, the seismic method of geophysical exploration had been discussed. This method
utilises the propagation of elastic waves through the earth and is based on three fundamental principles
namely (a) the waves are propagated with different velocities in different geological strata, (b) the con-
trast between the velocities is large, and (c) the strata velocities increase with depth. It consists of gen-
erating an elastic pulse or a more extended elastic vibration at shallow depth, and the resulting motion
of the ground at nearby points on the surface is detected by seismic instruments known as geophones.
Measurements of the travel-time of the pulse to geophones at variQus distances give the velocity of prop a-
gation of the pulse in the ground. The ground is generally not homogeneous in its elastic properties and
this velocity therefore vary both with depth and laterally. ,
The real stratum, which in fact often consists of stratified material, is usually best approximated by
a layered medium, each layer having a constant velocity or one changing in a simple and regular way.
with depth. The interfaces between layers may be inclined at an angle to the horizontal and to each other.
In this section few simple cases have been discussed.
Let us considerthe case of one horizontalinterfaceat a depth h 1between media in which the com-
pression wave (P-wave) velocities are vplare vp2'vp2being greater. Figure 3.19 shows the.possible paths
of the body waves generated from the source S. - " '
The first path as indicated by ray 1 is the same as the path of surface wave (Le. Rayleigh wave). A
compression or shear wave (ray2) striking an interface will generate two reflected (P and S) and two
refracted (P and S) waves (Fig. 3.19). According to the laws of reflection, and refraction:
,
,~in ip = sin rp = sin.rs,:= sin Rp = sin Rs ...(3.113)
vpl vpl vsl Yp2 . vs2
The equality of the angles of incidence and reflection (e.g. ip = rp) holds only if incident a'rtd
reflected waves are of the same type.
c;.on'"~ ...:.J.: ~
'.
lE.
94 .. "
"'Soil Dynamics & 'Machine~ Foundations' ',:
source <1)
" "
"
I ' ,~
' b
p-wave '
....
a.
~
-a..
J -. -..,,;
" , .,.,.
' 'a. h1
v P1 Q:-,
I
ir
p "
..
',>' ,
vp2 '~"f
"0 ~(-
"Cl ~
... ~Ov "
Fig.3.19: Possiblepathsofbodywaves
In seismic refraction only compressional waves (P~waves) are considered and the interpretation is
based mainly on the first arrival times derived from the se'ismograms, This is due to the fact that P-wave
travels much faster than any other wave, Therefore , for this
-,
case, Eq, (3.i 13)' ',can be written as
sinip =vpl
..,,(3.114)
sin Rp vp2
The above equation is Snell's law or the law of re~action. Since vp2> vpJ' angle of refraction Rp is
greater than angle of incidence ip: Whenip increases; there is a 'unique' case where Rp = 90° and
sin Rp = 1. Then -,' '
v
,
, . - pi - . . ...(3.115)
sm 'p' - ~ -.5m 'pc
vp2
, ,
, ,
, Angle ipc is called critical angle of incidence. For ip >ipc' the energy is totally reflected in ~he upper
layer. If vp2 is less than vpl so that the ray path is refracted away from the normal this critical refraction
cannot occur. . ~, ',. -- ~" " , :' : d' :
" " : -; -
. "
. ,,", ,- .
jt}cj~~ óôñ¢ñóñ¢Ö
"
,-, .f
", ',,'
~;,'.f?'
Wa!'.e,Propagatil!n i~ an Elastic" Homogeneolls and Isotropic Medillm '

9S
It can be shown that the trajectory based on critical angles give the shortest time. Let a geophone is
placed at a distance x from the source (Pig. 3.2'0). ' "
x
.~ -1
(Sourccz) (Gczophone)
"S .- .. ~ .. .,' , G .
Vp1 hl
.. ' Intczrtaccz
A B
Fig. 3.20 : Typical trajectory of a compression wave
h.
SA = BG = --.! ...(3.116)
. cos ip
AB = x-2 hI tan ip .
j3.117)
Total time, taken by the wave ~eaching from S to G will be:
. '
2h . x - 2nl tan i
T= ,
l
+ p
...(3.118)
, .
Ypl cos ip vp2
The time T will be minimum when
d T - 2 hI sin ip ,-
-- 2 hI --0
...(3.119)
di 2. . 2.
P Vpl cos 'p Yp2 cos 'p
. '. Vpl '.
or sIn,
P, ' =- -vp2 = SIn,pc .
...(3.120)
Therefore the travel tiITlefrom ~ toG via the second layer is minimum when slant ray paths through
vpl layer make angle ipc with the normal to the surface. Hence a geophone on the surface at any distance
, greater than the critical range 2 h I tan ipc from S will lie on one of these rays and will record the arrival
of the wave at the a,ppropri~tetime (Fig. ,321} Th~ ,refracted wav.esshown by d~~ed lines are known as
head waves. ' " . .
,
1.-- --.
"
,,; .. " '
~,;..'",' """,._"Hi;j; .,,'- -, " "t-~;." -,.. ,'" ..
" '
, ','
.~,: " " _.'
.. 2h1tan 1pc
..
5 G1 G2 G3
. .9/ /
-'
/ / /
/ / /
1 /
I /
/ /
/ /
/
h1
/
I I I
/
. I. / /
vp1
'pc I'pc / / /
/ /1
/ / /
hI / I /
11 /
vp2 -- - Head waves
Fig. 3.21 : Critically refracted ray path and head waves
3.10.2. Depth Formulae.

3.10.2.1. Two layer soil medium. If the first arrivals ofthe elastic waves are recorded by detectors planted
in the ground, the times from the impact instant to the detectors can be plotted on a time distance graph
as shown in the (Fig. 3.22). The slope of the lines yield the reciprocal of velocities, namely lIvp' There-
fore, the lower the velocity, the steeper the slope of time-distance line. ..
The intersection, break point between the two velocity lines is obviously the point where the times
are equal. The distance between the impact point S and the break point is called the critical distance.
The break point corresponds to the emergence of the wave front contact at the ground surface. Intercept
time is the total arrival time of the refracted waves minus the time'x / vp2, x being the distance between
the impact point and the receiving station. It is the intersection between the prolongation of the time-
distance segment corresponding to the second medium and the time axis through the impact point.
For calculating the depth at an impact point two different approaches are available either using the
intercept time or critical distance (Milton, 1960; Parasnis, 1962).
~Sou r S(Z
x 1
S
ipc ipc h, vp1
(a) Ray paths VP2

Fig. 3.22: Fundamentatprinc:ip'e ofrefrac:tlon shooting (...Contd.)
....
01
E
+"
"'"
0
>
... --- -------
...T2 '
0 I
+"
cIi
...
LL.
,.
Xc Dj'stance) X
(b) Time-distance plot
Fig, 3,22: Fundamental principle of refraction shooting
Intercept Time. Refer Fig. (3.22a)
Arrival time T I of direct surface waves = ~ ...(3.121)

vpl
2h x - 2 hI tan i c
Arrival time T2 of refracted waves = I. + P ...(3.122)
vpl cos 'pc vp2
,. Vpl
...(3..123)
sin 'pc - vpZ
2hl 2hl sin ipc sin ipc +~
. vp2
Tz = vpl cos ipc vpl cos 'pc
. z
= 2hl 2 hl(1- cos ipc) +~
V
p l cos ipc vpl cos, .pc vpz
or T z -- -+
x 2 hi cos i
pc ...(3.124 a)
V z vpI
p
- x 2hl vZ -v 2
or T Z - -+
vp2 . Vpl Vp2
,j p2 pI
...(3.124 b)
vZ
.. cos " =.1 pI
pc 1-2
,
.vp2
. 98 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations
.
This is the equation of a straight .line with slope l/v p2 and an intercept on the time axis through
impact point is given by putting X = O. '
2hl cos ipc

T2i = ...(3.125)
vpl
, T2i vpi
or ...(3.126)
hi = 2cos'i~c
or h = Tzi vpI vp2 ...(3.127)

I ~ Vp2
2 -V pI
2
Critical Distance. Let the critical distance is Xc at which TI = Tz (Fig. 3.22b)

2 hi + .-'c - 2 hi tan ipc = Xc ...(3.128)
\',,;COSlpC
I' V p-') Vp l
or 2h, - 2hl(l-cos2 ipc) = x (~-~ I

vpl cosipc vplcosipc cl Vpl Vp2)
or . -. "'pI
2hl cos lpc - Xc 1--
( vp2 J
Xc (l-sinipc)
or ...(3.129)
hi = 2 cosipc
X Vp2 -V pI
or ...(3.130)
hI =; J vp2 +vpl
3.10.2.2. Three layer soil medium. Consider a three-layered soil medium with compression wave veloci-
ties of layers 1, 2 and 3 as vp I , vp~ and vp 3 with the condition that v I < v , < v 3 (Fig. 3.23a). If S is a
')
"p p- p
source of disturbance, the direct wave travelling through layer 1 will arrive first at A, which is located
a small distance away from S. The travel time for this can be given by Eq. (3.121) as T I""x/vpl' At a
greater distance x, the first arrival will corresponds to the wave taking the path SDEB. The travel time
for this can be obtained from Eq. (3.123b) as
I2 2
X 2 hlVvp2 -V pI
T2 = -+ '
,vp2 vpl vp2

At a still larger distance, the rust arrival corresponds to the path SFGHIC. According to Snell's law
sini = vpl ...(J.131 )
sin ic2 ' vp2
vp2
sin ic2 = -;- ...( 1.132)
p3
v pI .--vp2 - vpI
Therefore,
sin; = vp2 vp3 vp3
'~-"':'~",F"'" '~')""~ ',",;" ,,' '
Wave Propagation in an Elastic, Hom~geneous and Isotropic Medium 99
The equation of the time of arrival, TJ for the wave from S to C,through thirdlayerjs
TJ
= 2 hI
.+
2 I?
. +
x -2 ~ tani - 2 I? tan ie2
" .
vpl cos I vp COSle2 vpJ .
Substituting the values of cos i and cos le2from Eqs. (3.132) & (3.133) in eq, (3. 134). We get
,
TJ = -x +,
2hl~v;J-v;1
, +
2~~v;J-V;2 .
,..( 1,35)
v v v v v '
, pJ pJ pI .pJ p2
s A B
...
LaY<lr 1
vp1
ic1 = sin-1 (vp1 /vp2) h1
si n-1 (v P1 / v P3 )
(} ., ,
'--",'~"'_: , .
.'. ',..
, . ~ ,...' .E " . "..-' "
-
'
,
,
IC2=stn,
.-1 (
vp2 vp31) I LaY<lr
I 1 hl
vp2
,f' ,.. .' ,.. ,
-' . .,,
"',' ,.,.; ',':,:,.":",, .,.~,
'# " " . ,
,~.'~.., .', -,:' ~-.', Or< ,:' : ,.. ,"
: 'Layer: 3 ",
(a) Vp3
Ray °¿¬¸-
. C" .
...
" -" - ~,
-- -,---.,
tII
,~ T3i
----- ., , ' 'I
II
I
...
I
0 I I
>
. I .1
t.
0
TZi
'
I I
I
I
... I
\J\ I I
....
I I
u. : ,'1. ,.' ,I " ,I::
(b) ",'P;' "',~, ôòØ¢Ý´ùòÄ ,'. ,xC2 'Oistance,'x,.;.,j,.'..\;,

"!;"Time-dis'tan~e ,if' 1~i~.:t:ttf ".t., gi;!:o, ,~. tf."'.l ,:1 ,'. ,.t'.:,)~-1" .FJ~v~~\ '-:',:.,: ,; c;"
""','- """"",y-.,: I"",~"P.<:~ ~"",L :.4;,;"..,.,..,., ;.,.,.",',' ',..""";-..,, ,,"')J';"""';"-'-""~"" (er ",.1.
,,"" ",."., , .;:,<;( 1:,..",,'d~.J ";""<::~"-'~'>;J!Lf""}Wd,Ll;),I;>",.q"i'1> ~.,..if"""":.;'i:' ,..,l1.".~.1 !U --<;,.'" ,rf::;.:.tj.",.ff' ,I,-,JJ..J. ~.J\J,', J,c.di;'
, ," ,Flg..3~~3..:"'~efraction shooting an three layered sod medium, "..' ,,~' .
.' :,.\:.';~t<:,".. . ,,'," ' . '",.
"
.._~ "" , , ,.." " ", "..
100 Soil Dynamic..& Machine Foundations
The records of geophones placed at various distances from the source may be plotted on time versus
distancegraph as shown in Fig. 3.23 b. The line OA corresponds to Eq. (3.121), OB to Eq. (3.123 b), and
BC to Eq. (3.135): The thickness of the fIrst layer can be obtained either by Eq. (3.127) us-ingintercept
timeT2i or by Eq. (3.130) using critical distance xci' The thickness of the second layer h2can be obtained
by the two approaches as given below:
Intercept time: (Fig. 3.23)
2 hI cosi 2 ~ cosic2
TJ i = + ...(3.136 a)
vpl vp2
or vpJ vp2
h2 = .!.
2 T3'I 2 hl~V~3 - V~I ...(1.37)
V
p J Vp l . ~2
( } V vpJ - vp2
Critical distance: (Fig. 3.23)
At distance xc2' T2 = T3 . Therefore .
x
-£f.. + 2 - vpI
2 hI~ vp2 2 - vpI
x + 2 hI~ vpJ
2 = -£f.. 2 + 2 ~ ~ vpJ - vp2
2
...(1.38)
vp2 vpl vp2 vp3" vp3 vpl vpJ vp2
or h =
.
xc2
v
p3
-v.
p2-
(
hl Vp2~V~3-V~I-Vp3~V~2-V~I
)
...(1.139)
2 2' vp3 +v p2 Vpl ~ vp3
2 -vp22
:':"'~"'.: :,,"..;-', :,:':,'~',".:.:':.".:

......
..
Layer 11 vp1 toI
E
....
La yer 2 I vp2
0
>
~
~
0
Scigment n
....
IJI
~ Slope=1/vpn
u.
Sczgment 1
Layer n, vpn Slope = 1/ vp1
Di stance Jx
(a) Ray paths (b) Time-distance plot
Fig. 3,24 : Refraction shooting In multilayer soil
3.10.2.3. Multi/ayer soil system. If there are n number oflayers, the fIrst arrival time at various distances
from the sources of disturbance will pl~t as shown in Fig. 3.24. There ~iII be n segments on the t versus
x plo,t. Using either intercept time or critical distance ~pp~oac~,the thickness of various layers can be
",!",,;,1"1 ¢òþå þþæôòþþþþôôùæôô¶¢ùòòº¢
. J
u
Wave,Propttgatioll in all Elastic,-HolIIfIgelleous alld Isotropic Medium 101
obtained by detennining hI, h2"""'" hn - 1 in sequence. The general equation can be written as : -
Tni vpn Vp(n-l) Vpn vp(n-l) "j=n-2h_ ´ÁóÔ

hn - 1 =~
2 v~n - v p(n-l)
2 2 - Vp(n-l)
~ Vpn 2 ~j=1 Ö
iv- Pi Vpn
2
...(3.140)
The eq. (3.140) is based on intercept time approa,ch.
3.10.2.4. Sloping layer system. Fig. 3.25 a shows two soil layers. The interface of soil layers 1 and 2 is
inclinedat an angle 0.with respect to horizontal.The rays such as ABCDmakingthe criticalangle ipc
(sin ipc = Vp/Vp2)wIth the normal to the refractor, take the shortest time from A to D and are therefore
first arrivals.
Zd
Referring Fig. 3.25 a, - AB = Cl = cos ipc ...(3.141)
DK = x sin et ...(3.142)
- DK x sin a
ID = . = . (3.143)
COSlpc COSlpc
CD = (Zd + x .sin a) ...(3.144)

cos Ipc -
AK = EG = x cos a ...(3.145)
EB = Zd tan ipc ...(3.146)
- CG = (Zd + x sin a) tan ipc (3.147)
If we assume that point A to be the energy source and D the detector station, the time from A to D
for the ray ABCD, i.e. the downdip time T2d is
AB BC -CD
T 2d = -+-+- ...(3.148)
vpl vp2 vpl
= Zd + x cos a - Zd tanipc';"(Zd + x sin a) tan ipc + Zd + x sin a ...(3.149)

vplcosipc vp2 vplcosipc
2 Zd cos ipc x . .
or T 2d = vp I +-sm(lpc+a)
v I ...(3.150)
p-
The Eq. (3.150) represents a straight line with slope sin (ipc + a)/vp\, and whenx = 0, intercept is T2 d;'
. 2 zd cos ipc
where Tu; =- ...(3.151)
-- -. vpl
The apparent velocitYvpll s~ (ipc +a) is equal to vp2sin i pc I sin (ipc+ a) and is smaller than the
true velocity vp2since ~in ipcI sin (i pc+ a ) < 1.0
- '0-' ,
.~.. ~; "".:u ;. 1H.:;;..r..,JII.
R
102 SoU Jiynamics '& Machine FtlflllilawnS':
:/: ;;";:;';:;'~"
It --i
I-
A
hu
'..,
(a) Ray paths
.' ':,
""-,:,,,-
..
-
e
0
>
-:;; T2ui
...
T2di I
"
I
I
I
.
11incrtosing tor Td
Distance.-
Itcu
x increasing
. tor Tu
!~ " ,""', ;, ,--:--' ...'

. ;,
Fig. 3.25 : RefractloD'Surveyjn soiis \vit~~~~n~~dJ.a!erin1:; .. ,
I ~
/tJ1Iehopagatioll in an Elastic, Homogeneous and Isotropic Medium 103
For up-dip recording the equation of-time can be obtained by replacing Zd by Zu' and a by - a ,then
'e get, .
= 2zu cos ipc + -'- sin (ipc - a ) -
-x -
T ...(3.152 a)
2u '
vpl vpl
In this caSe, apparent velocity is vI/sin (ipe - et.) which is equal to v2 sin ipjsin (ipe - a) . This
elocity will be greater than the true velocity vp2
For x = 0, intercept is T 2ui' where

2Zu cos ipe
T2ui = .t3.152 b)
vpl
T2divpI
, Therefore, Zd = ...(3.153 a)
2 cos ipe
, ,
h = T2divpi
...(3.153 b)
d 2 cosipc cos a
Z = Tu; vpI
...(3.154 a)
u 2 cos ipe
h = Tu; vpi
...(3.154 b)
u 2 cos ipccos et.
The vertical depths hd and hu can be obtained by dividing Zd and Zu by cos a.
For critical distances: (Fig. 3.25 b)
xed = 2 Zd cos ipe + xed sin (ipe + a) ...(3.155)

vpl vpl vpl
xcd {I-sin (ipc +a)}

Zd = 2' ...(3.156)
COSlpe
or c :
h ,. =, Xcd{l-sin(ipc+a}
...(3.157)
d 2 cosipccosa -
h = Xcu {1- sin(ipc- a}

similary ...(3.158)
,iU . 2cosipc COSa. .
It'is evident from Eq. (3.150), that apparent down
,,-
dip velocity in the second layer is given by
\
",'
',,'". Y" p J
...(3.159)
',}'\" ' - Yu ':=::":sin(iF'~ a.,>
~. r """"', -'
if .." (
',' p, "~;I?-.J'}'I'~ I !;;~9~.titIi)2~JV;;{!f~.),~ -!", ~'>"Hi! co..;', nb:; ,':'-

'.
.--
104 So,il l)ynamics. & .M~dJine ,Foundatio/l
Similarly the apparent up dip velocity will be

vpl
...(3.16f
v2u = sin Upc- a)
The true velocity vp2 in the refractor can be derived as follows:
v
sin Upc+ a) = 1 = sin ipccos a + cos ipc sin a ...(3.16'
Vu
v 1
sin (ipc - a) = ~= sin ipccos a - cos ipcsin a ...(3.16.
v2u
v I v I
or 2 sin i cos a. = ~ + J!...... ...(3.16
pc
Vu v2u
V I
or 2 --L- cos et = vpl(vU +v2u) ,:
sin ipc = VPI ...(3.16
vp2 Vu Vu ( vp2 ]
V V
or V = 2 cos a. 2u 2d ...(3.16
p'
- v2u+ Vu
3.10.2.5. Refraction in a medium having continuous change of speed with depth. The problem may
solved by dividing the strata in infinitesimally thin members i.e. layers and each of higher speed than t
above (Fig. 3.26).
VK-2
~Z K-l VK-1
v
~ZK K
~ Z K+1 VK+1
v
K+2
Vmax
Fig. 3.26: Refraction s~rvey in soil having continuous change of velocitywith depth
105
Wave Propagation in an Elastic, Homogeneous and Isotropic Medium
The solution may be obtained for a given velocity-depth functions such as

v = v0 + k'z ...(3.166)
'
where v = speed at depth z

v0 = speed at zero depth
k' = constant
For any particular ray there will be a layer having a speed v max in which the path becomes horizontal.
Therefore vmax is actually a parameter that itself identifies the particular ray under consideration.
Consider kth layer:
Travel Time for passing the ray through kth layer
~Z k =
A
T - ~Zk ...(3.167)
°k--'
vk cos ik
r-.
1
. 2.
vkV1-sm ik
. . -1 vk ...(3.168)
( -----
As ik = SIn
vrnax)
,, ,
~k
2
.. l ...(3.169)
~Tk = Vk1/1- ( vrnax)
Horizontal distance traversed by this ray in kth layer
t:!.xk = /).Zk tanik ...(3.170 a)
~
vrnax
j3.170 b)
or '
~xk =~Zk
Ft 1--
2
vk
2
vrnax
Total time for a wave to travel through N-such layers:
N ~
...(3.171)'
~
t=L, k 2
k=\
vk 1 1------
Vk
Vrnax )
and net horizontal distance
N ~Zkl
vrnaX ...(3.1n)
x = t;-I1- l 2
( vrnax) '
According to Snell's law:

sinik = ~ ...(3.173)
sin 90 vrna.x ,
""l. ='-.sinik = sinio ,. = p"(constant) ray parameter.

v rnax ' -vk --"'~"'-~'O N'" ~
'o!.;I"',
.. ;, . it, ,:> ,il M 4,::.~(; 1,~ ','"kP 'i",1iII '~f'A.!iftoj ,~qn '..' ., .; 115!.; k :;"", ) t
--"
Considering v~locity-depth function i.e. v = Vo+ KZ, and replacing vk by V and lIvrnaxby p.
Zmu .
...(3.174)
t = !.~1 ~V
Z
and
x=
r v~l-ii
0
pv dZ ...(3.175)
Zmax
then ...(3.176)
J pv dZ
t = 0 (vo+k'z)~I-p2(vo+k'z)2
Zmax
and
x =
p(vo+k'z}dz J ...(3.177)
0 ~1-p2(vo+k'z)2
Integration of the above two expressions are as under:
- 1 2 2 \12 2 ' 2 1/2
x - - [(I - p Vo) - {I- p ( Vo+ k z) } ] ...(3.178)
k'p
and 1 (vo+k'z) (I+~I-

t = -In i v~)
...(3.179)
k'
)
.
Vo 1+ ~2
I-p (vo+k'z) 2
(
Equation of x can be written as.:
2
~ 1- iv~ Vo 2 1
...(3.180)
( x- k'p ) + ( z+/1 ) = k,2 i
This is a equation of a circle of radius 1/ k'p and centre at - Vo/ k' and ~1- iv~ / k' p from x and
z axis respectively. Figure 3.27 a shows a family of such circles for a number of rays having different
angles of immergence into the earth.
-- C, C2 C3 Cl. ----
Line of centers
Vo
"'%'
~
k'
)(
e>+
Surface of ~a rth x
'\-~
\~
(a) Ray paths

Fig. 3.27 : Ray paths and time distance curve for linear Increase of speed with depth (...CoDtd.)
- -
'~~'
~~

. (a) Ray paths
r-
to!
E
. h-1 Kx'
r- T= -K'2 Sin
2vo
Distance.. x
(b) Time-distance plot
Fig. 3.27 : Ray paths and time distance curve for linear increase of speed with depth
1 V
Radius of circle = k' p = k~ +Zmax ...(3.181)
or r vo
zmax= k'p -F ...(3.182 a)
,
vo vo sinio
= k'sini 0 -F ' p=-
,{ Vo }
'
or Z =. '\lo (co t) ...(J.182 b)
max ,1C' sec 107"
Putting the value of Z as zmaxin Eqs. (3.178) imd (3.179) and eliminating p using Eq. (3.181), we get
t ~ 3. In v. -, (1 +
k
~ p'
Vo
v~ )
l.+ ~( VV~
J
2
= -In
2 vl114Jt
'
l v1-l~) ) ...(3.183 Cl)
k \In
,
2v vo' 2 ~
v/\ .
X =.:..:..nwl 1- =~ cot 10 ...(3.183b)
.ok. ~
~
)
. ( vmax, k.
where '\ k ' Z
Vmax = Vo+ . ~
'- \; "... . " ...(3.184)
);' '! .1' "~L
," .
-
#
h
108 Soil Dynamics & Mllchine Foundatitlas.
The time-distance relation for a such a circular ray between entry into and emergence from the earth
can be obtained-by eliminating p and z from Eqs. (3.178) and (3.179). This can be expressed as
- 1- Sinh-I k' x ...(3.185)

T - kt. 2v0
The time-distance curve applying for a linear increase of speed with depth is shown in Fig. 3.27b.
The mverse slope of the time-distance curve at any point is equal to the velocity at the depth of maximum
penetration for the ray reaching the surface at that point.
3.11 TYPICAL VALUES OF COMPRESSION WAVE AND SHEAR WAVE VELOCITIES
Some typical values of compression wave and shear wave velocities (vp and vs)are given in Table 3.1
Table 3.1 : Compression and Shear Wave Velocities
i.iaterial vp,m/s Vs' m/s
1. Moist clay and Wet Soils 600-1750 80-160

2. Sand 300-800 100-500 .
3. Sand stone 1500-4500 750-2200
4 Lime stone 3500-6500 1800-3800
5. Granite 4600- 7000 2500-4000
I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES t
"~'Xamp'" 3.1
Wave pro{Ju".,'Jtiontests were conducted near Mathura Refinery, Mathura, for determining the insitu ve
locities of wave propagation and dynamic elastic moduli. Seismic waves were generated by the impact (
a h:':PlHlcrfalling through a height of 2.0 m. Two geophones were placed in the ground respectively.
I.Om and 5.0 m from the source. The analysis of data gave the velocity of compression wave, Vp as 3C
mIs. The soil at the site was cohesionless and the position of water table was at 1.0 m depth below tJ
ground surface. Determine E, G, VSand vr'
Solution:
1. Assume suitable values of Poisson ratio, ).1.and submerged density of soil, Pb say
).1.= 0.25 and Pb = 1000 Kg/m3
2. From Eq. (3.64)
V
î
=-A+2G
pP
Putting the values of A and G from Eqs. (3.8) and (3.9) in the above equation, we get
p(I+).1.)(1-2).1.) 2
E = (1-).1.). vp
- 1000(1+0.25)(1-2 x 0.25) x (300)'2 - 2
- (1-0.25) . - 76453000 N/m
= 76453 kN/m 2
- -~. LiIIiIft 11 -
ve Propagation in an Elastic, Homogeneous and Isotropic Medium 109
From Eq. (3.9)
G = E - 76453
2(1 + J.!)- 5(1+ 0.25) = 30581kN/m2
2 1- 2 J.! 1- 2 x 0.25 1
3. From Eq. (3.103), Cl = 2 - 2 J.1= 2 - 2 x 0.25 = 3"
From eq. (3. 105),
6 4 2 2 1.
~ - 8 ~ - (16 Cl - 24 ) ~ - 16 (1
" - Cl ) =0
For J.1= 0.25
3 ~6- 24 ~4 + 56 ~2- 32 =' 0
or (~2 - 4 ) (3 ~4 - 12 ~2+ 8) = 0
2 2 2
Therefore, ~ =2 2+- 2--
. ' J3' J3
2
s 2
From Eq. (3.112), 2" =1-~ ,,
n
For ~2 = 2 and (2 + 21 J3), value of sIn will work out imaginary. Therefore
~2 = (2-2/J3) = 2 - 1.155 = 0.845

2 2 1
Cl ~ = 0.845 x 3" = 0.282
From Eq. (3.100), 2L =~a2~2 =0.531

vp
vI" =300 x 0.531 = 160rnls
From Eq. (3.1~1), vI" = JP2 = .J0.854 = 0.9192

Vs
r 160
Vs = 0.9192 = 0.9192 = 174 rn/s
Example 3.2
The data of a refractor test is given below:
Distance of Geophones Travel Time
from Source (m) (milli s)
0 0
4 2
8 4
12 6
20 8
25 . :J 9
'. ..
Determine the depth of the refractor using time"intercept approach and critical distance approach.
,- dO"dd~ 0'_-"""",
'<~iL:
ò òòòù
äþ
ôòòùò ù
þ ù ô ù½ ùåùôù¢ù
óó þó òô óòòòòò ó óóòóó
110 Soil DyntUllics & Machine FoundlZlUJr.
Solution:
1. The data given in the example has been plotted on time-distance graph as shown i
Fig. 3.28. From this figure,.
10
-u
1/,
- 6
E
.......
""./,
""."'" ,
~
//
E
1--
41- ""."'" //
I
.r ."
I
""./ I
I
'2i I
I
2 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
0 ,xc
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Distance (m)
Fig. 3.28: Time-distance plot for the data given In example 3.2
. Also,
TZi = 0.003 and Xc = 12 m.
12
vpl = 0.006 = 2000 mls
8 '
vp2 = 0.002 = 4000 mls

2. From time-intercept approach (Eq. 3.127)
h = Tu vpl vp2
I 2 vp2-vpl2
42
= 0.003 x 2000 x 4000 = 3.46 ID

.' 2~4oo02_-20002.{
';....
3. From critical distance approach (Eq. 3. 130)

x Vp2-VpI
hi =.{ J vp2 -v pI
= Q2 ~/4000-2000
4000+2000 = 3'.46 m
Example 3.3
In Fig. 3.29, determine the time of the flIst arrival wave from source Sand geophone G.
30m ~
..Is ~
t 5.0 m = 500 m I sec.
Vp1
-t
,.
10.0 m vp2 ~=~ 2000 mlsec
J
vp3 = 3000 mlsec
Fig. 3.29 : Data for example 3.3
Solution:
(i) Arrivaltime T 1 of the direct surfacewave = ~I = :o~ = 0.06S

(ii) Arrival timeT2 of refracted wave fro~ flIst layer (Eq. 3.124 b)
=-+ v -v
x
Vp2
2hl ~ p2
Vpl Vp2
2 2
pi
30 2x5 ~ 2 2
= 2000 + 500 x 2000 "2000 -500 = 0.015 + 0.01936
= 0.03445 .'
(fU) Arrival time T) of refracted wave from second layer (Eq. 3.135)
=-+x 2hl~v~) -V~l + 2~ ~v~) - V~2

~) ~)~l ~)~2
302 x 5~30002 -5002 2 x 10~30002-20002
= 3000 + 3000 x 500 + 3000 x 2000
= 0.01 + 0.01972 + 0.00745 : ..
= 0.03715 s
M_inimum ~avel ~e ~, O:O~'f4, .s:' ; -. -," \
" ; ;" i: '-.' .
,'.'
-
"
Example 3.4
Between two points A and B (Fig. 3.30) two seismic refraction tests were performed and the data ob-
tained is given below: .
Source at A Source at B
Distance of Travel time Distance of Travel time

Geophones (milli sec) Geophnes (milli sec)
from A (m) form B (m)
0 0 0 0
5 3.1. 5 3.1
10 6.3 10 6.1
15 9.4 15 9.3
20 12.6 20 11.1
25 . 15.0 25 12.9
30 15.9 30 14.8
35 16.5 35 16.5
Determine the slope of the refractor, depth of refractor at points A and B, and the two velocities using
critical distance approach and time intercept approach.
A ~B
r Vp1
hu
Vp2
Fig. 3.30: Sloping layer (example 3.4)
Solution:
1. Plot the data on time-distance graph as shown in Fig. 3.31. In this figure
. 15
vp 1 = Inverse slope of AC ==9.4 x 10- 3 = 1600 mIs, or
10
= Inverse slope of BE = 6.1 x 10-3 = 1640 m/s
Adopt vpl
,;' "1600+ 1640 = 1620
2 .""
~s
. ,35 ',. .~.
v2u = Inverse slope of CD = (16.5-11.2) x 10-3 ~ 6603 m/s

~~.
Wave Propagation in an Elastic, Homogeneous and Isotropic Medium 113 J

'~
I
35
Vu = Inverse slope of EF = 3 = 2756 m/s
(16.5-3.8) x 10-
T2u; = 11.2 x 1O-3s,Xcu= 23.5 m
Tu; = 3.8 x 1O-3s,xcd = 14.75 m
18
D
16
"-
".-'-
'" "...-
14 I I
..........
12 l-- ..........
..........
I , ,
..-
.......... I
T2ui I
,.....
u 10 I
CII
'"
-.--
I
I
,I
-
E
CiIJ
8 i.
"-
"-
E
.- "-
t- "-
6
"-
,,
"-
"-
4
"
T2di
2 3.8 sec
Distance (m)
Fig. 3.31 : Time-distance plot for the data given in example 3.4
- '~--. - ~--~.. ~,-.---

114
Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundation$.
. v I 1600
2. FromEq. (3.160),sm(i - a) = ...L = - = 0.2423
pc vzu 6603 .
or
ipc- a = 14°
From Eq. (3.159), Sin (i + a) = vpl = 1600 = 0.5805

pc vZd 2756
or ipc + a = 35.5°
Therefore, ipc = 24.7° and a = 10.75°

3. Time-intercept approach:
From Eqs. (3.153b) and (3.154b)
hd- - TZdivpl
2 cosi pc cosa
3.8 x 10-3 x 1620

= 2cos24.7°coslO.75° = 3.4 m
h = TZujVpl
u 2 cosi pc cos a
- 11.2 x 10-3 x 1620

- 2 cos 24.7° cos 10.75° = 10.03 m
4. Critical distance Approach
From Eqs. (3. 157) and (3. 158)
xcd {1-sin(ipc +a)}

hd = 2 cos ipccos a
14.75(1-0.5805)
= 2 cos 24.7° cos 10.75° = 3.4 m
Xcu {1- sin (i pc - a)}
h =
u 2 cos ipc cos a
- 23.5(1- 0.2423)
- 2 cos 24.7° cos 10.75° =9.97 m
. vzu vZd 6603 x 2756

5: True velocIty (Eq. 3.165), vp2 = vzu +v2d 2 cos a = 6603+2756 x2 x cos 10.75°
= 3820 m/se£~
" .. .' ~I ...,.. ;;" ::

,"".~,
Wave Propagation i" a" Elastic, Homogeneous and Isotropic Medium 115
Example 3.5
Following is the data obtained from a seismic refraction test
Geophone No. Distance from Shot Point Travel Time
(m) (rriilli sec)
GO ... O' 0
Gl 100 200
G2 200 399
G3' 300 592
G4 400 780
G5 500 .963
G6 600 1138
G7 700 1306
G8 800 1465
G9 900 1618
GI0 1000 1763
Assuming that the velocity is varying linearly with depth, determine the values of depth of deepest
point of the wave paths from ground surface corresponding to the waves reachtng to geophones G7 and
G9. Also determine the coefficient 'K' in both cases.
Solution:
(i) Initial velocity, vo = 200100

x 10-3 = 500 m/s
Velocity of the wave reaching to geophone G7 i.e.
200
v = = 611 m/s
7 (1465 -1138) x IO-~
(ii) Similarly
.. . - . -I 500 - 54 90
'0 - Sill . 611 - .
2vo .
From Eq. (3.183), I K' = -cot '0
x
= 2 x 500 cot 54.9 ° = 1 0
700 .
From Eq. (3.182 b)
~ 500
Zmax= k' (cosec io - 1) = 1.0 (cosec 54.9° - 1) = I11m
(iii) Similarly
200
v = = 671m/ s
9 (1763-1465) x 10-3
. . -I 500 0
'0 ~ Sill . 671=48.16
2 Vo cot io 2 x 500 cot 48.16°
.k' = ~ = 900 = 0.995
.- Zmtu:=.f,(cosec io-1) = 0~::5 (cosec48~16°-1)= 172m
.. ..;..' "."," .'."-. .:,

~~-= ~~..
116 Soil sy,..",ics & MlIchilre Fo""dations
zo
-
u
Q,/
\1'1
-
'E , 10
~
E
~
5 10 15 20 25
Distance (m)
Fig. 3.32 : Time distance plots
Hardin, B.O. and Richart,F. E.,Jr. (1963), "Elastic wave velocities in granular soils," J. Soil, Mech. Found. Engg.
Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Engg. , vo\. 89, SM-I, pp. 33.65.
Kolsky, H. (1963). "Stress waves in solids." Dover, New York.
Lamb, H. (190.:l), "On the propOlgationof tremors over the surface of an elastic solid," Philos. Trans. Royal Soc.
London, Ser. A. 203, pp. 1-42.
Milton, O.B. (1960). "Introduction to geophysical prospecting", McGraw-Hill, New York.
Parasnis, D.S. (1962). "Principles of appliedgeophysics",Methuen.
Rayleigh,L. ( 1885), "On wavespropagatedalong the plane surfaceof an elastic solid." Proc. London Math. Soc..
vol. 17, pp. 4-1 \.
Richart F.E., Jr. (1962), "Foundation vibrations". Trans. Am. Soc. Civ Engg., vo!. 127 , Part I. pp. 863-8lJ8.
Timoshenko, S. and Goodier, J.N.(1951), "Theory of elasticity", McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc., Tokyo.
---
Wave Propagation in an Elastrc, Homogeneous and Isotropic Medium 117
I "
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
. ?.1 Explain the generation of (a) compression wave, (b) shear wave and (c) Rayleigh wave. Describe
their relative magnitudes.
--. " . . " 0 ,, ,0'
. .}.2; ~scijb~ t,he)V.aveprppag~tion in an infinite, homogeneous, isotropic and elastic medium.

.' 7.",3.3""AssumingPoisson'S"rntioif(J.t-
jas-tt35'and"denslt)r ofs'oifils1800'kgliri3 ,dete~i~~ E:G::~
~ ~~d
vr if compression wave velocity is 450 mls.
3.4 What are the informations obtained by a seismic survey? Give its economic aspects.
3.5 Give precisely the three principles which makes the basis of Seismic wave propagation theory,
3.6 A shot is fired at the ground surface on a particular"location and 'observations from-geophories
gave the fol~owing,data.
Distance of Gephone Travel Time
from shot point (m) "'(MiIli sec)
.. ~
5 42.50
10 85.00
15 127.50
20 170.00
25 187.50 c ~~;
30 197.50
40 215.00
Plot the time-distance graph and determine

(i) Velocities of two layers
(ii) Values of E and G of. the two layers assuming ,
~ = 0.25
(iii) Time intercept and critical distance, , '
(iv) Depth of layer,,' from.time intercept

.'
and criticcit"distance
.
(v) Verification of travel time for 30'm geophone.
3.7 Prove that in a dipping layer interface trajectory based on tritical angle~ giv~ sho'rt~st' time. "
3.8 In a dipping interface travel time-distance plot is' obtained as shO\vn in FIg. 3::n. Deteimine the
following: .; , '
(a) Apparent velocities

(b) Slope of interface
(c) Depth of layer at points A and B using critical distance concept
(d) Depth of layer at points A and B using time intercept concept
(e) True velocity V2
00
"-' - u -- ._. ,-- - ~--~.,.........

~. .' -:-?
.:
DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES
4.1 GENERAL
The problems involving the dynamic loading of soils can be divided into two categories:
(i) Having large strain amplitude response-Strong motion earthquakes, blasts and nuclear explosions
can develop large strain amplitudes of the order of 0.01% to 0.1%, and
(ii) Having small strain amplitude respon~e-Foundationsof the machines have usually low strain ampli-
tude ofthe order of 0.0001%to 0.001%.
The soilproperties which are needed in analysis and design of a structuresubjected to dynamic loading
are:
(a) Dynamic moduli, such as Young's modulus E, shear modulus G, and bulk modulus K
(b) Poisson's ratio J.1
(c) Dynamic elastic constants, such as coefficient of elastic uniform compression CII' coefficient of
elastic uniform shear Ct, coefficient of elastic non-uniform Compression C$ and coefficient of elas-
tic non-uniform shear C'p'
(d) Damping ratio~.
(e) Liquefaction parameters, such as cyclic stress ratio, cyclic deformation and pore pressure response.
if) Strength-deformation characteristics in terms of strain rate effects.
Since the dynamic properties of soils are strain dependent various laboratory and field techniques have
been developed to measure these properties over a wide range of strain amplitudes.
4.2 LABORATORY TECHNIQUES .
The laboratory methods used for determining the dynamic properties of soils are:
(I) Resonant column test,
(ii) Ultrasonic pulse test,
. (iii) Cyclic simple shear test,
(iv) Cyclic torsional simple shear test, and
(v) Cyclic triaxial compression test.
"/-"
'm
,-, ..,
Jynamic Soil Properties' 119
t.2.1. Resonant Column Test. The resonant columntest isused to obtain the elastic modulusE, shearmodu..;
IusG and damping characteristics of soils at Iow strain amplitudes.This test is based on the theory of wave
propagation in prismatic rods (Richart, Hall and Woods, 1970).Either a cyclically varying axial load or tor-
sionalload is applied to one end of the prismatic or cylindrical ~pecimenof soil. This in turn willpropagate
either a compression wave or a shear wave in the specimen. In this technique the excitation frequency gen-
erating the wave is adjusted until the specimen experiencesresonance. The value of the resonant frequency
is used in getting the value ofE and G depending on the type of the excitation (axial or torsional).
The resonant column technique was used for testing of soils by many investigators (Ishimoto and Iida,
1937;lida, 1938, 1940;Wilson and Dietrich, 1960;Hardin and Richart, 1963;Hall and Richart, 1963;Hardin
and Music, 1965;Drnevich, 1967;Anderson, 1974;Lord et ai, 1976;Woods, 1978).Severalversionsof tor-
sional resonant column device using different end conditions to'conc;traintthe tt'st specimen are available.
Some common end conditions used in developing the equipment are discussed below:
(I) Fixed-free: Hall and Richart (1963) described the apparatus with fixed-free end c~ndition. In this
arrangement one end of the specimen is fixed against rotation and the other end is free to rotate under the
applied torsion (Fig. 4.1a). A node occurs at the fixed end and the distnbution of angular rotatione along the
specimenis a 1/4sinewave. '
., ,
x e ~l, t) Y" :'" X
80,t) e(l,t)
/
/, iJ
J / /
/ J
/ ' //«Y4SintZ wavtZ
I.
/. ~
~--
~
/A 8 e
~/ (0) J/Jo =00 (b) J/Jo=O.S
Fig. 4.1 : Schematic of resonant column with fixed-free end conditions
(After Hardin, t 970 and Drnevich, t 967)
As shown in Fig. 4.1b, by adding a mass at the free end, the variation of e along the specimenbecomes
nearly linear. J and Jo are respectively'the polar moment of inertias of the specimen and the added mass
respectively.Dmevich(19~7)usedthe ~oncePtof addedmasstoobtaina uniformstraindistribution'throughout
the length of the specimen. .
(il) Spring-base model: Figure 4.2 shows the configu~ationof an apparatus which canbe described as
,
the spring.:.basemodel. ,Depending on the stiffness of the spring compared to specimen's stiffness, it can
represent either fIXed-free airangem~nt,~rfree-freeconfiguration.In the case when the springis stiff in com-
, parison ~ospecimen, the configuI'~ti,~~may ~~~onsideredas fix~d-free. In such a case, a nodewill occur at
mid height
,
of the specimen,
"
and,"".',the distribution
"
of angular rota~on would then
. ,
be a 1/2cosine wave.
. -.
"";t""' "".,', ".'. ,..,..,0.;", t<.'.I ,~" "-;::";"":"~'~;""
'-:;""'J1J.)'.IJ'..~",. ',';.;'Ii..:o.",:,:L.."f,i;.'i{}I.,,'il., :.'1'\II ,:-,\
~ 'r,- '-:--:.
~'I.''. -;
----
- ,-, ",- ~=. ::'::::,=:T
-
if~
'~
½±²²»½¬»¼ to platen
passiv<z <znd platczn
Soil sp<zcimen
Activll Ilnd platen
/ W<zightl<z"sc;torsional spring
f.- ~
~~
WQ:ightlQ:ss torsional da shpot
"
portion of vibration Q:xcitation dllvicll

{ rigidly connQ:ctlld to platlln
Wllightlllc;c;longitudinal dashpot
~
L:';9hil...longitudinal spring
Fig. 4.2 : Schematic of resonant column with spring-base model (Woods, 1978)
(iil) Fixed-partially restrained: Figure 4.3 showsthe configurationof an apparatusin which the top cap
is partially restrained by springs acting against an inertial mass. The apparatus used by Hardin and Music
(1965) is of this type. " "
Dmevich (1967, 1972) developed a hollow cylinder apparatus as shown in Fig. 4.4 to study the effect
of shear strain amplitude on shear modulus and damping. It may be noted that in the usual torsional reso-
nant column test, the shear strain is not constant but varies from zero at the centre of the sample to a
maximum at the outer surface. In hollow specimen, the variation in shearing strain acrossthe thickness of
the cylinder wall becomes relatively very small. The configuration of this apparatus is similar to Fig. 4.1b
and therefore the shearing strain is almost uniform along the length of specimen. Using Drnevich's appa-
ratus, Anderson(1974) tes.tedclaysupto 1% shearingstrainand Woods(1978)testeddense sandsupto shear-
ing strainof 0.5%.
4.2.1.1. Calibration and determination olG and~. Hardin (1970) suggested the following procedure of
calibration of the apparatus described in Fig. 4.1b:
(I) For this model the vibration excitation device itself, without a specimen attachedis a single degree
of freedom system.Firstly remove the specimen cap and the additional rigidmass, connect the sine
wave generator to the vibration excitation device and vary the excitation frequency to determine
the resonant frequencyf"I of the device. .
(il) Attach the additionalrigid mass of polar momentof inertia Jo' and determinetheresonantfrequency
!"A of the new system.
';C~
ynamic Soil Properties 121
Driving \, ~
for C(l --~
. Sp(lcimqn. non- rigid

dis'turbqd mass
" .
'"
~Fixqd
Fig. 4.3 : Schematic of resonant column with fixed-partially restrained

'.
end conditions (Woods, 1978)
The rotational spring constant (torque per unit rotation), Ko,of the spring about the axis of specimen
can be obtained using Eq. 4.1.
Ko = ;1t
1-
2
-
InA
J Ai
:
1"2
n
...(4.1)
( 1nl )
(iii) With the added mass removed and with the specimen cap, specimen and all apparatus, determine
the resonant frequency/"0' The value of mass polar moment of inertia of the rigid mass, Jocan be
computed using Eq. 4.2.
"Ko '
. Jo = 41tln20
;,/,-
.0 ".
... -
"'-_'__.0"'_"-
122 Soil Dynamics & Machil,e Foundations
Taring spring Long, LVDT
/ Rot .accelerometer
Rot.LVDT
.:,
Top 'cap lid
~,.:
,""
" 'I !:~j
, ..
.-:,.
"',,
'"
.~ '
M em branes
!:'.:
,': -.. ;
I,'
~,: ,
,,-. , '
~'. :
,'. ;:-'
~ . ". Sand
, ..
,-.. ",-
", ;' :-
~ . -,'
..:
I" '
I
'I. 'J pore-pressure transdueczr

..-
,'.,'
....- BoHom cap

To bae k
pressure
/
Fig, 4,4 : Hollow specimen resonant column apparatus (Ornevich, 1972)
Now at resonance cut off the power and record the decay curve for the vibration, From the decay curve
compute the logarithmic decrement for the apparatus, °A' as follows:
1 AI
0A = -n logeA- ...(4,3)
"
where AI = Amplitudeof vibrationfor thefirstcycle
An = Amplitude of vibration for the nth cycle.
Under steady state vibrations, the apparatus damping constant, DAis given by
- °A WT
DA - -"Ko
1t 10 ..,(4.4
.~
Dynamic Soil Properties 123
(iv) To measure the torque current constant, Kt' excite the apparatus successively at frequencies (J2 / 2)
/"0' .fi Ino and 2 Ino' During
the steady state vibration at each of these frequencies measure the
current flowing through the coils, C in amperes, and the displacement amplitude of vibration, e in
radians. For each frequency compute the torque-current constant Kt' as follows:
eKo
...(4.5)
~ = CMf
where Mfis given in Table 4.1

Table 4.1 : Value ofMf
Frequency Mf
- 2
. ()f..
. r.,
(.fi) 1110
I ,. y
2/110
-I
3
The value of Kt shall be taken as the average of three measured values. The three measured values
should not differ by more than 10%.
After calibration, the specimen shall be placed in the apparatus with minimum disturbance. A known
value of ambient pressure is applied as done in triaxial compression test. With the power as Iow as is prac-
tical, the resonant frequency of the system'/"R' is obtained by varying the frequency of excitation. At reso-
nant frequency, the amplitude of vibration, eR, in radians and the current flowing through the coils of the
vibration excitation device, CR are measured. Now the power is cut off and the record of decay curve for the
free vibration of the system with specimen is obtained. Using this decay curve, the value of the logarithmic'
decrement,Oscan be obtained employing Eq. (4.3). '
The procedure of obtaining G and ~has been explained in the following steps: f)
(i) Calculate the mass density of the specimen, p, from Eq. (4.6),
4W
...(4.6)
P= rtd2f g
where W = Total weightof specimen
I = Length of specimen
d = Diameter
-,
of specimen
. ~ ,- ,
g = Accelerationdue to gravity,
(it) Calculate the inertia of the spe~imen_ab<iut
its_~xis,J, as follows:
- , .,. 4 "
J=- 1t pd 1 ...(4.7)
32
,. ;-,
,'.
~.
124 SoU Dynamics cl Machine Foundations
(iii) Calculate the system factor, T ~s follows:

10
T = --- Ko
...(4.8)
I 41t21fni
where 10 = Mass polar moment of inertia of the apparatus, derIDedby Eq. (4.2).
Ko = Rotational spring constant, derIDed by Eq. (4.1)
1 = Inertia of the specimen, defined by Eq. (4.7)
fnR = Resonant frequency of the complete system.
(iv) Using Fig. 4.5, determine the dimensionless frequency F for the value ofT computed in step (iii).
100
SO
40 \
30 \
f- \
20
i\
""
~ 10
'I-
0
t>I
::I
5 " '"
0
4 - '-
> 3
- " """""
'"
2
..........
-
-- ...........
0.6 - I I I I I I I I
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
value of F
Fig. 4.5 : System factor T versus F
...(4.9
G = 4.2p (I,; ./)'
(v) For steadystatevibrations,the dampingfactorof the system,Ds is givenby
"- 1 KICR'
Ds - 2 2 2 --21tDA FnR ...(4.H
41t J ftiR ( ~~ ) i '
.,
,
.0
,0...
. .:~
----
'liS
DYllamic Soil Properties 125
(vi) Compute O/T . Using Fig. 4.6, determine the va.lue ofR corresponding to the value of T computed
in step (iii). Then damping ratio is given by
.8)
Os
~ = 0.5 TR ...(4.11)
(vii) For the free vibration method, using Fig. 4.7, determine the value of mode shape factor Cmfor the
value of T computed in step (iii)
100
ii).
50
11
20
~
10
01- ~,
0
~ I:
::I '11
!I
CJ
> !I
5
.(4.9)
0.7 -
4.10) 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

Value of R
Fig. 4.6 : System factor T versus R
~ --
126 Soil DYllamics & Mac/tille Fou1Idatio/ls
I' 100
so
I'
I1I
1'1
20
lil
.....
10
'+-
0
~
::J 5
I
! 0
>
I;
I:
11
2
jj
I,
I '
! I: 0.6
I Ii
I' 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03
value of CM
Fig. 4.7 : System factor T versus mode shape factor Cm
(viii) Compute the system energy ratio, S as follows:
<> 32Kol
S = 4 ...(4.12)
1tC",Gd
f The value of damping ratio ~ is then given by
I ~= ~[Os(l+S)-OA S] ...(4.13)
21t
I
4.2.2. Ultra Sonic Pulse Test. The theory of ultrasound is similar to that of audible sound. Sound is the
1 result of mechanical disturbance ora material; that is. a vibration. Ultrasonic pulses of either compression or
I shear waves can be generated and received by suitable' piezoelectric crystals. Using elastic theory, a rela-
I tionship between the speed of propogatiQn and wave amplitude of these waves and certain properties of the
I
I media through which they are travelling can be determined as follows:
2(1+11)(1-211)
...(4.14)
I E=pvc (1-jl)
I G -- pvs2 ...(4.15)
1
-l- .~
---
~~-
J..L-=
I-!
2
(
VC
Vs
) ...(4.16)
1-(::]'
~ 2.302 I Ao
u =- ogl0- ...(4.17)
n An
where Vc = Velocity of compression wave Vs = Velocity of shear wave
p. = Poisson's ratio E = Young'sModulus
G = Shear Modulus p = Mass density = y /g
() = Logarithmicdecrement Ao = Initial value of amplitude
An = Amplitude after n oscillations.
Lawrence (1963) described the basic apparatus required to measure the propagation velocities (i.e. Vc
and vs) through sand. Stephenson (1978) described an equipment for conducting the ultrasonic tests. His
equipment includes a pulse generator, an oscilloscope, and two ultrasonic probes (transmitter and receiver).
The pulse generator delivers-a variable-voltage direct CUITentpulse to the transmitting probe simultaneously
with a 7 volt trigger pulse to th~ time base of the oscilloscope. The gen_e.ratorwas designed such that the
pulse interval and pulse width can be varied. Stephenson caITied out the tests on silty clay samples.
One of the main advantage of ultrasonic test is that it can be perfoITned on very soft sea floor sediments
while still retained in the core liner.
The drawback of this approach is that it is very difficult to identify the exact wave aITival times. Sec-
ondly the strain amplitudes which can be achieved by this technique, are only in the very low region.
G.L.
", ".
Typical -±·´ IZlem~nt
¨
Í±· × ³¿--
""""-
Rocl<
Bascz met ion
(a) Shear wave induced in soil by horizontal earthquake vibrations
A- Soil element at rest

er CJo er and in mean position
! +
-t B- Maximum d<zformation
io the. le ft
--
-1:
B
.
x---x.
--
A
+"t
C
C- Maxi m u m dlZtormation
to tht right
(b) Shear deformations resulting from propagated wave (for a single cycle)
Fig. 4.8 : Stress condition on an element of soli below ground surface
4.2.3. Cyclic Simple Shear Test. During an earthquake or other source of ground vibrations, a soil element
below a foundation or in an embankment is subjected to an initial sustained stress together with a superim-
posed series of repeated and reversals of shear stresses (Fig. 4.8). The magnitude of induced shear stresses
depend on the magnitude of acceleration of the dynamic force. In a direct shear box test, uniform state of
shear strain occurs only on either side of failure plane. The simple shear device was designed to overcome
this limitation of direct shear box by enabling a uniform state of shear strain throughout the specimen. This
simulates the field conditions in a much better way.
Kjellrnan (1951), Hvorslev and Kaufman (1952), Roscoe (1953), and Bjerrum and Landra (1966) have
described simple shear apparatus. The Roscoe simple shear device has a box for a square shaped sample
with side length of 60 mm and a thickness of 20 mm. The box is provided with two side walls and two hinged
walls (Fig. 4.9). Peacock and Seed (1968) have modified Roscoe's simple shear apparatus for dynamic test-
ing. The dynamic shear forces were applied by a double acting piston with controlled compressed air pres-
sure using solenoid valves. Figure (4.10) illustrates how the end walls rotate simultaneously at the ends of
the shearing chamber to deform the soil uniformly. Prakash, Nandkumaran and Joshi (1973) have also devel-
oped similar type of simple shear apparatus which has the facility of applying sustained normal stress, sus-
tained shear stress and oscillatory shear stress.
Wire wound membrane

or stacked disks
~
t:--
'- Hinge
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.9 : Schematic arrangement of Roscoe simple shear apparatus
Prakash, Nandkumaran and Bansal (1974) have conducted tests on three artificial soils (SM, CL and
CH) using oscillatory shear apparatus developed by Prakash et al (1973). A more systematic study has been
done by Dass (1977) on clay of high compressibility (CH, LL = 65.5%, PL = 28.0%, qu=78 kN/m2) using the
same dynamic simple shear apparatus. The salient features of her work are reported here to understand the
behavior of soil under dynamic load. The static strength of soil was 36 kN/m2. She performed the tests
keepingthe'variationof variousparametersas givenbelow: .
Sustained normal stress, on (kN/m2) = 15,21,26,29
Sustained shear stress, tst (~of static strength) = 10,25,50,60.
Oscillatory shear stress, 'Cdy n ( kN/m2) = 13,19,22,25

Number of cycles of oscillatory shear stress = 1to 1100
The oscillatory shear stress was applied at the rate of one cycle per second. The f::lilurecriteria was
chosen corresponding to 12mm displacement.
Sh ea ring chamber Soil , , sample

Pian
D~==4J
ùÄ÷óããð÷ \ -~
ÅÃóã ==(]
(0==0
End plate rotation
)
L ....
Soi I deformation
7
Elevation
Fig. 4.10 : Schematic diagram illustrating rotation o(hinged end plates and
soil deformation in oscillatory simple shear (After Peacock and Seed. 1968)
""""
A typical plot oftest data in terms of number of cycles versus shear displacement is shown in Fig, 4.11
for "Cdy n equal to 13 kN/m2. Similar plots were obtained for other values of 'Cdy n . From these plots, number
of cycles and oscillatory shear stress corresponding to 12 mm displacement have been obtained and plotted
as shown in Fig. 4.12. In Fig. 4.13, plots between dynamic shear stress and sustained stress are shown for
different number of cycles. It can be seen from Figs. 4.12 and 4.13 that for a fixed sustained shear stress, the
amount of dynamic shear stress decreases as number of cycles increases for causing 12 mm displacement.
As sustained shear stress increases, less number of cycles and dynamic shear stress is needed to cause
failure.
Number of cyo;l(S
1 10 100 1000
01
Undisturb(d
on: 0.21 kg/cm2
, 2
tdyn~ 0.131 kglcm
2
'[sf in '1. of normal strength
~ L.
E
E
c
OIl
~
v
'6
c
a..
1/1
"
...
c
OIl
s:. 8
1/1
10
12
Fig. 4.11 : Shear displacement versus number of cycles

"
";1";",
Dynamic Soil Properties ~ 131
120
Sustained shear
stress in percent of normal strength
.s::. 100
....
Cl> 2
C CIn= 0.21 kg' cm
...
....
....
III
c
E
.... 80
0
c
....
0
...
C
tJ
~
...
60
a.
c
III
III
tJ
....
t; !oO
....
Cl
QI
.s::.
III
>-
....
0
E
'-
20
u
III
0
0
1 10 100 1000
No. of cycle at failure
Fig. 4.12 : Oscillatory shear stress versus number of cycles
4.2.4. Cyclic Torsional Simple Shear Test. In cyclic simple shear apparatus, it is not possible to measure the
confining pressure and the test is performed under Ko consolidation conditions. Torsional simple shear de-
vices have been developed to overcome these difficulties. Ishihara and Li (1972) modified the triaxial appa-
ratus to provide torsional strain capabilities. This has the disadvantage that the shear strain in the sample
varies with maximum at the outer circumference and zero at the centre. This problem has been minimised by
using hollow cylinder torsional shear apparatus (Hardin, 1971; Dmevich, 1972; Yoshimi and Oh-aka, 1973;
Ishibashi and Sherif, 1974, Ishihara and Yasuda, 1975; Cho et aI, 1976; Iwasaki, Tatsuoka and Takagi, 1978).
The apparatus used by Drnevich (1972) has already been described earlier and shown in Fig. 4.4. This has
the advantage that both resonant column and cyclic torsional shear tests can be performed in the same
device and on the same sample.
, ' ,{
-. ,._.,-
---
.s::. . . Undistu r bed

.-
01
C
t\I
I 0---0 RemouIded
....
V1 100 Number of at
0 D cycle at failure
E
....
0
C
-
0
....
.-C
11\
11\
t\I
....
.... 40
11\
....
0
t\I
"-
.s::.
11\ "-"-
'-u
20 -.;;;:
E "
0
C
>-
Q
0-
0 20 40 60 80 100
Su stained sh ear s tress in percent no rmal str 12ng t h
Fig. 4.13 : Dynamic shear stress versus ~ustained shear stress

Some of the above mentioned investigators have used long hollow cylinder to obtain uniform condi-
tions atthe test section (Hardin, 1971;Drnevich, 1972,Ishihara and Yasuda, 1975;Iwasaki et aI, 1977).It is
difficultto prepare samplesfor longhollowcylinder devices.Keeping this fact in view,Yoshini and Oh-Oka
(1973); Ishibashi and Sherif( 1974),and Cho et al (1976) used a short cylinderin whichthe taper waspropor-
tionalto the insideand outside radii (Fig. 4.14). The internaland externalradii rl and rz are selected such that
the difference in average shear stressescomputed considering two extremeconditions is minimum. The two
extremeconditions are:
(i) Shear stress varies linearlywith radius as for an elastic material (Eq. 4. 18)
(ii) Shear stress is constant as for pure plastic deformation (Eq. 4. 19)
"~1~?~~~~~\;;~~:i~;~~:.
.'~~'.:,'~::ii~;.~;i:~~S~;,;"'~i~i :~:{{;~w'. .
.,. ",,)!~:~'~.-i~:'x'i'~'~i:1ff~f:t;:~~i6!;r{"~f\ti~,
3 3
4T r2 -Tt
'tmoe= - Z 2 4 4 ...(4.18)
31t [ (rZ -rt )(rZ -rt) ]
3T I
- - 3 3 ...(4.19)
tavp - 21t ( r2 -rt J
where T is the applied torque.
x-- x
~/~~"~
Boundaries indicated by heavy lines
Fig. 4. t 4 : Cross-section for short specimen
4.2.5. Cyclic Triaxial Compression Test. In general the stress-deformation and strength characteristics of
a soil depend on the following factors:
1. Type of soil
2. Relativedensityin caseof cohesionlesssoils;consistencylimits, watercontentand stateof disturbance
in cohesive soils
3. Initial static stress level i.e. sustained stress
4. Magnitude of dynamic stress
5. Number of pulses of dynamic load
6. Frequency of loading
7. Shape of wave form ofloading
8. One directional or two directional loading
In one directional loading only compression of the sample is done while in two directional loading both
;
compression and extension is done., All the factors listed above can be studied lucidly on a triaxial set up.
Prof. Arthur Casagrande of Harvard university was refered a problem of studying the effect of vibra-
tions created by bomb explosion on the stability of the Panama canal projects. For this Casagrande and
Shannon (1948, 1949) developed the follo~ing three types of apparatus for studying the strength of soils
under transient loading (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2 : Type of Apparatus
Type of apparatus Time ofloading (seconds) Remarks
(i) Pendulum loading 0.05 to 0.01 Suitable for performing fast

transient tests
(ii) Falling beam 0.5 to 300
(iii) Hydraulic loading 0.05 to any desired larger
value
Time ofloading was defined as the time between the beginning oftest and the point at which the maxi-
mum compressive stress is reached (Fig. 4. 15). The pendulum loading apparatus (Fig. 4. 16) utilizes the
energy of a pendulum which, when released from a selected height, strikes a spring connected to the piston
rod of a hydraulic lower cylinder. This lower cylinder is connected hydraulically to an upper cylinder, which
is mounted on a loading frame.
"0
0
0
J
I" ~ Time
Timeof loading
FiOg.4.15 : Time of loading in transient tests
The falling beam apparatus consists essentially of a beam with a weight and rider, a dashpot to contr-
the velocity of the fall of the beam, and a yoke for transmitting the load from the beam to the specimen (Fi
4. 17). A small beam mounted above the yoke counter-balances the weight of the beam.
The hydraulic loading apparatus (Fig. 4.18) consists of a constant volume vane-type hydraulic pur
connected to a hydrauliC cylinder through valves by which either the pressure in the cylinder or the volUl
of the liquid delivered to the cylinder can be controlled. The peak load that can be produced by this .apT
ratus is much greater than can be obtained by either the pendulum type or falling beam apparatus.
.' d~,",_,_,,' d',~'- " - ~~\~~i~:~;, -'If,~~t{t'~::~J~'~i~1if~f,t;;~~~;r{\;f'~*~~,
- t'
3 3
4T r2 -r)
'tave =- 2 2 4 4 ...(4.18)
31t[ (r2 -Ij )(r2 -r\) ]
3T 1
...(4.19)
'tavp = 21t ( ri - r\3)
where T is the applied torque.
x-- x
~/~~"~
Boundaries indic a t ed by heavy Iin es
Fig. 4.) 4 : Cross-section for short specimen
4.2.5. Cyclic Triaxial Compression Test. In general the stress-deformation and strength characteristics of
a soil depend on the following factors:
1. Type of soil
2. Relativedensityin caseof cohesionlesssoils;consistencylimits, watercontentand stateofdisturbance
in cohesive soils
3. Initial static stress level i.e. sustained stress
4. Magnitude of dynamic stress
5. Number of pulses of dynamic load
6. Frequency of loading
7. Shape of wave form ofloading
8. One directional or two directional loading
In one directional loading only compressionof the sample is done while in two directional loading both
compression and extension is done. All the factors listed above can be studied lucidly on a triaxial set up.
Prof. Arthur Casagrande of Harvard university was refered a problem of studying the effect of vibra-
tions created by bomb explosion on the stability of the Panama canal projects. For this Casagrande and
Shannon (1948, 1949) developed the follo",:,ingthree types of apparatus for studying the strength of soils
under transient loading (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2 : Type of Apparatus
Type of apparatus Time of loading (seconds) Remarks
(i) Pendulum loading 0.05 to 0.01 Suitable for performing fast

transient tests
(ii) Falling beam 0.5 to 300
(iii) Hydraulic loading 0.05 to any desired larger

value
Time ofloading was defined asthe time between the beginning of test and the point at which the maxi-
mum compressive stress is reached (Fig. 4. 15). The pendulum loading apparatus (Fig. 4. 16)utilizes the
energy of a pendulum which, when released from a selected height, strikes a spring connected to the piston
rod of a hydraulic lower cylinder.This lower cylinder is connectedhydraulicallyto an upper cylinder, which
is mounted on a loading frame.
"0
0
0
-I
J.. ~ Time
Time of loading
Fig. 4.15 : Time of loading in transient tests
The falling beam apparatus consists essentially of a beam with a weight and rider, a dashpot to contr-
the velocity of the fall of the beam, and a yoke for transmitting the load from the beam to the specimen (Fi
4. 17). A small beam mounted above the yoke counter-balances the weight of the beam.
The hydraulic loading apparatus (Fig. 4. 18) consists of a constant volume vane-type hydraulic pur
connected to a hydrauliC cylinder through valves by which either the pressure in the cylinder or the volur
of the liquid delivered to the cylinder can be controlled. The peak load that can be produced by this apf
ratus is much greater than can be obtained by either the pendulum type or falling beam apparatus.
'$ffj.."f;;:!dfj:,'~~W~(,%"~~.Q$:,~",<,'.r:(\i.i"'.
~ ;F?';.,tl~i">"
UpptZr cylinder
Adjustable
reaction
Deformation
Hydraulic gage
cylindtZr Te st
sptZcimen
LowtZr
cylindtZr
Fig. 4.16 : Pendulum loading apparatus (Casagrande and Shannon. 1948)
Countczrwcz ight
Fixed fulcrum
.
Load gagcz
D<zformation gogcz
TtZst sptZcimtZn
RidtZr
Spring
Doshpot
Fig. 4.17 : Falling beam apparatus (Casagrande & Shannon, 1948)

pr«ssure r«gulator Three position nlec tor F Iow control valve

(pressure of discharge valve (with Pto A. B (valves will maintain A
may b. quickly varied is Conn«cted to T and
by manual control. constant flow betwEen
vice verso; with Pto T. Sand 1250 CU. in. per
b«twun 10 and 1000 and 8 ore blocked) min. rega rdless of
lb. p«r sq. inch) pussure)
van«-type hydraulic
pump 100 lb. per
sq. inch 2.5 GPM
5 HP motor
220V,AC
1200 RPM
Hyraulic cylindu
3 inch bore, 3 inch stroke
(used to apply load to
piston of triaxial
Filhr compression apparatus)
Twenty gallon
oil resuvoir
Fig. 4.18 : Hydraulic loading apparatus (Casagrande & Shannon, 1948)
For measuring load, a load gage of rectangular or cylindrical shape is used, with four strain gages mounted
on the inside face. For measuring deflection, a thin flexible steel spring cantilever is used with strain gages
mounted on the cantilever, the base of which is clamped to the loading piston.
Casagrande and Shannon (1948) performed both static and transient compression tests on six different
materials. Out of these, two typical materials named as Cambridge clay and Manchester sand having prop-
erties as given in Table 4.3 are selected for illustration. The transient compression tests were performed with
different time of loading both in confined and unconfined states.
Table 4.3 : Properties of Soils used in Tests
Cambridge clay Manchester sand
Natural water Grain Size 0.21 mm to 0.42 mm

Content 30-50%
Liquid limit 37-59% el113X
0.88
Plastic limit 20-27% el11in 0.61
In Fig. 4. 19, a simultaneous plot of stress and strain versus time from an unconfined compression test
with a time of loading of 0.02 s on cambridge clay is shown. Similar plots were prepared for other times of
10adll1gand on Manchester sand. Using this data, stress-strain plots were obtained as shown in Figs. 4. 20a
and 4.20b. In these figures, stress-strain curves for corresponding static tests are also shown. Typical plots
of maximum compressive stress versus time of loading (or unconfined and confined transient tests on Cam-
bridge clay are shown in Fig. 4. 21 a and b respectively. A typical plot in terms of principal stress ratio a
failure and time ofloading for Manchester sand is shown in Fig. 4.22. .
~&.
137
)ynamic Soil Properties
4 8
3 I-Sh<zar tailurlZ_- 6
N
at 0.02 s
E 0
u ~
Cl
.:ill: 2 4. .::
~ 0...
III
III
....
t:i
tJ)
...
.....
V) 2
0 0
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24
TimlZ~ s
Fig. 4.19 : Time vs stress and strain in an unconfined transient test on Cambridge clay
(Casagrande & Shannon, 1948)
From the typical test data presented above, it may be concluded that the strength of clay decreases with
the increases in time of loading and for time ofloadingequal to 0.02 s, the strength of clay is approximately
1. 75 to 2.0 times greater than the static strength. The strength of sand is almost independent to the time of
loading. Transient strength of sand increased only about 10 percent.
static t<zst,timlZ
of 10ading,46S S a..
2
-
0
0 3
I
I
I
4
-0
c I
...
..... S
d
(j') Transi<znt test,
6 time of load ing
0.02 s
7
8
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
stress, kg/cm2
(a) Cambridge clay
Fig. 4. 20 : Stress vs strain curves (...Contd.)
static te'st. time

2 of fa i lure 2100 s
0
;;-
.. Shear fa i lu re
.-c 3 I
0
...
+'
(/) 4 Transiqnt test tim~
to failurq 0.03 s
5
6
7
0 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.75
stress. kg/cm2
(b) Manchester sand
Fig. 4. 20 : Stress vs strain curves
N 2.6
-
C7'
oX
E
u
2.4
,
IJ'I 2.2
IJ'I
tII
-...
1/1
2.0
tII
>
- 1.8
1/1
1/1
tII
... 1.6
a.
E
0 ).4
u
E 1.2
::J 0
.-E 1.0
x
0
:E 0.8
1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
T i m q of 10a din g. s
(a) Unconfined compression test
Fig. 4.21 : Maximum compresslve stress versus time 01 loading for Cambridge clay (...Contd.)
)ynamic Soil Properties 139
6.0 [TlTIIII :1\11111 illll I I I I I I 1111 I I I
5.8
N
-
E
v 5.6
/
-tr
et
oX
.. 5.4
/
5.2
/
I
-
b 5.0
/
11'
11'
~
4..8 /
...
/V 0
~ 4.6
...
E 4,4
0
/ " -
> //
~ 4.2
~
E 4.0 V
/
::J
.-E 3.8 0 ./
x
0 /1
~ 3.6 ": I 1 hili I I I IIIII I I I I II I IIIII1I I
1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Time of loading I S
(b) Confined compressin test

Fig. 4.21 : Maximum compressive stress versus time of loading for Cambridge clay
7
0 ,..
v-
.~
CO
bM
6 - 0 (1
~
0.... v
0.0 00
+- -0
E 0 - 0 0 0
::J .... 5
.-E
X
lA
III
~
0 ... 11111 'I' 1111\,,°,
~~ 4 11111I I I 111\1 I I ,Ill' I I
1000 100 10 0.1 0.01
Time of loading, S
Fig. 4.22 : Maximum principal stress ratio versus time of loading for Manchestor sand
Modulus of deformation is defined as the slope of a line drawn from the origin through the point on the
stress-deformation ~urve and correspon~ing to stress of one-half the strength. It is found that in case of
clays, modulus of deformation in fast transient tests was about two times that obtained in static tests. In
case of sands, modulu.sof deformation was found independent ~othe time of loading.
""'}f><;C
As evident from above discussions, in transient loading test, an initially unstressed sample of soil is
loaded to failure in a short period of time. Under earthquake loading conditions, an initially stressed soil
element is subjected to a series of stress pulses, none of which would necessarily cause failure by itself, but
the cumulative effect of which is to induce failure or significant deformations. Seed and Fead (1959) devel-
oped the oscillatory triaxial apparatus as shown in Fig. 4. 23 to study the effect of number of stress reversals
and other factors on the deformation in soils.
Counter- ba Ion c e
for loading yoke
Deformation
gauge
Air pressure equal to desired
confining pressur on specimen
Dynomometer
Triaxial r- -EI-;ct;icalconnections
compression ceH : to timing unit
I
Soil specimen in I ,
rubb(zr membrane I .
.
I Air Compressed air
Air pre c;sure
Ipre ssu re fr ~gauge
:re9ula,tor '
.
r.J1
I
Countczr to record J
number of load
applications
pressure cylindar
Bellofrom seat
piston
Loading yoke
Air pressure reservoir
Fig. 4.23 : Apparatus for oscillatory triaxial test (Seed and Fead, 1959)
'-"'-"'.""-' '--.--.-.------.-
Seed (1960) performed tests on Vicksburg silty clay(wn = 22%, S =93%) for studying the effect ofvari-
ous factors on its dynamic strength characteristics. A typical stress strain- relationship is shown in Fig.
4.24. It pertains tQ the sustained static stress of2 kg/cm2. The magnitude of dynamic stress was 35% of the
sustained static stress. It gives the magnitude of dynamic stress as :t 0.70 kg/cm2. The static stress-strain
curve indicating the static strength as 3.0 kg/cm2 is also ~hown in the figure. Therefore the initial factor of
safety for this typical case will be 3.0/2.0 = 1.5. Transient strength of the soil corresponding to 0.02 s t~meof
loading was found as 4.0 kg/cm2. In this figure, B represents the point which is obtained after 100 cycles of
loading. It may be noted that at point 'B', the strains are increased but factor of safety still remains more than
unity (3.0/2.7). It means that failure will not occur but the strains may become excessive. Hence in design,
one should examine whether these strains are within permissible limits.
Deviator st res s) kg/cm 2

0 1 2 3 4 5
0
str<z.ssinduced du ring
4 .ormQI strength te st
- - -fat factor safety, 1.5

8
"i Strain induced
\ 10 during earthquake
-a a 12 load ing
,
- \ 70
.-c:
0
16
SO
100 - - 1 - - - - II
....
......
B \ I
\JI
stress curve \
- 20
.-0X for sample in normal
str<zngth test Stress strain curve
<X:
24 \ for sample after
earthquake loading
Confining pressure,'l kg/crl \
28
32 Transient strll"gth
for time of loading
0.02 s
36
Fig. 4.24 : Stress versus strain for Vicksburg silty clay (Seed, 1960)
The deviator stress versus strain curves similar to as shown in Fig. 4.24 were drawn for different values
of sustained static stress and dynamic oscillatory stress. Fig. 4. 25 shows the effects of single transient
stress applications of the various intensities for initial factors of safety ranging between 1.0 to 2.0. The
shaded portion of the figure shows the deformation of the specimens induced at stress levels corresponding
to the different factors of safety in normal strength test. The upper curves show the increase in deformation
caused by single transient pulses corresponding to 20, 40 and 60 percent of the initial sustained stress. Figs
4.26 and 4.27 show similar data for a series of 30 and 100pulses. It is interesting to note that for this soil a
single transient pulse equal to 20 percent of initial sustained stress causes no appreciable deformation even
though the factor of safety may be as low as 1.1.However it may be seen that a series of 100such pulses for
the same initial factor of safety will cause an increase in axial strain of 10percent. The significance of in-
crease numbers of stress pulses in producing increased deformation of soil is readily apparent from these
figures.
30
Sing!(z transient pulse Simulahd earthquake:
28 30 pulses at 2 cycles
p /lr se c .
26 In c r/lase In stre ss
during simu lated
2l.. earthquake = 60 °/0
IncrllaSIl in strain = 40 °/0
22 dull to transillnt stress = 20 °/0
,......
20 strain induced
;;. 20
.......
.::
0
18 18
. during si mu lated
czarthqu a ke
~III 16 .-c0 16
load ing
Transient stress ...
+-
14 III 14
0 'in c rlla se = 60°/. -
x
<t 12
= 40%
.-0
)(
12
10 et 10
8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0- 0-
1.0 1.0 2.0
Fig. 4.25 : Soil deformations induced by Fig. 4.26 : Soil deformation induced by various
various combinations of sustained and combination of susbined and vibratory
transient stresses (Seed. 1960) stresses for 30 pulses (Seed. 1960)
It may be seen from Fig. 4.24 that in a normal strength test the maximum resistance of the soil is reached
at an axial strain of about 25 percent. If this strain is adopted as a criterion of failure, then a variety'of com-
binations of initially sustained stress and earthquake stress intensities which will cause failure of the soil
may be obtained from Figs. 4.25,4.26 and 4.27. Figure 4.28 shows the combination of initial stress and earth-
quake stress intensity causing 25% axial strain (i.e. failure). For single transient stress pulse the combina-
tions of sustained and transient stresses would have to approach about 140 percent of the normal strength
to induce failure. For earthquake inducing 100 majQJ.pulses failure would occur when the combined stresses
totalled only 100 percent of the normal strength. -, ,
;;~f&~;i.:~t~,"%?r~~~t,+;i0't~~'~£~~~:!,,~~~},~~{~;.c'j} ,,:~;':i''~:'i,
~
30
28
. \ Simula-ted earthquak e:
100 pulses at 2cycles
160
Number of transient
pulses
stress
per sec ,
26 .Inerescz in stress 1/
during simula-tczd
24 . earthquake =60ol
:: 40O}
22
20
/ / :: 20°/01
18,
--0
.-0c: 16
0
c
.... --- 80
.... 11\
14
-0
11\ 11\
....
12 ...-
er. 60
x
~
<{ 10 :x
I g0- 40
8 .c:
....
....
6
::1, 20
4
2
0 -
1.0
Fig. 4.27 : Soil deformation induced by various Fig. 4.28 : Combination of sustained and vibratory
combination of sustained and vibratory stresses stress intensities causing failure in compacted
for 100 pulses (Seed. 1960) silty clay (Seed. 1960)
Seed (1960) reported that the conditions producing failure shown in Fig. 4. 28 for compacted silty clay
do not in any way represent the characteristics of conditions producing failure in other types of soils. For
example in sensitive undisturbed clays, repeated deformations will lead to increase in pore pressure and a
resulting reduction in strength. Consequently a series of transient pulses is likely to induce failure at lower
stress levels than for the silty clay.
On the same oscillatory triaxial test set up Seed and Chan (1966) carried out more elaborate study on
different types of soils. Here, few typical results are presented. Figure 4. 29a compares combinations of
sustained and pulsating stresses that induce failure in soft and compacted clays in one transient pulse. The
strength exhibited by undisturbed Silty clay was greater than that displayed by compacted soils. As the
number of pulses increases to 30 (Fig. 4.29b), failure occurs in sensitive soils at considerably lower stress
level than that in compacted soils.
160 160
c... 14-0 L:. 140

CJ\ .....
C 0'1
c:I C
"-
I- t.I Compacted
... silty clay
-11 120
~ 120
0
E
"- 0
g 100 ~
0
100
+- c
-
0
0
0
80
....
-0
0
80
Compacted
sandy clay
III 0
'" "
c:I
... .. '"
'"
t- t.I
'" 60 ... 60
+-
C'I '"
-
C
.... C'1
C
0
'" 40 .....
::J '" 40 undisturbed

0
a.
'" ::J
a. silty clay
20 20
StrClss pulse torm --- stress pulse to rm ,
0- 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 1
Su~tain<Zd stress ,010ot normal st rength Sustained str~ss/O/o of normal strengt
(a) For single pulse (b) For 30 pulses

Fig. 4.29 : Comparison of stres£ conditions causing failure fo. different soils (Seed and Chan. 1960)
Symmetrical stress pulses of two directionalloadings resulted in a reduction in strength of all the soils
tested. Typical results with San Francisco Bay mud are shown in Fig. 4.30. Below the dotted line drawn at 45°
from origin the stress conditions in one-or two-d:rectionalloadings are same since the pulsating stress is
either smaller than or equal to sustained stress.
Figure 4.31 shows the results of pulsating load tests with one-directional loading on duplicate speci-
mens of San Francisco Bay mud using the two forms of stress pulse. The longer dwell period under maximum
stress for the flat peaked pulse causes larger deformations and induces failure in a smaller number of stress
applications than in comparable tests using the triangular pulse form.
A typical total stress versus total strain curve under pulsating loads is shown in fig. 4.32. For compari-
son, the stress strain relationship obtained from normal strength test is also shown. It may be noted that in
situations involving 10 stress pulses, total stress versus total strain is somewhat higher than the stress
strain relationship of a normal test; if there are 100 stress pulses, this is slightly below the normal plot. Fur-
ther it was noted that with an initial factor of safety between 1.5 and 2, and 30 pulses of dynamic stress, the
relationship between total stress and total strain will coincide almost exactly with the normal stress versus
strain relationship.
180
San Francisco Bay mud
WatflT cont~nt ~ 91 °/0
-
Str<zss puls~ form -'1r
Symm~trical
stress pulses
. _. - Non-symm~trical
i)--r stress puls~s
(no axial exhnsion)
- 120
0
E
....
0
c
100
....
0
0
...
III
80
III
....
III 60
Cl> , ,
C
....
0 40
III
:;
Cl.
20
0-
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sustained strQ55,o/. of static strQn9th
Fig. 4.30 : Combination of sustained and pulsating stresses causing failure

in one- and two- directional loadings (Seed and Chan, 1966)
200
0 San froncisco boy mud
E
'- -Wo te co nten t ~ 91 0/0
-Unconsolidoted undroined
-g
0
160 te sts
'-Contin ing pressu re = 1 kgl cm2
... -No sustained strczss
C
~ 120
'-;;::,
c.I...
a.C'I
.-CCt:.I
For m' of
~';;80 .M..stress pulse
1ft 1ft
c.I
I
....
... Fo rm of
1ft
stress pulse
C'I
C 40
...
0
1ft
:J
£l. 0
1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
No. of pulses to couse foi lure
Fig. 4.31 : Effect of pulse form on number of pulses causing failure (Seed and Chan. 1966)
~-, ,------..-.-.....--.
Et:...
140
Total stress (initial+pulsating) for initial
factor of safety between 1.5 and 2.0 vs. total
strain after 10 pulsczs
120
.J:
....
C\ 0'0.-'- ." ~"'--;-'~
C ..' ." 0 ". stress vs. strain relationship

.... 100 in normal compression tczst
III
o
- ~::'"J:.o'\'
':":::.:";:,\;:
1"
(::~::..Y.,r.:'.:~:;.:.::-
,.'t."
',..-:::;;:.' ", , '£"-"
',::',::
0
E
... 80
0
C Total stress {initial + pulsating)for initial
I
'+- I
factor of safety betweczn l.S and 2,0 vs,total
0
I strain after 100 pulses
0 601
;;-
-
IJ\
IJ\
t.I
...
.... 40
I:
U1 San Francisco Bay mud
Wo te r co ntent z 91 %
Un conso Iidatczd -und ra ined te st
20 ' . 2
Con f Inln9 pressure" 1 kg/cm
Stress pulse form J1.r
0-
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
strain,c/.
Fig. 4.32 : Relationship between total stress and total strain under pulsating load conditions
(Seed and Chan. 1966)
4.2.6. Final Comments on Laboratory Testing, The laboratory techniques discussed above and more com-
mon in use are listed in Table 4.4. The specific soil properties measured by each test are also indicated, The
range of strain amplitude over which each technique is applicable is shown in Fig, 4. 33.
Table 4.4 : Laboratory Techniques for Measuring Dynamic Soil Properties (Woods, 1978)
Techniques Shear Young's Material Cyclic stress Attenuation
modulus modulus damping behaviour
Resonant column x x x
With adaption
Ultrasonic pulse )( x - - x
Cyclic triaxial - x x x
Cyclic simple shear x - x x
Cyclic torsional Shear x - x x
Dynamic
1 D compression x
I" ~ ,'- ~",......

- DZI!
BIll !!IB\Im .. .. :am 111:
Shearing strain amplitude (°/.)

104 103 102 10'
I I I
Resonant column (solid samples)- - --

Resonant column (hollow samples)
Torsional shear (hollow samples)
Pulse methods -- Cyclic triaxial
Cy cl ic simple sh ea r
Shaking table
r .
Ty pie a I motion cha racteristics

strong ground Close-in
Properly designed shaking from nuclear
machine foundation explosion
I I
earthquake I
Fig. 4.33 : Shearing strain amplitude capabilities or laboratory apparatus (Woods, 1978)
Each laboratory test has some merit when compared with the other. The resonant column device is bet-
ter suited for determining shear modulus at Iow strains and the hollow cylinder device at higher strain levels.
The cyclic simple shear device is suitable for determining shear modulus and damping characteristics of
soils. The cyclic triaxial test is more suited to obtain the Young's modulus of the material.
4.3 FIELD TESTS

Field methods generally depend on the measurement of velocity of waves propagating through the soil or
on the response of soil structure systems to dynamic excitation. The following methods are in use for deter-
mining dynamic properties of soil:
1. Seismic cross-bore hole survey
2. Seismic up-hole survey'
3. Seismic down-hole survey
4. Seismic refraction survey
5. Vertical block resonance test
6. Horizontal block resonance test
7. Cyclic plate load test
8. Standard penetration test
In this section, the above listed field methods have been described briefly along with the typical test
setups and methods of interpretation.
-- III.. . Q%!III!'It;j'~"
148 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundatio!q l
4.3.1. SeismicCross-borehole Survey. Thismethod is based on the measurementof velocityof wave propa-
gation from one borehole to another. Figure 4.34 shows the essentials of seismic cross-holesurvey as out-
lined by Stoke and Woods (1972). A source of seismic energy is generated at th~ bottom of one borehole.'"
and the time of travel of the shear wave from this borehole to another at known distance is measured. Shear
wave velocity is then computed by dividing the distance between the boreholes by the travel ~e.
Reciver boreholes Source borehole

~
o~ 0 ~o 0
(a) Plan view
Ver tical impulse

Oscilloscope
@ Trigger ~
Input Vertical
velocity
transducer
Assum ed
path of
bo dy waves
-- ~
/ ~
Generation of
body wave s
3D velocity transducer Casing and

wedged in place grout
(b) Cross-sectional view

Fig. 4.34 : Multiple hole seismic cross-hole survey (Stoke and Woods, 1972)
As discussed above, seismic cross-borehole survey can be done using two boreholes one having the
source for causing wave generation and another having geophone for recording travel time. However, for
extensive investigations andbetter accuracy, three or more boreholes arranged in a straight line should be
used.
.. !Ri!.II ..
In this case the wave velocities can be calculated from the time intervals between succeeding pairs of
holes, eliminating most of the concern over triggering the timing instruments and the effects of bore hole
casing and backfilling (Stokoe and Hour, 1978). Also this arrangement of bore holes in a straight line over-
comes problems of site anisotropy by examining one qirection only at a time.
For better results, the following points should be kept in view.
(i) The diameter of the boreholes should be small to cause least disturbance in the soil. Casing in the
boreholes will provide good coupling with the soil and transmission of waves. Void spaces around
the casing should be filled with weak cement slurry grout or dry sand.
(ii) Boreholes should be vertical for the travel distance to be measured properly. In general any bore-
hole 10 m or more in depth should be surveyed using an inclinometer or other logging device for
determining verticality (Woods, 1978).
(iii) Boreholes should be spaced as close as possible within the time resolution characteristics of the
recording equipment. Large spacings can lead to difficulties with refracted waves arriving before
the direct transmission through the intervening soil. Spacings as close as 2-3 m can be used satis-
factorily (Woods, 1978).
(iv) The seismic source must be capable of generating predominantly one kind of wave. Further it must
also be capable of repeating desired characteristics at a predetermined energy level. Miller, Troncosco
and Brown (1975) have described a source which is capable of .developing high amplitude shear
waves. It consists of a falling weight which impacts on an hydraulically expanded borehole anchor.
(v) The receivers must be oriented in the shearing mode and should be securely coupled to the sides
of the borehole.
Wfl ight
Rod
Shot detector
Recorder
l
/
/
/ S wave
/
/
/
/
SPT sampler
Fig. 4.35 : Seismic up-hole survey with SPT (Goto et al., 1973)
III
\
_1...°'" "..,. . p;;;aB/
4.3.2. Seismic Up-Hole Survey. Seismicup-hole survey is done by using only one borehole. In this method.
the receiver is placed at the surface, and shear waves are generated at different depths within the borehole.
Figure 4.35 shows the schematic presentation of the arrangement used in seismic up-hole survey (Gote
et al., 1977). This method gives the average value of wave velocity for the soil between the excitation and
the receivers if one receiver is used, or between the receivers.
The major disadvantage in seismic up-hole survey is that it is more difficult to generate waves of the
desired type. .
4.3.4. Seismic Down-hole Survey. In this method, seismic waves are generated at the surface of the ground
near the top of the borehole, and travel times of the body waves between the source and the receivers which
have been clamped to the borehole wall at predetermined depths are obtained. The arrangement used in
seismic down-hole survey is shown schematic ally in Fig. 4.36. This also requires only one borehole.
The main advantage of this method is that low velocity layers can be detected even if trapped betweer
layers of greater velocity provided the geophone spacings are close enough.
R<zcord<2r
W<zight
Expand<zr
f pump
wooden
Rubb<zr ,Back plo te
<zxpand<2r plate
3-componqnt
gQophonq
Fig. 4.36 : Seismic: down-hole survey (Woods, 1978)
(.t
,------------
Dynq.mic Soil Properties 151
4.3.4. Seismic Refraction Survey. The seismic refraction survey is frequently used for site investigations.
It enables the detennination of elastic- wave velocity in each layer, the thickness of each layer, and the dip
angle of each layer as long as the wave velocities increase in each suceedingly deep layer.
The details of this method has already been described in Art. 3.10 of chapter 3.
4.3.5. Vertical Block Resonance Test. The vertical block resonance test is used for determining the values
of coefficient of elastic uniform compression (C), Young's modulus (E) and damping ratio (~) of the soil.
According to IS 5249: 1984, a test block of size 1.5 m x 0.75 m x 0.70 m high is casted in M 15 concrete in a pit
of pIan dimensions 4.5 m x 2.75 m and depth equal to the proposed depth of foundation. Foundation bolts
should be embedded into the concrete block at the time of casting for fixing the oscillator assembly. The
oscillator assembly is mounted on the block so that it generates purely vertical sinusoidal vibrations. The
line of action of vibrating force should pass through the centre of gravity of the block. Two acceleration or
displacement pickups are mounted on the top of the block as shown in Fig. 4.37 such that they sense the
vertical motion of the block. A schematic diagram of the set up is shown in Fig. 4.37.
Motor osci \lator
assembly
" ,
Concr(te For V te st
(M 150) Adc e le ra t ion
transduc Clrs
77777// /, 1
(a) sectional view
to- 4.5Qm --i
1 m min
~ 1.Sm
T
0.75 m
, 1&:::11
2.75 m
,1
I C:Jj ~ 1m min
(b)' plan view",
Fig. 4.37 : Set up for block ~esonance test
- ..- - - - -. --"'-.-"---
----..-
The mechanical oscillator works on the principle of eccentric masses mounted on two shafts rotating in
opposite directions (Fig. 2.15). The force generated by the oscillator is given by
2
Fd = 2 mee CJ.) ...(4.23)
The oscillator is fIrstset at a particular eccentricity (e). As evident from Eq. (4.23)higher the eccentricity
more will be the force level. It is then operated at constant frequency, and the acceleration of the oscillatory
motion of the block is monitored. The oscillator frequency is increased in steps, and the signals of monitor-
ing pickups are recorded. At any eccentricity and frequency the dynamic forceshould not exceed 20 percent
of the total mass of the block and oscillator assembly. The amplitude of vibration (A) at a given frequency
lis given by
a-
A- (mm) = ---:;=- 2 ...(4.24)
- 41t-f
where az = Vertical acceleration of the block, mm/i
f = frequency, Hz.
Amplitude versus frequency curves are plotted for each eccentricity to determine the natural frequency
of the foundation-soil system (Fig. 4.38). The natural frequency,f. n~~, at different eccentricity (i.e. force level)
is different because different forces cause different strain levels of the block which may be accounted for
when appropriate design parameters are being chosen.
The coefficient of elastic uniform compression (Cu) of the soil is then determined using Eq. (4.25)
4 1t2 1.n-
2m
C =-~ ...(4.25)
u A
where fnz = Natural frequency of foundation-soil system, Hz

m = Mass of the block oscillator and motor, Kg -sec2/m
2
A = Base contact area of the block, m
From the value ofC U obtained from Eq . (4.25) for the test block of contact area A the value ofC u I for the
actual foundation having contact area A I may be obtained from Eq. (4.26)
- rE
CuI = Cu V A; ...(4.26)
The Eq. (4.26) is valid for base areas of foundations up to 10 m2. For areas larger than 10 m2, the value 01
Cu obtained for 10 m2 is used.
The coefficient of elastic uniform compression (Cu) is related to the elastic Young's modulus (E) by Eq
(4.27) which is in the form of Boussinesq relationship for the elastic settlement of a surface footing
E Cs
...(4.27
Cu = (1- ~ 2) . JBL
where ~ = Poisson's ratio
B = Width of base of the block
L = Length of base of the block
Cs = Coefficientdependingon LIBratio
153
,amic. So.il Properties
200
150
Vertical vibration
.0/8 ~O'
0
0 0 e : 35
III
c:
0
tt -A e : 70°
~
v It- ~ 8 : 1050
E I:r .. '8 : 1400
QI
"::J 100
.....
a.
E
~ il
r- 8 ---4
so
15 . 45 50
Frequency, cps
Fig~ 4~38 : Amplitude versus frequency plots from vertical resonance test
"
-
-
Barkan (1962) recommended the values of Csfor various LIB ratios as listed in Table 4.5
Table 4.5: Values orcs
(After Barkan, 1962)
lJB Cs
1.0 1.06
-
1.5 1.07
2.0 - 1.09
3.0 1.13
5.0 122
10.0 1.41
The value of damping ratio ~is determined using Eq. (4.28)

~=f2-f1 ...(4.28)
2fnz
A
where f2,Jj = Two frequencies at which amplitudes is equal to If
Amax = Maximumamplitude
hzz = Resonant frequency
This is also illustrated in example 2.6.
4.3.6. Horizontal Block Resonance Test. Horizontal block resonance test is also performed on the block set
up as shown in Fig. 4.37. In this test, the mechanical oscillator is mounted on the block so that horizontal
sinusoidal vibrations are generated in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the block. Three acce~eration
or displacement pickups are mounted along the vertical centreline of the transverse face of the block to
sense horizontal vibrations (Fig. 4.37a). The oscillator is excited in steps starting from rest condition. The
signal of each acceleration pick up is amplified and recorded. Rest of the procedure is same as desqribed for
vertical block resonance test. Similar testscan be performed by exciting the block in the direction oftrans-
verse axIs.
The amplitude of Horizontal vibrations (Ax) is obtained using Eq. (4.29).
ax
A = ~ 2 ...(4.29)
x 4n f
where
ax(mm) = Horizontal acceleration in the direction under consideration in mmli
f = Frequency in Hz
Amplitude versus frequency curves are plotted for each force level to obtain the natural frequency,flLl
of the block soil system as done in vertical resonance test. A typical frrquency versus amplitude plot i~;
shown in Fig. 4.39. It may be noted that the case of horizontal vibrations.is a problem of two degrees o(
" " ' ''
f .
,
.. ..,",
,
I, ,
2:,;:r',£{';:;~~{;I;!ffl~'$(>"
. lIB i2;.;:~ ',.
lie Soil Properties 155
)m. The mode of vibration is obtained by plotting amplitude versu: -

:y of the system from the analysis of data from the pickups mountt
block. Typical plots are shown in Fig. 4.40. If the plot correspOl
~ncycorresponds to first mode or lower natural frequency. On the (
g. 4o40b, then natural frequency corresponds to second moc
[,00
., ,
III
C
0
'-
u
E 200
Q,I
~
::J
...
Q.
E
1-~ 1.
cd:
~8-t
100
0- 1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 [,5
Frequency I CpS
Fig. 4.39 : Amplitude versus frequency plots rr~m honzon~al resonance test
'amic Soil Properties 157
The coefficient of elastic uniform shear (Ct) of soil is given by the following equation:
î î
èï¬®·³æ
...(4.30)
Ct= (Ao+Io):t ~ (Ao+Io) 2 -4rAolo
Mm
where
r = M 1110
hx = Horizontal resonant frequency of block soil system

Ao = A/M
A = Contact area of block with soil
M = Mass of block, oscillator and soil
10 = 3.46 I/Mmo
Mm = Mass moment of inertia of block, oscillator, motor, etc. about the horizontal axis pass-
ing through the centre of gravity of block and perpendicular to the direction of vibration
Mmo = Mass moment of inertia of the block, oscillator; motor etc. about L1ehorizontal axis passing
through centre of contact area of block and soil and perpendicular to the direction of
vibration.
I = Moment of inertia of the foundation contact area about the horizontal axis passing through
the centre of gravity of area and perpendicular to the direction of vibration.
In Eq. (4.30), negative sign is taken when the system vibrates in first mode and positive sign when the
ystem vibrates in second mode.
For the size of the block recommended in IS 5249-1977 and for first natural frequency, the Eg. (4.30)
'educes to
2
Ct = 92.3 fnxl ...(4.31)
In Eq. (4.31), Ct is in kN/m3.

The coefficient of elastic uniform shear (Ctl) for actual area of foundation (At) is given by
...(4.32)
C" ~C,~AAl
IS 5249 : 1977reconunends the followingrelations between Cu' and Ct, Ccpand CII':
Cu = 1.5to 2.0 Ct ...(4.33)
Ccp = 3.46Ct ...(4.34)
CIjI= 0.75Cu ...(4.35)
4.3.7. Cyclic Plate Load Test. The cyclic plate load test i,sperformed in a test pit dug upto the proposed base
level of foundation. The equipme.nt is same as used in static plate load test. Circular or square bearing
plates of mild steel not less than 25 mm,thickness and varying in size from 300 to 750 mm with chequered or
grooved bottom are used. The test pit should be at least five times the width of the plate. The equipment is
assembled according to details given in IS 1988-1982. A typical set up is shown in Fig. 4.41.
1" I
158 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations'
Sand bags to give a

reaction of SOOkN ò
ðòêð³õó 1.0m 10 m -+ 0.60m-4

Wooden sleeper
2m xO.30mxO.15m
2n05. on either side
Prov jng rl n,9
Foundation level
f--- 1.Sm Plate 300 mm x 300 mm

Sectional elevation
-,
100mm
-L
J,Sm
3nos R.S.J. 300mm x lS0mm ot LoOO mm clc

top row of joists not shown in pion
Plan
Fig. 4.4t : Set up for cyclic plate load test
To commence the test, a seating pressure of about 7 kPa is first applied to the plate. It is then removed
and dial gauges are set to read zero. Load is then applied in equal cumulative incrementsof not more than 100
kPa or of not more than one fifth of the estimated allowable bearing pressure. In cyclic plate load test, each
incremental load is maintained constant till the settlement of the plate is complete. The load is then released
to ~ero and the plate is allowed to rebound. The reading of fmal settlement is taken. The load is then in-
f-Tr~ ,.,.".:.,..,.,.""II\~- !IIiI - III
mic Soil Properties 159
;ed to next higher magnitude ofloading and maintained constant till the settlement is complete. which
.l is recorded. The load is then reduced to zero and the settlement reading taken. The next increment of
is then applied. The cycles of unloading andreloading are continued till the required final load is reached.
The data obtained from a cyclic plate load test is shown in Fig. 4.42. From this data, the load intensity
us elastic rebound is plotted as shown in Fig. 4.43, and the slope of the line is coefficient of elastic
JITn compressiOn.
Ð í
Ý ã -(kN/m)
ïï Í» ...(4.36)
where ° ã Load intensity in kN/m2

Se = Elastic rebound corresponding to p in m.
s.~
Load intflns ity, p
p, pz .p 3 a.
...
>-
z2l_--r-
~
--- \1\
1-j__- C
C:II
~
Sfl3 - --- C
l~i- "
"0 p
0
Se4 J
-r-'- -
_t_-
SflS
-------
-f-
Elastic rflbound, Sfl
Fig. 4.42 : Load intensity versus settlement Fig. 4.43 : Load intensity versus elastic rebound
in a cyclic plate load test from cyclic plate load test
3.8. Standard Penetration test (SPT). The standard penetration test (SPT) is the most extensively used
situ test in India and many other countries. This test is carried in a bore hole using a split spoon sampler.
s per IS: 2131-1981, steps involved in carring out this test are as follows:
(i) The borehole is advanced to the depth at which the SPT has to be performed. The bottom of the
borehole is cleaned.
ºæ®¬¢òò¢ô¢óó -""" .. 91: III
mic Soil Properties 159
;ed to next higher magnitude ofloading and maintained constant rill the settlement is complete, which
1is recorded. The load is then reduced to zero and the settlement reading taken. The next increment of
isthen applied. The cycles of unloading andreloading are continued till the required final load is reached.
The data obtained from a cyclic plate load test is shown in Fig. 4.42. From this data, the load intensity
us elastic rebound is plotted as shown in Fig. 4.43, and the slope of the line is coefficient of elastic
Jrm compreSSiOn.
Ð í
Ý ã -(kN/m)
ïïÍ» ...(436)
where ° ã Load intensity in kN/m2

Se = Elastic rebound corresponding to p in m.
s.~
Load int<zns ity, p
p, pz 'p 3 a....
>-
z2l_--r-
-4J
--- \11
1-j__- C
C:II
-4J
S<Z3 --- C
1-- "0
p
_t- 0
0
Se4 ..J
-r-'- -
_t_-
S<zs
-------
-f-
Elastic r<zbound, S<z
Fig. 4.42 : Load intensity versus settlement Fig. 4.43 : Load intensity versus elastic rebound
in a cyclic plate load test from cyclic plate load test
3.8. Standard Penetration test (SPT). The standard penetration test (SPT) is the most extensively used
situ test in India and many other countries. This test is carried in a bore hole using a split spoon sampler.
s per IS: 2131-1981, steps involved in earring out this test are as follows:
(I) The borehole is advanced to the depth at which the SPT has to be performed. The bottom of the
borehole is cleaned.
--~ mE
- i
160 Soil Dynamics & Machille Foulldations
(ii) The split-spoon, attached to standard drill rods of required length is lowered into the borehole and
rested at the bottom.
(iii) The split -spoon sampler is seated 150 mm by blows of a drop hammerof 65 kg fallingvertically and
freely from a height of750 mm. Thereafter, the split spoon samplershallbe further driven 300 mm in
two steps each of 150 m. The number of blows required to effect each 150 mm of penetration shall
be recorded. The first 150 mm of drive may be considered to be seating drive. The total blows
required for the second and third 150 mm of penetration is termed the penetration resistance N.
If the split spoon sampler is driven less than 450 mm (total), then N-value shall be for the last
300 mm penetration. In case, the total penetration is less than 300 mm for 50 blows, it is entered as
refusal in the borelog.
(iv) The split spoon sampler is then withdrawn and is detached from the drill rods. The split barrel is
disconnected from the cutting shoe and the coupling. The soil sample collected inside the barrel is
collected carefully and preserved for transporting the same to the laboratory for further tests.
(v) Standard penetration tests shall be conducted at every change in stratum or intervals of not more
than 1.5 m whichever is less. Tests may be done at lesser intervals (usually Q.75m) if specified or
considered necessary.
The penetration test in gravelly soils requires careful interpretation since pushing a piece of gravel can
sreatly change the blowcount.
4.3.8.1. Corrections to obsetYed SPTvalues (N) ill cohesionless soils. Following two types of corrections
are normally applied to the observed SPT values (N) in coh~sionless soils:
Corrections due to dilatancy:
In very fine, or silty, saturatedsand, Terzaghi and Peck (19~7) recommendthat the observed N-valllesbe
corrected to N' if N was greater than 15 as
1
N' = 15 + -2 (N-15) ...(4.37)
Bazaraa (1967) recommendedthe correction as

N' = 0.6 N (forN > 15) ...(4.38)
This correction is introduced with the view that in saturated dense sand (N > 15); the fast rate of
application of shear through the blows of drop hammer, is likely to induce negative pore pressures and thus
temporary increase in shear strength will occur. This will lead to a N-value higher than the actual one. Since
sufficient experimental evidence is not available to confirm this correction, many engineers are not applying
this correction. However this correction has also been recommended in IS: 213 1-1981.
Correction due to overburden pressure:

On the basis of field tests, corrections to the N-value for overburden effects were proposed by many
investigators (Gibbs and Holtz 1957; Teng 1965; Bazaraa 1967; Peck, Hanson and Thornburn 1974). The
methods noffi1ally normaly used are:
Bazaraa (1967)
For 0"0< 75k Pa
4N
1--
N = 1+0.040"
I
D11IIII -- -~. miiYL~.M£!,,:
For aa-> 75kPa

4N
...(4.40)
N' = 3.25+0.01ao
Where a 0 = Effective over burden pressure, kPa
Peck, Hanson and Thornbum (1974)
N' = 0.77 N loglO 2000 ...(4.41)

ao
Figure 4.44 gives the correction factor based on EqJ..4Al). Use of this figure has been recommended in
~2 131-1981. In this figure,
. 2000
~ = Correction factor = 0.77log10 ~
ao
...(4.42)
correction foetor CN
" .
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
0
0
CL
.:.:.
...
t>1 100
'-
:J
III
III
t>1
'-
Co 200
C
t>1
,;:)
'-
:J
.D
'- 300
e:,I
>
.0
t>1
>
t
t>1
400
'4-
't-
W
500
Fig. 4.44 : Over burden correction
There is a controversy whether the correction due to dilatancy should be applied first and then the
correction due to over burden pressure or vice-versa. However in IS 2131-1981, it is recommended that the
correction due to overburden should be applied first.
A typical set of o~~eryed N-value~ are shown in Fig. 4.45. C_orre~t~d~-values as per IS Code recommen-
dations are also shown in the figure. .
.H
c,,: ..;..i.:.,,:;~:t,'4':~',:V'c,:e;\.;~';:'.:,,:;:f.l'!.:;.:;X!!::*,:~,/'::":t
::\i"l//</";'::\i',!"".b~..';;":~;!';"'":."~";';'.of"t.:'.' ~',,;;"..{"':"i:."<'" ':.,'.L" . ,""'c',','?,,,,:..."" ;'" ,"~j,htc\.U~~.:.v
Standard' penetration resistane. N

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
0
",
,,
It = 20 KN1m2 "\ Obse rved
Corrected
2 --Yl- \
~sub = ~OKN 1m2
.."-
"-"-
"-
3
'\
\
\
\
4 \
\
\
\t
"-
"-
5 "-"
"-
E "-"-
.s:: "-
Q. 6 ')
Cl I
0 I
I
I
7 I
I
10
11
Fig. 4.45 : Typical SPT data
. '
~-_.- III
.~
y"amic Soil Properties 163
The SPT is es.sentiallyundrained test for the duration of each blow and the energy generated by the
PT hammer isprincipally shearing energy.Therefore the test maybe useful to predict the dynamicbehaviour
fsoils. Seed el et. (1983) presented.correlations between SPT and observed liquefaction. Ohasaki (1970)
escribes a useful Japanese rule of thumb that says liquefaction is not a problem if the blow count from a
;PTexceeds twicethe depthof sampleinmeters~ .
Imai (1977) reported the following correlation between N (observed) and shear wave velocity, Vs
mls):
Vs = 91 ~.337 ...(4.43)
Bowles (1982) has given a number of equations to obtain stress-strain modulus Es on the basis ofSPT
md cone-penetration test (CPT). These equations are given in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6 : Equations for Stress-Strain Modulus Es by SPT and CPT

(After Bowles, 1982)
SPT CPT
Sand Es = 500(N+ 15) .,~ = 2 t04Qc

2
Es = 180oo+750N Es = 2(1 + Or )Qc
Es = (15000to22000)inN
Clayey sand Es = 320(N + 15) Es = 3 to 6Qc
Silly sand Es = 300 (N + 6) Es = 1 to 2Qc
Gravelly sand Es = 1200(N+6)
Soft clay Es = 6 to 8 Qc
Using the undrained shear
strength: CIt
Ip > 30, or organic Es = 100 to 500 Cu
Ip < 30, or stiff Es = 500 to 1500 Cu
I < OCR < 2 Es = 800 to 1200 CII
OCR> 2 Es = 1500 to 2000 CII
Notes: 1.Unit ofEs is KPa in correlations with N.

2 Es will have the same unit as of Qc
3. Es will have the same unit as of Cu
4.4 FACTORS AFFECTING SHEARMODULUS,ELASTICMODULUSANDELASTIC CONSTANTS

Hardin and Black (1968) have given the following factors which influence the shear modulus, elastic modu-
.lus and elastic constants:
(l) Type of soil including grain characteristics, grain shape, grain size, grading and mineralogy;
(ii) Void ratio;
(iii) Initial average effective confining pressure;
'}
(iv) Degree of saturation;

(v) Frequency. of vibration and number
.
of cycles ofload;
(VI) Ambient stress history and vibration history;
(vii) Magnitude of dynamic stress; and
(viii) Time effectS;
The shear modulus G, elastic modulus E, and dynamic elastic constants (ClI' C' Ct and C\jI)are related
with each other directly as evident from Eqs. 3.9,4.27,4.34 and 4.35. Therefore the factors listed from (i) to
(viii) will effect G, E, ClI'C'
Ct' C\jI in similar way. Keeping this in view, the effect of the factors have been
discussed only on dynamic shear modulus G and damping ratio,
Soil behavior over a wide range of strain amplitudes is nonlinear and on unloading follows a different
stress-strain path forming a hysteresis loop as shown in Fig. 4. 46. The area inside this loop represents the
energy absorbed by the soil during its deformation and is a measure of the internal damping within the soil.
At very low strain amplitudes « 0.0001 %) the soil acts essentially as a linear elastic material with little or
no loss 9f energy. The s~ear modulus under these c.onditions is maximuI? but as the strain amplitudes is
increased, the shear modulus decreases and the damping within the soil increases.
ñ
îð lOO cyc les

¶ Ù³¿¨
/ 1
la cycles
0 I 1 cycle
CL
.:tr.
/ I
/ I
~ 10 / I
I
I
,
I
I
I
L
óïð 10
Y x 104 mm/mm
Dry cl~(jn sand

<z = G 57
I
ac = 25 kPa
- 20
Ù³¿¨ = f)') M po
Fil!. 4.46 : Stn'ss-strain 111°1)and points at 1st, 10th and 100th cycles of lo:ldin~ (After Hoadll'Y, 19115) w'
~'
"'11!'
'.,
.i
"
J
>i>t--- '.-tt!,;
namic Soil Properties

165
Ishihara (1971) presented Fig, 4.47, which shows strain levels associated with different phenomenon in
~ field and in corresponding field and laboratory tests. Prakash and Puri (1980) presented the data ofG
)m different insitu tests as shown in F~. 4.48. It is evident from this fi~e that G decreases significantly
:tenstrain amplitude is higher than 10. . For lower strain amplitude«10.5), G may be considered constant.
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
Magnitude of train 1 10 10 10 10
'9 I I
-S[ld1
Phenomena wav propagation. vibration Cra cks,ditferllntia I compac tion,
se'ttlczmcznt liquifacation
Mechanical Failure
character itics Elastic Elastic-plastic
Angle OT
Constants Shear modulus, poisson's ratioJdamping ratio inNmal friction,
cohcsion
seismi c waye
+"'
method
I I
c .,.
::::J W
E In situ
W
... vibration test I ,..,., '
-
c::::J
III
RcpIloted
g I J
E load ing test
Iwavtl propa\)ation
>-
... c te st I I
0 W
+' E R sonant
0"""W
column test I I
o:J
.a'"
0 0 Repeated
...JCII
E loading test r I
Fig. 4.47 : Strain levels associated with different insitu laboratory tests (After Ishihara, 1971)
The machine foundations are usually designed for very low strain amplitudes so that the behaviour of
soil is elastic under vibrations, It is to avoid the building up of any residual strains in the soil due to the
operation of the machine, Large strain amplitudes may be developed by commercial blasting, earthquakes,
nuclear blasts, pile driving operations, compaction devices or excessive vibrations of the machinery,
The subsequent discussions have been made under two heads (i) Shear modulus for low strain ampli-
tudes, and (ii) Shear modulus for large strain amplitudes.
4.4.1. Shear Modulus for low Strain Amplitudes in Cohesionless Soil. In the case of cohesionless soils,
shear modulus G is dependent on effective confining pressurecro and void ratio e. The effect of other fac-
tors on G is negligible (Hardin and Richart, 1963). They have reported the results of several resonant col-
umn tests in dry Ottawa sands as shown in Fig. 4.49. Straight lines have been fitted through the test points
corresponding to different confining pressures.,Similar results are also shown inFig. 3.12 (of chapter 3) as
solid lines. In order to 'extend the lines for wider range of void ratios, 'dotted liiiesnave been drawn in Fig.
3.12 to represent the results from tests using clean angular grained materials. The peak to peak shear strain
ampli~de for the~e tests was 10.3rad, It can be seen from these figr. es t v,~ and~.~r : i~,d.~~en ~en, t Of the
~~
gradatIon and gram slze'dlstnbutlOn. The effect of confinIng press
. fi .
m<rramr-on"\:i/antfG lSXSI "
cant . ', ' .ff",'.

. . ,.11.
Ic."""""V,.."
"""
I,
1_"i:.'>J
I?"!"""'j'.!'
. ..'
"""" .)."$O""",,,~ '-'
..
~ .co':
.
", .J .',..".."t,
",
.
.
',,' S
.t1
/i,~ y ' .~:~,.,.,
.;/\ I\:00.>"
-:"C>-"
':i.j>;""Aj
'-.,.7 " ",,;;I
,','.:;
,:.;~;"",
'""",..; ,,-7."J
-'..'
f
- -~~---~"UIIII ~~ &
)ynll1ltic SoU Properties 167
,Sy'm. Void. ratio

Max. Minl
. 0.71 ' , 0.495
0 0.89 0.54
A 0.66 0.32
11 0.76 0.42
I
390
360
u " ,
-11\
330 (J'
::-.
0 .. 3 'H' ,
E
11\
.. .. AOOk",/ 'h 2
>
.. 300
->-
.-
u
-0 270
>
> 240 et
0
...
14
0 210
.I:.
If)
e, So kN/tr]
----- 2
0
180 " .
150
120
0.35 0.65 ,0.75
Void ratio~ e
Fig. 4.49 : Variation, . '

of shcar-wa\'c
and gradation
. "
ve!ocity
J,','
in dry' OUa\V8 sand (Hardin

wit,h void ratio for various .
and Richart,
confining
1963)
pressures. grain SiLl'
"" :,.i"':' .~,"';';")' ô÷òò¢ôøþò¢þòò·ååÖùæùå C,"',' '..

C'""',' .', '"," ,'", "',',,;",:';, ,', ".
0'
,", ,,'
,>
~.
168 Soil Dynamics & MachiIJe ,Foundations
Following empirical expressions have bp.endeveloped for Vsand G for round-grained sands and angu-
lar-grained crushed Quartz (Hardin and Black, 1968). '
For round grained sands (e < 0.8)

Vs = (11.36-5.35 e) (ao}O.3 ...(4.45)
2
G= 6908(2.l7-e) (a )°-' ...(4.46)
,l+e 0
For angular grained sands (e~0.8)

Vs = (18.43-6.2e)(ao)0.25 ...(4.47)
2
G = 3230(2.97 - e) Ca )°.5 ...(4.48)
l+e 0
where Vs = shear wave velocity in m/s
G = Shear modulus in kN/m2
a 0 = Mean effective confining pressure in N/m2 for Eqs.(4.45) and (4.47) ; and in kN/m2for
Eqs. (4.46) and (4.48)
e = Void ratio
. Hardin and Richart (1963) have shown that the effect of degree of saturation on Vs is insignificant
(Fig. 4.50).
420
360
~ 300
~ 270
~
>-
240
.~
u 210
0
-; 180
>
. Dry
ISO . Drained
0 Saturated
120
ZO SO 70 100 150 ZOO 500
Pressure, cr,
0 kN/mZ
Fig. 4.50 : Variation of shear wave velocity with confining pressure for a specimen of Ottawa sand in the
dry, saturated and drained conditions (Hardin and Richart, 1963)
Seed and Idriss (1970) have suggested the following equation
G = lOOOK (ao)05 ...(4.49)
where G is in kN/m2units, K is an empirical factor which varies according to relative density of sand. and cr0
is the mean effective confini~g stress in kN/m2 units. Table 4.7 gives some values ofK obtained from field
measured values of shear modulus.
vnamic Soil Properties 169
Table4.7: FieldMeasured.ValuesofK .
(Seed and Idriss, 1970)
Soil K
Loose moist sand 7.5
Dense dry sand 10.0
Dense saturated sand 13.0
Dense saturated silty sand 14.0
Dense saturated sand 16.0
Extremely dense silty sand 19.0
Dense dry sand (slightly cemented) .36.0
Moist clayey sand 26.0
~.4.2. Cohesive Soils. Few investigators (Lawrence, 1965; Hardin and Black, 1968; Humphries and Wahls.
1968) have performed tests on cohesive soils using resonant column devices to get the shear modulus. On
he basis of analysis of experimental data, Hardin and Black (1968) have ootained the variation of G with e
md cr0 as shown in Fig. 4.51 for normally loaded clays. They have also reported the shear modulus tor some
lndisturbed clay specimens collected from the field. The following relation has been suggested:
.,
G=C
(2.97- er (-cr ).0.5 ...(4.50)
1 l+e 0
Nhere Cl is constant; and G and <10 are both in kN/m2 units.
Equation 4.51 has been suggested by Hardin and Drnevich (1972b) for both clays and sand.
-- 2
k
= 3230(2.97-e) . OCR) « 1 )0.5 ...(4.5 -
G (l+e) ( 0
where K is function of plasticity index (Table 4.8), and OCR is over consolidation ratio.
Table4.8: ValuesofK
-. .
(Hardin and Drnevich, 1972b)
Plasticity index PI - k
00 0.00
20 0.18 .
40 030
(j) 0.41
00 0.48
> 100 0.50
-
170 Soil Dynamics & Machille Foundations
552,000
. Tap wahr kaolinite

A Salt flocculated kaolinite
0 Di spczrsed clay
v Flocculated clay
420,000
o~:
,-..
0
Cl..
oX
'-'
V\ 280,000
::J
::J (i\
"'0 ~ .
0
E (6QO) \
....
0
"'W:'
"~:.
.\
...: ,'-... '
.J:.
If)
0
0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5
Void ratio e
Fig. 4,5 t : Experimental values of G for some normally consolidated clays (Hardin and Black, t 968)
Hardin (1978) has suggested the following expression:

0.5
625 (OCRl ao
G= 2 -
O.3+0.7e ( Pa)
where Po is the atmospheric prt:ssure in the same unit as of ao' G is in kN/m2units.
;I
j
\
'amic Soil Properties 171
For clays, Seed and Idriss (1970) suggested an equation of the form:
Glcll = K ...(4.)3)
~reCllis the undrained shearing strength of soil. K is a constant whose value lies between 1000 and 3000.
Ohasaki and Iwasaki (1973) developed a relationship by correlating the shear modulus obtained in a
sshole survey (SCS) with SPT 'N' values.
G = 12000No.8 ...(4.54)
. ere G is in kN/m2 units, and N is the N-value recorded in standard penetration test. This equation applies
both sands and clays.
t.3. Shear Modulus for Large Strain Amplitudes. Figure 4.52 shows a plot between shear stress (t) and
~arstrain (y) . The stress-strain curve is approximated by a hyperbolic function defined in terms of initial
:ar modulus Glllaxand a reference shear strain Yrwhich is defined by Eq. (4.55)
1max
...(4.55)
Ì Yr = Gmax
'. .
'"Cma X - -,- - ---

11
/I -------
,J --
J
I 16
, I max --------
san d
I
/1 I
I y/
//
.--//
---------
(.\0'/
--
I .If.. //
1/ // .
'/ V
'; /1
~ / I T= ¥'
t / I
-1 +- }>
/ I
r; :
6maxI'max
I
'¥r y
Fig. 4.52 : Hypcrbolic strcss-strain relationship (Hardinand Drncvich. 1972 b)
The reference strain is equal to the strain at which a line drawn through the origin with a slope equal to
imaxintersects the horizontal line at t = tmax:tmax is the shear stress at failure in the soil. It can be obtained
1the following manner. Figure 4.53a shows a soil element at a given depth being subjected to vertical and
orizontal effective stresses of ery andKo cryrespectively.Koisthecoefficientofearthpressureat rest.The
lohr circle corresponding to stresses cryand Ko cryis shown as circle 1 in Fig. 4.53c.
From the geometry of the circles 1 and 2, we get
...(4.56)
'm" = [{~(l+Ko)cr.Sin++ccos+r-H(l-Ko)cr..n
172
erV cv
""( max
'tmax
KoO=-v Ko erv
.~.'t,
I..
( a) (b) .-' ~
,
U\
III
'-
<:)I
+'
III
Koo-v ay E f f <zc t i VIZ

nor mal
(c) -¬®»-- er
Fig. 4.53 : Determination of 'tnl2x
Gmaxis the value of G applicable for very low strain amplitude, and therefore can be obtained using the
appropriate equation from Eqs. (4.46), (4.48) to (4.54). Thus the value of reference shear strain Yrcan be
evaluated.
The hyperbolic stress-strain curve 'which defines the initial loading curve and also the end point of the
complete stress reversal loop is given by Eq. (4.57).
~;
't = Y ...(4.51)
1 1
-+- ,.
Gmax 'Ymax
As
't
G=- ...(4.58)
r ft,
Combining Eqs. (4.55), (4.57)and (4.58), we get
G
..
G = ---1!!illL
l+l
Yr
)ynamic SoU Properties 173
Using Eq. (4.59), one c~n obtainthe value of G at any strain amplitude, y. For every small strain ampli-
udes, Y/Yr= 0; and the Eq. (4.59) reduces toG=Gmax'
"4.4. Estimation of Dampling Ratio. Hardin and Drnevich (1972) presented a relation betWeendamping
'atio~andthemaximumvalueof dampingratio~maxasbelow:
~ = ~max ...(4.60)
( 1- GG
max )
Combining Eqs. (4.59) and (4.60), we get,
l
Yr
...(4.61)
.!:
., =~max ---;;;-
I
1+-
Yr
Typical values of ~max are given in Table 4.9.
Table 4.9: Typical values of~max ,,
(Hardin & Drnevich), 1972)
Soil type Value of~max
Clean dry sands 33-1.5 (log n)

Clean saturated sands 28-1.5 (logn)
Saturated Silt 26- 4 a~2 + 0.7/12 -1.5(logn)

-1/2 112
Saturated cohesive soil 31-(3+0.03/) ao + 1.51 -1.5(logn)
n - Number of cycles
a 0 - Mean effective principle stress, kg/cm2
1 -Frequency of loading, Hz
Forcohesionlesssoils, the valueof ~max is dependentonlyon thenumberof cyclesof loadingn while
for silts and clays;the frequency of loading/(Hertz) and the mean eff~ctive principal stress (ao in kgf/cm2)
influencethe maximum damping ratio.
ô þ¶¢ ":'~;~2;;:\ '.':2:~~:'; ··¢ù æùæ
æå¢¢áå¢æ·¢¥·º¬ùï·ô¶æ¢¢¢îæ¢¢åô¢æ¢¢¢ô¢¢¢¢¢¢·¢¢Û·Ð¢Öëæù ~~eIit
ååùôæ£å·ø
I~USTRATIVEEXAMPLES -
Example4.1 ,
A soil specimen was tested in a resonant column device (torsional vibration, Fixed -free condition) for deter-
mination of shear modulus. Given a specimen length of90 mm, diameter 35 mm, mass of 160 g, and a fre-
quency at a normal mode of vibration (n = 1)of800 cps, determine the shear modulus of the specimen.
Solution:
I. From Eq. (3.47)
Cl) =--1 (2n -1)1tvs

n 2 /
, .+t;, "
.:> n=1
2/ro n - 2.(0.090) .(27t.800) = 288 m/s

VS =-- 7t 1t
2. Mass density of Soil in the specimen
p=
òðíë
î
ðòïêð ã ïèìèòékg/m3
7tø 2 ÷ .0.090
3. G = pv; = 1848.7.2882
= ïòëíí x 1O8N/m2
Example 4.2
A vertical vibration test was conducted on a 1.5 m x 0.75 m x 0.70 m high concrete block in an open pit
ha\'ing depth 2.0 which is equal to the anticipated depth of actual foundation. The test was repeated at
different settings (8) of eccentic masses.
The data obtained from the tests are given below:
ÍòÒ± è º´¬Æ Amplitude at
(Deg) Resonance (Microns)
ïò íê ìïòð ïíòð
îò éî ìðòð îìòð
ò
íò ïðè íìòð íîòð
ìò ïìì íïòð ìðòð
The soil is sandy in nature having angle of internal friction, = 35° and saturated density Ysa/ = 20 kN/
m3.The water table lies at a depth of3.0 m below the ground surface. Probable size of the actual foundation
4.0 x 3.0 x 3.5 m high. Determinethe valuesofC", E and G to be'adopted for the design of actualfoundation.
Limiting vertical amplitude of the machine is 150microns.
,~b:
.,'."
× ¢ËÍÌÎßÌ×ÊÛ EXAMPLEsj
Example 4.1
A soil specimen was tested in a resonant column device (torsional vibration, Fixed -free condition) for deter-
mination of shear modulus. Given a specimen length of90 mm, diameter 35 mm, mass of 160 g, and a fre-
quency at a normal mode of vibration (n = 1) of800 cps, determine the shear modulus of the specimen.
Solution:
I. From Eq. (3.47)
(J) =--1 (2n -1)1tvs

n 2 /
" dt; '. n
.::> =1
2/ffin - 2.(0.O90).(21t.800) =288m1s

vs =-- 1t 1t
2. Mass density of Soil in the specimen
p = 0.160
2 = 1848.7kg/m)
.035
1t( 2 ) .0.090
3.
G = pv; = 1848.7.2882
= 1.533x 108N/m2
Example 4.2
A vertical vibration test was conducted on a 1.5 m x 0.75 m x 0.70 m high concrete block in an open pit
having depth 2.0 which is equal to the anticipated depth of actual foundation. The test was repeated at
different settings (e) of eccentic masses.
The data obtained from the tests are given below:
SoNo e /nz Amplitude at

(Deg) Resonance (Microns)
1. 36 41.0 13.0
2. 72 40.0 24.0
.
3. 108 34.0 32.0
4. 144 31.0 40.0
The soil is sandy in nature having angle of internal friction ~= 35° and saturated density Ysa/= 20 kN/
m). The water table lies at a depth of3.0 m below the ground surface. Probable size of the actual foundation '"
4.0 x 3.0 x 3.5 m high. Determinethe valuesofCII' E and G to be'adopted for the design of actualfoundation.
Limiting vertical amplitude of the machine is 150 microns.
,\
,}"
:~~
>'it
.iji-
,~~
.;,'f,Ij.
"m:t.~
mic SoU Properties 175
tion:
2
1. Area of block = 1.5 x 0.75 = 1.125 m
Mass of block = (1.125 x 0.70) x 2400= 1890 kg
Mass of oscilator and motor = 100 kg (assumed)
Mass of block, oscillator and motor = 1890+ 100
= 1990 Kg.
2 2
2. C
,
=-41t fnzm
U A
2 2
4
C = 1t fnz' 1990
U 1.125.1000 = 71.1 fn~ kN/m3
The calculated values of Cu for different observed resonant frequencies are listed in column No. 5 of
',e4.10.
l.13E 1
Cu = (I-Jl2)'.fA
Assuming Jl =0.35
F = .JiJ2s(1-0.352)
1.13 Cu=0.8236 Cu kN/m2
E
G= , = 0.8236 Cu =0.3050C kN/m2
2 (1 + Jl) 2(1+0.35) ,u
For different values of Cu (col. No. 5), calculated values ofE and G are listed in Cols. 6 and 7 of Table 4.10
)ectively. '
3. Correction for confining pressure and area

The mean effective confining pressure aO!at depth of' one -half the width below the centre of block is
en by
crO! = cry (1 + 23Ko)
where cry = cr~l+ crv2
,cry! =, Effective overburden pressure at the depth under consideration
crv2 = Increase in vertical pressure"~u~t() the weight of block ",
Assuming that the top 2.0 m soil has a moist unit weight of 18 kN/m3, and the nex~ 1.0 m soil i.e. upto
ter table is satUratedthen ."c -'
.,. -i . '' 0 70 . . '
;;; .", " , :~vJ; :::;:..J.~~~8iZ+aO.x ~~ =~3 ~~m2\,) ~, ,: : '::", ,,;
. I " ;: ) : ',f'
"-;,' ,T~"'I'J,r;~'
;~j, ') " ':.
" ~
,..'
.'
176 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundati'ms'
From Taylor (1948):
-a - -4q 2mn~m2+n2+1
.m2+n2+2 +sm
. -12mn~m2+n2+1
v2 - 41t m2 +n2 + l+m2n2 m2 +n2 + 1 m2 +n2 + l+m2n2
[ ]
L 12 1.5/2
³ =2=0.70/2=2.14
B/2 0.75/2
n = 2 = 0.70/2 =1.07
2
q = 24 x 0.70= 16.8 kN/m
[Assuming unit weight of concrete = 24 kN/m3]
Substituting the above values of rn, nand q in the expression of av2' we get
- 2
crY2= 13.44kN/m
cry = 43 + 13.44 = 56.44 kN/m2
Ko = 1 - sin <jI= 1 - sin 35° = 0.426

- 1+2 x 0.426
0'01 = 56.44 ,( 3 ) =34.84kN/m
2
For the actual foundation
aYI = 18x2.0+20x 1.0+(20-10)xO.5=61kN/m2

4.0/2
m = 3.012 = 1.334
3.Q/2
n=3.0/2=1.0
2
q = 24x3.5=84kN/m
Substituting the above values of m, nand q in the expression of crY2'we get
crY2 = 63.76 kN/m2

- 2
av = 61+63.76= 124.76kNIm
cr02 = 124.76 (1 + 2'x] 0.426) =77.01 kN/m2 .
Area of actual foundation = 4.0 x 3.0= 12.0m2 (> 10m2)

.
- 05 05' 05 05'
Cu2 = E2 = G2 = 0'02 . ~ = 77.0 1.125
' = 0.4986
Cui El Gl ( 0'01) ( A2) ( 34.84) ( 10 )
The values ofCu' E and G of the actual foundation at different strain levels (= amplitude at resonancel
width of test block) are given in cols. 8,9 and 10 of Table 4.10 respectively. The corresponding values of
sn:ainlevels are listed in col. 11.
~'
"" '~
-
.
~
..
.
iitfIIJ
~ynamic SoU Properties 177
4. Strain level Correction
. . 150 x 10-6 -4
Strain in Actual foundation = 3.0 = 0.5 x 10
Thevaluesorcu' E and G correspondingto strainlevelof 0.5 x 10-4canbe obtainedby interpolation.
Cu
= 4.10-(4.10-3.40)
(
0.50-0.427
0.533 - 0.427, ) x 4
10
= 4.10-0.7 x 0.6886=3.62 x 104kN/m3
E = [3.37 - (3.37 - 2.80) x 0.6886) x 104 = 2.98 x 104 kN/m2

G = [1.25-(1.25-1.04) x 0.6886] x 104= 1.10 x 104kN/nl
Hence the response of the proposed foundation block should be checked using
Cu = 3.62 x 104 k1~/m3
E = 2.98 x 104kN/m2
G = 1.10 x 104 kN/m2
Table 4.10 : Analysis of Data for Cu' E and G

For test block
Amplitude
S.No. e In;; at resonance Cu E G
(Deg.) (microns) x 104 kN/m2 x 104 kN/m2 x 104 kN/m2
( I.) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
I. 36 41 13 11.95 9.84 3.64

2. 72 40 24 11.38 9.84 3.47
3. 108 34 32 8.22 6.77 2.51
4. 144 31 40 6.83 5.62- 2.08
continued
For Actual foundation
Cu E G Strain level
x 104 kN/m2 x 104 kN/m2 x 104 kN/m2 x 10-4
(8) (9) (10) (11)

5.96 4.90 1.81 0.173
5.67 4.67 1.73 0.320
4.10 3.37 1.25 0.427
3.40 2.80 1.04 0.533
Iynamic SoU Properties 177
4. Strain level Correction
. . 150 x 10-6 -4
Strain in Actual foundation = 3.0 = 0.5 x 10
ThevaluesofCu' E and G correspondingto strainlevelof 0.5 x 10-4canbe obtainedby interpolation.
0.50-0.427
Cu
= 4.10- ( 4.10-3.40 )
( 0.533 - 0.427. ) x 4
10
= 4.10-0.7 x 0.6886=3.62 x 104kN/m3
E = [3.37-(3.37 -2.80) x 0.6886) x 104=2.98 x 1041cN/m2
G = [1.25-(1.25-1.04) x 0.6886] x 104= 1.10 x 104kN/m2
Hence the response of the proposed foundation block should be checked using
Cu = 3.62 x 104kN/m3
E = 2.98 x 104kN/m2
G = 1.10 x 104 kN/m2
Table 4.10: Analysis of Data for Cu' E and G

For test block
Amplitude
S.No. e In;; at resonance Cu E G
(Deg.) (microns) x 104 kN/m2 x 104 kN/m2 x 104 kN/m2
( \.) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
\. 36 41 13 1\.95 9.84 3.64

2. 72 40 24 11.38 9.84 3.47
3. 108 34 32 8.22 6.77 2.51
4. 144 31 40 6.83 5.62 - 2.08
continued
For Actual foundation
Cu E G Strain level
x 104 kN/m2 x 104 kN/m2 x 104 kN/m2 x 10-4
(8) (9) (10) (11)

5.96 4.90 1.81 0.173
5.67 4.67 1.73 0.320
4.10 3.37 1.25 0.427
3.40 2.80 1.04 0.533
!'
:~~tt~r~~tii\Wi': ~~;t~~;,i:j~;~~'f~;';~;
1c~h~ "~'K(",oiJ(ii~~7"I,.!;,i;',(..t,j; I If;..~~'
. ,
"iizinic Soil Properties' 179
2
8~2xO.6194f.
c = , , nx
t (0.5546+0.9926) x IQ-3 I~(0.5546+0.9926)2 x 10-6 -4 x 0.6194 x 0.5546 x 0.9926 x 10-6

2
48.856 ht'( 3 3
= (1.5283):t(0.9989) x 10 N/m
Therefore, , <
Ct = 92.3/;'\ kN/m3(First mode) ~
Ct = 19.3 1;'2 kN/m3(Second mode)
(b) Ct=92.3 In~1

The Calculated values of Ct for different observed resonant frequencies are listed in col. 5 of Table4.11.
As in example 4.2.
'r.
C'
--1f. = 0.4986
Ct!
The values ofCt for the actual foundation are given in col. 6. The corresponding strain levels a re listed
in coL7.
Table 4.11 : Analysis of Data for C't
S.No. "e fn.d Amplitude 'Ct Ct Strain level

(Deg.) (Hz). " (microns), x 104kN/m2 x 104 kN/m2 x 10-4
(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) "
1 36 25 10 5.77 2.87 0.133

2 72 23 16 4.88 2.43 0.213
3 108 21 21 '4.07 2.03 0.280
4 144 19 28 333 1.66 0373
-6 '
. 100 x 10
=.0 333 x 10-4
.. '
S tram m actuaI ~lound atlOn = . "
, 3.0
Therefore, the value of Ct for actual foundation
0.373-0.333 3
= [ 2.03-(2.03- L66) x 0.373-0.280 ] x 104= 1.87 x 104kN/m
Example 4.4
The soil profile at a site is shown in Fig. 4.54 . Two cross borehole tests were conducted at the site to deter-
mine the values of shear wave velocities in the small areas around points A and B. The average values of
shear wave velocities were obs'ervedas 11Omlsand130 m/srespecnvely. Determine the values of dynamic
shear modulus G for points A, B, C and D. '
0.0
f
2.0m if = 18 kN 1m3
Ae
+
1.Qm Fine grained soil
c. --L
- 4.0 m
1.0m
, .
~L
f-- --------
1.0m ~ = 21 kN/m3
t
2.0m
86
Satu re ted san d
-1 .0
- 10.0m
Fig.4.54: Soil profiles (example 4.4)
Solution:
1. Fine grained soil stratum (0.0 to - 4.0 m)
Observed shear wave velocity at point_A
vS = 1l0rn/s
.
G = P v;
18
G= 9.81 X(110)2=2.2xl04kN/m2
G1'A= 18x 2 = 36kN/m2
ave = 18x 3 = 54 kN/m2

- 05
(G) G 54 05
~ = ( g:~ ) = (36) . = 1.~247
(G)c ~ i.i~ 104x1.2247=2.7X 1.04kN/m2
"
if.
'~:;~ViY;i'"t\tr"~;\:cf~~7W;j;:'~}
j;",' '9/~f.{kt;~:~-it\i~:~\~h;: ~ft~i~~\;f~"";- r(~1-+1~it~i;.~t~f.'
.)l~t]~,;:;:..;) ~~f~~'f"!!t&[~\~; "" ,j:Jr
vnamic Soil Properties 181
.2. Saturated sand (..,,4.0~to ~ to.OOm) . " . ,.
(vS>B = 130mls
(G~ = 9~~lx (130)2 =.3.6 x 104kN/m2
crvB= 18 x 4:0 ~21 x 1.0+(21 -10) x 1.0 ~104kN/m2

- 2
crvD = 104+ (21-10) x 2.0= 126kN/m
, , 0,5 .
26
(G>O = J.6x 104 x ( 104) =2.96 x 104kN/m2
'xample 4.5 ,
.t a particular site, the top 10.0m soil is medium grained sand having dry unit weight as 17 kN/m3.The water
lble is 6.0 m below the ground surface. The value of specific gravity of soil grains is 2.67. The direct shear
:st gave the value of as 36°. Determine the value of shear modulus of the soil at depth of 7.0 m below
round surface.
,olution:
1. Yd= 17= 2.67

l+ex 10
e = 0.57
(2.67 + 0.57) x 10 = 20.6 kN/m3

Ysat= 1+0.57 '
(O'vhOm = 17 x 6.0+(20.6-10) x 1.0

. .
2
= 112.6kN/m '
Ko = I-sin<l>=I-sin36°=0.412
- - 1+2Ko -' _ 1+2XO.412 x '
0'0 - ( 3 ),crv ~ ( 3 ) 112.6

= 68.46 kN/m 2
2. From Eq. (4.34)
2
6908 (2.17 - e) - 0.5
G = l+e . ( 0'0 )
2 '
G~' 6908(2.17-0.57) .(68.46)°.5
1+ 0.57
.' 4 2
= 9.3 x 10 teN/m
, >':: .. ,:' ,t.

;182 SoU Dynamics & Machine Foundations
Anderson, D. G. (1974), "Dynamic modulus of cohesive soils", Ph. D Dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Ar-
bor.
Barkan, D. D. (1962), "Dynamics of bases and foundations." McGraw-HilI, New York.
Bjerrum, L, and Landra, A.'(1966), '-'Direct simple shear tests on a Norwegian quick clay", Geotechnique 26(1), pp. "-
1-20.
Casagrande, A. and shannan, W.L. (1948a), "Stress deformation and strength characteristics of soils under dynamic
loads", Proc. Second Int Conf. Soil Mech. Foundation Engg., Vol. 5, pp. 29-34.
Casagrande, A. and Shanan, W.L (1948b), "Research on stress deformation and strength characteristics of soils and soft.
rocks under transient loading," Harvard Soil Mechanics Series No. 31.
Cho, Y.,Rizzo, P. C, and Humphries, W. K. (1976), "Saturated sand and cyclic dynamic tests", Am. soc. Civ. Eng.,
. Ann. Cony. Expo., Philadelphia, rA, Meet. Prepr. 2752, pp. 285-312.
Dass, B.( 1977), "Behavior of Clayunder oscillatory loading", M.E. Thesis, U. O. R, Roorkee.
Drnevich, V. P. (1967), "Effect of strain history on the dynamic properties of sand", Ph.D. Dissertation, university of
Michigan, Ann. Arbor.
Drnevich, V. P. (1972), "Undrained cyclic shear of saturated sand", J. Soil. mech. Found. Div., Am., Soc. Civ. Eng., 98
(SM-8), pp. 807-825.
Goto, N., Kagami, H., Shiono, K. & Ohta, Y. (1977), "An easy-capable and high precise shear wave measurement by
means of the standard penetration test". Proceedings sixth world conference on earthquake engineering,
pp. 171-176.
Hall, 1. R., Jr., and Richart, F. E., Jr. (1963), "Dissipation of elastic wave energy in granular soils", J. Soil Mech. Found.
Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Engg., 89 (SM-6), pp. 27-56.
Hardin, B.C (1971), "Program of simple shear testing of soils", Univ. Ky., Soil Mech., Ser. No. 8, pp. 1-14.
Hardin, B. O. & Black, W.L., (1968), "Vibration modulus of normally consolidated clay", Journal of the soil Mechanics
and Foundations Division, ASCE, 94 (SM2).
Hardin, B. O. & Richart, F. E. Jr., (1963), "Elastic wave velocities in granular soils", Journal of the Soil Mechanics and
Foundations division, ASCE 89 (SM 1), pp. 33-65.
Hardin, B. O. & Music, 1. (1965), "Apparatus for vibration of soil specimens during the triaxial test." Instruments and
apparatus for soil and rock mechanics, ASTM, STP 392, pp. 55-74.
Hoadley, P. J. (1985), "Measurement of dynamic soil properties", Chapter of a book on Analysis and Design offoun-
dations for vibration, pp. 349-420.
Hvorslev, M. 1., and Kaufman, R. 1(1952), "Torsion shear apparatus and testing procedure", USAE Waterways expo
Stn., Bull 38, pp. 1-76.
Iida, K. (1938), "The velocity of elastic waves in sand," Bull. Earthquake Res. Inst., Tokyo Imp. Univ., 16, pp. 131-
144.
lida, K. (1940), "On the elastic properties of soil particularly in relation to its water content", Bull. Earthquake Res.
Inst., Tokyo imp. Univ., pp. 18,675-690.
Imai, T. (1977), "Velocity of P-and S-waves in subsurface layers of ground in Japan", Proc. 9th Int. Conf. Sol Mech...
Found., Tokyo, Vol. 2, pp. 257-260. . . .
IS : 5249 (1978), "Deterrrtination of dynamic propertIes' of soil".

~ ,f"
~"a",ic Soil Properties 183
: 1888 (1982), "Method of load test".

: 213I (1981), "Method for standard penetration test for soils"
hibashi, I., and Sherif, M.A. (1974), "Soil liquefactionby torsional simple shear device", J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am,
soc. civ. Eng., 100(GT-8), pp. 871-888. ,
hihara, K. (1971), "Factors affecting dynamic properties of soil", Proc. Asian Reg. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng.. 4th,
Bangkok, Vo!. 2.
hihara, K., and Li, S. (1972), "Liquefaction of saturated sand in triaxial torsion shear test": Soils Found (Jpn.) 12 (2),
pp. 19-39.
hihara, K., and Yasuda, S. (1975), "Sand liquefaction in hollow cylinder torsion under irregular excitation", Soils
Found. (Jpn.), 15(1), pp. 45-59.
himoto, M., and lida, K. (1937), "Determination of elastic constants of soils by means of vibration methods", Bull.
Earthquake Res. Inst., Tokyo Imp. Univ., 15, p. 67.
vasaki, T., Tatsuoka, F., and Takagi, Y. (1977), "Shear moduli of sands under cyclic torsional shear loading," Tech.
Memo. No. 1264, Public Works Res. Inst., Ministry of Construction, Chiba-Shi, Japan.
jellman, W. (1951), Testing of shear
- strength in Sweden, "Geotechnique, 2, pp. 225-232.
, .
awrence, F. V., Jr., (1963), "Propagation velocity of ultrasonic waves through sa.n.~",MIT Research Report, R63-8.
ord, A. F., Jr., Curran, 1.W., and Koemer, R.M. (1976), "New transducer system for determining dynamic mechanical
properties and attenuation in soil", 1. Acoust. Soc. Am. 60 (2), pp. 517-520.
filler, R. P., Troncosco J. H. & Brown, F. R. (1975), "In situ impulse test for dynamic shear modulus of soils", Pro-
ceedings of the conference on in situ measurement of soil properties, Geotechnical Engineering Division.
ASCE. Specialty conference, Raleigh, North Carolina, Vo!. 1, pp. 319-335. .
~acock, W. H., and Seed, H. B. (1968), "Sand liquefaction under cyclic loading simple shear conditions", 1. Soil Mech.
Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 94 (SM-3), pp. 689-708.
rakash, S., and Puri, V. K. (1981), "Dynamic properties of soils from in situ tests", 1. Geotech. Eng. Div.. Am. Soc.
Civ. Eng. 107 (GT-7), pp. 943-963. .
rakash, S., Nandkumaran, P., and Joshi, V. H. (1973), "Design and performance of an oscillatory shear box", 1. Indian
Geotech. Soc., 3 (2), pp. 101-112.
rakash, S., Nandkumaran, P., and Joshi, V. H. (1974). "Behaviour of soils under oscillatory shear stress", Proc. yth
Symposium on Earthquake Eng., Roorkee, V01. 1, pp. 101-12.
ichart, F. E., Jr., Hall, 1. R., and Woods, R. D. (1970), "Vibrations of soils and foundations." Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey.
oscoe, K. H. (1953), "An apparatus for the application of simple shear to soil samples," Proc. Int. Conf. Soil Mech.
Found. Eng., 3rd, Zurich, vot. I, pp. 186-191.
eed, H. B., Idriss, I. M., and Arango, L. (1983), "Evaluation of liquefaction potential using field performance data",
J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., 109 (GT-3), pp. 458-482.
eed, (1960), "Soil strength during earthquakes", Proc. Second World conf. Earthquake Engg., vo!. I, pp. 183-194.
eed, H. B. and Chan, C. K. (1966), "Clay strength under earthquake loading conditions", 1. Soil Mech. Found. Div..
ASCE, vo\. 92, SM 2, pp. 53-78.
~ed, H. B. and Fead, J. W. N. (1959): "Apparatus forrepeated load tests on soils," SpecialTechanical Publication No.
20~, ASTM, Philadelphia,
5ilver, M. L., Chan, C. K. et a!. (1976), "C~c1ic triaxiatstrengtllofstandard testsand", 1. Geot. Engg., Div. ASCE,vol.
, 102, no.. aT 5,
"
pp. 511-523. -: '.",..\ " ."
",' .. /
/'
~
184 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations .
Stephenson, R. W., (1978), "Ultrasonic testing for determining dynamic soH modulii", Denver: Dynamic. Geotechnical '
testing, ASTM, STP 654., pp. 179-195.

Stokoe, K. H., 1I, and Hoar, R. J. (1978), "Variables affecting in situ seismic measurements", Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng.
Spec. Conf. Earthquake Eng. Soil Dyn., Pasadena, CA, vot. 2.
Stokoe, K. H., and Woods, R. D. (1972), "In situ shear wave velocity by cross-hole method", J. Soil Mech. Found. Diy.,
Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., 98 (SM-5), pp. 443-460..
Taylor, D. W. (1948): "Fundamentals of soil mechanics:' John Willey sons, Inc., New York.
Terzaghi. K. and Peck, R. B. (1967), "Soil mechanics in engineering practice", John Willey and Sons, New York.
/<
Wilson, S.D., and Dietrich, R. J. (1960), "Effect of consolidation pressure on elastic and strength properties of clay",
Proc. am. Soc. Civ. Eng. Res. Conf. Shear Strength Cohesive Soils, Boulder, CO, pp. 419-435.
Woods, R.D. (1978), "Measurement of dynamic soil properties: State-cf-the-Art", Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. Spec.
Conf. Earthquake Eng. Soil Dyn., Pasadena, CA, Vot. I, pp. 91-180.
Yoshimi, Y., and Oh-Oka, H. (1973), "A ring torsion apparatus for simple shear tests", Proc. Int. Conf. Soil Mech.
Found. Eng., Moscow, Vol. I, Pt. 2, pp. 501-506.
r:>
"
-".,-
>ynamic Soil Properties 185
PRACTICE PROBLEMS - I
4.1 Describe
I the salient features. of a resonant. column apparatus. 'How is calibration done and the
, value of shear modulus determined?
4.2 A clayey soil specimen was tested in a resonant column device (torsional vibration, free-free end
condition) for determination of shear modulus. Given a specimen length of 100 mm, diameter 36
mm, mass of 180 g, and a frequency at normal mode of vibration of 900 cps, determine the shear
modulus.
4.3 Explain the difference between simple shear and direct shear tests. What is the principle involved
in oscillatory shear box test? Give the salient features of a study made on clay under dynamic loads
using oscillatory shear box.
4.4 List the factors affecting shear strength of cohesive soils under static and dynamic loads. Explain
with neat sketches the effect of dynamic stress level, initial factor of safety and number of pulses.
4.5 Draw typical transient strength (single impulse) characteristics of sandand claytestedfor the fol-
lowing time of loading: ' ,0.' . .
(i) 0.02 s (ii) 0008sand (iii) Static

4.6 Describe briefly the following:
(a) Seismic cross-borehole survey
(b) Seismic up-hole survey
(c) Seismic down-hole survey
4.7 A vertical vibration test' was conducted on a MI5 concrete block 1.5 x 0.75 x 0.70m high using
different eccentricities (8) of the rotating mass of the oscillator. The data obtained are given as
follows:
SoNo. 8 /nz - Amplitude at resonance
(Deg) (Hz) (microns)
. ",. ,
1. 36 41 13
2, 72 40 24
30 108 34 32
4, 144 31 " 40
c
Determine the value of co~fficient of elastic uniform compression, Cu for confining pressure of
100 kN/m2 and base contact area ~f 10 nl.. Also give the values of strain levels at different eccen-
tricities. '.
, "
.'
4.8 A horizontal vibration test was conducted on a M 15 concrete block 1.5 x 0.75 x 0.7 m high. The
data obtaint:;d is shown in Fig. 4.5.5, Determine the value of coefficient of elastic uniform shear, C r
"'"'~"" ' C'.,
.and the"cbrres "ortding$ -, 'n leyL~.:" ' . .

",. " '
';K~~il;C " ,. ,., ye'" ,

'--':-<"""il""s;";,;;~';<'N.';:3I'.I"'.:'.J,i".':;,,; '!'{,'"",;,:';';.:t"""':;""f,-,. ';,-,,'c:i,'c,"',,"""",' C"',>,',, '" ,.,>"z,>;,h,,';~~
186 SoU Dynamics & Machine FoundlJtions
0.32
e = 1050
0.28
0.24
,..."
E 0.20
E
.........
~
"'C
-=0.16
a.
E 2
«
0 .12
0.08
0.04
0
10 15 20 25 30 35
Frequency (cps)
Fig. 4.55 : Amplitude versus frequency plot obtained from a horizontal vibration test
4.9 A cyclic plate load test was performed on a plate of 600 mm x 600 mm size. The elastic settlement
corresponding to a loading intensity of80 kN/m2 was 2 mm. Using this data, determine the coeffi-
cient of elastic uniform compression, Cufor a foundation block of base area 15m2.
4.10 Discuss the factors affecting shear modulus and damping. Illustrate the procedure of obtaining
the shear modulus and damping at given strain amplitude from Gmaxand ~ma)('
,:
DD
';1;\
< H
,"-' ..
"
78 Soil Dynamics & Mat;hineFoundations
-:xample 4.3
(a) Determine the expressions of coefficient of elastic uniform shear, C'!:in temis of resonant frequency
for the block of size 1.5 m x 0.75 x,0.70 m high, tested wider horizontal vibrations.
(b) Determine the value ofCt for the foundation mentioned in example 4.2, if the block tested in hori-
zontal vibrations give the following results: .. " ,
S.No. e (Deg.) !,,\(Hz) Amplitude at

Resonance (Microns)
1. 36 35 10
2, . . 72 34 16
3. 108 30 21
4. 144 T7 28
Pelmissible value of horizontal amplitude is 100 microns.

Solution:
(a) Value ofCt is given by Eq. 4.3

2 2
8n r f roe
Ct = (Ao+lo):t ~ (Ao+Io) 2 -4rAoIo
Moment of inertia of the base contact area of block about axis of rotation
I = 0.75 x 1.53 =0.2109m4

12
Height of combined centre of gravity of block, oscillator and motor from base.
1890 x 0.35 + 100 x 0.85
L = 19.9 =0.375m
The e.g. of oscillator and motor is assumed at a height of 0.15 m from the top of the block. Mass moment
of mertia Mm about an axis passing through the combined centre of gravity and perpendicular to the plane
of vibrations is given by .
1.52 + 0.702
Mm = 1890( 12 "
.
J + 1890(0.375-0.35)2+
- , ' ,
100(0.85-0.375)2
= 431.55 + 1.184-22.56=455.29 Kg-m2
M/nO = MIn. + mL2= '455.29+ 1990x
'
(0.375)2 = 735.13 K g-m2 .
~ Mill ==455.29 = 0 6194

r 735.13'
MI1/0,
A 1.125 , . -3 2
A
0
= -=-=0
m 1990 .5546x 10 m !kg
I. 0.2109 -3 2
10 = 3.46 ( M ) = 3.46 ( 735.13) = 0.9926 x 10 m /kg
11/0
-,,- ':';:"-.;",.!"".;;,i,~;,'.~J",1:}",.~.%/I';<,""<7'%"4"..:"";,,,",-.-;.'-' ~::;,:F',""" ", ",..':"h"';;;""+~;" 'i-';', ':',/;::;;i,'L -- , -- - --.
..,,"'l ~ ':"~
DYNAMIC EARTH PRES

-
5.1 GENERAL
In the seismic zones, the retaining walls are subjected to dynamic earth pressure, the magnitl
is more than the static earth pressure due to ground motion. Since a dynamic load is repetiti
there is a need to determine the displacement of the wall due to earthquakes and their dama,:
This becomes more essential if the frequency of the dynamic load is likely to be close te
frequency of the wall-backfill-foundation-base soil system. This essentially,consists in writi
equation of motion of the system under free and forced vibrations. This requires the inform
distribution of backfill soil mass and base soil mass participating in vibrations. It is ofter
assess these. Therefore, more often, pseudo-static analysis is caf!ied out for getting dynami
sure. In this method, the dynamic force is replaced by an equivalent static forcl
In this chapter, firstly various methods of computing the magnitude and point of at:
dynamic earth pressure based on pseudo-static analysis have been discussed. It is follow
methods of predicting the displacement of the retaining wan:
5.2 PSEUDO-STATIC METHODS
5.2.1. Mononobe-Okabe Theory. Mononobe-Okabe (1929) modified classical Coulomb'
evaluating dynamic earth pressure by incorporating the effect of inertia force.
Ct
Wl
::jj
'o1h ~.9'
ol.h
Wl '
Wt(t :totv1 ton~=1:toLv
+ (f»)
B
(0)
Fig. 5.1 : (a) Forces acting on raU!-'rewedge In active state (b) Force Polygon
(c) Dynamic earth pressure versus wedge angle 9 plot
188 SoU Dynamics & Machine Foundations 1\
.:
Figure 5.1 shows a wall of height H and inclined vertically at an angle a retaining cohesionless soil
with unit weight yand angle of shearing resistance cjI.BCI is the trial failure plane which is inclined to
vertical by an angle 8. The backfill is inclined and making an angle i with horizontal.
During an earthquake the inertia force may act on the assumed failure wedge ABCI both horizontally'
and vertically. If ah and av are the horizontal and vertical accelerations caused by the earthquake on the
wedge ABCp the corresponding inertial forces are WI . Gig horizontally and WI . ajg vertically, WI
being the weight of the wedge ABCl' During the wor~t condition, WI . ah/g acts towards the fill and
W, . aig may act vertically either in the' downward or upward direction. Therefore the direction that
gives the maximum increase in earth pressure is adopted in practice.
, .
If a" and ai, are respectively the horizontal and vertical seismic coefficients, then <~
ah
ah = g ...(5.i)'
a=- ai, ...(5.2)

v g .:
For the failure condition the soil wedge ABC, is in equilibrium under the following forces:
(i) W" weight of the wedge a~ting at centre of gravity of ABCI.
(ii) Earth pressure P, inclined at an angle 0 to normal to the wall in the anticlockwise direction.
(iii) Soil reaction R, inclined at an angle cl»to the normal 011the face BC"
(iv) Horizontal inertia force (W, a/,) acting at the centre of gravity of the wedge ABC,.
(v) Vertical inertia force :f: W I av acting at the centre of gravIty of the wedge ABC ,.
Weight W I and the inertia forces W I all and :f: WI av can be combined to give a resultant WI' where
- 2 2 1/2
W, = W, [ (l:t:av) +a" ]
...(5.3)
.;;
The resultant W, is inclined with vertical at angle '1', such that '~
',' --
0' ..
ah -"- ;""""-1
-,
, '" ::~5.~r--
'" = tan ( l:t:av )
The directions of all the three forces WI' P I and R, are known but the magnitude of only one force
W, is known. The magnitude of the other forces can be obtained by considering the force polygon as
shown in Fig. 5,1 b. P, is the value of dynamic earth pressure corresponding to the trial wedge ABCl'~
More trials are made and the values ofP2,PJ etc, are obtained. Variation ofP and 8 is shown in Fig, 5.1c..
The maximum value of P is the dynamic active earth pressure (PA)dyn' :,
Mononobe and Okabe (1929) gave the following relation for the comp~tation of dynamic active earth
pressure [(PA)dyn] : . -.. '
1 2
(PA)dyn,="2 yH (KA)dyn ...(5.5)
where (KA)dyn is coefficient of dynamic active earth pre~~ure and given by :

, ' -,; "1:;,.. "tf i;"U "
.,.
: ~..,
...~, ;!'>
;:./.,
~ .or ' "' ';;!C"i":~;~li,;..,:~//-:.-.
"I,~,5>' ".,.",:r..~,,$ .,' " , ' " J,.- , ;, "
,F'"
.'.' "
,
,-.;~""
1""',, ,
...'. '.. ,
, .:'!'-
. ,~{.~",..~:~..<;~'..".c',":,,<
" ",'",. ,," ", """, , ,
,"""""" """"'-",
,
'"~
"
,
"
..
.-- '. '.J
IIIiI:S
Dynamic. Earth .Pressure 189
,2
(l:tay) cos2(~-'V -al . . 1." 1/2

(K) = 2- x ( A. s::) ( A.' ) ...(5.6)
A dYII COS'V COS a COS(cS+ a + \V) 1+ srn 'f + ~ srn 'f -l - \V
{ cos (a - I) cos ( cS+ a + \V) }
The expression of (KA)dyngives two values ~dependingon the sign of ay. For design purposes the
higher of the two values shall be taken.
Mononobe and Okabe also gave the expression for the computation of dynamic passive earth pres-
sure (PP)dynwhich is
1 2
(PP)dyn = -2 rH (KP)dyn ...(5.?)
where (KP)dyn is coefficient of dynamic passive earth pressure and given by :
2
2
(1:t ay) cos (~+ a - \V) 1
(Kp)d n = 2 x 112 ...(5.8)
y cos \jI cos a cos (cS- a + \V) 1- I srn ( ~ + cS)sm ( ~ + l - \V)
{ cos (a - i) cos (cS- a + \jI}
For design t'urposes, the lesser value of (Kp)dYIIwill be taken out of its two values corresponding to
:!:ay.
5.2.2. Effect of Uniform Surcharge. The additional active and passive dynamic earth pressures [(P Aq)dyn
and (PPq)dyn]against the wall due to uniform surcharge of intensity q per unit area on the inclined earth
fill surface shall be :
q H cos a
(P Aq)dyn = cos (a - i) (KA)dyn ...(5.9)
q H cos a
(PPq)dyn= cos(a - i) (KP)dyn ...(5.lO)
5.2.3. Effect of Saturation on Lateral Dynamic Earth Pressure. For saturated earth fill, th~ saturated
unit weight of soil shall be adopted..
For submerged earth fill, the dynamic active and passive earth pressures during earthquakes shall be
found with the following modifications (IS: 1893-19.84).
(i) The value of 8 shall be taken as 1/2 the value of the 8 for dry backfill.
(ii) The value of 'V shall be taken as
. ' -I - 'Ys ah
r -'Ys - 1) 1:t ay ...(S.II)
'V = tan
-
. where 'Ys= Saturated unit weight of the soil.
(Ui) Submerged unit weight shalJ be adopted.
Hydrodynamic"pressure on account of water contained in earth fill shall not be considered separately
as the effect of acceleration on water has been taken indirectly. .
. ~,~~
5.2.4. Partially Submerged backfill. The ratio of lateral dynamic increment in active pressures to the
vertical pressures at various depths along the height of wall may be taken as shown in Fig. 5.2 The
pressure distribution of dynamic increment in active pressures may be obtained by multiplying the ver-
tical effective pressures by the coefficients in Fig. 5.2 at corresp.ondingdepths'
r- 3 [(KA)dyn - KA
]--\ 7
-- I
z /
/
1 /
/
/
/
/
/
/
/ V
H I
Z
1-
/
/ I I hw
hw / 3 [(KA)dyn - KA] H
/
/
/ I
KA and (KA)dyn a re th Cl
I
/ '
values of KA and (XA)dyn
/ in submerged condition
C
lateral dynamic Increment

Fig. 5.2: Distribution of the ratio' ve!1ical effective ~ressure with height o(wall
, ,
The value of lateral dynamic increment in active ca~e'can be obtaineq by.integrating it in the portiop
above water level and below water level separately. By doing this we get (Refer Fig. 5.2) ':
(P)
AIDyn
= r(H-hw)3[( K ) -K' ] .H-Z
Ö± Adyn;, A ' H !, , I
.z dz + 'h~ 3[(KA)Dyn-KA]hw.hw-z'.
0)(:
.
'H' ..', ,
h'W
[1 (H - hW> + 1h . z1 dz' " .

'",: ,
" , '., ",:,'
., ,- .. ~. :.' -.~ f:f'::>:/:"'~';
Dynllmic Ellrth Pressure 191
1 (H-h )2 1 h2
= -[(KA)d
2 yn -KAT H W.y (H +2hw) + -[(K~Jd
2 yn-KA1'~ H [3 Y (H - hw)+ Ybhw]
...(5.12)
where
(PAI)Dyn= Lateral dynamic incrementin active case

hw = Height of water level above base of wall
KA = Coefficientof static active earthpressure in dry/moist/saturatedcondition
(KA)dyn= Coefficientof dynamicactive earth pressure in dry/moist/saturatedCondition.
KA = Coefficient of static active earth pressure in submerged condition
(KA )dyn = Coefficient of dynamic active earth pressure in submerged condition
Y = Density of soil above water level
Yb = Submerged density of soil
Values of active earth pressure coefficients shall be obtained using Eq. (5.6) as described below.
KA - By putting aft = av = 'If= 0 in Eq. (5.6) . -
(KA)dyn- Eq. (5.6)
KA - By putting ah = ,fJ.1'~ ~ = 0 and 8 as ~ in Eq. (5.6)
(KA)dyn - By putting 8 and ~, and 'If given by.Eq. 5.11 in Eq. (5.6)
The additional dynamic increment due to the uniform surcharge of intensity q per unit area on the
inclined earth fill shall be:
(H"':hw) . cosa H-z

=J 3 K -K]. '-q dz
(PAqI)dyn 0 [( A)dyn A cos (a-i) H
ftw3[(KA)dyn-KA]hw. cos a . hw-z'. qdz'

+ J0 H cos(a:-i) cos (a-I)
2 2 2
3q cos a H - hw , , hw
= cos (a-i) {(KA)dyn-KA}' 2H +{(KA)dyn-KA}'2H ...(5.B)
[ ]
A similar procedure as described above may be utilized for determining the dynamic decrement in
paSSIvepressures.
5.2.5. Modified Culmann Construction. Kapila (1962) modified the Culmann's graphical for obtaining
dynamic active and passive earth pressures.
. ,.
t
.i.
I:
'~,'
, '
it
192 Soil Dynamics & Machine FollndtitiollS ~i
"1
I~
1
A Cl Cz C3 !~
1!
Modified
Culmann's line
s
H
1 ~
,~.
Fig. 5.3 : Modified Culmann's construction for dyna~ic active earth pressure
Different steps in modified construction'for determining dynamic active earth pressure are as follows
(Fig. 5.3)
(i) Draw the wall section along with backfill surface on a suitable scale,
(ii) Draw BS at an angle «1>- W) with the horizontal.
(iii) Draw BL at an angle of (90 - <X- 8 - W)below BS,
(iv) Intercept BDI equal to the resultant of the weight WI of first trial we,dgeABCl and inertial
forces (:I:W I <Xvand W I <Xh)'The magnitude of this resultant is WI'
wI = f - 2 2
WlV(l+CXv) +CXh
(v) Through Dl draw DI El parallel to BL intersecting BCl at El'

(vi) Measure Dl El to the same force scale as BDl' The Dl El is the dynamic earth pressure for trial
~~. . .
(vii) Repeat steps (iv) to (vi) with BC2, BC3 etc. as trial wedges,
(viii) Draw a smooth curve through BEl E2 E3' This is the modified Culmann's line.
(ix) Draw a line parallel to BS and tangential to this curve. The maximum coordinate 'm the direction
, of.BL isq1?tained from the !Joint of tan~ency ~~4 i~.:th:Hyn~c,activeearth pr~ssure, {PA)dyn'
For determining the passive earth pressure draw BS at «1>-~'V) below horizontal. Next Draw BL at
(90 - <X- 8 - W)below BS, The other steps for constructionremain unaltered(Fig, 5.4)
0
--'--
d--' -!
>ynamic ~~rlh Pressure 193
, .
cu Imann s line
plane of rupture
(;
s
Minimum pas~ive
pressure vector
Fig. 5.4: Modified Culmann's construction for.dynamic passive earth pressure
Effect of ~niformly distributed load and line load on the back fill surface may be handled in the
similar way as for the static case.
5.2.6. Dynamic Active Earth Pressure for c - Cl»
Soils. The solutions so far discussed consider the soil
to be cohesionless. A general solution for the determination of total (static plus"dynamic) earth pressures
f~r a c - cl>soil has been developed by Prakash and Saran, 1966 and Saran and Prakash, 1968.
q/Unit .area
:.
ho
Hl H
B
Fig. 5.5 : Forces acting on failure. wedge in active state for seismic condition ~nc-+ soil
C?
Figure 5.5 shows a section of wall whose face AB is in contact with soil. The soil retained is hori-
zontal and carries a uniform surcharge. The inclination of the wall AB with vertical is <X and inclination
of the trial failure surface is 9 I' AEC 1D 1is the cracked zone in clayey soils, EC I being at depth h0 below
AD I .ho is given by expression
h0 = n (H I - h 0 ) = nH ...(5.14)
where
HI = Total height of retaining wall
H = Height of retaining wall in which backfill is free from cracks
In this analysis only horizontal inertia force is considered. All the forces acting on the assumed.
failure wedge AEBCIDI are listed in Table 5.1 along with their horizontal and vertical components.
Table 5.1: Computation of Forces Acting on Wedge AEB Ct Dt (Fig. 5.5)
Designation Vertical Component Horizontal Component
r 2
1. Weight of wedge -2 'Y H (tan IX+ tan 81)
1 ~2 2
ABCI°1 + 'Yn H2 (tan IX+ tan 81) + - 'Y n H (tan IX)
2
2. Cohesion, C = c H sec 81 cH cHtan81
3. Adhesion, Ca = c' H sec c'H c' H tan IX
4. Surcharge q H [tan IX+ tan 81) + n H tan IX]
5. Soil Reaction RI RI sin (81 + q,) RI cos (81 + q,)
6. Inertia force
(W + Q) IXh
7. Earth pressure PI P I sin (IX+ 0) P I cos (IX+ 0)
A summation of all the vertical components gives
12 2 122
2" 'YH (tan <X+ tan 9I) + 'Yn H (tan <X+ tan 9 I) + 2" 'Yn H tan <X- cH - c' H + qH (tan <X+
tan 91 + n tan a) = PI sin (a + 8) + RI sin (91 + $) ...(5.15)
A summation of all the horizontal components gives
cH tan 91 + c'H tan a + (W + Q) ah = PI cos (a + 8)'+ RI cos (91 + $) ...(5.16)
Multiply Eq. 5.15 by cos (91 + $), Eq. 5.16 by sin (91 + $), substitute for Wand Q from Table 5.1,
assuming c = c', and adding, we get
PI sin (~ + 8) = 'YH2[(n + 1/2) (tan <X+ tan 91) + n2 tan a] [cos (91 + $) ,. ah sin (91 + $)] + qH
[(n + 1) tan <X+ tan 9d [cos (91 + $) + <Xhsin (91 + $)] - cH [cos ~ sec <X+ cos $ sec 9d ...(5.1?)
where ~ = 91 + $ + <X
<
Introducing the following dimensionless parameters: ,1
4
- cos J3sec IX+ cos ~ sec 91
(Nac)dyn - sin(J3+o) . ...(5.18)
[(n+l) tan a + tan9t1 [cos (91 +~)+ah sin (91+~)]

(Naq)dyn = , sin (p + 0) ...(5.19)
'~
.'., ., i'; ; , ;.,1

~
vnamic Earth Pressure 195
. 2
-'"- (N) = [(n + 1/ 2)(tan a+tan el) +ntan a][cos (e1+~) +ah sin (e1+<1»]-- ...(5.20)
ay dyn sin(~+O)
We get (Pl)dyn = yH2 (Nay)dyn+ qH (Naq)dyn- cH (Nac)dyn ...(5.21)

'here $Nac)dyn' (Naq)dyn and (Nay)dyn are earth pressure coefficients which depend on a, n, <1>,
() and e1.
or given parameters of wall and soil, the values of (Nac)dyn' (Naq)dyn and (Ntrf)dyn are computed for
ifferent wedge angles e2, e3 etc. The variation of these coefficient with respect to wedge angle e are
hown in Fig. 5.6, and the maximum values of (Naq)dyn and (Nay)dynand minimum value of (Nac)dyn are
btained.
...
-0 ...
0
~eT "
+-
loO
... 0 )""
0 Z 0
z
"1;\ (Naqm )5~t ......
u
0 (Narm~t
Z
(Nacm)
o;tat
ecm ac aqm aq arm , er

(0) ( b) (c)
Fig. 5.6: (a) (Nac)dyn versus e plot; (b) (N.q)dynversus e plot; (c) (N.-r>dyn
versus e plot
For such condition, the earth pressure corresponds to dynamic active earth pressure. Eq. 5.21 can b~
.vritten as
2. '
(P A)dyn = yH (Naym)dyn+ qH (Naqm)dyn- cH (Nacm)dyn ...(5.22)
For static case, et.h= 0; earth pressure coefficients then become
cos ~ sec et. + cos ~ sec el
(Nac)stat = ,sin (~+8) ...(5.23)
(N) = [(n+1)(tana+umel)]cos(el+<\) ...(5.24)

aqstat sin(~+()
2
[(n+1/2)(tana+tane)+n tana]cos(el +$)
, (5.25)
(Nay)stat = sin(~+8),
Minimum value of (NaC>stat'and maximum value of (Naq)statand (Nay)statcan be obtained in similar

manner as illustrated above for getting the ~tatic earth :pressure coefficients. It is found convenient to
obtain the dyna~~c ea~th pressure coeffi,cten~~JrQmP1efollowing constaq.ts : '-,
',d,' , ', '..'., " ,il'\0""1 '
c'"
. ,. ,', ," ,::...1', (N aqiit'ldyn' '
,
, '
,
AI = (N{I~",)stat ',:' { , .~;, ..

('f. i
'~CJi "
.
i!
~,
"~.$.
196 '~~~
Soil Dynamics &
Machi"e .F oundations!1
~ ! ~t
,,'~ I
, (Naym)dyn, ' '. ~'

' 1
...(5.27)
I.~i
.
-,
, " ,"-2 =
(N arm. ) stat "
.'.
, .,
.
.
. .
"
..
',!
. ,
Nacmboth for the static and dynamic case is same and bas' been plotted in Fig. 5.7 for different
inclination of the wall varying + 20° to - 20° with the vertical. As evident from the Eq. 5.23, Nacmfactor ,~1-1
is also independent of n., " , " , , '~II

~i
, ~.S
"
~.O "
+'
0
+- ..
III
" 3.5
E , '
~
u
-
,'f
0 ~
Z 3.0
.....
.....
t)I
"
.
u0 2.5
t)I
....
::J
~
t)I
2.0
....
a.
.c
+' 1.5
....
0 "
w
1.0
0.5 t~
0 s 10 lS 20 25 30 35 40 45 ~
r/J (deg)
,}
Fig. 5.7: (Nacm)statversus ellfor all n (Prakash and Saran, 1966 and Saran and Prakash, 1968)
Figures 5.8, 5.9 and 5.10 show plots of (Naqm)statversus.<1>

for n of 0,0.2 and 0.4 respectively. These"
plots consider the inclinationof the wall from + 20° to - 2.0°.Plots of (NaY11l)stat
for the same range of n, ~
<1>
and Clhave been drawn in Figs. 5~11,,~.12 an~ 5.~3. ...
, It is found that the values of Al and A2 alter. slightly with incr~a~e in n. It is therefore recommended ...
that the effec~ of n on Al and "-2may,I'.otbe considered. Secondly, It ISobserved that Al and A2are almost. 1 .
same (Prakash and Saran, 1966; andSanln and Prakash, 1968). Hence o~ly one value of-A(= Ali=~) is J
recomm~nd,ed (Fig. 5:14). Since.~ is the .ratio o~:e~rth.pre~s~re~oeffic~ent~'in.(i) dynamic and (ii) static . J~
case, and both the ~oefficients decrease with <1>. the ~s?ape of-the curves ~or.different f!-h values indicate .~;
the rate. of decrease of one in relation to the other.::'" '~~:-::"'\::',;'
,:.' 'c " "",!'. "', " '":.,,.,
,', - 'J~
rJynamic Eart" !ressure " , 197
1.2
....
0
....
III
,...
E 1.0
er
0
-z n =0
.... 0.8
....
ti
0
U
0,6
I-
:J
11\
11\
~ 0.4
c.
.c
....
I-
0 0.1
w
'r.
0
0 5 10 15 20 15 30 35 40 45
(/J{dq'g)
Fig, 5.8: (N.qm)stat versus ellfor n = 0 (Pr&kash and Saran. 1966 and Saran and Prakash, 1968)
'
.
0
,... 1.0
~
E
er n =0.21
0
z 0.8
.....
.
.....
~
u
0.6
~
I- "
:J
::: 0.4
~
L-
c.
~L- 0.2
0 "
W
0-
0 5, " 10 15 20 " .' '25 , 30, , ..35 40 , _,45
r' --' . '
.' 'C/J {d q g) .
Fig. 5.9 : (N8qm).t8t versus' for n = 0.2 (pta,iuisb':and Saran, 1966 and Saran" and Prakash, 1968)
:fJ ',' ',:- ..'",.v'"',,,;-. "..ii";;'~';;~'~,~,#:!~,t:'i"i'~i:;"!o{,h,.J'Y,:;r~;'J'":>i':~'" ,,:. :.:,..:
198 SoU Dynamics & Machine Foundations f
~I,,
1.4
n =0.4
E
er
0
Z 0.8
....
....
1>1
~ 0.6
Col
...
:J
III
III
~ 0.4
a.
.s::.
...
...
0
LIJ 0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 2S 30 3S' 40 4S
</J (deg)
Fi~. 5.to: (N.<]m),'.'versus ~ for n = 0.4 (Prakash and Saran. t 966 and Saran and Prakash, t 968)
1.0
~
0
~
11'
E
)0
0.8
0 n=O
Z
-:
.....
0.6
.....
~
0
v
~L- 0.4
:J
11'
III
~
L-
a. 0.2
.r::. 0 ~
.....
L- -10-
0
UJ 0 -200
0 s 10 1S 20 2S 30 3S 40 4S J
,t
,. ~ (d~Q).
Fig. 5.11 : (~II'JII1)Jt.tversus' for It = 0.0 (Prakash and Saran, t 966 and Saran and Prakash, 1968)
i
i
,
mamic Earth Pressure 199
1 .0
+-
-0
~ 0.8
E
>0
0
:z n :: 0.2
:;
.... 0.6
~
0
u
t:.I
~11\ 0-41'
11\
~
....
a.
.r.
+'
0.2
....
0
lLI
0 -~-L~ '
0 5 10 1S 20 2S 30 35 40 4S
~ (deg)
Fig. 5.12 : (Naym)statversus 4jIfor n = 0.2 (Prakash and Saran, 1966 and Suan and Praliash. 1968)
1.2
-0
+'
1.0
III
,.....
E n:: 0-4
~
0 0.8
z
....
....
~
u
0.6
~
....
:J
11\
11\
0.4
~
....
a.
.r.
t: 0.2
0
UJ
0 -
0 ,\, 5' .,- 10 15 20 25 '30 3S 40 4S

" .; -;. ,'.. C: :1;);1;. ': ,.}
", .-', ,"" .. "'", . 'r'.""';>
, ':;.',"':"'~ J"~;
':\J tI. (dczg)
.., ,,'fJ ;",;', .. .
Fig:5.13'~ {N'~)...;vers~;'. for n'" 0.4 (Prak~sb and Saran, 1966 and Saran and Prakash, 1968)
200
Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundtltio.
2.0
1.9
1 .8
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2 r
0.10 {
I
1 .1 .
0.05 {
I
1.0
0 10 20 30 40 so
rjJ (deg)
Fig. 5.14: A.versus, (prakash and Saran, 1966) ~.

~J
5.2.7. Point of Application. According to Indian standard (IS : ~893-1984) specifications, the pressures
are located as follows:
From the total pressures computed from Eqs. 5.? and 5.9 or from graphical construction, subtract the
static pressure obtained by putting ab = ay = O. The remainder is the dynamic increment in active case
and dynamic decrement in passive case. The Static component of the total pressure shall be applied at an
"
/,.,
i"
i'
'mic Earth Pressure 201
I'
ltion Hl3 above the base of wall. The point of application of the dynamic increment and dynamic ,rj
'H
;::mentshall be assumed to be at an elevation R/2 and 2R/3 respectively above the base of the wall.
The static component of total active and passive earth pressure due to uniformly distributed sur-
ge on the backfill surface obtained by putting ah = av = 0 in Eqs. 5.9 and 5.10 shall be applied at
above the base of the wall. The point of application of both the dynamic increment and dynamic
ement in this case shall be assumed to be at an elevation 2R/3 above the base of the wall.
The static and dynamic active earth pressures due to cohesion only (q = y = 0) are same. The point
pplication of this pressure shall be assumed to be at an elevation of R/2 above the base of the wall.
DISPLACEMENT ANALYSIS
re are very few methods available to compute displacements of rigid retaining walls during earth-
<es. They are;
(i) Richard-Elms Model based on Newmark's Approach
(ii) Solution in pure Translation
(iii) Solution in pure rotation
(iv) Nadim-whitman modd
. "
(v) Saran-Reddy-viladkar Model,..,

1. Richard-Elms Model. Newmark (1965) proposed a basic procedu~e fer evaluating the potential
Jrmation that would be experienced by an embankment dam shaken by an earthquake by considering
sliding block-on-a-plane mode as shown in Fig. (5.15 a). In this important development, it was
isaged that slope failure would be initiated and movements would begin to occur if the inertial forces
the potential sliding mass were reversed. Thus by computing an acceleration at which the inertial
:es become sufficiently high to caus~ yielding to begin, and integrating the effective acceleration on
sliding mass in eXcess of this yield acceleration as a function of time (Fig. 5.15 c), velocities and
mately the displacements of the sliding mass could be evaluated.
This analysis is based essentially upon the rigid plastic behaviour of materials Fig. (5.15 b). Though
;method was developed for a sliding analysis of an earth dam, it has been used by Richard and Elms
79) to compute the displacements of retaining walls. They have proposed a method for design of
vity retaining walls based on limiting displacement considering the wall inertia effect. The proce-
-edeveloped by them is described below. .
FaHu r~ sf re ss
III
III
k(t)w ~
...
...-
(/'I
/
strain
. . '(a), ~>, " ,- .:/- (b)-

-Fig. S.1S: (a) Forces on sliding block (b) Rigid plastic stress strahi behaviour ora materia"
,""'; t ,. 'c :, " ., ,"" .'<l,
-iT:'i,7.-'
~
<)~:
;jji
~
D
202 Soil Dynamics & Machine FolUUlati4-
~t
)t-:~.
.
>- -:~.:h q.
coX
t'\' "
n
u
u Ti mq
rJk;
, ~if
,;.
>-
...
u
0
ti
>
Time
+'
C
ti
E
ti
U
0
a.
VI
Timq
0
(c)
Fig. 5.15: (c) Integration of effective acceleration time history to determine velocities and displacements
F ' h Ww
\d
Ww< 1 :t d...v) \ I
,
, '4,
f<
T
Fig. 5.16: Forces ~n a gravity 'wail
,)
~:'
,,',
'!,
I
"J'
.,~
:i
"
--
Earth Pressure 203
ravity retaining wall is shown in Fig. 5.16, along with the forces acting on it during an earth-
t1this figure various terms used are :
Ww = Weight of the retaining wall
= Horizontal and vertical seismic coefficients
lJ.h'av
PA)dyn= Dynamic active earth pressure, Eq. 5.5
a = Inclination of wall face with vertical
8 = Angle of wall friction
<Pb= Soil-wallfriction angle at the base of the wall
N = Vertical component Qf the reaction at the base of the wall
T = Horizontal component of the reaction at the base of the wall
,mming the forces in the vertical and horizontal directions, we get
N = Ww :t:.ay Ww + (PA)dynsin (a + 8) ...,5.28)
T = ah Ww+ (PA)dyncos (a + 8) ...(5.29)
t slidding ~ = N tan <P
b ...(5.30)
DIving Eqs. (5.28), (5.29) and (5.30), we get <".
(PA)dyn[cos(a +8) - sin (a + 8). tan ~b]
W - ...(5.31 )
w- (l:tay)tan~b-ah
'utting (P A)dyn = ~ yH2 (KA)dyn and ah = (1 :t:.a) tan 'V, the eq. (5.31) can be written as
1 2
Ww = 2" yH (KA)dyn' CIE ...(5.32)
cos (a + 8) - sin (a + 8). tan ~b

"here CIE = (l:tay)(tan~b-tan \jI) ...(5.33)
~orstatic condition, the weight of wall W is given by :

W=- 1 y H 2 K .C ...(5.34)
2 A I
cos (a + 8) - sin (a + 8) . tan ~b

where Cl = tan J..'l'b ...(5.35)
rherefore, W
~= (KA)dyn . tan ~b
...(5.36)
...W '. KA (l:tay)(tan ~b -tan \jI)
>ubstituting
FT = Ratio of earth pressure coefficients in dynamic and static cases
.e. (KA )dyn
FT = KA ...(5.37)
md . . tan <Pb.
...(5.38)
FI =:= Wall InertIa factor = (l:tav) (tan ~b-tan \jI)
W
n Eq. (5.36), ~=F F=F ...(5.39)
W T I w
y,
~. i
204
Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations~ ,
;
1
F w is factor of safety applied to the weight of the wall to take into account the effect of soil pressure -~
and wall inertia. Figure 5.17 shows a plot of Fp F: and F w for v~ous values of ah. From this figure for t.' ,
F( = 1.0 and Fw =1.5, the value ah works out to be 0.18. However, if the wall inertial factor is considered, ;~$i
the critical horizontal acceleration corresponding to F w = 1.5 is equal to 0.105. Thert:fore, if a wall is :' I
designed such that W w = 1.5 W, the wall will start to move laterally at a ~alue of ah = 0.105. Hence for
i
no lateral movement, the weight of the wall has to be increased by a considerable amount over the static . j
condition, which may prove to be uneconomical. Keeping this in view, the actual design is carried for I
,. II
some lateral displacement of wall. ... I
14
fw
12
'"
10
8
3'
u.;
..
u:-
..
6
u:
y
4
/
./
ññóä
L"/ T
2 FT = 1.5
.
':.--- ==-
~.
- --=- ..::;:::- ~
.
0.105 I I
I .10.18
o-
D 0.1 0.2 0.6 "
Fig. 5.17: Variation of Fr F. and Fw with ab (Richards and Elms, 197?)

.,
,
;1
i
~
. ,,
~
~.~
zm;c Eartll Pressure 205
Richards and Elms (1969) have given a design procedure based on a limited allowable wall move-
t, rather than on the assumption that the wall will not move at alL Such procedure is as follows:
(i) Decide upon' an acceptable maxilllum displacement, d. .
. .
(ii) Determine the design value of ahd from Eq. (5.40) [Franklind and chang, 19771
- 5ah * ...(5.40)
ahd - ah ( d )
where
ah = Acceleration coefficient from earthquake record
d = Maximum displacement in mm
(Hi) Using ahd' determine the required wall weight, Ww by substituting it in Eq. (5.31). The value
ahd
of avd may be taken as 2'
/
(iv) Apply a suitable safe~y factor, say 1.5, to Ww'
There are three limitations to Richard-Elms analysis (Prakash, 1981): ~hese are:
1~ The soil is assumed to be a rigid plastic material. The walls do undergo reasonable displace-
ments before the limiting equilibrium conditions (active) develop and experience very large
displacements before the passive conditions develop.
2. The physical properties of the system and its geometry (particularly its natural period) are not
considered.
3. Walls may undergo displacements by either sliding or tilting or both. This method does not
apparently consider this difference in their physical behaviour, although it is logical to conclude
that displacements computed by this method are in sliding only.
.2. Solution in Pure Translation. A method for computation of displacement in translation only, of
d retaining wall under dynamic loads had been developed by Nandakumaran (1973).
Earth t
pressure
(p)
Active
--+
BF
C
Di sptaceme nt
". (a)
Fig.S.tS: (a) Earth pressure (P) versus displacement of wall
206
tJ
G (Rep + Pp!r~
I
x.
I
,I
. :
I
Base
friction {B.FJ
RBP--,';
oX
H
RSA
(R8A- PA) J I
Displacement Displace m ent
/
(b) (c)
x ,°2 z
X,Ot
B
T
"2 tan ~
.~B -11..
(d) (e)
Fig. 5.18: (b) Base-Friction (B.F.) versus displacement
(c) Resultant of'P' and B.F. versus displacement
(d) Simplified bilinear forces-displacement diagr.am
(e) Computation of base resistance
The force-displacement relationships considered in this analysis are shown in Fig. 5.18. Fig. 5.18a
shows the variation of earth pressure with displacement. In Fig 5.18b, variation of base resistance with t
displacementis given. The net force away from the fill is the differenceof active earth pressurePA and I
the base resistance, RBA(Fig. 5.18c). The net force towards the wall is the sum of the passive earth
pressure, Pp and the base resistance, RBP(Fig. 5.18c). The resulting bi1ine~rforce-displacement relation-
.t
ship is shown in Fig. 5.18d and is characterized by the following parameters:
I
I
namic Earth Pressure 207
. (i) Slope of force displacement relationship on the active and passive sides as Kl and K2 respec-
tively, where K2 = n . Kt.
(ii) Yield displacement, Zy
For the resistance of the base, it is assumed that a column of soil of height (B/2) tan $ provides all
the resistance in a passive case (Fig. 5. 18e), B being the width of the wall at its base.
The mathematical model is shown in Fig. 5.19. The parameters that are needed to define the system
r displacement analysis are: 1) the mass of system, rn, 2) period of the wall-soils system, 3) yield
splacement, 4) damping in the system, and 5) parameters of ground motion.
ºÖ´ñ×ùºþþùºþòòô
K
., .
c
x
y = Y sin GJt z = x-y
Fig. 5.19: Mathematical model considered for the analysis (Nandkumaran, 1973)
The vibrating mass of the system consists of the mass of the wall and that of the soil vibrating witL
e wall. Nandakumaran (1973) conducted vibratory tests on .translating walls and found that for the
lIposes of matching the computed frequency of the wall with the measured natural frequency, the soil
ass participating in the vibrations is 0.8 times the mass of soil on the Ranking failure wedge.
Yield displacement for a given wall can be determined by considering the force-displacement rela-
onships.
The ground motion is considered to be a sinusoidal motion of definite magnitude and period.
The equation of motion can be written in the following form (Fig. 5.19) :
rnx + C (x - y) + K (x - y) = 0 . ...(5.41 a)
. rnl + Ci + Kz = - my ...(5.41 b)
Z + 2 11~i 4-112z = - y ...(5.41 c)
where z = (x - y),
112= Kfm where K has been defined as the stiffnesson the tension side and
. C
~ = Damping ratio = 2~Km
For ease in computations, all the three equations obtained by linear acceleration method (Biggs,
~63) to be satisfied at each instant of time or at the end of each time interval selected, c~n be divided by
y, the relative displacement on the tension side at which the resistance becomes constant (yield displace-
lent) to obtain the following relations:
2
'l'n+_1= 'l'n+ 'i'n: t + t6 (\jJn-1+2\j1n) ..:(5.42)
~n+1 = ~~ ~. ~-«(Pn+1+2\Vn) ...(5.43)

.: "
JI.~
. j
:~.;t j
\J.
, I
;
j\ !
208 , !
\Jin+\ =-YIl-21l~ \Jin+\-1l2.K.Zy('I'n+ I) ...(5.44)

Z
where '1'=- ...(5.45)
Zy
. Z
'1'=- ...(5.46)
Zy
Z
'1'=- ...(5.47)
Zy
With these relationships, the analysis is performed for the range of variables listed in Table 5.2
Table 5. 2 : Range of Variables Considered in DisplacementAnalysis in Translation
Variable Range of values
Ground acceleration amplitude (a) gals 100, 200 and 300

Period of ground motion (T)s 0.5, .3, 0.2, and 0.1
Damping (~) % 5, 10, 15
Natural period (TII)see. 1.0,0.5,0.3 and 0.2
Yield displacement (Zy) mm 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 5.9, aJ1d10.0
To study the response characteristics of the system, two cases were considered; one in which plastic
deformation does not take place and the other in which it does. Figure 5.20 shows the response of the
elastic system. It is evident from this figure that steady state conditions are attained in about 6 cycles and
also that displacements on the tension side are larger than those on compression side. The response of the
system wherein slips take place has been plotted in Fig. 5.21. This shows that even when plastic defor-
mations occur, a sort of steady state is achieved in the sense that slip per cycle becomes a constant after
about 6 cycles.
12
E 4-
E
+'
C 0
~
E Tim<z ~
~
u (5)
.E -4-
a.
III
0 t
-8 I
A =300 ga[5 Zy = 200 mm 0.3 s ;

L.;
T = 0.3 5 Tt. = 2.0
-12
Tn = 0.3 s Damping = 10°/0 f
Fig. 5.20 : Response of an elastic system with different stiffnesses of tension and compression sides
(Nandkumaran,1973)
I
4:
'namic Earth Pressure 209
12
-0
,-...
A = 300 gals
c .T = 0 3 5
0
'" Tn = 0.3 5
c
8 Zy= 10 mm
'-E n = 2.0
"0
I
C Damping =10%
0
c 4-
---
+-
C
E
u
-0
a.
0
Tima (5) -
.-\11
Q
-4 ,, i 0.3s ..J
Fi~. 5.21: Displacement versus time (Nankumaran, 1973)

-.-.
80
Zy = Smm Zy =10 mm
; =10°'0 ~ =10°,.
70
n =2.0 n =2.0
60
E A 1 T
E 0.39.0.55
~ SO A IT
u
>
u 0.39 . 0.5 r
~ 4.0
..c:
toI
E
~ 30
0
a-
lii
0 20
I
10
0'29,0.3)-
0.1 , Q.3 -
0.4. 0'.6 0.8 0.2 0.4. 0.6
Natural ptlriod.S
Fig. 5.22: Natural period versus slip per cycle (Nandkumaran, 1973)
!10 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations
Fig. 5.22 shows typical set of results in the form of slips per cycle versus the natural period of the
NaIl in seconds for the yield displacement Z=y 5.0 mm. and 10:0 .mm, ~= 10% and n = 2 for different
~round motions. The ground motion is considered to be an equivalent motion of uniform peak accelera-
:ion of well derIDedcycles. .
Any problem can be solved with the following stepes :

1. Determine the natural period of the wall using the following equation:
...(5.48)
T=21t~
where K = stiffness on the tension side and In = mass of soil and the wall.
2. Determine the yield displacement.
3. Determine the slip per cycle from Fig. 5.22 or similar other plots corresponding to the yield
displacement, the natural period of the wall and the ground motion considered.
4. Compute the total slip during the ground motion.
This method of analysis is better than the one proposed by Richards and Elms (1979) in that (i)
definite procedure for determining the natural period of the soil-wall system in translation has been
formulated, and (ii) physical behaviour of the retaining wall is considered in developing the force-dis-
placement relationships. The method, however, suffers from the-fact that the tilting of the wall has not
been considered.
5.3.3. Solution in Pure Rotation. A method of analysis for computing the, rotational displacement of
rigid retaining walls under dynamic loads has been presented by Prakash etal (1981) and it is based on
the following assumptions:
(i) Rocking vibrations are independent of sliding vibrations and the rocking stiffness is not affected
by sliding of the wall.
(ii) The earthquake motion may be considered as an equivalent sinusoidal motion having constant
peak acceleration.
(Hi) Wall may be assumed to rotate about the heel.
(iv) Soil stiffness for rotational displacement of wall away from the backfill may be computed corre~
sponding to average displacement for development of fully active conditions.
(v) Soil stiffness for rotational displacement of the wall towards the backfill may be computed cor-
responding to average displacement for development of fully passive conditions.
(vi) The stiffness values computed in (iv) and (v) remain unchanged during phases of wall rotation
towards and away from backfill respectively.
(vii) Soil participating in vibrations may be neglected.
The mathematical model base upon these simplifying assumptions is shown in Fig. 5.23a. Figure.
5.23 b shows the scheme for calculation of side resistance corresponding to active and passive conditions.
If fully active conditions are assumed to develop at a displacement of 0.25% of height of wall, then soil
.~
stiffness Kt in active state is giv~n by ,
1
KpyH2 - KoyH2 t
2 2 'f
K = Po-PA = 2.5 H
...(5.49) Ii
I average displacement 1,
. ( 100 ) ,1
1
»
.'1"""'
.t-=a-
-
b t --t
~ .
B
~ ti'.x
L.. kp
r-,
,
I
:::J
IJ'
Ut
+'
C
C:>I
~ .-
I ' L.. U
I a.:;:
I (kA or kP) ~
H .t: C:>I
I +'
... u0
J
1
//R<ztaining
wall \ Backfill
kA
rotation
Lf-"[
Q.2SH F, Z.5H
. b -1
~ lOO."t- 100 ~
Di splacement
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.23: (a) Mathematical model for rotation of rigid walls,
(b) Scheme for computation of spring stiffnesses (After Prakash et al., 1981)
Similar if fully passive conditions are assumed to develop at 2.5 % of wall height, soil stiffness Kz
1passive state may be computed as :
Z z
Kp rH - Ko rH
K - Pp - Po - 2 2
2.SH ...(5.50)
, z - averagedisplacement -
( 100 )
where::
PA = Active earth pressure
Pp = Passive earth pressure
Po = Earth pressure at rest
,KA = Coefficient of active earth pressure
Kp = Coefficient of passive earth pressure
Ko = Coefficient of earth pressure at rest
The rotation resistances of the base, in active and passive states (MRAand MRP)may be given by
M~A=.C,.I'CPA ,', ...(5.51 a)
- . MRP = c,. I . CP~ ...(5.51 b)
n which C, is coefficient of elastic.non-uniform compression, I is moI1!e~t'ofin~rtia ~fthe base about an
lxis through. the heel of.the!walland.perpendicularto the plane ofvibra.tiQns;,an~~A and CPB itre angles
)frotation'away and towards!he~backfill. '1'-;," U' ,):~ "!'; 'i'n!>d':~1; ..' '-;' 0:
.,.
212 SoU Dynamics & Machine Fou1tdtztio1$
!$ ,.
.,
The equations of motion for rotation of wall away and towards the backfill are respectively:
. K H2 -"
Mmo ~A + C.I- 13 4>A= M (t) ...(5.52 a) -

( ) i.
Z
. .. KzH
and Mmo Ij>p+ 4>p= M (t) ...(5.52 b)
( C.
I- 3
J
Since the stiffnesses Kl and Kz are different, the period of the wall for the two conditions i.e. towards
the backfill and away from backfill would be different. This would result in different values of 4> A and 4>p
for each half cycle of motion and net rotational displacement of (4> A - 4>p)for one cycle of ground motion.
The maximum displacement of wall for any number of cycles may be computed as :
4>T = n (4>A - 4>p) .H ...(5.53)
where
n = Number of equivalent uniform cycles of ground motion
H = Height of Wall
Based on the above, a parametric study was made considering the range of variables listed in Table 5.3
It was observed that the contribution of rotational displacement may be significant. The contribution
of rotational displacement using the above approach was compared with the sliding displacement for a 3
m high wall with backfill having angle of internal friction, 4>,equal to 36°, period of ground notion of 0.3 s,
Table: 5.3: Range of Variables considered in Displacement Analysis in Rotation
Variable Range a/values
Height of wall (m) 3.0, 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0
Angle of internal friction for backfill (degrees) 30, 33, 36
Period of ground motion (5) 0.3
Damping (~) 0, 5, 10, 15
4
C$ base kN/m3 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8 (x 10 )
Base width/Height of wall 1/3
horizontal seismic coefficient CJ.h

equal to 0.25 and C$ equal to 3 x 104kN/m3. The total slip in 15 cycles
due to sliding was 213 mm. Displacement of top of wall due to rotation found by this analysis was
147 mm.
This illiustrates that the rotational displacement may not be negligible and an attempt should be
made to account for it. The displacement analysis for rotational displacement is highly simplified. Nev-
ertheless it shows explicitly that in some cases neglecting rotational displacement may seriously under-
estimate the total displacement. In actual practice it may be essential to account for combined effects of
rocking and sliding that will affect the overall response of the system.
1j
-
5.3.4. Nadim- whitman Analysis. The Richard Elms model assumes a constant value of wall accelera- ~~
tion (C1.h. g) when slippage is taking place. But once the backfil1 beings to slip, compatability of move- ?
ment requires the backfill to have a vertical acceleration, thus causing change in wall acceleration. ~
. ~
I
ynamic Earl/. Pres~ure 213
Zarrab~(1979) considered the equilibrium of the.wall and the backftll wedge separately and.satisfied
le continuity requirements at failure surfaces as shown in Fig. 5.24a. An iterative procedure was devel-
?ed for computing the instantaneous values of the inclination of failure plane, the dynamic active earth
:essure and the acceleration of the wall, given the input of horizontal and vertical ground accelerations.
he horizontal acceleration of the wall and the inclination of failure plane in the backfill are not constant
I Zarrabi's model.
I S
I :1 1
W.kn A= 0.2
N = 0.112
w.k~ R
:r I \ Uniform G
~ w.~
-w .2
WJ 1
Ww
Rw tan ~b 3
Rw f 1f1
(a) (c)
Contact element with Cn=lE8kN/mlm C5=0 ,
Slip element with Cn=lEBkN/mlm,C5=12SkN/m/m
Slip element with, Rigid boundary

Cn = 1E 12 kN I m/m '4m
sea le ~
Cs = 1E S kN/m Im
Cn = Normal stiffness of slip elements
C~ = Shear stiffness of slip elements
(b)
Fig. 5.24: (a) Force resolution of wall and soil wedge in Zarrabi's model
(b) Retaining wall and its finite clement idealization
(c) Effect of ground motion amplification
.
on permanent wall displacement (Zarrabi, ,1979)
Generally, displace:nents computed with Zarrabi's model. are slightly lower than those computed
lith the Richard- Elms model. Dynamic tests on model retaining walls performed by Lai (1979) sh~w
lat Zarrabi's model predicts the movement of the wall more accurately than Richard- Elms model. Lai,
Iso, obserVed, a single rupture plane in the backfill in contrast to Zarrabi prediction. Later pn;-Zarrabi
110delhas been modified to have a coiistanHncIlnationof failure plane 'in the b~ckfilt> ',.. ~ ,
. '1: <~ ':i...;:'!'>' ":", '

""
'i
The Richard, - Elms,model and Zarrabi's model assume a rigid - plastic behaviour of the backfill
material. Hence the input ground acceleration is constant throughout the backfill. But due to more-or-
less elastic behaviour of soil at stress level below failure, the input acceleration is not constant. Hence
amplification' of motion cannot be taken into account in these models.
Nadim and Whitrnan (1983) used a two -dimensional plane - strain finite element model for comput-
ing permanent displacements taking into account the ground motion amplification. The slip element at
the ,base of the wall has been assigned a very large v<llueof normal stiffness, thus restraining the wall
from vertical and rotational movements relative to its base. Thus, the wall undergoes only translational
movements. In their paper, the results of finite element mesh us,edby them is shown is Fig. 5.24 b. To
understand the effect of ground motion amplification, typical results are shown in Fig. 5.24 c. In this
figure, R is the ratio of permanent displacement from the FE model to the permanent displacement from
rigid - plastic (Richard - Elms or Zarrabi's) model. I, is the fundamental frequency of wall and I is the
frequency of 'ground motion. It can be seen that effect of amplification of motion on displacement is
I,
greater when I I is greater than 0.3 The FE model predicts zero permanent displacement ,at high fre-
quency, because in the analysis only three cycles of base motion are considered during which steady -state
conditions can not be achieved. However, it can be said that large values off If, are not of great p'ractical
interest because displacements are very small.
Nadim and Whitman (1983) suggested the following simple procedure for taking into account the '
effects of ground motion amplification in the seismic design:

(i) Evaluate the fundamental frequency I, of the backfill fQf the d~sign earthquake using one-di-
mensional amplification theory by using the following equation and estimate the ground motion
frequency, f
I, = VI/4 H ...(5.54)
where
H = Height at retaining wall in m
VI = Peak velocityof earthquakein m/s
(ii) If I Ifl is less than 0.25, neglect the amplification of ground motion. If I II, is in the vicinity of
0.5, increase the peak acceleration, A and the peak velocity, V of the desjgn earthquake by 25-
30%. Ifll I, is between 0.7 and 1, increase A and V by 50%. Obtain ah as A/g.
(iii) Use the value of ah from the previous step in the Eq. (5.40) given by Richard - Elms model for
getting ahd for known value of the displacement.
(iv) The value of ahd estimatedin step (iii) is used as the value of horizontalseismiccoefficientin
the Mononobe - Okabe analysis to calculate the lateral thrust for which the wall is designed. The
value of vertical seismic coefficient may be taken as a~d .
.
5.3.5.Saran, Reddy and viladkar Model. Saran et al (1985) have chosen the mathematical model in
such way that it results translation and rotation simultaneously and therefore it has two degrees of free-
dom. " '
,
, ,f
'11 'I,
In practice, cro ~~ ':' section pf rigid ret~iiningwall vari ~s'to cl great exte!l.~' Areas<?n~ 1?leappro~j.tQ
,.:~,;rk.
,
tion is, theref6~e, made by lumping the. mass of. the rigi~ retaining wall at its centre :<?fgravity. '\:IJ.t~J
,
, , ,
, ,
,b~ckfin soil is replaced by closely spaced independent elastic springs shown in Fig. 5.25. ".
",
.;
.
nic, Earth PresslIre 215
Displaced
position
t--°'--t K, - I
I
hl K.., I
I . . I
Inltla
hl K...
:IT h,
~
I
position
Retaining I
ill
wall I
I
I
-- - - - - - - - j Kn-"
X J
I
I --. I
.
-
¸ F=F 0
sin wt I
ï I
I
¢ ¾ ¢ -Dynamic"'"
,
.QC tlve "
--- .
Dynamic
pas slve
,
Fig. 5.25: Mathematical model for displacement analysis under dynamic condition
To determine the spring constants soil modulus values have oeen used" The s?~l modplus depends on
type of soil. It varies linearly with depth in sands and n?rmally consolidated clays, but remains
lstantwith depth in case of over consolidatedclays. For linearform of variation- k =:,11It;' h, where 11ft
he constant of horizontal subgrade reaction and h is the depth below ground surface. Value of 11ftalso
)ends on the type of movement namely (i) wall moving away from backfill (active) an (ii)'wall moving
lards backfill (passive.). P,rpbable range of 11ft.in cohesionles .soils is given in Table, 504 '
Table 5.4: Rangle of,values of Modulus of Subgrade Reactions 1h' . , ,
.-
TIlt KNlm3 -
Soil
'Active passive
Loose 'sand '200-300 ; '400-60d'

Medium dense sand 400-600 800-1200
Dense sand 800-1200 1600~2400, -
, .
In case of soil modulus linearly-varying with depth, the soil-reaction -is assumed'to 'act as a loading
tensity. Treating this load to be acting on a-beam of length, equal to the 'height 'of retaining w~ll,-the
actions-at different points are evaluated treatIng this'beam'tobe siniply' suppo'ited:at tIi{spring points,
Jr the retaining wall of height H~d'ivided into ~ t6nvenie-nf~~mber ot ~qual ~egrI{erits'of,height -~Ji,the
'actions hence'the.' spring constants vallies' at"~a:fiou~'ciivi'si~h p'oTnts\vould'oe a~'~n~~r..." " .' ,
,~
#'
16 Soil Dynamic.s & Machine Foundations

Dj'
k - 1 ...(5.55 a)
1 - 6 l1h(1:1hi
lar
k2 = l1h (1:1h)2 ...(5.55 b) en,.
da:
k3 = 2 l1h (1:1h)2 ...(5.55 c)
W2
ki = (i - 1) l1h (1:1h)2 ...(5.55 d) de

ha
se
1 2 dr
kn = "'6 (3 n - 4) T\h(1:1h) ...(5.55e)
IS
where kl and kn are the spring constants at the top most an bottom most points, ki, the spring constant at
my division point 'f. de
In case of soil modulus constant with depth, the soil reaction is assumed to act as uniformly distrib- S)
uted loading intensity. Treating this uniformly distributed load to be acting on a beam of length, equal to 5.
the height of retaining wall, the reactions at different points are evaluated treating th,isbeam to be simply u
supported at these points. The spring cons'tants would be as under, .
For the top most spring, k =

1
-21 k (1:1h) ...(5.56 a)
For any intermediate spring, k; = k (1:1h) ..(5.56 b)

1
For the bottom most spring, kn =. -2 k(l:1h) ...(5.56 c)
The method is based on the following assumptions:

1. The earthquake motion may be considered as an equivalent sinusoidal motion with uniform peak
acceleration and the total displacement is equal to residual displacement per cycle multiplied by
number of cycles.
2. Soil stiffnesses (or spring constants) for displacement of wall towards the backfill and away from
the backfill are different.
3. Soil participating in vibration, damping of soil and base friction are neglected.
Assumpations 1 and 2 are usually made in such as analysis while assumption 3 needs justification.
It is difficult to determine analytically the soil mass that would participate in vibrations along with
wall when it undergoes translational and rotational motions simultaneously. Neglecting this mass, the
method gives higher displacements and the solution is conservative. However, the mass of vibrating soil
can be found out by carefully conducted experim ~nts. For the case of pure translation, Nandakumaran
(1973) has conducted experiments to determine the vibrating soil-mass and concluded that itcan be taken
equal to 0.8 times the mass of Rankine's wedge. By adopting similar technique, the soil mass vibrating
along with rigid retaining wall under combined rotational and translational motion~cim be found out. .,
, iI
Then it is added to the mass of the wall to lump at centre of gravity'and the analysis can be carried out'
without any changes. .'. '.-
~;
)"~J I
-
11& III it
0'
Earth Pressure 217
oils, it is customary to consider valUes of damping such' as 15% 'or 20% of critiCal in view of
ergy absorption compared to other engineering structural materials. In the present analysis however,
bsorption in the form of plastic displacement of the wall has been considered. Therefore smaller
; values would be appropriate. Neglecting even this smaller damping, the displacement of the
this method will be more than the actual displacement.
~ displacementof retainingwall is greatly influencedby base friction. In case of walls in alluvial
; and' at the waterfront, translation'al'motion,is predominant.In some other cases, the walls may
edominant rotational motion. But in general for any type of foundation soil, retaining wall pos-
'ansl..tional and rotational motions simultaneously. For'rigid retaining walls, the stability is mainly
ts gravity, hence base friction, the analysis will lead to an overestimation of the displacement.
wever, refinment of the model by including vibrating soil,mass, damping of soil and base friction
~d so that the analysis can predict displacement close to the actual displacements,
study the response characteristics of the 'system, two casoesare considered, one in which plastic
ations do not occur (elasti~ system) and the other in which plastic deformations do occur (plastic
).
, Analysis of an elastic system active condition. The equations of motion of the retaining wall
)' Alemberts principle can be written in general terms as .follows;
;=\
:'(' + Lk;[x+ {H -h)-(i-I)Md 9] = Fa sin (J)t ...(5.57)

11
;=\
+ Lk;[x+{H-h)-(i-I)LlhJ 9) (H-h)-(i-l) LllzJ]=0 ...(5.58)

11
here
M = Mass of reitaining wall
J = Polar mass moment of inertia of the wall about the axis of rotation
(J) = Frequency of the excitation force
H = Height of retaining wall
h = Height of centre of gravity of wall from its base
x = Translatory displ~cement
e = Rotational displacement
,etting :
;=\
"f.k;
n ,= a ...(5.59)
"1T '.. 4
F
...JL =a ...(5.60)
M a
;=\ ,:;
I,kj {(H-h)-(i-l)L\h}
n
=b ...(5.61)
M
;=\ - '2 t ' , ~\
"f.
n
kj {(H - h ) - (i - 1)6.h}, '!
- - '. - ,
,) '\
~ J =c ...(5.62)
-::r
I
218 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foun~
The equations of motion of the rigid retaining wall cai1thu~ be written,as~

, ,
, ", , '
: x' + ax ~ ,
be+ ".
'A" sih ro l'
0., , ,','
"
,
,
..:.(S.6?).
""
, , ' " b' '"
e + ca =, ( "7 ) x'; ",

, ,
,
, ...{S.64)
,
where J = Mr2, r being the radius gyration and 'b',can be called as coupling coeffici~ntbecause if b.=,o,
the two equationsbe~ome,independentof each other. ,. "
The solutions of Eqs. (5.63) and' (S.64) can be written as

,,' X = X 'sinrot .':.(5.6S)
, e = ~ sin (0 1. " "',, ...(S~66)
where X and ~ are arbitrary constants.
,Substituting Eqs.'(5.65):and(S.66) in Eqs. (S.63) and (S.64) , we get
(- (02 + a) X = b~ + ao' "',(5:67)
".
(ch c) ~ ~ (:,)x , ...(S'.6'8)
Solving Eqs. (S.67) and (5.68), we get

"
ao
...(S.69)
X = 2 b2
) 2
(a - 00 -,.2 ( c - 00 )
ao
~= ,
'
.' 2 2 ,.2, ...(S.70)

, (a-m Hc-oo )---b
b u '
Hence the solution becomes - "
X = ao ...(S.7!)
(a-002)- 2 b2 ,sinro(
,. (c-002)
e= a0 ..,(S.72)
(a-002) ( c- 002 )-T-b
1'2 sin rot
Therefore, the displacement of the top of rigid retaining wall is given by -

Xtop = X + (H - h ) e ...(S.73 a)
.<0 I
2 2 - "" !
or r (c-ro) +btH-h) . a srn
. ro(
x top = 2 2 2 2 0 (S,73b) I
{ ( a-ro ) (c-ro ) r- b }
t,.
.ii
!icEarth Pressure 219
? Natural frequencies. Under free vibration condition, the equations of motion are:
. 'x' + ax :dba -
.. .-- . -;~;~,- ...(5.74)
.. b
...(5.75)
9 + ca = ( ; J x
ubstituting the solution:
x = A sin ron t ...(5.76)
a = B sin ron t ...(5.77)
~A and B are arbitrary constants
~quations 5.74 and 5.75 become:
(-00; + a) A = b .B ...(5.78)
(-<o;+c)B ~ (:,)A ...(5.79)

b
From these we get, A =- 2 ...(5.80)
B a -OOn
2
and' ...(5.81)
~ ~ (::)
2
b c-oo
Equating,
a-oo; - (\r ~ )
2
4 2 b
OOn-(a+c)OOn+QC-; ...(5.82)
( ) =0
and solving we get,

00;\ = ; (a+c)+J( c;a r +(~ r ...(5.83)
2 2
2 I c-a b
oon2 = 2(a+c)-J (-y- ) +()r ...(5.84)
.5.3. Passive condition. The ratio of stiffnesses on the compression and tension sides is denoted by n.
nce in the passive condition, the values of a, band c change and these can be given by :
a = n (a)a ...(5.85)
b = n (~)a ...(5.86)
C = n (c)a- ...(5.87)
The solution for this condition is similar to active condition described above.
~
220 Soil Dynamic'S & Mad<ineF...d_~ I
5.3.5.4. Analysis of a plastic system-active conditio,n. Assume that Zy and 9yare the yield displaceme~~\: "
occurring simultaneously in all springs: the equations of motion can be written as:
x. + a Zy = b 9y + ao sin Cl)t ...(5.88)
.. b
e + ce = - Z ...(5.89)
y ( r2 ) y
Integrating the above equations twice, we get
t2 ao sin Cl)t
...(5.90)
x = (b ey - a Z) T - 002 + Cl t + C2
b t2
e = (? Zy -coy ) "2 + C3 t + C4 ...(5.91)
Let 'fe' be the time after which displacement of top of wall (yto~ becomes greater than yield displace-
ment (Yd) and plastic system starts. Let xe' xc' ee' 8e be the values corresponding to time te and can be
calculated by using the equations developed for elastic system. The following boundary conditions can be
applied to evaluate the constants of integration:
(i) t = re' X = xe ...(5.92 a)
(ii) t = re' X = xe ...(5.92 b)
(iii) t = re' 8 = 8e ...(5.92 c)
(iv) t = re' e = ec ...(5.92 d)

Therefore, we have
Zy = xe ...(5.93)
ey = ee ...(5.94)
a cos Cl)t
C = x - (be - a Z ) t + 0 e ...(5.95)
I e y y e Cl)
2 .
. te ao sm 00te
leao cosoote
00 ...(5.96)
C2 = xe - xete + (bey - a Z) T+ 002
C =8 _ te ...(5.97)
3 e ( rb2Zy-Cey )
C4 = 9 -
b t; - 8 t
ere ( ZZy-Cey _
) 2 e
...(5.98)
Displacementof the top of rigid retaining wall is given ~y

x top = x - (H - h) e ...(5.99)
5.3.5.5. Passive condition. The ratio of stiffnesses on the compression and tension sides is denoted by n
Hence in the passive condition, the values of a, band c, change and these can be given by:
a = 11(a)a ...(5.100 a)
b = 11(b)a ...(5.100 b)
c = 11(c)a ...(5.100 c)
l'
I.
nic Earth Pressure 221
'he solutiOltissimilar to the above procedure for active condition except the values of Zy and ay"In
ression side (passive condition), the displacements for achieving yield condition are very large,
~in most of the cases plastic system for l"assive case is not considered.
lILL USTRA TIVE EXAMPLE~
mple 5.1 .
0 m high -retainin~ wall with back face inclined 20° with vertical retains cohesionless backfill
33°, 1/ = 1~_KN/m and 8 = 20°), The backfill surface is sloping at an angle 10° to the horizontal.
(a) Determine the total active earthpressure using Coulomb's theory and Culmann's graphical con-
struction.
(b) If the retaining wall is located in a seismic region (ah = 0.1), determine total active earth pres-
sure using Mononobe's equation and- modified Culmann's graphical construction.
.
ltion :
-,. .
Static active earth pressure ,.-.,,0
2
) I
PA- 1 H 2 cos2cosa
= 2"1 «I> -(8a+ a)
cos . 1/2 2
sin ( + 8). sin ( - i)
-
{ I + [ cos (a - i) cos (8 + a) ] }
2
cos2 (33-20) x 1
= ~ x 18 x 6.0 x cos220 cos (20+20) 1/2 2
I + sin (33 + 20) sin (33 -10)
{ [ cos (20 -10) cos (20 + 20) ] }
= 168.42 kN/m
Refer Fig. ".26 for Culmann's graphic,alconstructionfor getting static activepressure. Ds Es gives
~ total active earth pressure. ' . .
PA = 17 x 10 = 170 KN/m
(b) Dynamic active earth pressure
(P)d
A yn
-- -1 1 H 2 col «I>-2 'V - a)( I:!: ay)
2 cos'I' cos a cos(8 + a + 'I')
'
x ,1 1I2 2
sin ( 4>+ 0) sin ( 4>- i - \jI )
{ 1+ [ cos (a - i) cos ( 0 + a + \jI) ] }

ah 0.1
Assuming a = - = - = 0.05
v 2 2 .
-I
'V = tan - ah = tan
-I
- 0.1
l~av' 1:!:0.05
= 5.44° with ;:. ay and .
= 6.0° with'\- ay .
222 Soil Dynamics & . Machine. .Foundatioi$' 'w,
. : i i,
'0
6.0m
Linear scale - 1 : 100

F'orctZ scaltZ, -1mm = 10KN
Pr~ ssurtZ I i n~
Fig. 4.26: Culmann's graphical construction
Value of (f A)dyn with (+) ay

2
= .!." 18 x 60 2 cos (33-5.44-20)(1+0.05) 1
A. 2 X ' 1I2 2
2 cos 5.44cos 20 cos (20+ 20+ 5.44)
I + sin (33+ 20) sin (33-10-5.44)
{ [ cos (20-10) cos(20+20+5.44 ] }
= 214.26 kN/m
Value of (P A)dynwith (-) ay

2
- 1 18 x 6 02 cos (33-6-20)(1-0.05)
--x x 1
2 . cos6cos220cos(20+20+6) 1/2 2
1+ ~in(33+20)Sin(33-10-6)
{ [ cos (20-10) cos (20+ 20+ 6)] }
= 198.05 kN/m .
Therefore (+) ay case governs the value of dynamic active earth pressure.
Hence, (PA)dyn= 214.26 kN/m .:.
Refer Fig. 5.27 for modified Culmann's graphical constructi9n
, " for getting
. '. dynamic
. active earth pres-
sure
",ic Earth Pressure 2'3"
Lin~ar, scalCl -1 :100

Forc~ scalCl -1mm:10KN
Fig. 5.27 : Culmann's graphical construction
DsEs gives the total dynamic activ~,earth pressure.

(PA)dyn= 21 x 10 = 210 kN/m
,ample 5.2
retaining wall 8.0 m high is inclined 200 to the vertical and retains horizontal backfill with following
aperties :
y/= 18 kN/m3, ~ =300 and c = 6.0 kN/m2
There is a superimposed load of intensity 15 kN/m2 on the backfill. The wall is located in seismic
gion having horizontal seismic coefficient of 0.1. Compute the dynamic active earth pressure and de-
cmine the percentage increase in pressure over the static earth pressure.
Solution:
.~ 2c 1 1- sin 30 1
(i) where KA = l+sin30 = 3'
ho = Y ~KA
=
2 x186.0 x..[j = 1.15 m
.
224 Soil Dynamics & Machine FoundatiiiJl;
H = 8.0 - 1.15 = 6.85 m

ho 1.16
n=1[=-=0.167
.. 6.85.
(ii) For = 30°, a. = - 20°and n = 0.167

Figs 5.7 to 5.23 give:
(Naym)stat = 0.33, (Naqm)stat= 0.512 and (Nacm)stat= 1.2

2
(PA)stat.= 18 x 6.85 x 0.33 + 15 x 6.85 x 0.512 - 6 x 6.85 x 1.2
= 282.0 kN/m
(i ii) For = 30°, a.,= :- 20°, dh = 0.1, Fig. 5.14 gives
A. = 1.18
Therefore, (Naqm)dyn= 1.18 x 0.512 = 0.609 and
(Naym)dyn= 1.18 x 0.33 = 0.393
(PA)dyn= 18 x 8.852 x 0.393 - 15 x 6.85 x 0.609 - 6 x 6.85 x 1.2
= 345.18 kN/m
(iv) Percentage increase over static pressure
282.00 x 100 = 22.4 %

= 345.10-
282.01
Example 5.3
A 5.0 m high retaining wall with backface inclined 20° with vertical retains cohesionless backfill
«I> = 30°,Yr= 18 kN/m3and 0 = 20°). The backfill surface is sloping at an angle 15°to the horizontal.
Determine the weight of the retaining wall.
«(1)For static condition,
(b) For zero displacement condition under earthquake loading
(c) For a displacement of 50 mm under earthquake loading.
Solution:
(a) ,For static condition
. .
. cos2 (cp- a) 1
KA = cos2acos(o+a)' l/2 2
Sin(cp+O)Sin(cp-O
{ 1+ [ cos(a -0 cos (8 +a.) ] . ,}
cos(30-20) . '. 1
= cos2 20 cos (20+ 20) . I/2 2
sin (30+ 20) sin (3P-15)
. .'" . .
{
1+ [ cos(30-20)cos(20+20) ] }
. ','
= 0.6225
.
!amic Earth Pressure 225-
From Eq. (5.35)

Cos (a +0) -Sin (a +0) tan ~b
Cl = tan ~b
= Cos (20 + 20) -Sin (20 + 20) tan 30
tan 30
= 0.6840
Thus from Eq. (5.34)
1 2
W = "2y H KACl
= .!.
2 x 1800 x 52 x 0.6225 x 0.6840 = 9765 kg/m
(b) For zero displacement condition
cos2(~- \If - a) x 1
(KA)dyn = 2 ~
1/2 2
cos \If cos a cos ( u + a + \If )
sin ( ~ + 0) sin ( ~ - i - \If)
-
{
1+ [ cos (a-i) cos(o+a+\jI) ] }
Assuming ay = a2h = 021 = 0.05

-I ah 0.1
\jI = tan l:tay = 1:t0.05
= 5.440 with + ay and
--
= 6.00with - ay
With + ay
cos2 (30- 5.44 - 20)(1 + 0.05) 1
2
(K)Adyn = cos5.44cos220cos(20+20+5.44) x 1/2
sin(30+20)Sin(30"""15-5.44)
{ 1+ [ cos(20-15)cos(20+20+5-44) ] }-
= 0.8311
With - ay:
cos2 (30-6-20)(1-0.05) 1 . 2
(KA)dyn = cos6cos2 20cos(20+20+6) x 1/2
~in(30+20)Sin(30-15-6)
.
{ 1- [ cos(20~15) cos(20+20+6) ] }
= 0.7727
From Eq. (5.36)
With + ay :
W 0.8311 tan30 -
W = 0.6225 x (1+ 0.05)( tan 30 - tanSAM
= 1.524
~.
226. Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations
With - av :
W = 0.7727 x
---!!. tan 30
W 0.6225 (1- 0.05)( tan 30- tan 6)
= 1.596
Therefore
Ww = 1.596 x 9765 = 15585 kg/m
(c) For displacement condition, d = 50 mm
From Eq. (5.40)
5ah
a"d = ah [ -cl ]
1/4
- 5 x 0.1
- 0.1[ 50 ]
= 0.03162
Assuming
= ahd = 0.3162 = 0.1581

avd 2 2
With (+) avd
-I ahd 0.03162
-I
'" = Tan [ l+ahd ] = Tan [ 1'+0.01581]
= 0.780
cos2 (30-1.78 - 20)(1 + 0.01581) 1
(K)A dyn -- cos 1.78 cos2 20 cos (20+ 20 + 1.78) x 1/2 2
sin (30+ 20) sin (30 -15-1. 78)
1+ [ cos (20-15) cos (20+ 20+ 1.78) J
{ }
= 0.684
With (-) a,'d
-I 0.03162
= Tan [ 1-0.01581] = 1.84
0
'"
It gives
= cos2(30-1.84-20)(1-0.01581) x - 1 1/2 2
(KA)t(,'n cos1.84cos220cos"(20+20+1.84)
sin-(30+20)sin(30-15-1.84
1+ [ cos (20-15) cos (20+ 20+ 1.84)J
{ }
= 0.672
Therefore, for (+) ve a,'d
Ww - 0.684 Tan30
W - 0.6225' (1+0.01581) (tan 30-tan 1.78)
= 1.143
4
,
.'
:am;c Earth-Pressure"" 227
For (- )ve avd

Ww - 0.672 . Tan 30
W - 0.6225 (1-0.01581) (tan30-tan 1.84) - "
= 1.162
Hence
ww = 1.162 x 9765 = 11347 kg/m "'
If a factor of safety of 1.5 is used, then -.
" W = 9765 x 1.5 = 14647 kg (Static condition) ~

Ww = 15585 x 1.5 = 23377 kg (Earthquake condition - zero displacement)
Ww = 11347x 1.5 = 17020kg/m (Earthquakecondition - 50 mm displacement) "
It may be noted that the weight of wall gets re~uced significantly if the wall is designed for some
splacement. "
xample 5.4
ompute the displacement of a vertical retaining wall baving section and.~ackfill properties as shown in
ig. 5.28. The characteristics of the ground motion are:
Period = 0.50 s
Average ground acceleration = 0.2 g
Number of significant cycles = 10 "r
Yield displacement = 5 mm; n= 2 and ~ =10%

-tl.0m ~
",
I
, "
,I
",
,
" 1'Ranki'ne's wedge"
6.0 m "
,,
I 'tt ="18 k N I in3
I
~
,,,
= 30°
"K.4s- 0/2
f 3.0.m ..-~-t "
Fig. 5.28 :'Section or retaining wall" . .

Solution:
(i) Refer Fig. 5.26
1 .
Weight of wall = 2" (1.0 + 3.0) x 6.0 x 24 = 288 kN

Weight of soil vibrating along with wall
1 30
= 0.8 x 2" x 6.0 Tan 45-T ) ( x 6.0 x 18 = 149.6 kN
Total weight = 288 + 149.6 = 437.6 KN .
3
m = 437.6xl0 = 44.61x 103 kg
9.81
Let the coefficient of base friction = 0.6
. 1 . 1
288xO.6--xI8x-x62
K = 2 3 (Fig. 5.18d)
1 0.005
= 12960 kN/m = 1290 x 103 N/m
T=21t~
n VK;.
3
44.61 x 10
T = 2 1t
n V 12960 x 103
= 0.368 s
(ii) From Fig. 5.22 (a), for Zy = 5 mm, TII= 0.368 s; n = 2, T = 0.5s, A = 0.2 g
Slip per cycle = 24 mm
Total slip = 24 x 10 = 240 mm
Example 5.5
Determine the displacement of a model wall shown in Fig. 5.29 retaining medium dense sand ($ = 36°,
Y= 18 kN/m2, and T)h= 520 kN/m\ The wall is subjected to following dynamic conditions:
Yield displacement: = 6mm
Ground acceleration: =.0.25 g
Time period: = 0.3 s
Solution:
1. The wall is divided into foul equal number of segments with 11ftequal to 0.75 m and the backfill
soil is idealized by using springs as shown in Fig. 5.30. The mass of retaining wall is assumed to be
lumped at its e.g. which is at a distance of 1.23 m above the base (Fig. 5.30).
2. Consider the backfill characteristics, the spring constants in active and passive cases determined
using Eqs. 5.55 and are given below in Table 5.4. The ratio of stiffnesses in passive and active states is
taken as 2.0.
. ~
..-~..' -," --~~if'.t?~f~

nic, Earth Pressure 229
y
I
I .
:-i°.3m~ .
A, I
: re
I
I
I
I
I
,
,I
, 0 = 36
0
I
I
'( = 18 kN 1m3
3.0m I
I
I 7th: 520 I<N/m3
'" , M~dium dense sand
Retaining I
I
- - - ~ .?ll- -;-I - +- - - X
,
I
I
I
I
0 , c
f4 1.0 m --i
v
Fig. 5.29 : Section of retaining wall
H = 3.0 m
M
~
a = a 0 sin wt
io I
c
...... b = 1.0 m
Fig. 5.30 : Mathematical model adopted for solution
- '0 0---
.," .'":': ::~;::~'~Yf~'~t*~11~{!',~~:r~i;:';'c::?0t~~,1;\q~i01;-J;{:;:':;~ "ii14:Wf'.o~';.:'.~':,,'~.-'>c',"',",,',,';'.:'-',

,.','!,m,'.-'t:~'.:';,-~:",'-::'1'r'.:~\r-{<;'i-l;;:.:,';-Ji-;'-::,;~'rt','!;,<'-"':';:i',~"-;:~';',.'i-H~';''-,i~
!t=~"/i.'."-~t,~-,-'.,~'..~:,':t'.~..,-'::;~.-,(;',,'.-."i"""'~i,.:!tP1(F't-..':~'r;-;:;.;'.--' ¢
,-, ~".~-.'i~'~-,,'~-',~"";
.~
.".
"
230 Soil Dynamics &' Machine Founilations
Table 5.4 : Values of Spring Constants
Spring - Spring location , Spring constant ,Spring constant

w,r, to c,g"hj f active case, kj passive case, 'kj
(m) (KN/m) (KN/m)
KJ 1.77 48.8 77.6

K2 1.02 292.5 585.0
K3 0.27 585.0 1170,0
K4 - 0.48 877.5 1755,0
Ks -1.23 536.3 1072.6
L kj = 2340.1 L k,I = 4680.2
3. Equation of Motion
The quantities required in the analysis are calculated as shown below (Fig. 5.29)
, 2 x 0.3 + 1.0 3 1.6
2
DIstance of e.g. from CD = 0.3+ 1.0 x'3 = 1.3 = 1. 3 m
.
0,7
,
Distance of e.g. from BC =
3xO.3xO.15+0.5x3xO,7
1+0.3 .
(
0.3+3 )
2 x 3.0
= 0.13;;5°.56 = 0.356
3 3
0.3 x 3 0.7 x 3 I 2
Ivv = .- .+0.3x3.0(1.5-1.23)+ +-xO.7x3x(1.23-1)
,~ 12' . 36 2
= 0.675 + 0.06561 + 0.525 + 0.0555
= 1.321155 m4
3 . ' . 3 2
I = 0.3 x3+0.3X3.0(0.356-0.15)2+0.7 X3+.!.XO.7X3X 0.7 -0.056
YJ 12 36 2 ( 3 )
= 0.00675 + 0.0381924 + 0.285833 + 0.0330194
= 0.01065451 m4
Ixy = 1.321155 + 0.1065451 = 1.4277002 m4
A = 1+2°.3x 3.0 = 1.95 m2
r = ~ 1.~~~7 = 0.8556 m
'"
M = (°:3; 1.°) x 3.6 x 23.~~~03.~ 4.58, x 103'k~ - . . l,
J = Mr2 = 3.35 x 103 kg-m2 ,'.1 ,
f
"'r:i;'j.:'::,'C":':,i',iL;;;";;[!';;;;:',',,;;,..,.j'..,,", .'<' I11III ..
lmic Earth Pressure 231
The values of a, band c in the active and passive cases can be detennined as below:
Active case Passive case
I.k.
a = ---L = 51094 a = - 2.0 x 510.94 = - 1021.88
M .
I. k. h.
b = I I = 117.51 b =-2.0 x 117.51 =-235.02
M
c = I.k. I h~
I = 1513.393 = 451.76 c = - 2.0 x 451.76 = - 903.52
J 3.35
The natural frequencies of the wall by considering the tension side (i.e. active case) are given by :
' 2 2
2 1 c-a b
oonl,2=2(a+C)I~ ( 2 ()
) +-;:
Puttmg the values of a = 510.14, b = 115.51 and c = 451.76, we get
00/11= 24.94 rad/s
oon2 = 18.46 rand/s
The natural time periods are therefore,
Tnl = 0.25 s
Tn2 = 0.34 s
Earthquake motions are erratic and no two accelerograms are similar. The two main parameters of
lY ground motion are the amplitude of acceleration and the number of zero crossings in unit time. A
~ry simple and convenient form of ground motion including the above two parameters, is a sinusoidal
otion. Moreover, while proposing a method for analysing the liquefaction potential of sand deposits,
eed and ldriss (1967) contended that any given accelerogram can be considered equivalent to some
efinite number of cycles of loading of equal magnitude. Such idealization have the advantage that after
tudying the effect of two parameters, the effect of a probable earthquake motion at any site, can be
nalysed. Because of the above advantages, sinusoidal ground motions are utilised in the present study.
Given ao = 0.25 g = 2.45 mIs2
21t
T p = 0.3 s ; ro= 0.3 = 20.94 rad/s
a = 2.45 Sin (20.94 t)
Predictioll of Displacements ill Elastic System
The displacements in passive case (t = 0 to tpl2) can be cal~ulated as shown below:
x = X Sin Wt
e = ~ Sin Wt
where X = ao 2
(a-ro2)- b
,2 (c - ro2 )
= 2.45
.(-1021.88- 20.94')- . 2 (-235.02)' =- 1.7448 x 10-3 m
j. 0.8556 (-903.52-20.942)
H' """"'i'-;:,:;"",:~',J,.""~',~,,J.':';',, '""~';;,~,::,,,)':',.,:,;,:";'< ':":""":,/","",\i,, """ .,C-.;--,",:-.c ,', '" ',' '.' """..'..n'-"':{!\;;{k,',',;.",'A"
i
232 Soil Dynamics & Machille Foundations
Î ó ù ¿±
¬óù
ó
î î ®î
ø¿ó³ ÷¨ø½ó³ ÷óó¾
¾
ã îòìë
î ãóìòïéìï ¨ ïð
óì
®¿¼
øóïðîïòèèóîðòçìî÷¨ øóçðíòëîóîðòçìî÷ðòèëëêòóøóîíëòðî÷
óîíëòðî
Hence, we have
x = - 1.745 x to-3 Sin (20.94 ¬÷
» ã ó ìòïéì ¨ ïðóì Sin (20.94 t)
The computed values of displacements from time 0 to 0.15 s are given in Table 5.5
Table 5.5 : Values of Displacement in Passive State (Elastic-Condition)
Time Translational Rotation IJisp. of wall at top Total disp. at top

t(s} displacement x (mm) e (rad) due to rotation xe (mm) xro/mm)
0 0 0 0 0
0.0375 - 1.23 - 2.9510 x 10-4 - 0.52 - 1.75
0.0750 - \.74 - 4.1740 x 10-4 - 0.74 -2.48
0.1125 - 1.23 - 2.9510 x 10-4 - 0.52 - 1.75 .
0.15 0 f) 0 0
Ì¸» displacement in active case (t = t; to tp) can be calculated as shown below -

x = X Sin rot
e= ~ Sin rot
where x= ao
/ b2
(a-m2)-\ ,.2
c-m2
= 2.45 ,
(510,94-20,94')- 117,25' ~-1.817 x \0-3 m

0.85562 (451.76-20.942)
ao
~= 2
., ., r
(a -ro-).(c-ro-) --bb
2.45
= 2 ãóîòïçé¨´ðóîra ¼
117.51
. (~10.94 - 20.942).( 451.76- 20.942) °ig~561
Hence, we have
x =-1.817 x Sin (20.94 t) . :.:
e = -2.197 x Sin (20.94 ¬÷
\i
- -- -
The values of displacements in active state considering elastic condition are given in Table 5.6.
Table 5.6: Value of Displacement in ActiveCondition (Elastic-State)
Time Translational Rotation Disp. of wall at top Total disp. at top
t(s) displacement x (mm) e (rad) due to rotation xB (mm) xla/mm)
0.15 0 0 0 0
0.1875 1.28 0.02197 27.48 mm 28.76
0.2250 1.82 0.01552 38.89 mm 40.71
0.2625 1.29 0.02197 27.48 mm 28.76
0.3 0 0 0 0
The dynamic response of the retaining wall under elastic system is shown in Fig. 5.31 which indi-
:ates that the slip (permanent displacement) after one cycle of ground motion is zero. It can be concluded
:hat in elastic system, after any number of cycles, the residual displacement would be zero.
70
~
60
50
E
E ."
-
0
~ 40
....
0
-c:
ti
E
to> 30
u
0
a.
III
0
20
10
~-=Ji.!!'..!!'-
- - - - -- - -- - --
- 5- 1 1
0.1875
1 1
0.2625
1
0.3000
0 0.0375 0.0750 0.1125 0.1500 0.2250
Time. s
Fig. 5.31 : Dynamic response of retaining wall
234 - Soil Dynamics & Machitie Foundtitions
Check for Plastic Conditions -
When the displacement ()fwall (Xtop)is greater than yield displacement (Yd)' the system would be
plastic. Therefore the equations of plastic system should be used. In passive case, yield displacement (Yd)-
is so large that plastic conditions do not arise and elastic system is considered. In' active case, to identify
the time 'le' afterwl}ich plastic conditions- exist, a line has been drawn cof!"esponding to Yd = 6mm
(Fig. 5.31).
It gives,
te.=0.1631 sec '
xe = - 1.817 x 10-3 sin (20.94 le) = 4.9116 x 10-4 m. '
ae = - 2.197 x 10-2 sin (20.94 le) = 5.9388 x 10-3 rad.
Based on the analysis, - -
Z\. =x e =4.9116
- -, x--10--4
, m
ay "- ae= 5.9388x 1O-3rad.
xe = 0.3663 m/s
ae = 0.4429 rad/sec
Cl = 0.3663-(117.51 x 5.9388x 10-3-510.94 x 4.9116 x 10-4) 0.1631+ 2.45 cos (20.94x 0.1631)
= - 0.1489' . 20.94
C2 = 4.9116 x 10-4 -0.3663 x 0.1631+(117.51 x 5.9388x 10-3
-510.94 x 4.9116 x 10-4) x 0.16312+245 sin (20.94 x 20.1631) 0.1631 x 2.45 cos (20.94 x 0.1631)
-?' 20.94 20.94
= - 0.0173
C3 = 0.4429- 117.512 x 4.9116 x 10-4 -451.76 x 5.9388 x 10-3 x 0.1631= 0.8676

[ 0.8556 ]
-3 0.1631
C4 = 5.9388 x 10 + (0.4247) x
2
- 0.4429 x 0.1631
= - O.1009
Hence the governing equations for displacement become,
x = 0.2234 [2 - 5.587 x 10-3sin(20.94 t) - 0.1489 t - 0.0173
a = - 1.302 t2 + 0.8676 [- 0.1009
From time 0.1631 s to 0.2963.5, the computations of displacement are given in the following Table.
Table 5.7: Values of Displacements in Active Condition (Plastic-State)
Time Translational Rotatiol! Disp. of wall at top Total disp. at top
t(s) displacement x (mm) e (rad) due to rotation Xo (mm) x/(JP(mm)
0.1531 0.47 5.97026 x 10-3 10.57 11.04

0.1875 1.18 16.0015 x 10-3 28.32 29.50
0.2250 0.69 8.396 10-3 50.26 51.01
0.2625 - 2.44
.
37.129 x 10-3 65.72
"
63.28
f
,;,)
, "
-,t
0.2963 - 6.77 41.8624 x 10-- 74.10 67.33
)ynamic Eartl, Pressure 235
,.From t =e;2963 s to t = 03 s;the- displacements 'are computed using the expressions obtained by
olving the equations of motion under elastic condition taking boundary conditions satisfying the previ-
msly computed values t = 0.2963 s.
The complete solution can be expressed as :
I. l t. l
Xe = A I sm rot + A 2 cos rot + A 3 sm rot + A 4 cos rot
I '11 I
ee = BI sin ro t + B2 cos ro t + B3 sin ro t + B4 cos ro t
Superscripts of A and B indicate the mode of vibration. Therefore Constants AI' A2' BI and B2
::orrespond to the mode when system is vibrating with wnl' and A3, A4' B3 and B4 for the second mode.
xe = AI
sinrot+A2 cosrot+A3 sinrot+A4 cosrot
A A A A
e = -1.. sin rot + --1.. cos rot + J sin rot + -1. cos rot
e m m m m
Putting boundary conditions, we get
- 0.0067669 = - 0.0786 AI - 0.9969 A2 + 0.0786 A3 + 0.9969 A4
0.0418624 = 0.0763 AI - 0.9679 A2 - 0.1139A3 + 1.445 A4
- 0.133143 = 20.875 AI + 1.6459 A2 + 20.075 A3 + 1.6459 A4
0.09603 = - 20.267 AI + 1.5979 A2 + 29.094 A3 + 2.385 A4
AI = - 0.00376
A2 = - 0.02171
A3 = - 0.00187
. A4 = 0.0144~ ,'"
Therefore for range of tp from 0.2963 to 0.3 s the equations of displacements will be :
xe = - 0.00376 sin ro t - 0.02171 cos rot - 0.00187 sin ro t + 0.01448 cos ro t
ee = 0.003'65 sin rot + 0.02107 cos ro t - 0.002710 sinro t + 0.02099 cos ro t
, Values of displacements in ~lastic condition from time ,0.2963 s to 0.3 s are given in Table 5.8
Table 5.8 : Values of Displacements in Elastic State
Time TraJ;slational Rotation Disp. of wall at top Total disp. at top
t(s) displacement x (mm) e (rad) due to rotation xe (mm) XI (mm)
op
0.2963 - 6.77 41. 8624 x 10-3 74.10 67.33
0.2975 - 6.85 41.916 x 10-3 74.191. , 67.34
0.298 - 6.98 41.98359 x 10-3 74.3109 67.33
0.299 - 7.10 42.0320 x 10-3 74.39670
,,' 67.29
0.3 - 7.23 42.062 x 10-3 74.4498 67.21
, .
Hence it is fo~rid that after 'one cycle, the disphi~ement ~sequal to 67.21 ,mm and it can be called as
slip. The total displacement after n cycles is e'qual'to n times the slip. The 'final translational displace-
ment and r~tation of the retaining wall are therefore known. The displacement curve in palstic state is
also shown in Fig. 5.31.
.:.'..' ;'r:;,;"i:;":.~'d~~.'; .:;..,.-/:{;i;' ..,.,..,rtif~;~;8t.
"'
Biggs, J. M. (1963), "Introduction to structural dynamics", McGraw Hill Book Co., New York.
Coulomb, C. A. (1776), "Essai sur une application des regles des maximis et minimis a quelque problems de
statique relalifs a I'architecture", Mem. acad. roy. press. disversavants, vol 7, Paris.
Culmann, K. , (1866), "Die graphische statik", Zurich.
IS 1893 : I. P. (1962), "Earthquake resistant design of retaining walls", Proc. Symposium in Earthquake Engineer-
ing, University of Roorkee, Roorkee.
Lai, C. S. (1979), "Behaviour of retaining walls under seismic loading", M. E. Report, University of Canterbury,
New Zealand.
Mononobe, N. (1929), "Earthquake proof construction of masonry dam", Proceedings. World Engineering Congress,
vol. 9, p. 275.
Nadim, F., and Whitman R. V. (1983), "Seismically induced movement of retaining walls", Jour. of Geot. Engg.
DiYn.,ASCE, Vol. 109, No. 7, pp. 915-931.
Nandakumaran, P. (1973), "Behaviour of retaining walls under dynamic loads", Ph.D. Thesis, Universityof Roorkee,
Roorkee.
Newmark, N.M. (1965), "Effect of earthquakes on dams and embankments", Geotechnique, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 129-
160.
Ohde, S. 91926), "General theory of earth pressures", Journal, Japanese Society of Civil Engineers, Tokyo, Japan,
Vol. 12, No. I.
Prakash, S., and Saran, S. (1966), "Static and dynamic earth pressures behind retaining walls," Proc. 3rd Sympo-
sium 011Earthquake Engineering, University of Roorkee, Roorkee, Vol. 1, pp. 277-288.
Prakash, S., Puri, V. K. and Khandoker J. U. (1981), "Rocking displacements of retainingwalls during earthquakes",
Int. Conf. on Recent Advances in Geotcchanical Earthquilke Engineering and Soil Dynamics, Vol. 3,
St. Louis, U.S.A.
Prakash S. (1981), "Analysis of rigid retaining walls during earthquakes", Int. Conf. on RecentAdvances in Geotech.
Earthquake Engg. and Soil Dynamics, Vol. 3, St. Louis U.S.A.
Reddy, R. K., Saran.,S., and Viladkar, M.N. (1985), "Prediction ofdisplacements of retaining walls under dynamic
conditiOns", Bull. of Indian Soc. Earth. Tech., Paper No.-239, vol. 22, No. 3.
Richard, R. k, and Elms, D. G. (1979), "Seismic behaviour of gravity retaining walls", Journ. Geotech. Engg.
Divn., ASCE, Vol. 105, No. GT4, pp. 449-464.
Saran, S., and Prakash, S. (1968), "Dimensionless parameters for static and dynamic earth pressures behind retain-
ing walls", Jour. Indian National Society of Soil Mech. and Found. Engg., July pp. 295-310.
Seed, H. B., and Whitman, R. V. (1970), "Design of earth retaining structures tor dynamic loads", ASCE Speciality
conference on Lateral Stresses in Ground and Design of Earth Retaining Structures, pp. 103-147,
Ithaca, New York.
Zarrabi, k. (1979), "Sliding of gravity retaining wall during earthquakes considering vertical accelera-
tion and changing inclination of failure furface", M. S. Thesis, MIT, USA. <
".,
:.
~
.j
J
4
;;:\r£;;:;i,~;~~.
;[;:J~1~;t!fi ,;~:~~-~ <:v~?';;:;~\.;':', i~'w'~~f~il!¥~~ j' .: . . . ,~
>.-"
Dynamic Eartlt Pressure 237
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
5.1 Explain with neat sketches the following:

(a) Mononobe- Okabe's approach, and
(b) Modified Culmann's graphical construction for getting dynamic active earth pressure.
5.2 How is the effect of partly submerged backfill considered in computing dynamic earth pres-
sure?
.
5.3 Explain the salient features of the following:
(a) Richard-Elms model
(b) Nadim-Whitman model
(c) Reddy-Saran-viladkar model
for getting displacement of rigid retaining wall.
5.4 A vertical retaining wall is 8m high and retains noncohesive backfill with y = 18 kN/m3, 4> = 30°
8 = 20° .The backfill is inclined to the horizontal by 15°.The wall is located in a seismic area
where the design seismic coefficients are
ah = 0.10 ; al, = 0.05
Compute the static and dynamic earth pressure on the wall using both modified Coulomb's ap-
proach, and Culmann's graphical construction.
5.5 If the retaining wall (Problem 504)is to incline at lO° with the vertical, would you recommend
its inclination towards or away from the fill. Justify your answer fully.
5.6 The backfill of retaining wall (Problem 5.4) is carrying a surcharge of 50 kN/rn2. Estimate the
increase in static and dyn~mic earth pressures.
5.7 The backfill of retaining wall (Problem 5.4) is submerged upto 4.0 m from the base of wall.
Estimate the total pressure on wall both in static and dynamic cases.
5.8 Compute the displacement of the wall (problem SA) f~r the following condition:
Period of wall = 0.25 s
= 5.0 mm Zy
Period of ground motion = 0040 s
Equivalent number of cycles in an earthquake o~ magnitude 7.0 will not exceed 15.
DD
t
DYNAMIC BEARING CAPACITY OF

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
.
6.1 GENERAL
Foundations may be subjected to dynamic loads due to earthquakes, bomb blasts and operations of
machines. The dynamic loads due to nuclear blasts are mainly vertical. Horizontal dynamic loads on
foundations are mostly due to earthquakes. Basically there are two types of approaches namely (i)
pseudo-static analysis and (ii) dynamic analysis for getting the solution. In this chapter, pseudo-static
analysis is first presented and it is followed by dynamic analysis. Design of foundations of different
types of machines have been given in detail in chapters 8 to 10.
6.2 PSEUDO-STATIC ANALYSIS
Pseudo-static analysis is more commonly used for designing foundations subjected to earthquake forces.
Adopting appropriate values of horizontal and vertical seismic coefficients, equivalent seismic forces
can be conveniently evaluated. These forces in combination of static forces make the foundation
subjected to eccentric inclined load. In Secs. 6.3 and 6.4, the procedure of detennining bearing capacity.
s.:ttlement, tilt and horizontal displacement of shallow foundations subjected to eccentric - inclined loads
ha\'e been prL'scnted. It is preceded by brief description on fundamental concepts involved in bearing
capacity analysis.
6.3 BEARING CAPACITY OF FOOTINGS
6.3.1. Modes of Shear Failure. The maximum load per unit area that can be imposed on a footing
without causing rupture of soil is its bearing capacity (some times termed critical or ultimate bearing
capacity). It is usually denoted by quoThis load may be obtained by carrying out a load test on the
footing which will give a curve between average load per unit area and settlement of the footing. Based
on pressure-settlement characteristics of a footing and pattern of shearing zones, three modes of shear
failure have been identified as (i) general shear failure, (ii) punching shear failure and (iii) local shear
failure (Caquot, 1934; Terzaghi, 1943; DeBeer and Vesic, 1958; Vesic, 1973).
In general shear failure, well defined slip lines extend from the edge of the footing to the adjacent
ground. Abrupt failure is indicated by the pressure-settlement curve (Fig. 6.1a). Usually in this type,
failure is sudden and catastrophic and bulging of adjacent ground occurs. This type of failure occurs
in soils having brittle type stress-strain behaviour (e.g. dense sand and stiff clays).
,..,:",,;,,"d:"~'tX,~,'.","",r,d.:"Y""::'-" "J:'.~'f.,,'"~~:"~:" w,::":'~.' ",r;1',;;~"f"':"", "",'" "'" "",.0, ':"':'<"",," ,>,'[:";':""'0, ..,.""...;~.;t~A",. ,,';"~',:':},,~~, -
Dynamic Bearillg Capacity of Shallow Foulldatiolls 239
In punching shear failure, there is vertical shear around the footing perimeter and compression
of soil immediately under the footing, with soil on the sides of the footing remaining practically
uninvolved, The pressure-settlement curve indicates a continuous increase in settlement with increasing
load (Fig, 6,1 b). .
- Load
+-
c
<::.I
E
. -+-
<::.I
(a)
.-:
I
+-
<::.I
Load
(b) c
<::.I. " ,"
E
'<::.I
+-
+-
<::.I
lI'I
I
....
.,' Load
+-
C
/ <::.I
",
--- ,,-...." E
<::.I
(c) +-
-<::.I
If)
Fig. 6.1 : Typical modes of failure (a) General shear, (b) Punching shear and (c) Local shear
The local shear failure is an intermediate failure mode and has some of the characteristics of both
the general shear and punching shear failure modes. Well defined slip lines immediately below the
footing extend only a short distance into the soil mass. The pressure-settlement curve does not indicate
the bearing capacity clearly (Fig. 6.1 c). This type of failure occurs in soils having plastic stress-stram
characteristics (e.g. loose sand and soft clay).
In Fig. 6.2, types of' failure modes that can be expected for a footing in ~ particular type of sand
is illustrated (Vesic, 1973). This figure indicates that the type of failure depends on the relative density
and depth-width ratio (D/B) of the footing. There is a critical value of (D/B) ratio below which only
punching shear failure occurs.
, 240
Relative density, Or
0 0.2 0-4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0
Gen eral
sh ear
failur(
zont
elcc
..
..a.
.J::.
5
Pun ching
shear
'"0 fai lu re
zone
-
.->
0
!'t:
10
Fig. 6.2 : Region for three different modes of failure
The criteria given in Table 6.1 may also be followed for identification of type of failure:
Table 6.1 : Identification of Type of Failure

Type of failure Relative density Dr (%) (Deg) Void ratio e
1. General shear failure 70 36° S 0.55'

2. Local shear failure or punching shear failure S 20 S 29° 0.75
6.3.2. Generalized Bearing Capacity Equation. In the design of foundation usually net bearing
capacity is computed' and used. It is defined as the maximum net intensity of loading at the base of
the foundation that the soil can support before failing in shear. It is denoted by,"qnu'Therefore
qnu=qu-YIDf ...(6.1)
where, q u = Ultimate bearing capacity
The equation of net bearing capacity developed for strip footing considering general shear failure
(Terzaghi, 1943; Meyerhof, 1951) is extended to consider variations from the basic assumptions by
applying modification factors that account for the effect of each variation (Hansen, 1970). It may be
written as :
1"
=cN.S.d'i.b + y .D . (N -1 ) óÍò¼ù·ò¾ò® +-'Y 2 'B.N
q
nu c c c eel f q q q q q w 2 y .S y .d y .i y .b y .r' w
...(6.2)
Dynamic Bearing Capacity of Shallow FoundatioJIs 241
where
qllu = Net ultimate bearing capacity
c = Undrained cohension of soil
B = Width of footing
Df = Depth of foundation below ground surface
Nc- Nq, Ny = Bearing capacity factors
Sc' Sq, Sy = Shape factors for square, rectangular and circular foundations
dc' dq, dy = Depth factors
ie' iq, iy = Inclination factors
bc' bq' by = Ground inclination factors
rw' r:v = Ground water table factors
6.3.2.1. Bearing capacity factors. Nc' Nq and Ny are non-dimensional factors which depend on angle
of shearing resistance of soil (Terzaghi, 1943; Terzaghi and Peck, 1967). Their values may be obtained
from Table 6.2. "
Table 6.2 : Bearing Capacity Factors
cp Ne Hq Hy
Deg
0 5.14 \.00 0.00
5 6.49 .; 1.57 0.45
.'
10 8.35 2.47 1.22
15 10.98 3.94 2.65
20 14.83 6.40 5.39
25 20.72 10.66 10.88
30 30.14 18.40 22.40
35 46.12 33.30 48.03
40 75.31 64.20 109.41
45 138.88 134.88 27 I. 76
50 266.89 319.07 762.89
6.3.2.2. Shape factors. Approximate values of shape factors which are sufficiently accurate for most
practical purposes are given in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 : Shape Factors
S.No. Shape of footing Se Sq Sy
(i) Continuous strip 1.00 1.00 1.00
(ii) Rectangle 1+ 0.2 B/L 1+ 0.2 B/L 1-0.4 B/L
(Hi) Square 1.3 1.2 0.8
(iv) Circle 1.3 1.2 0.6
(B = diameter)
242 Soil Dynamics- & Machine Foundations
6.3.2.3. Depth factors. The bearing capacity factors given in Table 6.2 does not consider the shearing
resistance of the failure plane passing through the soil zone above the level of the foundation base.
If this upper 'soil zone possess significant shearing strength, the ultimate value of bearing capacity would
be increased (Meyerhof, 1951). For this case, depth factors are applied, whereby
D
d = 1 + 0.4 --L ...(6.3)
C B
d = 1 + 2 tan <1>(1 - sin <1» .

2 DJ (6.4)
q , B
dy = 1 ...(6.5)
The use of depth factors is conditional upon the soil above foundation level being not significantly
inferior in shear strength characteristics to that below this level.
6.3.2.4 Factors for eccentric-inclined loads. The effect of eccentricity can be conveniently and con-
servatively considered as follows:
One way eccentricity (Fig. 6.3 a) - If the load has an eccentricity e, with respect to the centroid
of the foundation in only one direction, then the dimension of the footing in the direction of eccentricity
shall be reduced by a length equal to 2e. The modified dimension shall be used in the bearing capacity
equation and in determining the effective area of the footing in resisting the load.
Two way ecc?ntricity (Fig. 6.3 b) - If the load has double eccentricity (eL and eB) with respect
to the centroid of the footing then the effective dimensions of the footing to be used in determining
the bearing capacity as~ell as in computing the effective area of the footing in resisting the load shall
be determined as given below:
L' = L - 2 eL ...(6.6)
B' = B-2 eB ...( 6.7)
A' = Lt X B' ...(6.8)
Qv ~
G.
e I
, I
Qh ,t"'.
"
,\7 '«'\~1\Z2?r"
""':"""-"""';"""
." ".'.
J..
"
.,,:~..,.,. t
B or L
.., :
," :":';:'::"""':""~
.
,
::.::~
~
.W'«)
Fig. 6.3 : Eccentrically-Obliquely loaded footings (a) One way eccentricity

a- :;!:f
Dynamic Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations 243
~ for B- axis
.... ....
Fig. 6.3 : Eccentrically-Obliquely loaded footings (b) Two way eccentricity
In computing the shape- and depth factors for eccentrically-obliquely loaded footings, effective width
(B') and e_ffe~tive length__(~? will be used in place of total width (B) and total length (L).
For a design,;'eccOentricity' should be limited to one-sixth of the foundation dimension to prevent
the condition of uplift occurring under part of the foundation,
Inclination factors - Following inclination factors may be adopted in design.

m+l
, - 1 Qh" ...(6.9)
ly - [ - Q + BLc cot 
] '
m
. Q
Iq = [ 1- ...(6.10)
Q + BLch cot 
]
...(6.11)
V iq - [N:~~$] (when p O.
= 1 mQh ...(6.12)
- cNcBL (when 
= 0°)
where Qh is the horizontal component of the load Q acting on the foundation at inclination i with
vertical. Values of m are taken as given below:
(i) If the angle of inclination i is in the plane of L-axis
..(6.13)
111=(2+~) (1+~)
(ii) If the angle of inclination is in the plane of the B-axis
2+oB 1+B ...(6,14)

(.' L) ( L)
,
~, y m'=
. - -0" ~',./. ,'" " ,.'
As P~!)~,':640].:)981,:tlfernclination -"
.- - ------ -,-- - ,--,~.- -,-'factors
-- are give,n"by-~~:-
- ,.--.~:-,:::--".-
-' - "...'
.) 'q~cq: ~' . '; ..'

'..~

0
-..0
'-"
ID
0
Lt)
0
00
11
~
-1J
'-"
0
~
0
~ .-
Col
0
V 0
Z M
11
0 .-
N tII
0 V
N Z
0 .-
0
0 -&-
0
~
0
~
0
N .-
0 0 0
t
0
~
0
N
0 0
0 ."
."
...
'"
"
(6~p)q, (6~p) cp 'E
7
""':
-.::;
;1
.....
-d
'-"
.-
0 -
u 0
~
0
co
0
0 M
0
°0 0 N
11
ID 11
Col
V
Z 0 t>I
N V
0 Z
~
0 0
N
0 0
0 '0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
~ ~ N t ~ N
( 6~p) <t> (6~p) et>

.. I ~. "}:Jl

0
1.0
'"
.0
......... 0
\J')
00-
tI 1 I '"
i
"0
.........
0 tIJ
C') eT
Z 1
00
C')
0 tI
N 1\ ,- 1 °g
Z
0 to... '\.u.
r. 18
0
..t 0
C')
0
N
0.... 0
"0 II
0 0
M
0
N
0
""
0
10
er
'"
::
'"
(60p) p)
'-
'"'
cp ,.
7.
'.
..
Ir:
-.::>
O£
'.
'"
0 1
I
'"
l
u
.........
00
11 1
i
0
0
N
.-
11
0 tIJ
eT
Z \ ,- 10N eT
tIJ
Z
0 0
0 - o. ~~ 0 -0 -0 0 o. 0 0 '0
~ et) N et) N
,'. ~,
(6<>p) p) et>

..."".

0
N
0
"....... -..t
.c
, _°
"tJ
,
0 0
°0 M
JI
00
.0
°
M
"
C:.I 0 ,-
')0 "N C:.I
)0
Z
Z
0
-.t
0
0 0
0 I.t'I 0 I.t'I 0 0 0 I.t'I 0
0 M M
t M M N N ...t
(6ap)cp (6ap ) et>
~
'"
:::I
~
...
;>
.~
7.
0
U) 'c:
"....... ~
0 ~
'-" '.
0
N
°0
JI
0
C:.I "....... U)
)0
u
z ,
0 °0
co N
JI
0
...:t
0
...t 0
N
0 00
::> 0 0 0 0 b '1f) 0 1f)
N
M -..t M M N
.t N
øê¿°÷ et> (6ap) et>

ID ,< .<' -,' ,,' ,,(i' 'f" ';- 171.
,.;.r"','.,,
J)ymimii: 'Bearing 'CapJCity"of'Sh~llow Foundations "247

---
, "
2 , ::': '( ,t,
ic = iq = ( 1 ~ ;0 ) , ":..(6.15)
...(6.16)
iy= (1- ~J
For more accurate estimation of bearing capacity of a eccentrically-obliquely loaded footing, bealing
capacity fa~tor:; as shown ,in Figs. 6.4 to 6.6 developed by Saran and Agarwal (1991) may ,b~,u$ed.
These factors have been obtflined by carrying out a theoretical analysis based on limit equilibrium and
limit analysis approaches'. ~":":
As evident from these figures, bearing capacity factors (Nyei'Nqei and Ncei) depend on <j),i and
e/B. Values of these bearing capacity factors are substituted in (Eq. 6.2) in place of Nc' Nq and NI for
getting the bearing capacity of eccentrically-obliquely loaded footing. If use of these bearing capacity,
factors is made, then inclination factors, and reduced dimensions of B' and L' for accounting the effect
of eccentricity and inclination are not us,ed.The!efore the mod~fiedbe~ring capacity equation will be
as given below: '
~, 1, -.
qnu = cNeei . Se . de + YiD! (Nqei -1) Sq . dq . 'rw + 2"'Y2 . B '. ~'Yei. S1' dy' r'w ...(6.17)
Use of Eqs. 6.6 to 6.16 make more'cons~rv~tiveqestimate

, of~he bearing capacity.
6.3.2.5. Base inclination factors. If the base of foundation is inclined from the horizontal and an applied
load acts nonnal to the base (Fig. 6.7), the pattern of rupture surface beneath the foundation will be
different from the pattern that develop beneath the level footing carrying a vertical load (Meyerhof,
1953). For this condition base. ,
inclination factors as given'" below may be used:
, (l-b) ,
b =' b - ,q fer tP > 0°, ...(6.18)

c q N e tantP
'
= 1- 0.0067 a for 4>= 0° ...(6,19)

,
2
b = b =
where a represents
.q 1 57.3 (1 - ~
If ) , ,
tan'"
.'['
the angle of the base inclination in degree with horiz~ilta1.. '

" "
:;' ...(6.20)
"
_'0 "
rJ ,.,c Fi~.6.7 : Inclined, footing ',," ",~s

,:
248 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundatitnu

,:..". "
~
6.3.2.6. Water table factors. Correction factors r w and r'w may be computed using following Eqs.
(Fig. 6.~). '
da
rw = 1.0 - 0.5 Df (For da ~ DJ
Y
...(6.21):'
d'
"
.
r~ = 0.5 + 0.5 ~
(For, db ,~ B) . ...(6.22},
where do and db represent the position of water table with respect to the base of the footing as shown:
in fig. 6.8. For the position of water level 'below the base of footing, do = 0 i.e. rw = 1; and for the
position of water level at depth more than B, db = B i.e. r'll' = 1. '
"'"
B
Footi ng
vwot.rzr Irzvel
Of ' t
do
-t- I I water
db
'
B I I (rzv<z1
I I
\! L
L L______J (0)
1.0
L.~ 1.0 ,~L.
~
L." 0.9 .:: 0.9
..0 0
.. ?
u u
.B 0.8 0
Of-
0.8
c c:
0 0.7 .~
..
u ..u 0.7 j-.
"".
.f
::J ::J
'0 0.6 '0 0.6
tI tI
Cl: a:
0.5 ..
~,
0 o. Z O. 4 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 " 'f
do/Of ¼¾ñÞ
..
,J..I
(b) (c) .-,,"~
,.
,
;'~,,;
'~,0
Fig. 6.8 : Correction factors 'cor position of water table
";;.
~',
:'
~ ~-_.- J,~II1I~-., -- ID ~,,' <;~"",.;.
Iynamic Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations 249
).3.3. Local and Punching Shear Failure. The assumption that the soil behaves as a rigid material
s satisfied for the case of general shear but is not appropriate for punching and local shear. Comparison
)f the relative pressure-settlement curves (Fig. 6.1) indicates that, for punching and local shear failure
;ases, the ultimate pressure is less and the settlement is greater than for the condition of general shear
:'ailure.For design purposes, the general shear, local shear and punching shear failures can be identified
1Sper the criterion given in Table 6.1.
Terzaghi (1943) proposed empirical adjustments to shear strength parameters c and <{Ito cover the
case of local and punching shear failure. Shear strength parameters cm and <{Imshould be used in the
bearing capacity equation and the bearing capacity factors are obtained on'the basis of <Pminstead of
:j>, where'
2
c = - C ...( 6.23 a)
III 3
...(6.23 h)
<{Im = tan -1 (~ tan ~)
If the failure lies between general shear and local shear failure, then linear interpolation is done
to evaluate the value of bearing capacity factors. For example, value of Ny for ~= 34° will be
"
(N ) (N ym ) CP=29°
,
'Y 4>=36°
(NY)4>
= 34°= (Nym )$ = 29° + 36° - 29° x (36° - 34° ) ...(6.24 )
where (Nyrn)$ = 29° value of Ny factor for <{I::;:29° considering local shear" failure condition. Therefore
its value will be obtained using Table 6.2 for <1>m = tan -1 [(2/3) tan 29°] = 20.29°.
, .
6.3.4. Factor of Safety. The net bearing capacity of the soil is divided by a safety factor to obtain the
net safe bearing capacity. It is denoted by qnF' ' .
A factor of safety is used as a safeguard against

(i) natural variations in shear strength of soil,
(ii) assumptions made in theoretical methods,
(hi) inaccuracies of empirical methods and
(iv) excessive settlement of footings near shear failure.
A factor of safety of 2.5 to 3.0 is generally used to cover the variation or uncertainties listed above.
Therefore
qnF = qnu ...(6.25)

F
6.4 SETTLEMENT, TILT AND HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT
An eccentrically-obliquely loaded rigid footing settles as shown in Fig. 6.9 in which Se and Sm represent
respectively the settlement of the point under load and edge of the footing. If' t' is the tilt of the footing,
then Srn is given by : '
Srn = Se + (BI2 - e ) sin t ...(6.26)

In Fig. 6.9, Ho represents the horizontal displacement of the footing. '
---....----
"
,,250 Soil Dynamics &, Machine Foundations
{1:
~ e!---
,
.' , " " ,~ I

" -.","'IQd(Zi,
I., . (e/2-~) i I
l_.l.
~ e/2 -1
I I ' ' -E
I Se 5,0 "
Srnl ..--
,
Final position' l-:HD~ I
' " - ---
~) ~
E
~~el1.-
Fig,6.9: Settlement, tilt and horizontal displacement of eccentrically-obliquely loaded footing
Agarwal (1986) carried out modeltests on eccentrically-obliquely loaded footings resting on sand
Footings of different widths and shapes were used. In each test, for a pressure increment observations
were taken to record Se' t and Ho' Effect of relative density of sand was also studied. In addition to
these tests, pressure.settlement and pressure-tilt characteristics of eccentrically-obliquely loaded foot-
ings resting on clay and Sand beds were also obtained using non-linear constitutive laws of soils (Saran
& Agarwal, 1989). From the model test data and results of analysis based on constitutive laws, plots
of SeI So versus e. I Band Sm IS o versus elB were prepared for different load inclinations (Figs. 6.10
& 6.11). So represents the settlement of the footing subjected to central vertical load (i.e. elB = 0 =
i) and obtained corresponding to the pressure intensity giving the same factor of safely at which Se
and Sill values are taken.
These plots were found independent to the type of soil, factor of safety, size and shape of footing
The average relationships can be represented by the following expressions:
...(6.27
~e
0 = Ao + AI (~)+A2(~r ,
- ~:=Bo + BI (~) ...(6.28
,..(6,29
where.A" ~ 1 - 0.56 (~ )-0,82 (~)'
...(6.3(
A, ~.. 3.51 + 147 (~ )+5,67( ~)'
A, ~ 4,74 - \.38
,
(~ )-lZ,4S(
, 2
~ r ..:(6.31
I ',- -" .
,..(63
)
Bo = I - 0.48 ( ~,...~.~;. ,
( q, )",...'
'
""
,/
i_h,"""'"
ilntlmic Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations 251
B\ ~ ~ 1.8~ + 0,94 W- L63( ~)' ...(6.33)
0.8
i ::150
0.6 .
.
Se .
So
0-4
0.2
0 ~-
0 0.1 0.2 '., 0.3

ù´×Þ
Fig. 6.10 : 8/80 versus e/B for j = 15°
1.2
, 0
I = 15
0.8
-Srn
So
0.4
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
e/B
, . ',; " < :., ,{,;;-~Fig.6.11 : Sm/SOversus elB for i-15° 'Co):, ..
Values of So can be obtained using the data of plate load test or standard penetration test in
cohesionless soils, and consolidation test data in clays in conventional manner.
Similarly a unique correlation was obtained between Ho / B and i/~.
Ho i i 2 i 3 i 4
B =0.121 (~)-0.682(~) +1.99(~) +2.01(~) ...(6.34)
The above correlation is also found independent to the type of soil, factor of safety, size and shape
of the footing. The effect of eIB was found small and the displacement value decreased little with the
increase in eccentricity: This effect is neglected considering the results slightly on the safe side.
6.5 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
. The dynamic bearing capacity problem attracted attention of the investigators in 1960 when the
performance of foundations under transient loads became of concern to the engineering profession
(Wallace, 1961; Cunny and Sloan, 1961; Fisher, 1962; Johnson and Ireland, 1963; Mckee and shenkman.
1962: White, 1964; Chummar, 1965; Triandafilidis, 1965). All analytical approaches are based on the
assumption that soil rupture under transient loads occurs along a static rupture surface. In this section
the sailent features of th~ analysis developed by Triandafilidis (1965) and Wallace (!961) for transient
vertical load; and by Chummar (1965) for transient horizontal load have been presented.
(enter of rotation
~
qu
8 ~ I
I
-T
0.43 8
(Fczllllnius)
: -
ZPrandtl's rupture surfacll
\ C Ilntllr of rotation
-r, ~ (Fllllllnius)
~ ---r
B
q
u
I', r =2.20SB/rr
I , --- - --7
, - -L-
-
w WCO5~
Fig. 6.12 : Illustrations of mode of failure, and dynamic equilibrium of moving soil mass
-",.-""
')ynamic Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations 253
5.5.1. TriandafiIidis's Solution. Triand~rllidis (1965) has presented a solution for dynamic response
of continuous surface footing supporting by saturated cohesive soil (I\>= 0 condition) and subjec,ted to
vertical transient load. The analysis is based on the following assumptions:
(i) The failure surface of soil is cylinderical for evaluation of bearing capacity under static
condition (Fig. 6.12) .
(ii) The saturated cohesive soil (I\>= 0) behaves as a rtid plastic material (Fig. -6.13).
(iii) The forcing function is assumed to be an exponentially dec~ying pulse (Fig. 6. 14)
(iv) The influence of strain rate on the shear strength is neglected.
(v) The dead weight of the foundation is neglected.
"0
er
U\
U\
C:II
CJ\
CJ\ I.
C:II
..U\
~
...
.. v
t/)
E
0
c
>- '.
, ,
0
strain rima
Fig. 6.13 : Assumed stress-strain relationship Fig. 6.14: Transient vertical load
Analysis
Let the transient stress pulse be expressed in the form
qdoli= q e-~ I = A. q e-~ I ...(6.35)
where, qd = Stress at time t
~ = Decaying function
q u = Static bearing capacity of continuous footing
qo = Instantaneous peak intensity of the stress pulse
A. = Over load factor = qo
. . qu ".
. The rupture surface is shown in Fig. 6.12 with centre of rotation at point 0 loc~ted at a height
of 0.43 B above the ground surface. The equation of motion is written by equating the moment of the
disturbing and restoring forces taken about the point O. The only disturbing and restoring force is an
externally applied dynamic pulse. The restoring forces consist of shearing resistance along the rupture
surface, the inertia of the soil :rp~sspa~icipating in motion and the resistance caused by the ~isplacement
111&1::,
254 Soil Dynamics ~ Machine Foundations

r. ,
of c~ntre of gravity of soil mass.

Driving moment MdP due to applied dynamic pulse is
.
- I 2 .
Mdp = "2qd B ...(6.36)

where, B= Width of footing
The static bearing capacity of a continuous footing along the failure surface (Fellenius, 1948) is
qu = 5.54 Cu ...(6.37 a)
where, Cu= Undrained shear strength
Resisting moment Mrs due to shear strength is
Mrs = ; qu B2 ...(6.37 b)
An applied pulse imparts an acceleration to the soil mass. The resisting moment Mri due to the
rigid body motion of the failed soil mass is
Mri = Joe ...(6.38)
where, Jo = .Polarmass moment of inertia
-- WB2
...(6.39)
1.36 g
W = Weight of the cylinderical soil mass
= 0.31 Y1tB2 ...(6.40)
Y = Unit weight of soil
WB2 ..
Therefore, ...(6.41)
Mri = 1.36,ge
The displaced position of the soil mass generates a restoring moment Mrw ' which may be
expressed as
Mrw = W r sin e ...(6.42 a)
For small rotations, Mrw =Wre ...(6.42 b)
2.205 B
where, r =- 1t
...(6.43)
By equating the moments of driving forces to those of the restoring forces, the following equation
of motion is obtained.
Mdp = Mrs + Mri + Mrw ...(6.44)
Sub'5tituting for moments and rearranging, we get
[,
.. 3g O.68g -~t,
e +-e=
1tB q ""e - 1] ...(6.45)
[ W ] u
Equation (6.45) is a second order, nonhomogeneous, linear differential equation with constant
coefficients. The natural frequency and the time period of the system are given by
...(6.46)
co. ~ ~;~
T ~ 2~ ~ ~ : .,.(6.47)
.. ~.JI,,~'{!:
DynU'tJic Bear;n~ C9pacity of S~lllloHJ.Fpundatiolls 255
Solution of Eq. (6.45) gives the following relation

W 'T2 ~2T2 21tt ~).T . 2~t\ -f}t ,~2T2
0.68gqu'
(8) ==
41t2+~2T2 [{
1-).+-
- .41t2 }
cos
( )+-sm (-
-
T 21t' T J
+).e óóóï
41i2 -,
]
...(6.48)
The ab<?vere1ation can be used to trace the history of m~tion of the foundation. For determination of
the maximum angular deflection 8, Eq. (6.48) can be differentiated with respect to time. Thus
21tt 21tt
~(e) ~ 21tT A-I- ~2T2 Sin + ~ATcos
{ T } 21t
- ~)'T e-J3t
{ T } 21t
...(6.49)
0.68gqu 4~2+~2r [{ 41t2,} ]
For obtaining the critical time t = te which corresponds to 8 = 8max' the right-hand side of
Eq. (6.49)is equated to zero. Since 2 1tT/ (41t2 + ~2 T2) :t=0
. ~).T -J3t ~-
-21tt +-cos
21t t
/\,- 1-- ~2T2 SIn
]
~1tT
[ ] [ ].--e
-
'\ .
0 ...(6.50)
[ 41t2 T T T . 21t ,'h
By using small increments of time t in Eq. (6.50), the value of le can be obtained. This value of
t = le can 'then be substituted in to Eq. (6.48) with known values of ~, ). and B' to obtain
(W/0.68 g qll )8max = K, dynamic load factor. Figures 6.15, 6.16 a~~ 6.i7 give the values of K (s2)
for B = 0.6, 1.5 and 3.0m, respectively, with), = 1-5 and ~= 0-50 s-1 '
10
N
- ~-------
V\ -I
~
10
--'"---
- - -...----...-
- -::::.--
-
------- ; -
I-
..
,,/",""""'" ~~ .- -- - ---,--. .-'-'
0 -2
-"
.. "
/ ,,
+0
u 10
. /
, ~
'/ /' -- '
"
0
.... f ,/ I /' -''-
'0 -3 I, / /' "/"'"
, ---,.,
0 10 f,' /" , /"
"
0
, /
u
-E 10
-4 1.// .'
/",
. /<'
0
c / , 1 ...... B = O.Gm
,>.
0
-5
'10 I .' /
0
+0
"u-
oT
0.5 --------
1.0 -----
>.-en 2.0 ----
"
0.0
-6 ,f OQ1. 5,0 -.-.-

10 .. u 10.0 ~., ;...
.f
g 50.0 ~
-7' .
10
1.0 2.0 3.0 4,0 5.0
Ov(Z,rload ratio»" F'
.) "0'- " ---,-"" .. _. "
Fig. 6.15 : Relationship between overload ratio and dynamic load factor for continuous footings 0.6 m wide
,. , " 1..1 .,,;,i
--- '..u. ~~,~-~~ -
256 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations'
10 10
---- ;::.::::'::===:.
-" - -------
-- - - ;:;.::;-:..-;::.::;=~-
- ,-""
,...
N
III
-I
10
","'"
'" ..,"
-,'
" ' -------. -' -' ,
N
III
-I
10
..
,'."'" -' ------------
../-:
"",.'' /,' ,---'-,,'..-" -"
..., ~
-2 "/- /- ..-'
~ ...
.. 10
I
I / '
;'
/'
, """
/"
i 102 ,,'/ .,' /,/' " ---",
;"/'/'
u
0
-1
I 'I /' """, 0
00- /./. ../.....-
t -3
-0
2 10 {/ /../" ./ '0 10 ,,/
/ I .'//
0
0 '/ --" 0
.......
0 -10 I,' ,/." -/0. "'-"
-u 10 '/ " .~ 10
e
0
f:
/
,
,/
t
-
0
S'=1.Sm
0.0
0.5--- ----
E
0
c
;/ " ./ ..- /r
i.' B = 3.0m
~ 105
0 / 2:- 1.0-----
>0.1111 2.0----
l; 105 f/ '
+-
~ 0.0
0.5---
00-1J.O - ----
-, ./
10 -
0"" 5.0-,-,-
u CQ, 10,0 ., - -c
>o..!!!.
2,0 --=---
0 CQ,5.0 - ---
-7 / 050.0-"'- 10
/ I 0~ 10.0
50.0 -~_.-,..-
..-
10 107
1.0 2.0 1.0
Qverlood
Fig. 6.16 : Relationship between overload ratio and Fig. 6,17 : Relationship between overload ratio and
dynamic load factor for continuous dynamic load factor for continuous
footings 1.5 m wide footings 3.0 m wide
6,5,2, Wallace's Analysis presented by Trianadafilidis (1965) is based on rotational mode

Solution,
of failure. However, it is possible that a foundation may fail by vertically punching into the soil mass
due to the application of vertical transient load. Wallace (1961) presented a procedure for the estimation
of the vertical displacement of continuous footing considering punching mode of failure. The analysis
is based on the following assumptions:
(i) The failure surface in the soil mass is assumed to be of similar type as suggested by Terzaghi
(1943) for the evaluation of static bearing capacity of strip footings. This is shown in Fig. 6.18.
~B
. 9 ton ~
<'
r: ro t
Fig, 6,18 : Failure surface
(ii) The soil behaves as a rigid plastic material (Fig. 6. 13)

(iii) The ultimate shear strength is given by
s=c+crtan<l> ...(6.51)
where, s = Ultimate shear strength
c = Cohesion
(j = Normal stress
<p= Angle of internal friction
(iv) The dynamic load applied to the footing is initially peak triangular force pulse (Fig. 6.19).
(v) The footing is assumed to be weightless and to impart uniform load to the soil surface.
-Peak intensity, q "t:!

.....
.->- c:
0
'"
c: ..-
(y (1
..- ....
c: :J
-0
CT\
,-c: -0
"U
(1
(1
0
..J
0
..J '.,
Tim e
Fig. 6.19 : Loading function
Analysis
The applied load is assumed to be an initial-peak triangular force which decays to zero at time
td (Fig. 6.19). The peak load q is expressed in pressure units. Since the function is discontinuous
at time td' two equations are necessary
...(6.52)
For 0 ,; t ,; td' Loading function ~ qB (1- ~)
For t ~ td' Loading function = 0 ...(6.53)
In Fig. 6.18, BD is an arc of a logarithmic spiral with its centre at O. It is defined by the
Eq. (6.54).
r = ro ea tan' ...(6.54)
where, "0 = Distance

OB (Fig. 6.18)
<p = Angle of internal friction
.. .!
-.-..-....... ....
--_Uu_--~--- --- _';::'77~-- --- I IT'
<
258 - Soil Dy~ic$. & ¥lIchine Foundations -
The static bearing capacity - qu for such a' failure surface is -given by
1
¯« ã ½Ò½õ¯Ò¯õóþøÞÒ§ ...(6.55)
2 -
where, c = Cohesion
q = "(DJ ...(6.56)
"( = Density of soil
DJ = Depth of footing
Ne, Nq, and Ny = Bearing capacity factors
The bearing capacity factors depend on and K, K being 2 (Distance OA)/H, Fig. 6.18. The value
of K locates the centre of the spiral which is the centre of rotation. Obviously the correct value of K
is that which yields the minimum value of the bearing capacity. It is obtained by trial and error for
each set of problem parameters. The values of N"{'Ne and Nq for various values of - and K are given
in columns 3, 4 and 5 of Table 6.4.
Table 6.4 : Bearing Capacity Factors (N'Y'Ne, Nq' NI' NR)
(deg) K Ne NI' NR
Ny Nq NI
(1) (2) (3) - (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

0 - 0.05 0.0000 5.7277 1.0 0.0633 2.0125 5.6366
0.00 0.0000 5,7124 1.0 0.0631 1.9723 5,5887
+ 0.05 0,0000 5.7258 1.0 0.0633 1.9433 5.5394
5 - 0.65 0.,1454 79.6255 7.9664 0.3755 8.9076 4.8709
- 0.60 0,1445 29.8163 3.6086 0.2280 6.4362 5.3126
- 0.55 0,1481 18.9958 2,6619 0.1579 5.0332 5.6460
- 0.50 0.1553 14.3469 2.2552 0.12\3 4.1699 5.8636
- 0.45 0.1655 11.8179 2.0339 0.1011 3.6088 5.9750
- 0.40 0,1786 10.2699 1.8985 0.0897 3.2299 6.0020
- 0.35 0.1945 9.2580 1.8100 0.0833 2.9674 5.9698
- 0.30 0.2\31 8.5723 1.7500 0.0799 ,- 2.7828 5.9005
- 0.25 0.2344 8.1007 1.7087 0.0786 2.6523 5.8108
- 0.20 0.2585 7.7778 1.6805 0.0785 2.5604 5.7116
- 0.15 0.2855 7.5629 1.6617 0.0793 2.4969 5.6099
- O.IQ 0.3154 7.4291 1.6500 0.0809 2.4547 5.5096
- 0.05 0.3483 7.3580 1.6437 0.0829 2.4288 5.4128
0.00 0.3843 7.3366 1.6419 0.0853 2.4155 5.3205
+ 0.05 0.4233 7.3553 1.6435 '0.0881 2.4122 5.2330
10 - 0.60 0.5700 53.9491 10.5127 0.1120 5.7922 7.1922
Dynamic Bearing Capacity -OfShallow Foundations : 259
- 0.55 0.5588 28.9945 ' 6.1125 ' 0:0935 4.8411 7.1948

- 0.50 0.5645 20.5266 4.6194 '0.0833 4.2238 7.1228
- 0.45. 0.5832 16.3539 3.8837 ',0.0779 3.8095 6.9932
~ 0.40 0.6127 13.9337 3.4569 0.0757 3.5264 6.8273
-:-0.35 0.6521 12.4031 3.1870 ;,
0.0755 3.3323 6.6445
- 0.30 0.7008 11.3881 3.0080 0.0767 3.2008 6.4587
- 0.25 0.7586 10.7004 2.8868 0.0790 3.1147 6.2781
- 0.20 ,0.8253 10.2345 2.8046 0.0821 3.0625 6.1071
.:...0.15' 0.9012 ' 9.9267 2.7503 0.0858 3.0360 5.9474
- 0.10 0.9863 '9.7361 ,2.7167 0.0901 3.0294 5.7994
- 0.05 1.0807 9.6352 ' 2.6990,0.0948 3.0386 5.6676
0.00 1.1848 9.6049 2.6936 0.0999 3.0604 5.5360
+" 0.05 1.2986 9.6313 2.6983 0.1053 3.0923 3.4187
15 - 0.55 1.5462 46.5473 13.4724 0.0707 5.2677 8.6324
- 0.50 1.519830.2759 9.1124 0.0696 4.7177 8.2310
- 0.4'5 1.5342 23.2038 7.2175 0.0707 4.3564 7.8481
- 0.40 1.5806 19.3483 6.1844 0.0734 '4.1189 7.4903
- 0.35 1.6540 16.9964 5.5542 '0.0773 3.9669 7.1622
- 0.30 1.7520 15.4722 5.1458 0.0823 3.8766 6.8645
- 0.25 ,1.8730 14.4550 4.8732 0.0881 3.8322 6.5961
- 0.20 2.0166 13.7730 4.6905 '0.0947 3.8232 6.3542
- 0.15 2.1825 13.3257 4.5706 0.1020 3.8418 6.1361
-0.10 2.3710 13.0501 " 4.4968 0.1101 3.8825 5.9388
-0.05 2.5823 12.9048 4.4579 0.1183 3.9413 5.7596
0.00 2.8168 12.8613 '4.4462 0.1282 4.0149 5.5961
+ 0.053.0750 '12.8991 :'4.4563 0.1383 4.1008 5.4463
20 - 0.50 3.6745' 46.2884 17.8477 ' ,,0.0673 5.6658 9.1768
- 0.45 3.6419 33.8986 , 13.3381 0.0728 5.3067 8.5380
- 0.40 3.6943 27.6099
' , ,. 11.0492
" , 0.0796 ' 5.0886 7.9941
, -.0.35 ' 3.8151 23.9713 . 9.7067 0.0~77 .4.9684 7.5267
- 0.30 3.9952" 2'i.5'S75 . 8.&572 ., '0.0970 4.9199 7.1214
. , . """,,', i " , '
',- 0.25 4.2298' 20.0542 '8.2992' 0.1076 4.9258 6.7672
- 0.20 4.5161 ' 19.0369\"7~9289 ' ' 0.1194 :4.9746 6.4552

- 0.15 5.8533 18.J742: '. ' '7 :6f,77 ,< 0.1325 5.0582 6.1783
~ 0.10 . 5.2413; 17.?678 ;' '1.5-398 ,', ,,0.1470 5.1704 5.9309
-0.05 5.6804 "'.17:~542 ".7.4620 ,-..:0.,1629 5.3068 5.7084
:. O~OO,
'",~,',.,?'r"".,..,.
"",:6.1717 :~~'.J7.6903 .,
7.4368 "",-.0.1802,
'..",,", ,-
5.4638 5.5072
,
"',," :. . .,'tS"t,~p{~2. .~~tt~:l...§r,' l:~...!l.<lt5.7 ; \r/j~89

, '.\,.;,~~~l,989 ,,~5,~486 ,~:3243
25 '.
"',
'::-" 0.50
, ,~"
' ';;
.,'
': "8.5665",
"', ':,'~; , ,
73.8778 "35.4499 ',0.0732, ' , 7.23469.9384'
. , '. " ." -':
'" - , . '
,/~;:~{~~r~,'1frY~/*~;;:~:'
'/;2d'i~:!, ; ,";"J'\ ~ - ',,' ";;"':~~!.;'" ;'.l';'t,',,~: ~'i""\ .,;c,-'", , ...'
~.,
- 0.45 8.3599 51.2706 24.9079 0.0835 6.8363 9.0503

- 0.40 8.3728 40.7056 19.9814 0.0954 6.6214 8.3291
- 0.35 8.5541 34.7663 17.2119 0.1094 6.5339 7.7297
- 0.30 8.8760 31.1015 15.5029 0.1254 6.5404 7.2223
- 0.25 9.3230 28.7315 14.3977 0.1437 6.6199 6.7864
- 0.20 9.8871 27.1750 13.6720 0.1646 6.7584 6.4075
- 0.15 IQ.5646 26.1681 13.2024 0.1882' 6.9462 6.0748
- 0.10 11.3542 25.5533 12.9157 0.2148 7.1761 5.7803
- 0.05 12.2569 25.2309 12.7654 0.2445 7.4429 5.5178
0.00 13.2745 25.1345 12.7205 0.2775 7.7423 5.2825
+ 0.05 14.4095 25.2180 12.7594 0.3139 8.0710 5.0704
30 - 0.45 19.3095 80.8644 47.6872 0.1064 9.3123 9.3540
,
- 0.40 19.1315 62.4470 37.0539 0.1267 9.0899 8.4705
- 0.35 19.3718 52.5548 31.3426 0.1506 9.0494 7.7518
- 0.30 19.940 46.6067 27.9084 0.1787 9.1446 7.1533
- 0.25 20.1887 42.8208 25.7226 0.2116 9.3473 6.6458
- 0.20 21.9566 40.3597 24.3017 0.2500 9.6392 6.2095
- 0.15 23.3512 38.7778 23.3884 0.2944 10.0081 5.8303
- 0.10 24.9984 37.8159 22.8330 0.3456 10.4452 5.4979
- 0.05 26.8993 37.3127 22.5425 0.4041 10.9441 5.2044
0.00 29.0580 37. 1624 22.4558 0.470<: 11.4998 4.9436
+ 0.05 31.4810 37.2926 22.5309 0.5457 12.1084 4.7107
35 - 0.45 46.2942 134.3023 95.0397 0.1527 13.4981 9.4021
- 0.40 45.4427 100.6609 71.4837 0.1887 13.2639 8.3844 ,
- 0.35 45.6687 83.4477 59.4308 0.2323 13.3114 7.5703
- 0.30 4.6.7356 73.3676 52.3727 0.2849 13.5708 6.9017
- 0.25 48.5145 67.0529 47.9511 0.3481 14.0015 6.3419
- 0.20 . 50.9356 62.9887 45.1052 0.4237 14.5786 5.8661
- 0.15 53.9640 60.3926 43.2874 0.5133 15.2895 5.4569
- 0.10 57.8568 58.8199 42.1862 0.6191 16.1127 5.1018
- 0.05 61.805 I 57.9989 41.6113 0.7428 17.0515 4.7911
0.00 66.6296 57.7539 41.4398 0.8868 18.0970 4.5175
+ 0.05 72.0773 57,9662 41.5884 1.0529
. - 19.2451 4.2753
'40 - 0.40 115.7097 112.8231. .146.0161 0.3229 20.8738 8.0404
, ,
Dynamic"Bearing ,Capacity of Shallow Foundations 261
- 0.35 115.5504 141.1002 119.3973 0.4107 21.1138 7.1701

- 0:30 117.6386 123.0124 104.2199 0.5195 21.7125 6.4650
- 0.25 121.5875 111.8576 94.8599 0.6536 22.6077 5.8817
- 0.20 127.1879 104.7472 88.8935 " 0.8175 23.7619 5.3914
-0.15 134.3346 100.2323 85.1051 1.0168 25.1570 4.9741
'- 0.10 142.9868 97.5069 82.8181 1.2572 26.7775 4.6 I52
- 0.05 153.1451 96.0866 81.6263 1.5450 28.6173 4.3038
0.00 164.839 95.6630 81.2709 1.8870 30.6724 4.0317
+ 0.05 178.1176 96.0303 81.5791 2.2904 32.9409 3.7924
45 - 0.40 327.6781 322.2748 323.2752 0.6576 36.2961 7.4295
- 0.35 325.4943 259.1345 260.1349 0.8611 37.0113 6.5559
- 0.30 329.9752 224.0769 225.0772 1.1194 38.3965 5.8568
- 0.25 339.8627 202.7837 203.7840 1.4447 40.3468 5.2846
- 0.20 354.4804 189.3358 190.3361 1.8515 42.8070 4.8083
, .
- 0.15 373.4971 180.8450 181.8452 2.3565 45.7496 4.4062
- 0.10 393.7473 175.7358 176.7361 2.9784 49.1634 4.0628
- 0.05 424.2605 173.0775 174.0778 3.7386 53.0475 3.7669
0.00 456.1177 172.2851 173.2853 4.6607" 57.4067 3.5096
+ 0.05 492.4763 172.9729 173.9732 5.7709 62.2499 3.2843
, '
Any acceleration of the soil mass ACDBA due to the downward movement of the footing will cause
inerti::1 forces which will resist jmch movement. The inertial forces are directly proportional to the
acceleration of each individual soil mass and thereby dependent on displacements. The effective total
inertial force is obtained by combining the inertial forces on ech separate mass using energy
considerations.
2
...(6.57)
The inertial force is given by, If ==NI Y B ddt
"
where, ~ == Displacement at any time t

NI == Coefficient of dynamic inertial shear resistance
The coefficient NI. depends on cl>and K, and its values are listed in column no. 6 of Table 6.4.
Displacement of the soil mass within the failure surface due to downward movement of the footing
will increase the restoring moment about the point 0, and the increase in moment will be proportional
to the displacement provided the rotation is not excessive. It is expressed as
RF = NRB Y~ ...(6.58)
'.The .
coefficeint NR also depends on and K. Its values are listed in column no. 7 of
qi " ,. Table 6.4.
The differenti~J"
'; "'.." J ' . " equati~~s
""," are
.'" setup",~Y,_~~uatingtheJour
, .". . " - ~, 'vetiCalfo~ces
\",.. to z~ro. .There
." ." m~st be
separ~te equation,s
~ ,
for be(qre!lP,~i~fteF
. ">,,,) ,..,.",.1""","
>titpe
U,.
id'._, sin~e
,.'~
the loading
, . 0"
~uncn~m
~~""
is def11}edin
".h'
!ha,t man!1er.
'J,,~".' )
"ForO -
<t <
- td'
" "',
,,'
"
ó þþôù
óÁò ô ùóóóùó
óîêî Soil Dymimics &: MaclrineFouniJiitions
ò
ùî
î¼¬ÿòô ôó ¬ ...(6.59 a)
Ò×§Þ óóó®õÒÎ§Þ¬ÿòõ¯«Þó¯Þ£óó ãð
ô ¼Ö ó ùò
ø óô¬¿ ÷
or, ¼î¬ÿò
õ¢¬ÿò ã ó¯ó¯« ¯ ô ¬ ...(6.59 b)
¼¬î Ò×Þ Ò×§Þ Ò×§Þ¬¼
For t ~ td
2 d2A "
NI yB ---r+NR yBt!.+qu B =0 ...(6.59 c)

dt "
d2t!.
-+- NR t!. = -- qu
or, ...(6.59 d)
d t2 NIB NI YB
The solution of the differential equations will yield equations of footing displacement versus time.
The forms of the particular solutions ofEq. 6.59 (b) and Eq. 6.59 (d) are found to be
t!. = Cl cos(K't)+C2 Sin(K't)+

¯ó¯« - q
t ...(6.60 a)
( NR"t, ] ( NRytd ) -
and, A = C3 cos (K't) + C4 sin (K't) !k- ...(6.60 b)

, NRy
respective! y, in which K' ~ ~ ~~~ ;and ~.. C2 C3 and C4 are coefficients of integration, The coefficients
Cl and C2 are evaluated by the initial conditions. The coeffIcients C3 and C4 are evaluated by the
conditions of displacement and velocity at td as defined by Eq. 6.60 (a). Solution and substitution of
the coefficients yield nondimensional Eqs. 6.60. .
For 0 ~ t ~ td
q
NR "t t!. = L-I ...(6.60 c)
( qu .) ( qu ) [I-COS(Klt)]+ tdq~/[Sin(K1t)-:-(K1t)]
For t ~ td
(N:, Y) ~ ~ $1- æ÷ ÖÕù Í·ÑøÕþ¼ÝÑÍøÕùId) + [JK' {1-COS(K"d)+in(K")-1

...(6.60 d)
The coefficientsNY'Nc' N q, NI and NR are dependent only on values of 
and . K. Using magnitudes
of 
from 0° to 45° and ofK for the region where the ultimate static shear resistance could be a minimum,
these coefficients were evaluat.ed. The' values obtai~ed are given ,in Table 6,.4for every fifth degree.
The maximum displacement from Eq. 6.60 (a) and Eq. 6.60 (b) is the predicated permanent footing
displacement,sitice-doWnward niotion ceases at the.time'ofma?ci~Um displacemetit'imd rebdund is not
- ~onside~ed. The'se data aI6ng' ;ith th'etim~s'~;of~~rifu'fdl~pIac:ement are giv'e~ ID'Fi~'-'6;20.-
..
If' .~~
"amic Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations 263
(p$ JlZ =i~ Pl- UO!~OJ np pOO1 IOUO!SU2>W!PUON

0
.-
00
.- .
U")
0
x
N C1
ci E
<I
..---.
--;
0
:
~ , er
:J =
'"
..
c,;
........ '"
C-
U")
+- .:!!
"0
c
0 to' E
-I. ::I
E E
to' ...
'"
U ::
0 '"
N a.
U\ .~
0 .-
"0 ...
~
...
E 0
:J 7.
.-E c
.....
x: ..i
0 OD
E ~
0'
<'. '
~ 0
\\ c
'), 0
d -d .~
C
to'
N
0
.-
E
"'0
0
. Z
C
0
.-
0
0
.
U")
-
6 \l' N - U")
.'
-:0
00
0
.
0
( P~ ) lLZ = >I P ~- uoHoJnp POOl )OUOISU2>WIPUON

,)~f
6.5.3. Chummar's Solution. Chummar (1965) presented a solution for dynamic response of a strip
footing supported by c - 4>soil and subjected to horizontal transient load. The analysis is based on
the following assumptions: .
(i) The failure of the footing occurs with the application of ~ horizontal dynamic load acting at
a certain height above the base of the footing. .
(ii) The resulting motion in the footing is of a rotatory nature. The failure surface is a logarithmic
spiral with its centre on the base corner of the footing, whic.h is also the centre of rotation
(Fig. 6.21).
(iii) The rotating soil mass is considered to be a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis.
(iv) The soil exhibits. rigid plastic, stress - strain characteristics.
Q
~ AQ
...
r
C2
/c
Log spiral r = ro eetan ~ - Re~u1tant friction
Fig. 6.21 : Transient horizontal load on a continuous footing resting on ground surface.
Analysis
The static bearing capacity of the footing is calculated by assuming that the footing fails whe'
acted upon by a vertical static load, which causes rotation of the logarithmic spiral failure. The ultimat
static bearing capacity qu is given by
1 .
qU =cN c
+ -2 y BN y ...(6.61
where, c = Cohesion
B = Footing width and equal to the initial radious of spiral
y = Unit weight of the soil
Ne and Ny = Bearing capacity factors fOl:the assumed type of failure
I .. (~:' ",':m
Clmic Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundatiolls 265
Considering moment of the forces about 0, the centre of rotation:

2 '
d . cB 27ttan~ 2
B ...(6.62a)
Moment ue to cohesIOn c, MRC = 2 tan cl>(e -1) = 'I' C
( 27ttan~ 1)
where \jI= e - ...(6.62 b)
, 2 tan cl>
Moment due to weight W of soil wedge,
M = 'YB3 tan 4>(e31ttan<l>

+ 1) = E 'YB3 ...(6.63 a)
RW 9tan24>+1
tan 4>(e37t tan tjI+ 1)

where, E = 2 ...(6.63 b)
9 tan 4>+ 1
4> = Angle of in~ernal friction
B2
...(6.64)
Moment of qu about 0 = qu 2 = MRC + MRW
37t tan 

c
It gives, q --
-
(e - 1) + 2'YB tan 4>(e
21t tan 
'
+ 1)
...(6.65)
u tan 4> 9 tan2 4>+1
Combining Eqs. 6.61 and 6.65, we get
'.,
N = 4 tan 4>(eh tan~ + 1) ...(6.66)

y 9 tan2 4>+ 1
e27ttan~ - 1
and, N = ...(6.67)
c tan cl>
With a suitable factor of safety F, the static vertical force on the foundation per unit length can
~ gIven as
...(6.68)
Q = ~(cNc+i'YBNy)
The variation of dynamic force considered in the analysis is shown in Fig. 6.22. In tnIS
Qd (max) = AQ ...(6.69)
where
Qd (max) = Maximumvalue of horizontaltransientload per unit length actingat height H above

base of the footing
A = Over load factor
"-="~'.'~..~ ~.."'~..'.~~~ ,..
~
166 . Soil Dynamics & Machine FolJndations
"U
0
0
.~ P
E
0
c Pmax
>-
Cl
~ td
Timq
~
Fig. 6.22 : Loading function
For considering of the dynamic equilibrium of the foundation with the horizontal transient load,
the moment of each of the forces (per unit length) about the centre of the log spiral needs to be
considered:
1. Moment due to the vertical force Q
M = -1 Q B ...(6.70
I 2
2. Moment due to the horizontal' force Qd at any time t
t
Qd(max) Ht Md(max)
M2 = QdH = td ...(6.71
td
where
Md (max)= Qd (max)H
3. Moment due to the cohesive force acting along the failure surface is given by 'Eq. 6.620
4. Moment due to weight of soil mass' in the failure wedge is' given by Eq. 6.630.
5. Moment of the force due to displacement of the centre of gravity of th~ failure wedge (C'
Figure 6.21) from its initial position:
M) = W d..X ...(6.,
where W is the weight of the failure wedg~, and given by
W= 'YB2 (i It tan $ - 1)
...(6.-
(4 tan cp)
/1 X = R cos (11- ex) - R cos 11 ...( 6.
and R = QCI (Fig. 6.21). When ex is small, Eq. (6.74) can be written as
/1 X = (R sin 11)ex ...( 6

Ilj,~"r:~!)"
Oynamic Beating Capacity of Shallow Foundations 267
However, R = ~(x)2 + ("2)2 ...(6.76)
- -4 B tan 2 <1>
( e31t tan cj)+ 1)
where, X = ...(6.77)
(9 tan2 <1>+
l)(i1t tancj)-1)
- 4Btan(e31ttan~+1)
z = ...(6.78)
3( ~9tan2 <1>+l)(i1ttan~-l)
Combining Eqs. (6.72) - (6.78) . .
. 3
M3 = PB (sin 11)a ...(6.79)
where, p =(e31ttan~+1) ...(6.80)
3 ( ~9 tan2 <1>
+1 )
6. Moment due to inertia force of soil wedge:
d2a
M = -Z J ...(6.81 )
4 ( d[ )
where J is the mass moment of inertia of the soil wedge about the axis of rotation
1 B4
J = (i 1t tan $ - 1) ...(6.82)
[ 16gtan<1>] .
and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Substitution of Eq. (6.62) into Eq. (6.81) yields
M = ~c 1 B4 .-d2a ...(6.83 )
4 g d [2
(e41ttancj)-I)
where ~c = ...(6.84)
16 tan ~
Moment due to the frictional resistance along the failure surface will be zero as its resultant will,
pass through the ce'ntre' of log spiral.
Now for the equation of motion,
'M\ + M2 = MRC+ MRW+ M3 + M4 ...(6.85)
.Substitution of the 'proper terms for the moments in Eq. (6.85) gives
...(6.86)
(~'t~)+ K' a ~ A [( Md;;")} ; QB-E]
- gp sin 11
where , ...(6.87)
k - - ~c B
A=~ ...(6.88)
(1 B4 ~c)
E = \jIC132+ E 1 B3 ...(6.89)
,.-fj:
III'II:~
268 Soil Dy"amics & Machine Fou"datio"s
Solution of the differential equation of motion [Eq. (6,86)] with proper boundary conditions yields
the following results:
For I ~ Id
A 1 A Md(max) A Md(max).t 1
( )
,
a =- E--QB cos(kl)--' srn(kt)+- +-QB-E ...(6.90)
k2 2 k3 td - kZ ( Id 2 )
For I > Id
a = ( ~ ) [G 1 k cos (k Id) - G 2 sin {k td) ] cos ( k t) + ()

~ [G 1 k sin ( kId)
...(6.91
-Gz COS(kld)]Sin(kt)+(~ )(~QB-E)
h A . 1 A Md (max) . A Md (max)
were, G I = 2" ( E - -2 Q B) cos (k Id) - -3" srn ( k Id) + z ...(6.92
k k Id k
A 1 . A Md(max) A Md(max)
and, G2 = -k' E--QB
( 2 ) sm(ktd)-Z'
k ~
cos(ktd)+
k
2
~
...(6.93
The procedure of computations have been discuss~d in example 6.4.
! ILL USTRA TIVE EXAMPLES I
Example 6.1
Proportion an isolated footing for a column of 500 mm x 500 mm size subjected to a vertical 10
of 2400 kN. The structure is located in seismic region. The earthquake force results a moment of 4
kN-m and shear load of 360 kN at the base of the footing.
The soil properties are as follows:
. z 3
C =6 kN/m , = 39° and y = 18 kN/m
A plate load test was performed at the anticipated depth of foundation on a plate of size 600 r
x 600 mm and a pressure settlement record as given below was obtained. The permissible values
settlement, tilt and lateral displacement are 50 mm, 1 degree and 25 mm respectively.
2
Pressure (kN/m ) 0.0 240 480 720 960 1200 1440 l(
Settlement (mm) 0.0 2.0 5.0 7.5 12.0 16.0 23.0 2

Solution:
(i) Safe bearing capacity
Eccentricity of load, e = ~ = ~OOOO = 0.1667 m
Inclination of load ~ i ~ tan-I ( ~:) ~ tan- t U4~O ) = 8.5 3'

~n
Let the size of footing is 2.0 m x 2.0 m and is located at 1.0 m depth below ground surface.
Hence, B' = B-2 e = 2 - 2 (0.1667) = 1.667 m
and L' = L = 2 m
. qnu = [e Ne Se de ie + YIDlNq - 1) Sq dq iq rw + 1.
2 Y2B NySydy iy r'J
Since <1>
= 39° it is the case of general shear = 39°, Ne = 70.79, Nq = 59.62 and
failure. For <1>
Ny = 100.71
Depth factors are given as-
- DJ - ~ - "
de - 1+ 0.4 I3'"" - 1+ 0.4 1.667 - 1.24
. 2 DJ
dq = 1+2 tan (I-sm°<l» I3'""
= 1+ 2 tan 39 (J - sin 39)2 1.;67 = 1.13

and dy = 1
Shape factors are calculated as :
Br 1.667
Se = 1+0.2T = 1+0.2~ = 1.167
0" B' 1.667
Sq = 1+0.2T = 1+0}-2
, , = 1.167
B' 1.667
Sy = I-OAT = 1-0.4~ = 0.667
Inclination factors: Q = ~Q~ + Q~ = J3602 + 24002 = 2426.85 kN
and
m =(2+~)(1+~) = (2+1.~67)(1+1.~67)= 5.195
.
m
Therefore, i-I Q
q [ Q + B' Le cot 
]
50195
360
= [ 1- 2426.85+ 1.667(2)( 6) cot 39 ] = 0.438
and i =i - (l-iq) = 0.438- (1-0.438) = 0.428

e q Ne tan 70.79 tan 39
m+1
Q
. - 1- h
'y - [ Q + B Lc cot 
]
"
6.195
= 1 360 = 0.374
[ 2426.85 + 1.667 (2) (6) cot 39 ]
".'
270 Soil Dynamics & Machine Follndation~
Assuming water table to be below the ground surface at a depth greater than (Dj + B), hence
r '" = r' '"= 1, and also sa y Y1 = Y2 = Y
hence,
qllll = CNe Se de ie +YI Dj (Nq -1) Sq dq iq rw+~ Y2 B Ny Sy dy iy r~
qllll= 6 (70.79) (1.167) (1.24) (0.428) + 18 (1) (5~.62 - 1) (1.167) (1.13) (0.438) (1)
+ (0.5) (18) (1.667) (100.7) (0.6677) (1) (0.374) (1)
= 263,06 + 609.45 + 376.92 = 1249.43 kN/m2
According to Meyerhof-
. 2 2
" I 853
le =Iq = 1-90 ( ) ( = 1- 90 ) = 0.82
. 2
. - I 8.53 2
Iy - ( 1-~ ) = (1-39) = 0.61
Therefore,
ql1l1= 6 (70,79) (1.167) (1.24) (0.82) + 18 (1) (59.62 - 1) (1.167) (1.13) (0.84)
+ I (18)(1.667)(100.71)(0.667)(1)(0.61)(1)
= 503.99 + 1140.98 + 614.76 = 2259.74 kN/m2
From charts - (According to Saran & Agarwa1, 1991)
 = 39° , ~ = 0.1g67 = 0.083, and i = 8.53°
For =0.0 (Fig. 6.4 to 6.6) For = 0.10 (Fig. 6.4 to 6.6)
i = 0° i = 10° i = 8.53° ; = 0° ; = 10° i = 8.53"
Ny 144 58 70.64 75 42 46.85

N 68 41 44.97 47 30 32.50
q
N
.c 88 48 53.88 58 37 40.09
Hence for
~ = 0.083 and i = 8.53,
Ne = 50.89, Nq = 34.62 and Ny = 42.43

In this case - [As effect of eccentricity and inclination has considered already]
;=;=;=1
e q y
B =2m
-~'~<I!!.......- .. .---
D . 1
Depth factors will be :
de = 1+ 0.4 £ = 1+ 0.4"2 = 1.2
dq = 1+ 2tan 39 (1- sin 39)2 ~ = 1.11
dy = I
and shape factor will be-
<
S e = 1.3, Sq = 1.2 and Sy = 0.8 (As footing is square)
Thus qnu = 6 (50.89) (1.3) (1.2) (1) + 18 (1) (34.62 - 1) (1.2) (1.11) (1) (1)
+ ~ (18) (2) (42.43) (0.8) (1) (1) (1)

= 476.33 + 806.07 + 610.99
= 1893.39 kN/m2
Therefore, value of qnufrom charts lies between values of qnuobtained by Eq. 6.17 and Meyerhofs
method.
Hence Qnu = qnu x Area of footing
Qnu = 1893.39 x 2 x 2 = 7573.56 kN
Factor of safety = 7;:t~6 = 3.16 > 3, Therefore foundation is safe against shear.
(2) Settlement computation-
When footing is subjecting to a central vertical loa~.only, in that case e / B = 0 and i = 0
For '"
't' = 390'e N = 88'yN = 144 and Nq = 68
thus qnu =(6)(88)(1.33)(1.2)(1) + 18(1)(68-1)(1.2)(1.11)(1)(1)
+ ~ (18) (2) (144) (0.8) (1) (~) (I)

= 823.68 + 1606.39 + 2703.6 = 4503.67 kN/m2
Pressure on footing corresponding to a F.O.S. = 3.16,- will be = 453~~667= 1425.22 kN/m2

From plate load test data corresponding to pressure 1425.22 kN/m2,
Sp = 22.2 mm
2
. Sf . Bf (Bp+30)
Now smce Sp = [ Bf (B f + 30) ]
Thus settlement of footing when it is subjecting to central vertical load will be
200(60+30)
2 x 22.2 = 37.77 mm
So = Sf = [ 60 (20 + 30) ] .
Now, -!...
~ - 39
- 8.53,,;,0.2187
I
I
- I
.;'!
~
. .
Hence
AD ~ 1-0.56W-O.82(~J
= 1 - 0.56 (0.2187) - 0.82 (0.2187)2 = 0.838
AI ~ -3.51+ 1.47 (~ )-5.67 (~)'

=-3.51 + 1.47(0.2187) + 5.67(0.2187)2 = -2.917
A2 ~ 4.74-1.38(~)-12.45(~)'
= 4.47 -1.38 (0.2187) - 12.45 (0.2187)2 = 3.843
2
Se e e
So = Ao+AI () (
B +A2 B)
.. 2
= 0.838-2.917(°.1;67)+3.843(°.1;67) = 0.6216
Se = 0.6216 So ~ 0.6216 x 37.77 = 23.48 ³³
and
ÞÜ ¢ ïóðòìèÉóÑèîø¢®
= 1 - 0.48 (0.2187) - 0.82 (0.2187)2 = 0.856
B, ~ -1.80+0.94(~)+1.63(~)'
= - 1.80 + 0.94 (0.2187) + 1.63 (0.2187)2 = - 1.516
i: ~ Bo+BI(~)= 0.856+(-1.516)(°.1;67) = 0.7296

Srn = 0.7296 So = 0.7296 (37.77) = 27.56 mm < 50 mm (safe)
. = S m -S e = "27.56- 23.48 = o 0049
sm t B 2000 .
T-e ~-166.7
t = 0.28° < 1° (safe)
H
and -1l
B = 0.12 (0.2187)
.
- 0.682 (0.2187)2 + 1.99 (0.2187)3- 2.01 (0.2187)4
= 0.0101
Ho = 0.0101 B = 0.0101(2000) = 21.21 mm"< 25 mm (safe)
Example 6.2
A 1.5 m wide strip foundation is subjected to a'vertical transient stress pulse which can be given as
qd = 650 e-IOt kN/m2. The soil supporting the foundation is saturated clay with Cu= 60 kN/m2. The
unit weight of soil is 19 kN/m3. Determine the maximum angular rotation of the footing might undergo.
~~".<
Dynamic Bearing Capacity of ShaUow Foundations 273
Solution:
2
1. qu =.5.54 Cu= 5.54 x 60 = 332.4 kN/m
650
A.= 332.4 = 1.955
2. Reffering Fig. 6.16, For A.= 1.955 and ~ = 10s-1
W
8max = 0.00298
( 0.68 g qll )
2
W=0.311tyB
=0.311t19 x (1.5)2= 41.61 kN
Therefore., 8max = (0.00298) (0.68 x 9.81

41.61x 332.4)
= 0.158 rad = 9.1°
Example 6.3
A 2.5 m wide continuous footing located at 1.5 m below the ground surface is subjected to a vertical
transient load (qd (max) = 3000 kN/m2, td = 0.3s). The properties of the soil are y = 18 kN/mJ,
~ = 30° and c = 50 kN/m2. Calculate the maximum vertical movement of the foundation.
Solution:
1
1. qu = CNe + y DJ Nq + 2" y B Ny '.
1
= 50 Ne + 18 x 1.5 Nq + 2" x 18 x 2.5 Ny
= 50 Nc + 27 Nq + 22.5 Ny
The computations of qu are done for 'I>= 30° and different values of k by taking Nc' Nq and Ny
factors from Table 6.4. These are given below in Table 6.5. .
Table 6.5: Computations of qu for Different Values of k

2
k qu (kN/m )
- 0.45 5765
- 0.40 4553
- 0.35 3910
- 0.30 3533
- 0.25 3304
- 0.20 2512
- 0.15 2204
. - 0.10 3070
- 0.05 3080
- 0.00 3118
+0.05 3181
274 '. . Soil Dynamici & Machine' Foundations
The minimum value of qu is obtained at k =- 0.15 as 2204 kN/m2.

2. For k = - 0.15 and 
= 30°, from Table 6.4.
{N;:
NR = 10.0081 and .
V~ = 5.8303
.
NR Y = 10.0081 x 18 = 0 08174
qu 2204 .
k' ~ ~~~~ - ~~~ . ~ .
= 5.8303 x ~ 2~5 = 5.22
3. qd (max) 3000
-qu = 2204= 1.36
td K' = 0.3 x 5.22 = 1.566
For qd (max) = 1.36 and td k' = 1.566, Fig. 6.20 gives

qu
Y NR
-'Umax A = 0.034
qu
Therefore, t:. = 0.034

max 0.08174 =0.416m.
Example' 6.4
A 2.5 m wide continuous surface footing is subjected to a horizontal transient load of duration 0.4 s
applied at a height of 4.0 m from the base of footing. The properties of the soil are y = 17 kN/m3,
c = 30 kN/m2 and = 32°. Determine the value of the maximum horizontal load that can be applied

on the footing. Also compute ,the rotation at time equal to 0.6 s.

Solution:
(i) Determine Q using a suitable factor of safety (= 2.0). c = 30 kN/m2, 
= 32°, Y = 17 kN/m:
md B = 2.5 m .
.
.N = e21t tan,
-1= e21t tan 32° - 1
. = 79.4
c tan ~ tan 32°
.
32 °
31t tan 32°
4 (e 1)
N = 4 tan~ (e31ttanljl
+ 1) = tan + = 200
y 1 + 9 tan2 ~ 1 + 9 tan2 32°
= !2 B +! YB N
Q
( c N
c 2 y )
= ; x 2.5(30 x 79.4; ; x 17 x 2.5 x 200)= 8290 kN

Dynamic Bearing Capacity of Shallow' Foundations 275
(ii) Determine '11, E, /le' ~ and sin 11

H = 4.0 m
td=O.4s
i1t tan' - 1 79.4 .
V= 2 tan ~ =2 = 39.7
- tan ~(e31ttan, + 1)
E=
(1 + 9 tan2 ~)
= 200 = 50
4
e 41t tanl\» - 1
~c = 16 'tan~ = 256
e31ttan, + 1
~= =' 56.6 " ,
3[ ~9 tan2~+I] '....
- = -4Bta~2~ (e31ttan'+I)
X
(1+9 tan2~) (i1ttan, -1)
50
= (- 2 B) 39.7 ~,- 2.52 B
z = .' 4B tan (e31t tan cl»+ 1)
3[ ~9 tan2 
+ 1] (i1t ta~ cl»-1)
= (2B) ~~:~ = 2.85 B

. Z, 2.85 B
SIll 11 = = . " = 0.75
~x-2+z-2 ~(-2.52B)2+(2.85B)2
(iii) Determine k, A and E,
9.81 x 56.6 x 0.75 = 807

k ~ ~g P lleB =
sin 1]
(256x 2.5) , "
A = g = 9.81 = 0.0000577
'YB4 Il 17 x 2.~ x 256 .
3 3
E = 'IIcB + E 'YB
= 39.7 x 30 x 2.52 + 50 x 17 x 2.53 = 20700 kN
276
(iv) Determine Md (max)in terms of A.
Md (max) = H. Qd (max) = H . A. .Q
= 4 x 8290 A. = 33160 A.
(v) Determine A.crwhich corresponds to a. =0

A Md(max). A Md(maX)1 1
A 1
a. = - 2 óóÏÞ ) cos(kt)--. sm(kt)+-
[ õóÏÞóÛ]
k (E 2 k3 td k2 td 2
For t = td
a. = 0.00005277 20700-.!. x 8290 x 2.5 cos (0.8070 x 0.4)

0.807 ( 2 ) 0.00005377.33~~~A sin (0.8070 x 0.4)
0.807 .
+ 0.0000577 . 33160 A x 0.4 + 1. x 8290 x 2.5 - 20700 ]

0.8072 ( 0.40 2
= 0.9159 cos (0.3228) - 9.10 A.sin (0.3228) + 2.94 A.+ 0.9181 - 1.834
= 0.05 A. - 0.0474
For a. = 0, A = 0.948 = Aa
(vi) Determine Md (max)for A. = A.cr
Md(max)= 33160Acr = 33160 x 0.948 = 31436kN-m
(vii) Determine Gland G2
1 A Md(max) . A
A M
sm (k td ) +2
G1 = 2k ( )
E-- 2 Q.B cos(ktd)--r k td k
d(max)
= 0..8685 - 2.89 x 0.948 + 2.94 x 0.948

= 0.9159
1 . A Md (max) A Md (max)
G 2 -- --A E--Q.B
k (
2 ) sm(ktd)--' k2 td cos(ktd)+-.k2 td
= - 0.9159 x 0.807 sin (0.3228) - 9.1 x 0.948 x 0.807 cos (0.3228) + 2.94 x 0.948
= - 0.2346 - 6.60 + 2.79
= - 4.05
(viii) Determine a. for t = 0.6 s
CL ~ G }GI k cos (kid) -G, sin (kid)] cos(k 'd )+G}GI k sin (kid )-G, cos(k 'd)] sin (k I)
+ ~K2(.!.QB-
2
E
)
;!&~t'
Oynamic Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations 277
1 "
= 0.807 [0.9159 x 0.807 cos (0.807 x 0.4) + 4:05 sin (0.807 x 0.4)] cos (0.807 x 0.6)
+ 0.;07 [0.9159 x 0.807 sin (0.807 x 0.4) - 4.05 cos (0.807 x 0.4)] sin (0.807 x 0.6)
+ 0.0000577 1. x 8290 x 2.5-20700

0.8072 [2 ] '
0
1 ' ' 1 ' ,
= 0.807 [0.701 + 1.285] x 884 + 0.807 [0.2346 - 3.841] x 0.466 - 0.9159

= 2.175 - 2.082 - 0.9159 = - 8229 º¿¼
Agarwal, R, K. (1986), "Behaviour of shallow foundations subjected to eccentric - inclined loads". Ph,D. Thesis,
University of Roorkee, India. " '
Caquot, A. (1934), "Equilibre des massifs a frottement interene", Ganthiev-Villars, Paris.

Chummar, A.V. (1965), "Dynamic bearing capacity of footings", Master of E'ngineering Dissertation, University
of Roorkee, India. ' ,
Cunny, R.W. and'Sloan R. C. (1961). "Dynamic loading machine and results of preliminary small-scale footing
tests", A.S.T.M. Symposium on Soil Dynamics, Special Technical Publications. No. 3.5, pp. 65-77.
De Beer, E. and Vesic, A. (1958), "Etude experimental de la capacite portante du sable sons des fondations directed
etablies en surface", Annales des Travaux Public ,~e Delgigue, .59 (3), pp 5-58.
Fellenius, W. (1948) "Erdstatische bcrchnungen", 4th ed., W. Ernst Und Sohn, Berlin.
Fisher, W. E. (1962). "Experimental studies of dynamically loaded footings on sand", Report to U. S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, University of Illinois, Soil Mechanics Series No.. 6.
Hansen, J. B. (1970), "A revised and extended formula for bearing capacity", Bull. No. 28, Danish Geotechnical
Institute, Copenhegen.
IS : 6403 (1981), "Code of practice for determination of bearing capacity of shallow foundations".,
Johnson, T. D, and Ireland H. O. (1963), "Tests on clay subsoils beneath statically and dynamically loaded spread
footings", Report to U. S, Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, University of Illinois, Soil
Mechanics Series No. 7.
M<:.Kee,K, E., and Shenkman S. (1962). "Design and analysis of foundations for protective structures", Final Report
to Armour Research Foundation, Illinois Institute of Technology.
Meyerhof, G. G. (1951), "The ultimate bearing capacity of foundations", Geotechnique, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 301-
331.
Meyerhof, G. G. (1953), "The bearing capacity of footings under eccentric and inclined loads", Proc. Third Int.
Conf. Soil Mech. Foun. Engg. , Zurich, vol. I, pp. 440-445.
Saran, S. and Agarwal R. K. (1989), "Eccentrically -obliquely loaded footings", AS~E, Journal of Geot. Engs.
, Vol. 115, No. 11, pp. 1673-1680. .
Saran, S. and Agarwal R. K. (1991), "Bearing ~apacity of eccentrically -obliquely loaded footings", ASCE, Journal
of Geot. Engs., Vol. 117, No. 11, pp. 1669-1690. '
~~~';';'-;";;;>;".~~;:."-' '
--
Terzaghi, K. (1943), "Theoretical soil mechanics", John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R. B. (1967), "Soil mechanics in engineering practice", 1st Ed. , John Wiley and Sons,
New York.
Triandafilidis, 'G. E.' (1961), "Analytic~l study of dynamic bearing capacity of foundations", Ph. D. Thesis,
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
Triandafilidis, G. E. (1965), "Dynamic response of continuous footings supported on cohesive soils", Proc. sixth
Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Engin., Montreal, Vol. 2, pp. 205 - 208.
Vesic, A. S. (1973), "Analysis of ultimate loads of shallow foundation", J SMFD, ASCE, Vol, 99, SMI,
pp. 45-73. .
Wallace, W.L. (1961), "Displacement of long footings by dynamic loads", ASCE, Journal of the Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Division, 87, SM5, pp. 45-68.
White, C. R. (1964), "Static and dynamic plate bearing tests' on dry sand without overburden", Report R 277,
U. S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Describe stepwise pseudo-static analysis of designing footing subjected to earthquake loading.

2. Differentiate between Triandafilidis and Wallace analyses of dynamic bearing capacity of
footing subjected to transient vertical load. Give the salient features of anyone.
3. Describe the method of obtaining the maximum horizontal dynamic load that can be applied
on the footing. Give the expression of determining the rotation of the footing.
4. A 2.0 m wide strip footing is subjected to a vertical transient pulse (qu = 600 e-st). The soil
supporting the foundation is Clay with Cu = 50 kN/m2. The unit weight of soil is 18 kN/m3.
Determine the maximum angular rotation of footing that it might undergo.
5. A 2.0 m wide footing located at 1.0 m below ground surface is subjected to a vertical transient
load (qd(max) = 2000 kN/m2, td = 2 s). The properties of the soil are y = 17 kN/m3, 
= 32°
and c = 30 kN/m2. Using Wallace's approach, determine maximum vertical movement of the
foundation.
6. A 3.0 m wide surface footing is subjected to a horizontal dynamic load having duration 0.3 s.
The properties of soil are y= 18 kN/m3, 
= 35 and c = 20 kN/m2. Using Chummar's approach,
determine the value of maximum horizontal load that can be applied on the footing. Also
determine the rotation of footing after 0.2 sand 0.4 s'
DD
LIQUEFACTION OF SOILS .
7.1 GENERAL
\1any failures of earth structures, slopes and foundations on saturated sands have been attributed in the
literature to liquefaction of the sands. The best known cases of foundation failures due to liquefaction are
[hose that occurred during the 1964 earthquake in Niigata, Japan (Kishida, 1966). Classical examples of
'iquefaction are the flow slides that have occurred in the province of Zealand in Holland (Geuze, 1948;
Koppejan, et al. 1948) and in the point bar deposits along the Mississippi river (Waterways experiment
'itation, 1967). The failures of Fort Peck Dam in Montana in 1938 (Casagrande, 1965;Corps of Engineers,
1939; Middlebrooks, 1942), the Cal~veras Qam in California in 1920(Hazen, 1920) and the Lower LaB
\Jorman Dam during the 1971 San Fernando Earthquake (Seed et al., 1975) in California provide typical
~xamples of liquefaction failures of hydraulic-fill dams,
Liquefaction often appears in the form of s~nd fountains, and a large number of such fountains have
Jeen observed during Dhubri Earthquake in Assam in 1930 and Bihar Earthquake in -1934(Housner,
,958; Dunn et al., 1939). When soil fails in this manner, a structure resting on it simply sinks into it. The
nost recent Koyna earthquake of 1995 is an illustration of liquefaction phenomenon causingcatastrophic
Jamages to structUres and resulting in loss of life a,nd property.
7.2 DEFINITIONS
7.2.1.Liquefaction. It denotesa conditionwherea soil willunde~gocontinueddeformationat clconstant

ow residual stress or with no resIdual resistance, due to the build-up and maintenance of high pore water
Jressure which reduces the effective confining pressure to a very low value; pore pressure build-up lead-
ng to true liquefaction of this type may be due either to static or cyclic stress applications.
7.2.2. Initial Liquefaction. It denotes a coI1ditionwhere, during the course of cyclic stress applications,
he residual pore water pressure on completion of any full stress -cycle becomes equal to the applied
'onfining pressure, the development of initialliquafaction has no implications concerning the magnitude
)f the deformations which the soil might subsequently undergo; however, it defines a condition which is
: useful basis for assessingvariousposs,ibleforms of subsequentsoil behaviour.
'.2.3. Initial Liquefaction with Limited Strain Potential, Cyclic Mobility or Cyclic Liquefaction. It
lenotes a condition _inwhich cyclic stress applications develop a condition of initial liquefaction and
ubsequent cyclic ~tress applicati?ns c~u~e limi~ed strains to develop either because of the remaining
esistance ~f the ,soil to-deformatio~ .or because the soil dilates, the pore pressure drops. and the soil
tabilizes under. the applied
,,'.- loads. I. ! J, ('i,
. ~ j'. c' c, ;: :.' -,' ,.
-i'
;'
-- - -
~-="-~~
- 11
..-.
.::...-
~.""~<.. <~--, ..~ ~~ ""'~ --"7 Ih,
280
In laboratory undrained cyclic tests (triaxial, direct simple shear and gyratory shear) on saturated
sands, cyclic mobility has been ob8erved to develop and to result in large strains (Lee and Seed, 1967;
Seed and Lee, 1966). It is controversial whether cyclic mobility occurs in dilative sands in situ during
earthquakes to the same extreme degree as has been observed in the laboratory. A simple means for
understanding the difference between liquefaction and cyclic mobility as observed in the laboratory is
through the use of the state diagram, which is shown in Fig. 7.1 (Castro and Poulos, 1976). The axes are
void ratio and effective minor principal stress" The steady state line shown represen~sth~ 10c1,1s q[ states
in which a soil can f1owOa(c~onstant effectiv.erilinor principal stre"ssa)'and constant shear stress. The void
ratio at the steady state is the same a:>the critical void ratio.
'TI
C
d
\J)
.x.
.-u
:J
_0
Q
Ftow at con stant volume
0- ()I
- "
dI- c()I L i que fa c t i on
'TI '-E
.-
.. ,C
0 u I
> ()I I Contractive
()I
Cl.
0111\ : soils (loose)
0 I
I- (\)
J
(\).1:.
> - .
<C 00 B D - ~--
/.
-
I sta t e , 'ne
I . Monotonlc
J
Cyclic mobility I I Load ing
I
I I
( Larg e strains and D.I LatI .Ive I
I
softening caused Cyclic or monotonic Loading
soiLs I
by cyclic loading, (dense) {of dilative soil s1 arts here
state may reach B)
I
I
:
I .I
0 -
C3t
-
<Tic
-
03c
( During) Effective minor principal stress, OJ
flow
Fig. 7.1: Undrained tests ~n fully saturated sands depicted ODstate diagram (Castro and Poulos, 1976)
LIquefaction is the result of undrained failure of a fully saturated, highly contractive (loose) sand,' 1\"1
example starting at Point C and ending with steady state flow at constant volume and constant <1) a'
Point A.
, During undrained flow, the soil remains at Point A in the state diagram.
The quicksand condition that is so familiar through the use of quicksand devices for instruction il
soil mechanics is depicted by points on the zero effective stress axis at void ratios above Q. In this state
sand has zero strength and is also neither diiative nor contractive. At void ratios above Q the sand grain
are not in close contact at all times.
IDi1!1iII ~'
281
Liquefaction ,of SoUs
The mechanics of cyclic mobility may also be illustrated with the aid of Fig. 7.1. Consider first the
.
behaviour in Fig. 7.r when a fully saturated dilative sand starting, for example, at Point D is loaded
monotonically (statically) in the undrained condition. In that case the point on the state diagram may
move slightly to the left of Point D but then it will move horizontally towards the steady state line as load
is applied. If one now starts a new test at Point D, but this time applies cyclic loading, one can follow the
behaviour by plotting the average void ratio and the effective stress each time the applied cyclic load
passes through zero. In this case the state point moves horizontally to the left, because the average void
ratio is held constant and the pore pressure rises due to cyclic loading.
The magnitude of pore pressure build up in the cyclic test will depend on the magnitude of the cyclic
load, the number of cycles, the type of test, and the soil type, to name a few variables. In particular, it has
been observed in the laboratory that in-triaxial tests for which the hydrostatic stress condition is passed
duvng' cycling, and if a large enough number of cycles of sufficient size are applied, the state point for
t1w d'\f,erageconditions in the specimen eventually reaches zero effective stress at Point B each time the
hydrostatic stress state is reached. Subsequent application of undrained monotonic loading moves the
. state point to the right toward the steady state line, and the resistanceof the specimenincreases. :
During cycling in the test described above, strains develop and the specimen becomes softer. If these
strains are large enough, one can say that the specimen has developed .~yclicmobility. Adequate evidence
has been presented to show that most of the strains measured in cyclic load tests in the laboratory are due
to internal redistribution of void ratio in the laboratory specimens. For example, at the completion of
such tests the void ratio at the top of the specimen is much higher than at the bottom (Castro, 1969). Thus
the horizontal line D-B in Fig. 7.1 is fictitious in the sense that it represents average conditions. Near the
top of the specimen, the void ratio increases, and near the bottom the void ratio decreases. The pore
pressures that build up and the strains measured in the lab~ratory are due to the formation of such loose
zones (Castro and Poulos; 1976). '
In summary then, specimens that lie above the steady state line on Fig. 7.1 can liquefy if the load
applied is large enough. Such liquefaction can be triggered by monotonic or cyclic undrained loading.
The further to the right of the steady state line that the starting point is, the greater will be the deforma-
tion associated with the liquefaction. If the initial point is above Q, the strength after liquefaction will be.
zero. If the starting point is below Q, the strength after liquefaction will be small but finite. Saturated
sands starting at points on or below the steady state line, will be dilative during undrained monotonic
loading in the triaxial cell and the state point will move to the right. If cyclically loaded the state points
will shift to the left as strains occur and the specimen softens. If enough cycles are applied, if they are
large enough, and if the hydrostatic stress condition is passed during each cycle, then the zero effective
stress condition (i.e. initial liquefaction) can ultimately be reached in the laboratory.
7.3 MECHANISM OF LIQUEFACTION

The strength of sand is primarily due to internal friction. In saturated state it may be expressed as (Fig.
7.2).
S = on tan cp ...(7.1)
where, S = Shear strength of sand
on = Effective normal pressure on any plane xx at depth Z = Yhw + Ysub(Z - kw)
cp = Angle of internal friction . .
Y = Unit weight ~f soil above water table

Ysub= Submergedunit weight of soil
~.. ". ."0_"""",'.",, 0... - _. , ,., ...,
.
282 Soil Dynamics & Machine Fo!,ndations
Ù®±«²¼ Surface
t . hw
--------- ~-[- - ~ -1l..-
z
'(sub
x 1 x
Fig. 7.2: Section of ground showing the position of water table
#
If a saturated sand is subjected to ground vibrations, it tends to compact and decrease in volume, if
drainage is restrained the tendency to decrease in volume results in an increase in pore pressure. The
strength may now be expressed as,
Sdyn. = (an - Udyn)tan $dyn ...(7.2)

where,
Sdyn= Shear strength of soil.under vibrations
U~yn = Excesspore water pressuredue to groundvibrations
$dyn = Angleof internal frictionunder dynamicconditions
It is seen that with development of additional positive pore pressure, the strength of sand is reduced.
In sands, $dynis almost equal to $, i.e. angle of internal friction in static conditions.
For complete loss of strength i.e. Sdynis zero.
Thus, a" - Udyn= 0
or
(Jn = Udyn
or Udyn = 1 ...(7.3)
an
Expressing Udynin terms of rise in water head, hw and Y5ubas (G - 1/1 + e) Yw' the Eq. (7.3) can be
written as :
Yw.hw =1
G-l.'Yw'Z
l+e
h G-l
or -1f. =-=i ...(7.4)
Z l+e er
where, G = Sp~ific gravity of soil particles
e = Void ratio
'-;0 ". .
ier = err Heal hydraulic gradient.

iquefltct;oll of Soils 283
It is seen that, because of increase in pore water pressure the effective.stress reduces, resulting in loss
f strength. Transfer of intergranular stress takes place from soil grains to pore water. Thus if this
'ansfer is complete, there is complete loss of strength, resulting in what is known as complete liquefac-
.on. However, if only partial transfer of stress from the grains to the pore water occurs, there is partial
JSS of strength resulting in partial liquefaction.
In case of complete liquefaction, the effective stress is lost and the sand-water mixture behaves as a
;iscous material and process of consolidation starts, followed by surface settlement, resulting in closer
Jacking of sand grains. Thus the structures resting on such a material start sinking. The rate of sinking
)f structures depends upon the time for which the sand remains in liquefied state.
Liquefaction of sand may develop at any zone of a deposit, where the necessary combination of in-
,itu density, surcharge conditions and vibration characteristics occur. Such a zone may be at the surface
,w at some depth below the ground surface, depending only on the state of sand and the induced motion,
However, liquefaction of the upper layers of a deposit may also occur, not as a direct result of the
~roltnd motion to which they are subjected, but because of the development of liquefaction in an under-
lying zone of the deposit. Once liquefaction develops at some depth in a mass of sand, the excess pore
water pressure in the liquefied zone will dissipate by flow of water in an upward direction. If the hydrau-
lic gradient becomes sufficiently large, the upward flow of water will induce a quick or liquefied condi-
tion 111the surface layers of the deposit.
Thus, an important feature of the phenomenon of liquefaction is the fact that, its onset in one zone
of deposit may lead to liquefaction of other z~nes, which would have remained stable otherwise.
7.4 LABORATORY STUDIES ,.
7.4.1. Field Conditions for Soil Liquefaction. An element of soil located at depth Z below the horizon-
tal ground surface will be subjected to vertical effective stress er, which is equal to <Jvi'and horizontal
effective stress Ko er, where Ko is the coefficient of earth pressure at rest (Fig. 7.3a). There is no initial
shear stress acting on the element. Due to ground shaking during an earthquake, a cyclic shear stress "("
will be Imposed on the soil element (Fig. 7.3b). In the case of sloping ground, an element of soil will also'
have initial shear stress, "(hi(Fig. 7Aa). During earthquake, the stresses on the element will be as shown
in Fig 7Ab. The presence of the initial shear stresses can have major effect on the response of the soil to
a superimposed cyclic stress condition and in general, the presence of initial stresses tends to reduce the
rate of pore pressure generation due to cyclic stress applications. Since the most critical conditions are
likely to be those associated with no initial shear stresses on horizontal planes, a condition analogus i:1
earthquake problems to soil response under essentially level ground is considered. Hence, soil elements
can be considered to undergo a series ofcyc\ic stress conditions as illustrated in Fig. 7.5. The actual stress
series are somewhat random in pattern but nevertheless cyclic in nature as shown in Fig. 7.6
..,
. .
-
i}:;"",':>','" :.,\'~ ,//~,' ,;.,.. ""',',.,;;",",' ',,'-"'.'" ',',

".- ,.- ' "' -,"'-,..~- ,,", --". _.. -
~
~.
if
.~i
~.
~,
28~ Soil Dynamics & Marhine FOUlJdlltioll... .~
;:,.
..
~
<w<'
""
--
=+ --- --.2.-- ~ /~ H' '/"/' f--- .
~
..
0-= OVi
OVi= ohw + lsub (z-hw)

!J
'1 Ko ()
DA
'//1'/1'1' 1////1' "'1' Ill' " "

Stresses on element A
(a) No gr,ound shaking
0-= OVi
--=+ óóóóó.2-
'" 'YI "" ~ Jh;""-- - rh
z
Ko 0-
'L OB
~h
"" , /" '" "'./ , / "" "" """"" " '/' ,. ""./
+
Stresses on element 8
(b) Earthquake loading

Fig. 7.3 : Stress conditions for soil element below horizontal ground in cyclic loading conditions
Liquefactiollof Soils / 285
() = Uvi
! ..:hi
DA
.jor- KO
0'" " "" / / r " / / / / .I'" ".I"/

I
(0) No ground shaking Stresses on element A
cv= av i
--L -r;h
I'
=r= Chi
DB
1HDHPo-
~
'" >"'+"O' uu"
(b) Earthquake loading Stresses on element B
Fig. 7.4: Stress conditi ons for soil ele me nt below sloping ground in cycliiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiii
-- k
-.., ..
.
J
1
I r
I
I
. 286 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations
I
/I' /l1I/'" \ """V/I\I' "A' 11/'\\
I
I
I 00 00 00
J
1I
t --- t -C
-C_t
I
I
---c=J-- K0 0; --11 --- 1!-KoCTO -+- \\ --- ~\-- Ko 0-0
,
I
I
.
t,
t t t
I
Initial stresses Cyclic toad sequence
Fig. 7.5: Idealised field loading conditions
I 40
I
. 1:max.
I 30
Dept h:; 14.0m
,
N 20
E Gav
--
z 10
-
0
I. .....
1I1
11
JI ill
ili li'
ai
ffi
- 30
óìðÔ 24
0 6 12 18 30
Ti.me (5)
Fig. 7.6 : Sh~ar stress variation determined by response analysis

7.4.2. Different Laboratory Tests. Simulating cyclic shear stress conditions, following types of test
procedures have been adopted for liquefaction studies:
(1) Dynamic trhixial test (Seed and Lee, 1966; Lee and Seed, 1967).
I (2) Cyclic simple shear test (Peacock and Seed, 1968, Finn et aI., 1970, Seed and Peacock, 1971).
I
I
(3) Cyclic torsid~al shear teSt (Yoshimi and Oh-Oka, Ishibashi and Sherif, 1974).
I
(4) Shaking. table test (frakash and Mathur, 1965; Yoshimi, 1967~Finn et aI., 1970).
r
Typical studies 011above mentioned laboratory tests are described herein.
I
I
l 101,.
11 IIIm
.. I!Io
- ----
288 , Soil Dynamics & Machine 'Foulldations
7.5 DYNAMIC TRIAXIAL TEST

Seed and lee (1966) reported the first set of comprehensive data on liquefaction characteristics of sand
studied by dynamic triaxial test. They used the concept of developing cyclic shear stress on section xx of
the soil sample as shown by the stress conditions I and 11on the sample given in Col. 1 QfFig. 7.7. The
stress condition I is achieved by increasing axial stress on the specimen by an amount ad' keeping lateral
stress a3 constant, and simultaneously reducing the all round pressure on the specimen by an amount
adl2 (Cols. 3 and 4 of Condition I). Similarly the desired stress condition 11can be induced by reducing
the vertical stress by ad' and simultaneously applying an increase in all round pressure equal to ad 12
(Cols. 3 and 4 of Condition II). It may be noted that during testing the pore pressure should be corrected
by reducing it by ad 12 in condition I, and increasing by ad 12 in condition H.
Seed and Lee (1966) performed several undrained triaxial tests on Sacramento river sand (emax =
1.03, emin = 0.61). The grain size ranged between 0.149 mm and 0.297 mm. The results of a typical test
in loose sand (e = 0.87, DR = 38%) are shown in Fig. 7.8. In this testthe initial all-around pressure and
the initial pore water pressure were 196 kN/m2 and 98 kN/m2 respectively, thus giving the value of
effective confining pressure as 98 kN/m2. The cyclic deviator stress ad of magnitude 38.2 kN/m2 was
applied with a frequency of 2 Cpg.The test data in Fig. 7.8 shows the variation of load, deformation and
pore-water pressure with time.
"0
~
8 DR~38°/o 1 eo=0'87, OJ=98,OkN/m2
01-
-
.S z
0"""
100
0 Time
I/)
"3
Go
~ 100.
h 38.2 kNjm£
'"
6
'15
E
L..
.2E
- 2St- Compression
"0 E. 0 Time
0-
)( 'H::L Extension
<C
~
-
::J
I/)N
~
100
L.. '-E
o..z
~x.
.L..
a.
0
- '
0
I
. '-Time
- - .,' -, f sec.t--
Fig. 7.8: Typical pulsating load test on loose saturated Sacramento river sand
(Seed and Lee, 1966)
Juefactioll of Soils 289
---
:ompression 30
0
0
201 - OR = 38 °/0 at Od =(+)38-2 kNj m
2
.. . . - 2
'-c 10 ~=. 98.0kNjm
o'
L.. at Od = 0
...... 04
\/)
.i..#,
0 -10
«
)(
-20 . 2
at Od =(-)38'2
I
kN/m
r
C:Xten sion - 30
1 2 4 10 20 40 100
Number of cycles
(a) Axial strain -versus number. of cycles
150
L..-
~N
d~ E
~z
- 100 InitiaL e tfe ctive - - - ,-atCJd,=O
0-
L..~
confining pressure
a.::J -. at-Od =+38,2 kN/m2
.S ~
~ ::J
L..
50 2
en\/)
C III - at Od :-38'2 kNjm
d ~
£. L..
ua. 0
1 2. 4 1°--' 20 40 lOO
Number of cycLes
(b) Observed change in pore water pressure and number of cycles
150
L..
"""N
-
d E -
z
confiningeffective
10°r-Initial pre ssure
L.. '"
0-
a. ::J 50
.-c
L..
::J
en\/)
C \/) ,
0
.I:. L..
ua.
- SO
, . 2 4 10 20 40 100
Number of cycles
. (c)Changein porepressure and numberof cycles
Fig. 7.9 : Typical pulsating load test on loose Sacramento river sand (Seed and Lee, 1966)
From this data, variation of axial strain amplitude, the observed changes in pore-water pressures,
and the pore water pressure changes correct~d to mean extreme principal stress conditions with number
of stress cycles have been plotted in Fig. 7..9.It was observed that, during the first eight cycles of stress
application, th~ sample showed no noticeab!7.d~formati()n although pore-pressure increased gradually.
The pore pressure became equal to O"}during the ninth cycle, indicating zero effective confining pressure.
During the tenth cycle, the axial strain exceeded 20% and the soil liquefied.
Similar tests as described above were performed by Seed and Lee (1966) for different values of 0"d'
The relationship between O"dagainst the number of cycles of pulsating load applications is shown in
Fig. 7.10. It is evident from this figure that number of cycles of pulsating load application increases with
N
-
the decrease of the value of 0"d'
-
E 60
-
z~
OR ::. 38 0/0
I;'.. 50 eo ::. 0-87
~
-
~
~
40 . 03= 98,OkN/m2
III
0\ 30
c:
-d
-
III
:)
Cl.
20
~ 10
d
~
Q.
0
, 3 10 30 100 300 1000
:~ .
Number .of cycles to cause faiLure

Fig. 7.10: Relationship between pu~s~tingdeviator stress and number of cycles required
to cause ~ailure in Sacramel1to river sand (Seed and Lee. 1966)
Test data obtained on dense Sacramento river sand is shown in Fig. 7.11. It may be noted that the
change in pore water pressure become equal to o"}after about 13 cycles, however the axial strain ampli-
tude did not exceed 10% even after 30 cycles. This is due to the fact that in dense condition soil dilates,
and the pore water pressure reduces which in turn stabilises the soil under load. As discussed earlier this
corresponds to cyclic mobility (Seed, 1976; Castro, 1976).
.iquefaction of Soils 291
11 P re sSlon 15
--0
0
OR = ' 78 0/0 '
"
",,'" at Od =
+68'7 kN/nf
,- .,0)= _9~'.0~N/m~r-
c:
at Od = 0
0
-
L-
111
0
"
.... "
- 5
-
d
x
« -:-10 '.. "at Od = 2
' ~,-68'7kN/m
tension -15
1 2 4 10 20 40 100
Number of cycles
(a) Axial strain versus number of cycles
"
~ 150
:::I
111
111
~
L-
0.. 100 Initial effective AA-- -a-- -A~at Od =0
L-
~
..... confining pressure
d-
~N
~ E u at Od =
~ ........ 50
0 Z
o...x - -\--:r..s-..t::~ 68.7 kNjm2
c- uat Od-
<:I)
- 68'7 kNim2
CJ) 0
c
d
£.
U
- 50
1 2 4 10 20 40 100
Number of cy cl e s
(b) Corrected change in pore water pressure
Fig. 7.11 : Typical pulsating load test on dense Sacramento river sand (Seed and Lee, 1966)
Lee and Seed (1967) have extended this work for studying the various factors affecting liquefaction
and identified the followings :
Relative density, Figure 7.12 shows the plots 'of peak pulsating stress ( Le.. the stress causing liq-
'uefaction) against number of cycles of stress in loose and dense sands. The initial liquefaction corre-
spondsto the conditionwhen the pore waterpressurebecomesequal to the confIDingpressure 0')" Cri-
terion for complete liquefaction is taken corresponding to 20% double amplitude $train. The figure indi-
cates that in loose sand, initial liquefaction and failure occur simultaneously (Fig. 7. 12a). With the
- " .1'"",,'
.iquefaction of Soils 291
TtpreSSlon 15
-
-0
0
10 OR = .78 0/0 ' . ."," at Od =
- 5 .~,:03'= _98.0~~/m~r.. .-K"" +68'7 kN/m2
.-c:
0 at Od = 0
\- O
..... I
111
"
.... - 5
0
- " .
)(
« -:-10 '.. .
at Od =
~,-68.7kN/m
2
tension -15
1 2 4 10 20 40 100
Number of cycles
(a) Axial strain versus number of cycles
"
~ 150
::J
111
111
c:J
1...
a.
1...
100
Initial effective AA- - -a-- -6~at Od =0
c:J
..... confining pressure
0-
~N
c:J E u at Od =
1..."- 50
0 Z
a..x -..:\--:r:s--t.:~68.7 kN/m2
c- -
u .at Od -
68.7 kN/-m 2
c:J
0'1 0
C
0
L:.
U
- 50
1 2 4 10 20 40 100
Number of cy cle S
(b) Corrected change in pore water pressure
Fig. 7.11 : Typical pulsating load test on dense Sacramento river sand (Seed and Lee. 1966)
Lee and Seed (1967) have extended this work for studying the various factors affecting liquefaction
and identified the followings :
Relative density. Figure 7.12 shows the plots .of peak pulsating stress ( Le.. the stress causing liq-
uefaction) against number of cycles of stress in loose and dense sands. The initial liquefaction corre-
sponds to the conditionwhen the pore waterpressurebecomesequal to the confming pressure 0"3'Cri-
terion for complete liquefaction is taken corresponding to 20% double amplitude strain. The figure indi-
cates that in loose sand, initial liquefaction and failure occur. simultaneously
.. (Fig. 7. 12a). With the
- " .#",'..'
0292 Soil Dynamics ~ Machine Foundations
"O""'-'O~~"-'-""-'o"""o~"' "o , """_0"-' . "':'~'"
f?ilure increases.
.N
-
incre~se in relative density, the difference betWeen the number of cycles to cause initialliquefacticin and'~
. -
E
Z
'.:;100 '~.r
'..';
11'
" 80 .. eo = 0 -87
~ strain OR 38
-
tIJ
L.
111
= 0/0
0'\
OJ = 9 8.0 k N/ m~
-
C
-
0
VI
::J
a.
x
0 0
..~ . 0 10 100 1000 010,000 100,000
Number of cycles
(a) Loose sand
N
- 200 eo = 0.61
E
-
..........
z OR= 1000/0
x
160 OJ = 98'OkN/m2
\
'" \ Initial
VI
120 \~
, , Liquefaction
VI
-L.
\I) " ....
0'\ 80 ......
-c0 ...
......
.......
......
-- - ---
-\I)
::J
a.
40
x
0 . .~...
a. 0
1 10 100 1000 10,000 100..000
Number of cycles
(b) Dense sand
Fig. 7.12: Peak pulsating stress venus number of cycles

(Lee and Seed, 1967)
L \,
.-.......-.....
0 ._--. - _.0--
..
[que/action of Soils
293
Confining pressure. Figure 7.13 shows the influence of confIning pressure on initial liquefaction
md failure conditions. At all relative densities for a given peak pulsating stress, the number of cycles to
:ause initial-liquefaction tFigs:-7:B"u and b}-or-fai1ure-(i-.e:-26%strain, Figs:-7:i3 c and d) increased
-
vith the increase in confIning pressure
-
,N
E
-~ 180
'OR =7 8 0/0
...
120
eo = 0.71
L.
....
DJ (kNfm2)
CTI
.-c: 1500
-0 60
~~
-'
:J' - . . 500
Co
-It -
'A A '. 100
d 0 I I I
a. 1 10 100 1,000 10~000 100,000
Number -of cycles'
(a) For initial tiquefaction in medium dense sand
2000
N
- E
, -
............
z OR = 100 0/0
-- '500 eo = 0.61
l5'
"
....
1000
OJ (kNfm2)
CTI
.-....
c: 1500
0
-' 500
:J
Co
- 500
a.
0
0-
1- & 4 . OO
, 10 - 100 .,1,060 ' 10.000 100,000
Number of cycles
(b) For initial liquefaction in dense sand
Fig. 7.13: Peak pulsating stress versus number of cycles (Lee and Seed. 1967) (...Contd.)
...:t-.;",,!1;~,,!"J)'.. ,f; <.,'~"";..!",,..~ -1.> 'b\':;:"""';?" i';~k1t~;!;-';:".';';t;r;ft"';+,;:-;;~("i,,(,t~~l't.~;;, , '.:..Y""f.'i.':"~,;;;". .' '~ii-" ;;":8"';f ",;;. ~f~:ii:',~
-
---.
, . ", ,.,. ,..', i~
N. ,',-
E
-
,Z..¥ 180
H'
VI
"' OR : 78°/0
t.I - eo :,0,71 ". .. ,-
.. 120
VI
0'\
-CS
c:
~ (kN/m2)
-:J VI 60 1500
a.
CS
t.I
500
a. 0 10°1
1 10 100 1,000 10~000 100,000
Number of cycles
(c:)20% strain (i.e. failure) in medium-dense sand
2000
N
E
......
z-"
OR = 100 °'0
~ 1500 eo = 0.61
~
III
III
1:>1
;:III 1000
C7I
c:
0III
.....
:J
500
Q
-" 500
C
'Q.
1:>1
100
0 L-
1 10 100 1,000 10.000 100,000
Number of cycles
-,'
(d) 20% strain (i.e. failure) in dense sand
Fig. 7.13: Peak- pulsating stress versus, number ofc:yc:les(Lee and Seed,1967)
Peak pulsating stress. Figures 7.14 a and b show respectiyely the vari~t!onof peak pulsating stres~
Odwith confining pressure for initial liquefaction and 20% axial strain in 100 cycles. It may be noted tha
for a giverirelative density and number of cycles ofload applicafion;the"odmcreases linearly with 03 fo
initial liquefaction, while for 20% axial strain condition, similar linear trend exists only in loose sand5
," ;- . ""
" :. .";. .. I . . ~;'~;'~
Liquefaction of Soils
2000
........
N
-E
z 1600
oX
\11
~ 1200
.-L..
\11
Ini.tiol void
ratio.)e6
01 0 '61
C
.-0 800
0.71
- \11
:J
a. 400
.x
d
(:,)
Cl.
-0
0 400 800 1200 3600 2000
...
03 (kNfm2)
(a) Initial liquefaction in 100 cycles
2000
.........
, .'
N
E
---
Z 1600
oX
.......
\11
\11 Initial void
~ 1200 ratio.) eo
.-
....
\11 0.61
01
C
";:: 800
d 0 -71
-'\11
:J ðóéè
a. 400 0'81
::s:
d
~
Cl.
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
03 (kNjm2)
(b) 20% strain in 100 c)'des
Fig. 7.14 : Influence of pulsating stress on the liquefaction of Sacramento river sand (Lee anti Seed. 1967)
-- -..'." '--".-'
---~ _u_-,,--"-- -
296 Soil Dynamics & Machine FOlllldations
Number of cycles of pulsating stress. From the Figs. 7.12 and 7~13,one can conclude that for a
given p\llsating stress, number of cycles needed for causing initial liquefaction and failure increases with
the increase in relative density"and confining pressure. -
7.6 CYCLIC SIMPLE SHEAR TEST

The cyclic simple shear test device is already described in C;:haptet 4:with a mention that it simulates
earthquake. condition in a better way. Peacock and Seed (1968) reported the first set of comprehensive
data on liquefaction studies by using this test. They performed tests on Monterey sand (SP, emax= 0.83,
emin = 0.53, DIO = 0.54 mm). The sample size was 60mm square and 20mm thick. The samples were
tested at relative densities (DR) of 50%, 80% and 90% giving the sand in loose, medium dense and dense
states respectively. The oscillatory shear stress was applied at a frequency of 1 cps or 2 cps keeping the
normal stress constant.
Initial relative density °R=50olo

Initial void ratio, eo = 0-68
Initial confining pressure,OV = 500 kN/m2
Frequency ã ï Ø¦
40
¢ I'
Äïï
\11-
C>lN
î0 I 1111
I
;: E 0
Äïïóòòòòòòòòò
f---' cum-
1- Z
20 - M
d
C>I
.I:.
---
~
mum
if) 40
(a) Applied cyclic shear stress
--
0
0
20
---
-;- 1 I
c
.0 0 j 1ftttt
1-
-\11
1- 10
d
C>I
.J::. 2u 124,eyc: le s
If)
(b) Shear strain response

Fig. 7.15 : Record of typical pulsating load test on loose sandin simple shear conditions (Peacock and Seed. t 968)
..
iquefaction of Soils 297
~
1-
:J
\11
11'1
~-
L-N 60' 0 f
""
'"
Q.E
~-
1- -_ ..r
W
oz4
~~
~ -2 Cc V
... - ..- .-..lr"
1-:::::>
0
0.. 0
(c) Pore water pressure response
Fig. 7.15 : Record of typical pulsating load test on loose sand in simple shear conditions (Peacock and Seed, 1968)
The typical test data in Fig. 7.15 show the variation of shear stress, shear strain and pore water
Iressure with time. As evident from Fig. 7.I5b, there was no significant shear strain of the sample during
lle application of the first 24 cycles of stress. During the twenty-fifth stress cycle, the shear strain sud-
.enIy increased to a value of about 15% and become 23% in the next cycle. Pore pressure increased
;radually until the effective confining pressure is reduced to zerc. (Fig. 7.15e). At this point the resulting
leformations became extremely large, and the soil had essentially liquefied. Similar trend was also ob-
erved in triaxial test.
>eackock and Seed (1968) have also studied the effects of followll1g factors on liquefaction:
Relative density. Figure 7.16 shows a plot of peak pulsatingyress (1:h) dJUsmg initial liquefaction
\ith number of cycles of application for different relative densities and confll1ing pressures. From this
19ure it can be concluded that for a given value of confining pressure and number of cycles of stress
lpplication, 1h increases with the increase of relative density'. A mo;"e clear presentation is shown in
:ig. 7.17.
11'1
80
~
-
I/)
~
1-
11'1
1-
a 60 90°/0
~N
.c
111"-
E '\.
--
'-C x
cnZ
a .c.
40 ", "'"
~
Q
III~
:J
Q
.::c
a - --
800
Qy
500(kNjm
2-""""'",-
) ------
0
1 10 100 1,000 10-,000
Number of cycles
Fig. 7.16 : Initialliqu'efaction of cyclic simple shear test on Monterery sand (Peacock and Seed, 1968)
... ' ,
100
.........
N
E For 100 cycles of pulsating stress
~
-~
80
..
\/I 60
\/I
±ª (kN/m2)
L...
... 800
III
en 40
c
"-
...
0
III
:J 20
0.
oX
I 200
0
Cl.
0
0 20 40 100
Relative density (°/0)
Fig. 7.17 : Effe~t of relative density on cyclic stress causing initial liquefaction (Peacock and Seed, 1968)
Confining pressure. From the data presented in Figs. 7.16 and 7.17, plot of'th versus aI, was pre
pared as shown in Fig. 7.18. For a given value of DR and number of cycles of stress application, t,
increases linearly with the increase in av'
\/I
III
~
75 \
L............. \
V)N
Initial relative. density, DR= 50°/0
L... E
0"-..
Initial void ratio eo 0,68
-
=
~Z
\II~
50
enN
c
.-
.....-...... -.. 2
~~ DV (kN/m )
:J I- 800
0.0 <
500 ....
}
~ .!:
o~ 300 '1
~ ~
Cl. 0
1 10 100 1000
Num b e r of c.y c l e s
Fig. 1.18: (a) Cyclic stresses required to cause initi~lliqueraction at different confining pre~sure
to
I{t
,t
'j
"If
299
uefacti~n of Soils
11\
11\
~
-'- ....... 75
,II\N OR =50% 10 c.ycles
'- E
0.......... eo = 0.68
~z 50
1I\.x
0'1-
c: N 100 cycle
.;: --
- ~'-
0
11\
::J
'
1:)
25
0.0
.x
0 .r=
~I'-J
Q.
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Initial effective confining pressure (kNfm2)
Fig. 7.18: (b) Effect of confining pressure on cyclic stress to cause failure in 10 cycles and 100 cycles
(Peacock and Seed, 1968)
Peak pulsating stres!> and number of cycles of stress application. From Fig. 7.16, it can be seen
at for a given value of o"v and relative density DR' a decrease ~f "Chrequires an increase of number of
des ~o cause liquefaction. Further for a given value of "Ch:"number of cycles of stress application
quired to cause liquefaction increases with the increase in relative density DR and confining pres-
re 0"v .
Frequency ofload application. Tests were 0.4
rformed at frequencies of 1 Hz, 2 Hz, and 4
~, and the effect of frequency on the stress
using liquefaction was found negligible. It) 0.)
---
s::.
Seed and Peacock (1971) have studied the ~
0
feet of coefficient of earth pressure (Ko) on
0
0.2 OCR: 8
e peak pulsating shear stress "Ch causing liq- ~
:faction in cyclic simple shear test. The value 1/1

ko : ,
1/1
~
. Ko depends on the overconsolidation ratio ~ OCR:"
)CR). ~ 0.1 Ko : 0.75
Figure 7.19 shows a plot of stress ratio OCR: 1
Ko : 0.4
,la,,) with number of cycles of stress appli- 0
1 10 100 '.000 10.000
.tion for different values of Ko' For a given
lative density and number of cycles of stress Number ot cycles causing initial liquefaction
'plication, the value of ("Cia,.) decreases Fig. 7.19 : Influence of overconsolidation ratio (OCR) on stress
causing liquefaction in smiple shear tests
Ith the decrease of K0 ..
J" . (Seed and Peacock, 1971)
.iJ;
.1;'\
7.7 CO~IP ARlSON OF CYCLE STRESSES CAUSING LIQUEF~.\CTION UNDER TRlAXIAL AND
SIMPLE SHEAR CONDITIONS ,
PeaCock and Seed (1968) performed both cyclic triaxial and cyclic simple shear tests for liquefaction
studieson Montereysandwith a relativedensityof 50%and confiningpressures (cr3or crv)of 300, 500
and 800 KN/m2. Rbults are plotted in Figs. 7.20 and 7.21. It may be seen fro~ these figures that the
cyclic stress required to cause liquefaction of loose sands under simple shear condition ("Ch) is about 35
percent of the cyclic stress required to cause liquefaction in triaxial condition (crd/2).
150 ""
N
- .......
~
Triaxial test results
E ~ OJ{kN/m2)
.........
z~ .- 800
--
N
.
l5' '~--~
~
0 100 , 500
(-.JL:
lI\
lI\
~
~
IfI
""""--~
~
L-
a . e- 300
.J::.
IfI
CJ)
c
50
'\
"
..... Simple shear test results
a
VI
--
:J
, "-
a. ...... DV (kN/m2)
oX
a 800
~
0.. OR = 500/0 500
eo = 0-68 300
0
1 10 lOO 1000"
Number of cycles
'i
Fig. 7.20: Cyclic stress required to cause liquefaction of Monterery sand at different confining pressures
in triaxial and simpl~ shear tests (Peacock and Seed, 1968)
.;quefact;on of Soils 301
2: 150
~L-
e Relati ve density} OR = 500/0
.£:. Initial void ratio,eo =0.68
~
U\
U\
-~U\-100
N
0--
L- E
~z
.c.~
U\-
CJ'I 10 cycles
-
.S
0
50
U\
::) 100 cycles
a.
~
0
~
Q.
~
100, 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Initial effective confining pressure 03 or OV (kNfm2)
Fig. 7.21 : Comparison of pulsating shear strength of I~ose Monterey sand under cyclic
loading-simple shear and -triaxial conditions (Peacock and Seed. 1968)
7.8 STANDARD CURVES AND CORRELATIONS FOR LIQUEFACTION

For evaluation of liquefaction potential, Seed and Idriss (1971) developed standard curves between cyc lic
stress ratio (crd/2/a)) versus mean grain size (Dso) for 10 and 30 number of cycles of stress application
for an initial relative density of compaction of 50% (Figs. 7.22a and b). These curves were prepared by
compiling the results of various tests conducted by several investigators on various types of sand.
The values of stress ratio ("th/a~.)causing liquefaction, estimated from the result of simple shear
tests, have ~hown that the value of"th/av is less than the corresponding value ofad/2 a) (Fig. 7.20,7.21
and 7.22). The two stress ratios may be expressed by the relation.
"th ad
=- = - ,CI ...(7.5)
\,
( av ) simple~hear ( 2 cr)) triax.
where, Cl = Correction factor to be applied to laboratory triaxial test data t? obtain stress conditions
causing'liquefaction in the field "
". ~,",.' ';
..,~.
"",, "'. --.:" .~:
302 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundatiolls
1:5'
N -----
'-......
r
1:5' 0.30
...
lfo . Triaxi cl. compression test
U data for Ode./203 at
>-
u 0.25
~
~ 9 liquefaction
.-c: .
c:
-
.-0 0.20
0
-
u
C
C>i
:J
.--v
0 - 15
-- v
Field value at -Ch/ay causing
lique taction esti mated tram
(J)
re su Us ot sim pie sh ear tests
C
1I1
:J 0 -10
d
u
-
G
d
0 -05
Relative
No. of stress
density
cycles
= 50%
= 10
1I1
1I1
-C>i
L..
If)
0
1.0 0.3 0.1 0-03 0.01
Mean grain size 050' mm
(a) In 10 cycles
N
-
------
tj' 0.30
...
-u
1I1
C>i .
>- 'V
u 0-25
0 Triaxial compression test
M
C data for 0Ct /2 CJj at
liqu e ta e.tion
-
c:
0
u
d
0.20
-
..... 0
C>i
:J
CT
0 - 15 ,
(J) Field value at7:h/r:sv causing
.-c:
1I1 0 - 10 liquefaction estimated from
:J
d
resul ts at simple shear tests
=
\J
0 Re lative densi ty 50 °/.

.....
d
...
0.05 No. of stress cycles =30
\fI
\fI
C>i
L..
..... 0
(f) 2.0 0-3 0.1 0-03 0.01
Me an grain size 050, mm
(b) In 30 cycles
Fig. 7.22 : Stress conditions causing liquefaction of sands (Seed and Idriss, 197\)
-----
Liquefactioll of Soils 303
Seed and Peacock (1971) have proposed the followingth,reealternativecriteria of obtaininge 1 :

(i) Maximum ratio of shear stress developed during cyclic loading to the r.ormal stress. The
initial stress conditions of a specimen in simple shear device are shown in Fig. 7.2"?a; the corresponding
Mohr's circle is shown in Fig. 7.23 b. Figure 7.23 c and d show respectively the stress conditions on the
soil specimen during cyclic simple shear test and corresponding Mohr's circle. It can be seen from
Fig. 7.23 d, that the maximum ratio of shear stress to normal stress in cyclic simple shear stress is
't/Ko ay. This ratio in triaxial test is ad/2a3 (Fig. 7.7). Therefore,
~ = ad
...(7.6)
Koal, 2a3
/- /-
now e 1 = 'th ai, = 'th'I av- -- Ko ...(7.7)
ad /2. a3
K
'th I oal,
GV
V1
tfI
~
L-
.....
V1
KoOV
L-
(a.) a
~
s:::.
-
KoOV QV
(b)
if)
.. "
,- NormaL
s t re.ss
ay V1
V1
-rh ~
L-
.....
V1
L-
Ko CYy a
~ (d)
(c) s:::. Normal
VI stress
Th
Fig. 7.23 : Maximum shear stress for cyclic simple shear tests
(ii) Ratio of maximum shear stress to the mean principal stress. In simple shear test (Fig. 7.23 d)
Maximum shearslress. ~max= ,/~; + [~a, (1- Ko) J
-... -----_.
~
1
Mean principal stress during consolidation (F'ig. 7.23 a)

.1 - - -
="3 [O"v + Ko o"v + Ko O"v]
1
=.- 0" (1 + 2 K ) ...(7.9)
3 v 0
In Triaxial test
a
Maximum shear stress =J ...(7.10)
2
Minor principal stress = 0"3 ...(7.11)
"r2 l - 2
h + - {0" (1- K )}
. 2 v 0 = .:!.L ...(7.12)
Therefore,
20'3
[~crv(1 + 2 Ko)]
It gives --'th =. .:!.L .!.(1+2K 0 )2_.!.(1-Ko)2 /(ad/2a3)2 ...(7.13)

( O"vJ
. ( 2 0'3 )~ 9 4
1 2 1 2 2
Hence Cl = ,/-(I+2Ko) --(I-Ko) /(ad/la3) ...(7.14)
9 4
(Hi)Ratio of maximum change in shear stress to the mean principal stress during consolidation.
"rh Ja;) ,...(7.l5)

[crv(1 +32Ko)] a3
. (1+2 Ko)
It gives Cl = 3 ...(7.16)
Finn et al. (1970) have shown that for initialliquefactiQn of normally consolidated sands
(1 + Ko)
Cl = 2 ...(7.17)
Castro (1975 has prop<?sed that the initial liquefaction is better repr~sented by the criteria of the ratio
of the octahedral shear stress during cyclic loading to the effective octahedral normal stress during con-
solidation. It gives the value of Cl as . . . , . .
- 2 (1+2 Ko)
(3.[3) Cl -. ...(7.18)
Values of Cl computed from the above equations are given in Table 7.1 Weighted average values of
C I are given in the lastcolumnof the table.In normallyconsolidatedsands,valueof Korangesfrom 0.3
to 0.5 which in turn gives the value of Cl varying from 0.45 to 0.55.
'.
.. , ..
II1II -,-- ,.;"~'".;:,:'<,.""'".",,,;, . .,.,'i., ..'..', 0'".1)<
'"
: ",ih""".<.(,.'~:<.A.,I'A\:;t",-.,.j,~,"',','i1.
Liquefaction of Soils 305
Table 7.1 : Values of Cl
----------------------------Value orc! using
Ko Equation Equation Equation Equation Equation Average

7.7 7.14* 7.16 7.17 7.18 value
0.3 0.3 Negative 0.53 0.65 0.61 0.45

value
0.4 0.4 Negative 0.6 0.7 0.69 0.53
value
0.5 0.5 0.25 0.67 0.75 0.77 0.55
0.6 0.6 0.54 0.73 0.8 0.85 0.68
0.7 0.7 0.71 0.80 0.85 0.92 0.78
0.8 0.8 0.83 0.87 0.90 1.00 0.87
ad
* For - = 0.4
2 0'3
In simple shear test equipment, there is always some nonuniformity of stress conditions. This causes
specimens to develop liquefaction under lower horizontal cyclic stresses as compared to that in the field.
Seed and Peacock (1971) demonstrated this fact for a uniform medium sand (DR = 50%) in which the
field values were about 1.2 times the laboratory values. It can be expressed by the following relation:
-"Ch --C- "Ch

"
...(7.19)
( cr )
v field
~.( cr )
v simple shear
where Cz = Constant to account the nonuniformity of stress conditions in simple shear test
Combining Eqs. (7.5) and (7.19), we get
"C
a a
-1:L =C C -IL =C-L ...(7.20)
( cr ) I z ( 20' )
v field
r ( 20' )
3 triax. 3 triax.
where
Cr = Cl Cz ...(7.21)
Seed and Idriss (1971) suggested the values of Cl' as given in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2 : Values of Cr
Relative density Cr
OR (%)
0-50 0.57
60 0.60 .
80 0.68
As evident .from Fig. 7.17, upto a relative densitY of 80%, the peak pulsating shear stress causing
liquefaction increases almost linearly with the increase in relative density. Keeping this fact in view, the
following general relation is suggested:
"Ch = .5!L .C. DR '. ...(7.22)
( cry) field
.
DR
( 2 0'3
.
) triax.
50
r 50
.
306 Soil Dynamics & Machine Follndatiolls
where
~h = Cyclic shear stress ratio in the field at relative density of DR percent

( crv) field
OR
5!iL = Stress ratio obtained from triaxial test at relative density of 50%. It can be determined
( 2 cr3J triax.
50
using Fig. 7.22.
7.9 EVALUATION OF ZONE OF LIQUEFACTION IN FIELD

At a depth below the ground surface, liquefaction will occur if shear stress induced by earthquake is more
than the shear stress predicted by Eq. 7.22. By comparing the induced and predicted shear stresses at
various depths, iiquefaction zone can be obtained.
In a sand deposit consider a column of soil of height h and unit area of cross section subjected to
maximum ground acceleration Qmax(Fig. 7.24). Assuming the soil column to behave as a rigid body, the
maximum shear stress 'tmax at a de p th h is g iven by
- rh ...(7.23)
'tmax - ( g ) . Qmax
where g = Accelerationdue to gravity
r = Unit weight of soil
¿³¿¨
--
'.. ... : :
.~~::~.:':I
Unit cross
sectional
¿®»¿
h
~
Tmax=("(hf9) amax.
Fig. 7.24 : Maximum shear stress at a depth for a rigid soil column
Since the soil column behaves as a deformable body, the actual shear stress at depth h, ('tmax)actis
taken as
( )
- - rh .
...(7.24)
'tmaxact - rd. 'tmax- rd ( g ) .omax
where, rd = Stressreductionfactor . .'
;qllefact;on of Soils 307
Seed and Idriss (1971.)recommended the use of charts shown in Fig. 7.25 for obtaining the values
)f rd at various depths. In this figure the range of rd for different soil profiles alongwith the average value
lpto depth of 12 ni is shown. The critical depth for development of liquefaction is usually less than
12 m.
rd
0 0'2 0-4 0.6 1'0
0
6
Average value
-E
......
12
-
£.
Q.
~
Range of
different soil
0 18 profiles
24
30
Fig. 7.25 : Reduction factor r d versus depths (Seed and Idriss, 1971)
The actual time history of shear stress at any point in a soil deposit during an earthquake will be as
shown in Fig. 7.6. According to Seed and Idriss (1971), The average equivalent uniform shear stress 10\'
is about 65 percent of the maximum shear stress 1max'Therefore
rh
'tav = 0.65 -.amax .rd ...(7.25)
'. g
The corresponding number of significant cycles Ns for 'tavis given in Table 7.3.
Tabl~ 7.3: Significant Number of CyclesNs Corresponding to 'ta\'-
Earthquake magnitude, M .-
Ns
on Richter's scale
7 10
7.5 20
t... .~ '.~ 8 . -. .. 30
-
~-
~
308 Soil Dy/tamics & Machi/te Follllda/i~ns
The procedure of locating liquefaction zone can be summarised in following steps:

(i) Establish the design earthquake, and obtain peak ground acceleration amax'Also obtain number
of significant cycles Ns corresponding to earthquake magnitude using Table 7.3.
(ii) Using Eq. 7.25, determine 'tav at depth h below ground surface.
(iii) Using Fig. 7.22, determine the value of «Jd/2 <J3)for given value ofDso of soil and number of
equivalent cycles Ns for the relative density of 50%.
th
(iv) Using Eq. 7.22, determine the value of for the relative density DR of the soil at site.
( crv) field
. OR
th
Multiplying with effectives stress at depth h, one can obtain the value of shear stress
( crv ) field
OR
'th required for causing liquefaction.
(v) At depth h, liquefaction will occur if
'tav > 'th
(vi) Repeat steps (ii) to (iv) for other values of h to locate the zone of liquefaction. 'tav and 'th can be
plotted as shown in Fig. 7,26,
Equivalent peak shear stress

. ¬æòææòþæóææþóþôô¢ôô
-' '- - '- ." . ,- -,,,;,-,,-,,",.,.-,-
- - .' ,.,.. ..'.
. . - Critical depth for.~,~.Oepthof water
--
c::.I
U
~ --
- liquefactionJd --"',.tab~~
.
-'-
GWT -.::-
-
0
~
:J
\11
"0
C
:J
0 Zone of initial
~
0'1
Lique faction
c::.I
-
£.
~
0
....
~I
L Peak cyclic shear stress
needed to cause
liquefaction in Ns
£. Equivalent cyclic
a. shear stress \ cycles Oaboratory)
c::.I developed due~
0 earthquake in-N°s \
cycLes
, '
Fig. 7.26 : Zone of initiai liquefaction in field
fuefaCtion of Soils 309
1.0VIB~TI9,N TABLE STUDIES

l vibrationta~le studies,a large specimenof saturatedsand is preparedin a tank which is placedon a
bration' table~fig. 7.27 sho:ws atypical setup of a horizontal shake table available at University of
oorkee.Ji conSlslsofa rigid platform on which the test tank (LOSm x 0.6 m x 0.6 m high) is mounted.
he platform with wheels' rest~ on four knife edges being rigidly fixecl.on two pairs of rails anchored to
le foundation. The platforin is connected with motor and brake assembly for imparting vibrations. Some
rnportantcharacteristicsof the table are: .
" .. . .
.Amplitude ~ 0-10 mm .
.Frequency - 0-20 Hz
Acceleration - 0-20 g
Facilities are available for measuring pore/pressures at different depths in the sample placed in tank.
[he procedure of carrying out test is simple. Firstly the sand is placed in the tank under saturated con-
jition. The table is then excited with the desired amplitude and acceleration. Variation of pore pressure
with time and number of cycles are then noted. .
The main advantages of vibration table studies are:

(i) It simulates field conditions in better way as the size of sample is'large, prepared and consoli-
dated under anisotropic conditions.
(ii) It is possible to trace the actual pore-water pressure distribution during liquefaction.
(iii) Deformation occurs under plane strain conditions.
(iv) Visual examination of sample during vibration is possible.
1. Vibratory system
2. Horizontal shaking
table with a tank
mounted on it.
3. Settlement measur-
ing Device. .
4. Pore-Pressure mea-
suring system
(a) General view

..
'Fig. 7.27 :.Horizontal shaking table (..~Contd.)
,~,
3tO Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations

~"..,
1. Motor
2.Pulley
3. Eccentric wheels
4. Crank-shaft
5. Connecting rod
6. Fly wheel
7. Hand break
8. Revoluation counter
(b) Vibratory system

Fig. 7.27 : Horizontal shaking table
Since 1957, many investigators have studied lIquefaction characteristics of sand using vibration
table on different sizes of soil samples and dynamit: characteristics of load. The effect of the following
aspects have been studied:
(i) Grain size characteJ:istics of soil.
(ii) Relative density.
(iii) Initial stress condition i.e. overburden pressure.
(iv) Intensity and character of excitation force.
(v) Entrapped air.
The important conclusions drawn from vibration table studies are:
1. For a given sand placed at a particular density, there is sudden increase in pore pressure at a
definite acceleration. This is termed as 'critical acceleration'. Critical acceleration is not unique
property of sand. It depends on the type of sand, its density, the amplitude and frequency of
oscillation and the overburden pressure (Maslov, 1957; Matsuo and Ohara. 1960: Florin and
Ivanov,1961).
2. If sand is subjected to shock loading, the whole stratum liquefied at the same time, while under
steady-state vibrations, the liquefaction starts from the top and proceeds downward (Florin anp
Ivanov,1961). .',
3. As the surcharge pressure incre~sed, the number of cycles required to cause liquefaction 'in.
creased (Fig. 7.28; Finn, 1970). Tests have shown that, even small drainage surcharge wil
reduce the time of the liquefied state tenfold (Fig. 7.29; Florin and Ivanov. 1961).
.'
le/action of Soils 311
; 70
E Ac c el era tron 0.25 9
..........
-z
oX.
~
5.6
Frequency
eo
2 Hz
0.67
I-
:J
VI 42 ~ First liquefaction
VI
~
thin membrane A
I- 6 First liquefaction
a. 28 thi c.k mem brane
~
0'1
I- x First liquefaction results
a for old container A
.c
\J
I-
:J
I.f'I
100 1000 10,000
to first liquefaction "
Fig. 7.28 : Effect of surface pressure on resistance to Initial liquefaction In vibration table studies (Finn, 1972)
- ---
22.5
20
, .'
15 q
-
-
1/1
C
0
-
v
c 10
C>I
::I
/-:~.~r
. , ..'
tT
-
0 ~
q (k NI m2)
O.
'" 5
C}-() 2
E ..-. 20
tr 6 50
)f--j( 100
0
0 25 50 75 100
Number of impacts
Fig. 7.29 : Influenceoftbe intensity-or dl'alnlng~w:cbarge on tbeperiod-of1lme within which

the sand remain liquid (Florin"and Ivanov, i961i
- --~
"~-, --
'"
312 -,'-' , ,.-, , - '. -' -' - So.il Dynamics & Ma~hine Foundaiiolls'l
-'.-.~-
4, The time during which the ~iquefiedstate lasts is much less for coarser grained soils than for fine
grained' sbiiS (Fig: 7,'30.,Gupta,'l979). He carried out liquefaction studies on four sands namely
(i) Ukai sanq (Dso=,l.& mDJ.}i(it) Obra sand (Dso = 1.0 mm), (iii) Tenughat sand (Dso = 0.47
mm) and Solani sand (Dso = 0.15 mm). The maximum pore water pressure developed in about
6 to 10 cycles. It started dissipating immediately after attaining maximum valu~. The total time
required for dissipation was about 6s for Ukai sand, and 20s for 01;>raand Tenughat sands. The
corresponding value for Sohmi sand was 12Us,it"re~ained c9nstant for ~bout 35s: thu~ ,the time
required for, dissipation decreases with the increa~e in coarseness.
Time,s
- ", '
0'2 0.4 0,8
20
1.2 '--,., ? -04 "12 200
E
u
<:I}
Accl. 10010 9 -/",Sotani.sand,
L- ,5Hz '. ,
::I ';~'~ ',:- " ,",:-::-'!, ~"
155mm depth
':: 10
<:I}
L- ñÌ»²«¹¸¿¬
Obra sand
sand
a.
<:I}
L-
Ukai sand
e
ll.
0
1 40 200 400 600 1OC
Number of cvcles
Fig. 7.30: Pore pressure versus number of cycles for different sands (Gupta, 1979)
Since the liquid state lasts for only a short time, the liquefied masses of soil have no time for
displacements, so that there is practically no indication that the phenomenon of liquefaction
occurs in coarse-grained soils.
5. The excess pore-water pressuresdec!e,ases with the increase in initial relative density (Maslov,
1957; Gupta, 1979). Figure 7.31'shows a typical test data indicating the effect of relative density
on an increase in pore pressure at 10 percent g for Solani sand (Gupta, 1979). In this case, no
pore-water pressure increase was observed when initial density became 62 percent. Tests per-
formed on other types of sand with different accelerations gave the values of relative densities as
listed in Table 7.4 beyond which no pore-water pressure was observed.
Table 7.4 : Initial Relative Density
, Beyond
-. which no Excess Pore Pressure Develops (Gupta, 1979)
Intia/ Re/ative Density

Acceleratioll - - - - - - - - "7",...- - - - - ~ -:-- - - - - - - - - - -
(g) So/ani,sa.~ld TefJughat sand Obra sand Ukai sand
Percent 65Q--(O.15m'!IL ,<:~~-{O.4!),. .,' p.Omm) (1,8 mm)
10 62.5 52.0 51.5 50.5
20 62,S 61.5 60.0 59.5
40 66.0 64.0 62.5 62.0
50 ":','. ..0', "'66.5' .) 65.0 ,;".,~...;';'; ',..- 64'.0 '63.0
. .. " -;', " . ." '
t
is;;
efaction of Soils 313
360 1-5
Oepth(mm)
32 " ---~- -....... .

0 155
60
1.0 u
--""" ~, " 0 250
~-- '~ u/CTv /> 1 complete

ay
280 ""'0..., "
liquefaction 0-5
"CA... "
- 240
" '.
"C\ 0
E
-
E Excess pore
pressure
~
\-
::J
200 --- u/ov
Ifj
Ifj
~ 160
L.-
a.
~
L.-
a 120
Cl.
80
40
0
20 30 40 50 - 60 70 80 -90
Initial relative density (°/0)
Fig.7.31: Pore pressure vs.initialrelativedensityin Solanisand (Gupta, 1979)

DeAlba, Seed and Chan (1976) presented the results of shake table tests in the form of stress ratio
.
la) and number of cycles required for causing liquefaction as shown in Fig. 7.32. It indicates that for
iven value of'th' more number of cycles are required for liquefying a sand having more relative density.
is is a similar conclusion as obtaine~ by ~eed and Peacock (1971) by cyclic simple tests. In shake table
IS, the value of'th is given by :
. ..- . W '
. -
o'tho=-.am ...(7.26)
g
where W = Tot~l p~essure exert~d OJ?-the bas~ of t~nk p~ac_edon t!1eshake table 00-
am = P~ak ac~eleration of die uniform cyclic mQtion
a
+- 0.4
0
L.
11'1
OR (0/0)
111 ¢ êè
~ 0.3
~ ~ '
,
e--e. 54
'U .r::.
~u P 0.2
~
L.
L.
a
u 0.1
1 10 100 1000
Num be r 0 fey cl e S J Ns
Fig. 7.32: Corrected 'Ch/cry versus Ns for initial liquefaction from shake table studies (DeAlba, Seed and Chad, 1976)
7.11 FIELD BLAST STUDIES

In blast tests, predetermined charge (like ammonia, gelatin etc.) with electric detonators is installed at
predetermined depth in a cased bore hole. The hole is later filled with sand and the casing ~swithdrawn.
Lead wires from detonators are connected with blaster so that the charges may be fired at any desired
moment. Acceleration pickups are placed at regular intervals from the blast point to record horizontal
and vertical acceleration at the time of blasting. Similarly porewater pickups and settlement gauges are
placed at certain distances from the blast point to record the increase in pore water pressure and ground
settlements, Accelerations, porewater pressure and ground settlement at the blast point are then obtained
by extrapolation. The data is then interpreted to obtain the liquefaction potential.
One of the main purpose of carrying out blast tests is to ascertain whether the soil at the site will
liquefy under simulated earthquake loading. Field data using small explosives at some depth at the site
alongwith pore pressure and settlement observations for predicting liquefaction potential are available ir
literature from few investigations (Florin and Ivanov, 1961; Kummeneja and Eide, 1961; Krishna am
Prakash, 1968; Prakash and Gupta, 1970; Arya et aI., 1978; Gupta and Mukerjee, 1979).
For examining the chances of liquefaction at barrage site, Gupta and Mukerjee (1979) performe<
blast tests in a river bed having the soil profile as given below:
Depth . Description of Soil Average N-va/ue Remarks

., ... ' . .
0-4 m Fine sand '5 .", -
- Cu ='2.47, °50 = 0.12 mm
4m-7m Clay Position of water table near the surfal
7 m - 20 m Silty sand mixed, 21-60
with kankars (increases. with depth) Cu = Uniformity coefficient
The critical hydraulic gradient of top loose sandy deposit works out,to be 0.8. Special gelatin ((
percent, 2 kg) was installed at 4m depth in 150 mm diameter cased bore holes. Blasting was done wi
the help of an electric exploder. Horizontal surface accelerations were measured using acceleration pie
ups placed at various distances fro,mthe source point. The depth of each acceleration pickup was 200 IT
below the ground surface. The porewater pressures at vari~us .dls~ancesfrom sourc~ point were measur
at 2.5m depth from the ground surface. ù
iIIIb.,
Liquefaction of Soils
315
B7
I
10m
I 86
r
1am I
8S 812
I
10m I
84
I
10m
B:f
, .
lOm
Srn ~0 Srn
B13
.814 .
B15
.
-
¢º»®»²½» 816
point
Fig. 7.33: Site layout for field blasting tests (Gupta and Mukerjee. 1979)
, Fig. 7.34: Surface ac:c:eleration.(Guptaand Mukerjee. 1979)
Figure 7.33 shows the sketch of layout of the tests at the site. A typical acceleration record obtained
lt 35 m distance from the blast point is .shown in Fig. 7.34. Variation of maximum horizontal accelera-
jon and porewater pressure' with dis;tan~~'from blast point are shown respectively in Figs. 7.35 and 7.36.
, 316 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations
On the basis of past earthquakes, the maximum possible acceleration record at the site is assumed as
shown in Fig. 7.37. Using the method of Lee and Chan (1972) this earthquake record is worked out to
be equivalent to 19.6 cycles of 0.075 g acceleration (Table 7.5)
24
\
20
- \
0'1
\
- 0
;--
16
0 (
c
0 12
"
;::.
0
...
-
C>I
C>I
u
8
( "
(
u i'-. "
0
.3C 4
'.
0 ""'(
C>I "-- .-.....
a. -'--
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Distance tor blast (m)
Fig. 7.35 : Acceleration versus distance (Gupta and Mukerjee, 1979)
).0
Depth of blast =4m
2.5 Pore pressure measured
E
at 2.5 m
C>I
~
11\
2.0
11-74
0/1
C>I
:i 1.5
C>I
...
0
a. 1.0
u
E
0c 0-5
>- I
0 I
0 112'9 I 1 I I
0 2'5 5,0 7'5 10.0 12.5 15'0 17-5 20-0
'Distance trom blast (m)
. Fig. 7.36: Port: jJressure vs. distance (Gupta and Mukerjee, 1979)
",
-,"",~~",
317
iquefactionof ~oils
','""
. ..
N
<-
0
.--
co 0--
r--
-
0--
.;
....
., . ...
.::0:
=
:::.
--- "C
c
If) <":
-- <":
C.
=
E
- ..:
.2
...:r - c
E
...
...
- 0"
I
'"
'"
..
r--
'-:
r--
oD
N
.;
/'
- 0 co
0
c-
0 ," . 0
0 0 0 (3 0 0 0
,."
.,,-"
:,;. 'C~('6 '~hruo q DJ ~l:~"J"\1'- -'" "'
'.y"
, "
., "'J lP.!)J:;1 .;:r
-" . , t.' "
>"'r ,:.; . Yh"."h..V ;~(!.,.J;"k\/t,:"J .JVi..,.at~fl:t j. 11.'-,
318 Soil Dynamics & Machine FoundatWd
Table 7.5 ~EquivaleDt Cy~les for Anticipated Earthquake
Acc!' level Average acc!. Number Conversion Equivalent

in percent in percent of cycles factor number of
- -of-peak
- acc!.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(Fig.
- -1.6)- - - -cycles _"J.iL
- -at -0.651: .
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

100-80 90 17/2 = 8.5 2.6 22.1
80-60 70 8/2 = 4.0 1.2 4.8
60-40 50 25/2 = 12.5 0.20 2.5
40-100 20 > 1000 negligible 0.0
Total 29.4
Total number of cycles for 0.75 1:max= 29.4/1.5 = 19.6

22
20
-~19'6
i\
1\
,....... I .
0- 16
-
z
0"1
~
~
r--
0 12
0
-0
-u
111
>- 8
\
0
u
...
c
~
0
>
:J 4
er I
UJ I
I
I
J 0
0
0 2.9 . 10 20 30 40
. Distance from bLast (m)
Fig. 7.38: Equivalent cycles versus distance (Gupta and Mukerjee, 1979)
. Liquefaction of Soils '319
Similarly the blast records at different distances are also converted into equivalent number of cycles
of 0.075 g acceleration (Fig. 7.38). From this figure it can be observed that vibrations generated due to
blast at a distance of2.9 m are equivalent to 19.6 cycles of 0.075 g, the expected earthquake i.e. the blast
has the same severity as the design earthquake at a distance of 2.9 m from the blast hole.
From Fig. 7)6, the pore pressure developed at a distance of 2.9 m, and at a depth of 2.5 m is
1.74 m of water column. The critical hydraulic gradient for this site is 0.8, therefore at a depth of 2.5 m
the critical porewater pressure or hydraulic head is 0.8 x 2.5 = 2.0 m. The pore pressure developed is
1.74 m. The actual porewater pressures developed will be larger than the measured value of 1.74 m,
'~ecause there will'be a time lag in rise of water level in piezometer pipe. Hence under the above condi-
tions, a larger pore pressure is expected to be developed and complete liquefaction of site is expected
during the earthquake.
7.12 EVALUATION OF LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL USING STANDARD PENETRATION

RESIST ANCE
The standard penetra~ion test is most
commonly used insitu test in a bore hole to
have fairly ~ood estimation of relative den- Corr~ction factor, CN
sity of cohesionless soil. Since liquefaction
primarily depends on the initial relative '"'
0.4
0
0.6 0.8 la 1.2 1-4 1-6
-- 1.8 2-0
density of saturated sand, many research-

N
-
E /.
ers have made attempt to develop correla-
tions in liquefaction potential and standard...
2
oX
-- 100I /
penetration resistance. IS: 2131-1981 gives
the standard procedure for carrying out
t>I
~
:J
III
III
'.
/
/
t>I
standard penetration test. SPT values (N) ~
obtained in the field for sand have to be cc. 200

corrected for accounting the effect of :J
"
t>I
~
I
I
ovberburden pressure as below: .D
L
t>I
NI = CN . N ...(7.27) -~ 300
1/
NI = Corrected value of stan-
dard penetration resis-
- 0
v
~
tance
t>I
>
t>I
> 400
/
CN = Correction factor
(Fig. 7.39) --
U
t>I / .
The correlation between ~ 1 values and
tU
500 I
relative density of granular soils suggested
by Terzaghi and Peck (1967) is given in Fig. 7.39: Chart for correction ofN-values in sand for inOuenceof
Table 7.6. overburden pressure(pecketal., 1974)
-
~. . J.
",
...
320 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundatio"
Table 7.6 : NI and, related to Relative Density
NI CompaCtness Relative Density q,

DR (%) (Deg.)
0-4 Very loose 0-15 < 28
4-10 Loose 15-35 28-30
10-30 Medium 35-65 30-36
30-50 Dense 65-85 36-41
> 50 Very dense > 85 > 41
After the occurence of Niigata earthquake, Kishida (1966), kuizumi (1966), and Ohasaki (1966
-
studied the areas in Niigata where liquefaction had not occured and developed criteria for differentiatint
between liquefaction and nonliquefaction conditions in that city, based on N-values of the sand deposit
(Seed, 1979). The results of these studies for Niigata areshown in Fig. 7AO.Ohasaki (1970) gave a usefu
rule of thumb that says liquefaction is not a problem if the blow count from a standard penetration tes
exceeds twice the depth in meters.
0
I
I
N
- I
I
Light damage & no liquefaction
E
.........
-z
~
~
50
L-
~
VI
\11
~
L-
0.
c 100
(:,)
1J
L- Heavy damage.
:J and liquefaction
.D
L-
(:,)
>
0
(:,) 150
>
...
u --- Boundar y determined by damage survey (Kishida)
--~
---Boundary determined by field observation(Kuizumi)
UJ - Ohasaki
20
0 10 20 30 40
S tanda rd penet ra t ion resi stance (N blows)
Fig. 7.40 : Analysis of liquefaction potential at Niigata for earthquake of June t 6, t 994 (Seed, 1979)
-'.~:
On the basis o(more comprehensive study on the subject and data presented by other investigators
(Seed and Peacock, 1971; Christian and Swiger, 1976; Seed, Mori et aI., 1977), Seed (1979) proposed the
following procedure for liquefaction analysis:
(i) Establish the design earthquake, and obtain the peak ground acceleration Qmax'Also obtain number
of significant cycles corresponding to the magnitude of earthquake using Table 7.3.
(ii) Using Eq. 7.25, determine "Cavat depth h below ground surface.
(iii) Determine the value of standard penetration resistance value (N) at depth h below ground sur-
face. Obtain corrected NI value after applying overburden correction to N using Fig. 7.39.
(iv) Using Fig. 7.41, determine ('Ch/crv)for the given magnitude of earthquake and NI value obtained
in step (iii). Multiplying ('Ch/crv) with effective stress at depth h below ground surface, one can
obtain the value of shear stress "Ch required for causing liquefaction.
N
E
.........
0-6
z Solid poi nts indicate sites and
..x
~ 0 test conditions showing liquefaction
:J 0 .
1.1\-
1.1\ 11
0 5 Open points indicate sites
KI~ -
where no liquefaction
~
L..
L..
0 0 cc urred.
8.- ~
->---
\J
'-
\J
.9
C
c::v
0 -4
\J 0 86'5
..:.:: Q.
Cl
c::v .-c
Cl.
0"1
'-
C 1.1\
L..
-2 0.3 .6.5
1.1\ Cl
:J c::v
Cl ..c.
\J III 07.8
-- .--
113 ~ O. 2 07.8
r== .~
- .--
0 ..c.
.-
Cl
. Based on field data
L..
III
1.1\ 0
--0
0 ;} Extrapolated
11 of.large
from results
scale laboratory
c::v 0 tests
-L.. ....
III 0
U
v -
->-Cl
.~ .-0
0
0 10 20 30 1,0 50
L..
Modified1.i:)~netration resistance> Nl-blows/ft.
Fig. 7.41 : Correlation between field liquefaction behaviour or'sands for level ground conditions
and penetration resistance (Seed, 1979)
iI... ,I;
322 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundation..
(v) At depth h, liquefaction will occur if

'tav > 'th
(vi) Repeat steps (ii) to (v) for other values of h to locate the zone ofliquefaction.
Iwasaki (1986) introduced the concept of liquefaction resistance factor FL which is defmed as
R
F =- ...(7.28)
L L
R is the ratio of insitu cyclic strength of soil and effective overburden pressure. It depends on relative
density, effective overburden pressure and mean particle size. It is given by
For 0.02 < Dso < 0.6 mm
~ 0.35
...(7.29 a)
R = 0.882 V~~-+70 + 0.225 10glO ( DSQ)
For 0.6 < Dso < 2.0 mm
...(7.29b)
R ~ 0.882~a, ~ 70 - 0.05
where N = Observed value of standard penetration resistance
crv = Effectiveoverburdenpressure at the depth underconsiderationfor liquefactionexami-
nation in kN/m2
D50 = Mean grain size in mm
L = is the ratio of dynamic load induced by seismic motion and effective overburden pres-
sure. It is given by
a max crv "
L -- -.=:-. 'd ...(7.30.
g crv
amax = Peak ground acceleration due to earthquake
= 0.184 x 10°.320 M (Dfo.s. g ...(7.31
where M = Magnitude of earthquake on Richter's scale
D = Maximumepicentraldistance in km. (Fig 7.42)

°v = Total overburden pressure
rd = Reductionfactor to accountthe flexibilityof the ground
g = Acceleration due to gravity, mIs2
rd = 1 - 0.015 h
. h = depth of plane below ground surface in m
For the soil not to liquefy FL should be greater than unity.
Liquefaction of Soils 323,
Nu mbers represen t the

8 earthquake numbers
30
~ .
.g 7
-
:J
C
Lower bound
0'1
0 6
~ l0910 0 =0.77M - 3'6
Mean line (M>6)
5
L09100 = 0-87 M-4-S
'r 0
4
1 2 5 10 20 50 lOO" 200 500 1000
Maximum epicentral distance ot liquefied sites,D (km)
Fig. 7.42: Relationship between the maximum epicentral distanceofliquefied sites (D)
and earthquake magnitude (M) (Kuribayashi, Tatsuoka and Yoshida, t 977)
7.13 FACTORS AFFECTING LIQUEFACTION ~ -

Although the factors affecting liquefaction have been discussed during the laboratory and field studies on
liquiefaction, they are summarised below: '
7.13.1. Soil Type. Liquefaction .occursin cahesionless soils as they lose their strength completely under
vibration due ta the development of pore pressures which in turn reduce the effective stress to zera. ,
Liquefactian daes not occur in case of cohesive soils. Only highly sensitive clays may laase their strength
substantially under vibration.
7.13.2. Grain Size and Its Distribution. Fine and uniform sands are more prone to liquefaction than
coarser ones. Since the permeability of coarse sand is greater than fine sand, the pore pressure develaped
during vibrations can dissipate faster.
7.13.3. Initial Relative Density. It is .one .ofthe mast important factars contralling liquefactian. Bath
pare pressures and settlement are canstderably reduced during vibratians with increase in initial relative
density and hence chances of liquefaction and excessive settlement reduce with increased relative den-
sity.
'7.13.4. Vibration Characteristics. Out .ofthe four parameters .ofdynamiuc load namely (i) frequency;
(ii) amplitude; (iii) acceleratian; and (iv) velacity; frequency and acceleratian are mare impartant. Fre-
quency .of the dynamic laad plays vital rale ,.only if it is clase ta the natural frequency .of the system.
Further the liquefactian
, . ..11 typeI" of the .dynamic""',laad i.e. whether'it isa transient laad" .orthe.
.,,', depends. .onthe
laad causing steady vibratians.'.'" , ' '0.' .. r, ' :
, ,. , . '" ~L'>+::' ' . .:
324 '
Soil Dy"amics & Macll ille Folllldatiolls
Whole stratum gets liquefied at the same t~eunder tra~sient loading, while it inayproceed from
top to lower layers u?der steaqy state vibrations (Florin and Ivanov, 1961). ,For a given acceleration,
liquefaction occurs only after ~ certain number of cycles imparted to the deposit. Further, horizontal
vibratiorls have more severe em~-c.tthan vertical vibrations. Multi directional shaking is more severe than
one directional loading (Seed ~t al.~ 1977), as the pore water pressure build up is much faster and the
stress ratio required is about 10 percent less than that required for unidirectional shaking.
7.13.5. Location of Drainage and Dimension of Deposit. Sands are more pervious than fine grained
soil. However, if a pervious deposit has large dimensions, the drainage path increases and the deposit
may behave as undrained, thereby, increasing the chances of liquefaction of such a d~posit.The drainage
path is reduced by the introduction of drains made out of highly pervious materiaL"
7.13.6. Surcharge Load. If the surcharge load, i.e. the initial effective stress is large, then transfer of
stress from soil grains to pore water will require higher intensity vibrations or vibrations for a longer
duration. If the initial stress condition is not isotropic as in field, then stress condition causing liquefac-
tion depends upon Ko (coefficient of earth pressure at rest) and for Ko > 5, the stress condition required
to cause liquefaction increases by at least 50%.
7.13.7. Method of Soil Formation. Sands tmlike clays do not exhibit a characteristics structure. But
recent investigations show that liquefaction characteristics of saturated sands under cyclic loading are
significantly influenced by method of sample preparation and by soil structure.
7.13.8. Period Under Ssustained Load. Age of sand deposit may influen<:eits liquefaction characteris-
tics. A 75% increase in liquefaction resistance has been reported on liquefaction of an undisturbed sand
compared to its freshly prepared sample which may be due to some form of cementation or welding at
contact points of sand particles and associated with secondary compression of soil.
7.13.9. Previous Strain History. Studies on liquefaction characteristics of freshly deposited sand and of
similar deposit previously subjected to some strain history reveal, that although the prior strain history
caused no significant change in the density of the sand, it increased the stress that causes liquefaction by
a factor of 1.5.
7.13.10. Trapped Air. If air is trapped in saturated soil and pore pressure develop, a part of it is dissi-
pated due to the compression of air. Hence, trapped air helps to reduce the possibility to liquefaction,
7.14 ANTILIQUEFACTION MEASURES
A comprehensive study is required to find out various possible measure to prevent liquefaction. Tho.ugh
it depends on -a number of factors, however, few can be controlled in field. Based on these, certain
methqds have been suggested (Lew, 1984). Liquefaction resistance to some extent can be improved by :
7.14.1. Compaction of Loose Sands. As has been indicated earlier, loose saturated sands are more prone
to liquefaction than dense saturated s~nds. Therefo~e!the liquefaction potential can be,redu~ed by coI?-
patting the loose sand deposit before any structure is constructed. The various '-methodssuggested for
compaction . of loose' sands in'situ are: . ' . .' .h ,
- . ' . - '
7.14.1.1. Rolling with rubber tyrerollers: It may be accompli~hedby excavati~g some depth, then care-
fully backfilling in controlled lift thickness and compacting the soil. When ruJ>bertyres are used, lifts are
commonly 150 mm to 200 mm. This method, however cannot be used for compacting deep sand deposits.
;qllefactioll of Soils 325
,14.1.2. Compaction with vibratory plates and vibratory rollers: Compacti'on of cohesionless soils can
c achieved using s~ooth wheel rollers commonly with a vibratory devIce inside. Lift depths upto ahout
.5m to 2m can be compacted with this equipment (Bowles, 1982). Also plates mounted with vibratory
~semblycan be used; however, small thifkness of soils ca~ be compacted by these methods and they can'
ot be used for large deposits.' . ,.
.14.1.3. Driving of piles: Piles when driven in loose deposits, compacts the sand within an area
overed by eight times around it. This concept may be utilized in compacting the site having loose sand
\eposits. As pile remains in the sand, the overall stiffness of the soil stratum increases substantially.
'.14.1.4. Vibrofloatation : The method is most commonly used to densify- cohesionless deposits of sands
L11dgravel with having not more than 20% silt or 10% clay. Vibrofloatation utilizes a cylindrical penetrator.
t is an equipment of about 4m long and 400mm in diameter. The lower half is vibrator and upper half
s stationary part. The device has water jets at top and bottom. Vibrofloat is lowered under its own weight
vith bottom jet on which induces the quick sand condition, when it reaches the desired depth, the flow
)f water is diverted to upperjet and vibrofloat is pulled out slowly. Top jet aids the compaction process.
\s the vibrofloat is pulled out a crater is formed. Sand or gravel is added to the crater formed.
7.14.1.5. Blasting: The explosion of buried charges induces liquefaction of the soil mass followed by
~scape of excess pore water pressure which acts as a lubricant to facilitate re-arrangement and thus
leading the sand to a more compacted state.
The earliest use of detonating buried charges of explosive for compacting loose cohesionless soils in
[heir natural state has been reported by Lymari. (1942). He concluded that
(i) Lateral distribution of charges should be based on results
,~ obtained from a series of single shots.
(ii) Where loose sands greater than 1Om thick are to be compacted, two or more tiers of small charges
are preferred.
(iii) For deposits less than 10m thick, charges placed at 2/3rd depth from surface will generally
suffice.
(iv) There is no apparent limit of depth that can be compacted by means of explosive. .
Later Hall (1962) reported that

(i) Repeated blasts are more effective than a single blast of several small charges detonated simul-
taneously.
(ii) Very little compaction can be achieved in top 1m.
(iii) Small charges are more effective than large charges for compacting upper 1.5m of sand. .'
(iy) The compaction gained by repeating the blasts more than 3 times is small.
(v) The relative densities can be increased to 80%.
. . .. . -
7.14.2 Grouting and Chemical Stabilization. Grouting is a technique of inserting some kind of stabi- '-
lizing agent iI:1tothe soil mass under pressure. The pressure forces the agent into the soil voids in a limit
space around the injection tube. The agent reacts with the soil and/or itself to form a stable mass. The
most common grout is a mixture of cement and water, with or without sand. Generally grout can be used
if the permeability of the deposit is greater than 10-5 m/s. Chemical stabilization is in the form of lime,
cement, flyash or combination of these.
...... "",""""""" "'"

326 Soil Dynamics & MJlcmne Ftnmdations
7.14.3. Application of Surcharge. Application of surcharge over the deposit liable to liquefy can also be
used as an effective measure against liquefaction. Figure 7.43 shows a plot between rise in pore pressure
and effective over burden pressure at an acceleration of ten percent of g. It indicates that pore pressure
increases with increase in overburden pressure till a maximum value of pore pressure is reached, after
which it starts decreasing with further increase in surcharge. Thus an overbuden prssure above this value,
depending upon the situation, makes the deposit safe against liquefaction.
24
Dead weight surcharge
Solani sard 250 mm depth
201- DR=20 %
_Acct. 10% g-
"E 15Hz
No. of cyc les 10
z-"
-Cl!
L-
16
:J
~
~ 12
I Zone ot liquefaction
.
L-
a.
Cl!
L-
0
a.
8
III
III
-.CI!
v
)(
UJ
4
- -
0
0 4 8 12 16 20- 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
Effective overburden pressure (kN/m2 )
Fig. 7.43: Excess pore water pressure versus initial pressure on Solani sand (Gupta, 1979)
7.14.4. Drainage Using Coarse Material Blanket and Drains. Blankets and drains of material with
higher permeability reduces the length of drainage path and also due to higher coefficient of permeabil-
ity, speed up the drainage process (Katsumi et a1. 1988 and Susumu et a1. 1988).
7.15 STUDIES ON USE OF GRAVEL DRAINS

Yoshimi and Kuwabara (1973) were first to introduce gravel drains to stabilize a potentially liquefiable
sand deposit. Seed and Brooker (1976) have proposed an analytical procedure for designing such drains
(Fig. 7.44). These drains are considered fully effective if the permeability of material of drains, ktJ' is
about 200 times the permeability, ks' of the soil in which they are installed i.e. (kd/ks) > 200. The effectiY,e
drainage path is reduced by ,the introduction of number of artificial drams. Seed and Brooker (i97~)
developed nondimensional
.
charts as shown in Fig. 7.45 .'for determining the spacing of drains. Vario~5 '1
terms shown on this figure." are '.as below: .,
.< .
. .'
ill(
.. , , .. ~
.~
327
'--~q~~e!aftioll; °t'~~Lf '.,
C,',
\, " f:~;,
. . .
'-",'" ',~
,".',
c,:
, "
e'
,,-'.
.e'
'"
. '-"",' ..
"
(0 ) Plan
, :. ','...";- :;""",-,-, ',.',-,-.-.. . ':,,', ":-',~-,','~":",.',,-. ",' I:',

- ': : . .' ~ "'.: "':, '..','
~~~I ,~"'-::-
- - t ,~ '
,-,..'
'r"
,..-. ~ "::~~LG_WT ~
1 /'~:'" ':::'{. ',.-',-
" "', ".
i , ,',
- ,.
, , c '
,,','
, ..
.
'..
"
J, -'
Re' '"
, '.'
, Re
, . .' ,
"r
, :,',
t"
" ""
'N
. .. .:~-;.. "
; "
'" .,- ~
,..
.:2"::::., .'~';;':!"":~',~~ J- $"

".': ,:;.,,-y,~~:,-J'.:-) Rd~ ""', ~ ,". .,., ,~'
:: 'G :,/ " .; ;')
(b) Sec tior.' ot, S-S

.. .'
¥' \ ,,-, \~\
: i."".', . , ,;"::,. ;'"",","'-
{',,"-," t' '"It> -".' ,fi.g,.7.4,4 :,.:Gravel drains
,-.".",..:',.,'"""c.<,"..,-,,, -";;'"""",,"'-!"~'~;,,,,~;'\"""
328 SoU Dynamics & Madine Founda~s
<-
0-6
rg
0.4
0 .21-1f:J°
Tad-:'
'. '
0
0 0.1 0'2 0'3 0-4 O'S 0-6
Rd / Re
(a) iNl = 1
1.0
rg
0-4
0-2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0-3 0.4 0-5 0-6
R.d / Re - -
(b) NiNl =2
Fig. 7.45: Relation between gr~3test perewater pressure ratio and drain system parameters (...Contd.)
-:.
I! I . o~
lefaaion- of Soils ~19
,.0
0-8
0 -6 t- 110
- 200
Tad-
rg
0.4.
0.2
0
0 1.0 2.0 3-0 ~.O 5.0 6.0
Rd / Re
(c) N/Nt = 3
1.0
0.8
0,6
rg
0.4
0.2
"
0
0 .:.0-1 0'2 0.30,4 .' . 0,5 0.6
Rd / Re 'J:
(d) .NslNl = 4
Fig. 7.45: Relation between greatest porewater pressure ratio and drain system parameters
'" I
, . .'
" .' c' .:.
330 Soil Dynamics & Machine FiJII;idat;o;u
r = Limiting value of,- Ugchosen

, ..
for design -~ -<'~
g .' cry - -'~'-
Uu = Excess porewater pressure build up in ~.cyclic

0 ,
'simple sh~ar test (Fig. 7.46)
= Initial consolidation pressure
cry .
Ns = Number of cyclic stress applications

NI = Number of stres~cycles needed for liquefaqiion
Rd = Radius of rock or gravel drains, : '
iUSof the rock or gravel drains

Re = ~fec tiV; rad - '
T - h ,d '
(
ad - '¥ro 'my R~ J-
Kh = Coefficient of permeability of sand in horizontal direction'
'¥ro= Unit ~eight of water' ,'-'
mv = Coefficient,of volume compre~~ibili~_.~fsand,
1d = Duration of earthquake" ,
1.0
0.8
0.6
-Ug
ay 0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 , 0.4 0~6 0.8 . 1.0
N/N, ,
Fi,g. 7.46: Rate of pore water pressure buildup in cyclic simple s,hear test
Yosufumi et al. (1~84) had,developed a method to evaluate liquefacti~~resistance under partia

drained condition, They assumed that the dissipation of excess pore water pressure induced by an ea!
quake will occur according to Darcy's-'law. Dynamic triaxial apparatus was used to conduct tests un
perfectly undrained and perfectly drained conditions. In case of perfectly uildrained condition, liquet
tion resistance was neither influenced by permeability of sample nor by the frequency of loading. Thi
reasonable, because, no drainage of water is involved and hence permeability of soil does not have a I
to play, It was also concluded that in case of p'artial~ydrained condition, the effect of drainage
frequency is remarkable for soils with relatively largef1relative density, OR' and not so significant
soils with smaller relative density: But for loosesoils'rat~ of generation' of pore pressure depend'
number of cycles of stresses which in turn depends on frequency. Rate of pore pressure built up depl
on the rate of dissipation of pore pressure, which is based on draInage.
'luefactidn of Soils ",' . 331
Yasushi and Taniguchi (1982) carried out large scale model tests to confirm the effectiveness of
'avel drains for preventing liquefaction of sand deposits. The purpose of the tests, as stated by them,
as : .
(i) to know the generation and dissipation

,. " characteristics
, of ' pore water pressure,
"',-' '".- ',-, " , ,0" ", "
(ii) to clarify the effective are~foithe g~aveldra~fromthe view-p~int of preventing liquefaction and
(iii) to know whether the grayel drain.is effective in preventing the liquefaction of subsoils under a
road that is partially buried. ' :' - ,,"", .
They performed tests on shaking table of 12 m x 12 m x':3ffi(deep) size, filled with cohesionless soiL
'he acceleration of loading was 200 gals, the duration of shaking w,as,one minute and the frequency was
, cps. They concluded that pore water pressure within 500 mm from the edge of a gravel drain is much
maller than that, for away from the gravel drain. '
Wang (1984) made experimental study on liquefaction inhibiting effect of gravel drains. A shaking
)oXof size 1.5 m x 0.28 m x 0.5 m was used. He used gravel drains walls under the foundation and it was
lssumed that under plain strain condition the walls ar~ referred as drains. It was noted by him that the
,ection of non liquefied zone of deposit was basically a trapezoid in which pore pressure ratio (i.e. the
"atio of excess pore w<l.terpressure to the effective overburden pressure) was generally below 0.6. Basi-
~ally this zone did not reduce<with ~ncreasingvibration time. ' ' , .
As the number of d!'ainsin~talled is increased, the non liquefied zone increases. As the acceleration
increases, the zone reduces gradually but the increase in time does not reduce the non liquefied zone. The
angle of trapezoid was found to be 15° to 17° in the 'direction of depth. The zone is about 40 mm outsid,e
the drains. It was also observed by him that the surface drains may effectively prevent foundation settle-
ment. In order to obtain good effect in reducing foundation settlement it must be ensured that adequate
dept.I1,~ndwidthQf drains qe inst~lled when ~n~tallingshallow dr~ins and outside drains.
, ,
a-hara and Tamamoto (1987) pi"ese'nteda fundamental 'study on gravel pile for preventing liquefac-
tion. They used a shaking box of size 1.0 m x 0.35 x 0.65 m (deep). Radii of gravel piles were 0.75 m,
0.15 ~ etc. The flow of pore water was assumed to be horizontaL They measured the pore water pressure
at points near the dr~iris a~d away from the 'drai~s.They concluded that liquefaction occured at points too
far from the drain and that at points close to the gravel drain, liquefaction did not occur. Results obtained
by them presented -in form of -optimum radius of pile and optimum spacing between gravel piles.
Figure 7.47 shows the effective circle whiChis defined as the circle with area equal to area of square with
sides equal to the line joining mid p~ints of the ~pacing between adjacent gravel piles. The sides of the
squares are tak~n as optimum spacing between gravel piles. They found that the effective area of gravel
pile increases in proportion to the diameter of the gravel pile and the permeability. For a fixed diameter
of pile and permeability of'soil, as the optimum distance decreases, the pore pressure ratio decreases. As
the permeability increases, pore pressure ratio decrea~es very sharply. Highly permeable gravel are much
more effective even at higher optimum distance and smaller diameter of drains.
, AJlexible ve~tical drain formed by us'ing organi,c fibres like jute or coir has been used in several
,
projects. The 'most important properties of.such drains are permeability and tensile strength, The jute
filter cover h.~spermeability better than 10-5m/sec. This facilitates the flow of water from pervious lenses
present in the seams and layer of sand and speeds up the pore water pressure dissipation. They have the
advantage of decaying and getting mixed with the soil without harming the environment. When the filter
permeability 'is large, the clogging of the drain has to' be considered. - - - - - -
C ire le of et f e cti ve a re a
..
-'-EL:~ l'77'r~'-
i" . ~I
Fig. 7.47: Radius and distance (or spacing) of gravel pi/es (O-hara, 1987)
Geotextiles are used fairly widely in surface and subsurface installations, (Krishnaswamy and Issac,
1995), Crushed stone wrapped in geotextiles have often been used as surface and subsurface drains.
Perforated plastic pipes too may be used for this purpose. They may be filled with crushed stones, if
necessary.
I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES I
Example 7.1
At a given site, a boring supplemented with standard penetration tests was done upto 15.0 m depth. Tht
results of the boring are as given below:
Depth Classification D50 N-Value DR Remarks

(m) of soils (mm) (%)
1.5 SP 0.18 3 19 (i) Position of watt
3.0 SP 0.20 5 30 table lies 1.5 m
4,5 SM 0.12 6 35 below the grour
6.0 SM 0.14 9 40 surface
7.5 SM 0.13 '. 12 45

9.0 SP 0.16 17 52 (ii) 'YmOiSI= 19 kN/r
10.5 SW 0.20 20 52
12.0 ' SW 0.22 18 46 'Ysub = 10 kN/m
- 13.0 SW 0.22 24 60
15.0 SW 0.24 30 65
.'
iquefaction' of Soils 333..
The site is located in seismic ally ,active region, and is likely to be subjected by 'an earthquake ,of
1agnitude 7.5. Determine the zone of liquefaction using ,
(a) Seed and ldriss (1971) method

(b) Seed (1979) method
(c) lwasaki (1986) method
>olution :
(a) Seed and Idriss (1971) method

(i) From Fig. 7.42, For M = 7.5, D = 106 Km
From Eq. 7.31, amax = 0.984 x 10(0.302x 1.5) x 10~.8 = 0.083

g 9.81
Number of significant cycles (Table 7.3), Ns = 20 (For M = 7.5)
amax .
(ii) From Eq. (7.25)~ 'tav = 0.65yh. - g . rd
= 0.65 x Yh x (0.083) rd
= 0.054 Yh rd
It may be noted that y h represents the total stress at depth h below ground surface. Value of rd are read
from Fig. 7.25. Values of total stress, ad and 'tavat different depths are given in Cols, 3 and 5 of Table 7.7.
(iii) For 50% relative density, the stress ratio ad/2a3 is read from Figs. 7.22a and'b for given values
of,Dso' Average of the two values is the stress ratio for number of significant cycles equal to 20.
The stress causing liquefactionat any depth is then, c9mputedusing
.
Eq. 7.22. '.
ad DR -'
'th=
( 2a 3 ) 50%"50.Cr.av
Values of Cr are .obtained using Table 7.2. The details of computations of 'rh are summarised in
Table 7.8. .
Table 7.7 : Computation of 'ray
S.No. Depth Total stress rd tal'

(m) (kN/m2)
--------------------------------- (kN/m2)
(I) (2) (3) (4) (5)

1. 1.5 28.50 0.99 1.52
2. 3.0 58.50 0.98 3.10
3. 4.5 88.50 0.97 4.64
4. 6.0 118.50 0.97 6.21
5. 7.5 148.50 0.96 7.69
6. 9.0 178.50 0.95 9,14
7. 10.5 208.50 0.94 10.54
8. 12.0 238.50 0.92' 11.90
r
9. 13.5 268.50 0.91 13.23
1p. .15.0 298.50 0.90 14.51
3:J~;, Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundatiolls
Id .),' :"
';1'able 7.8 Computations' of 'thfrom Seed and Idriss (1971) Metbod"

S. No Depth Effective stress. cr DR , Cr , .rh/a!, .rh
;,
(m) (kN/m2) (kN/nO
I. 1.5 28.50 19 0.55 0.2198 1.31

2. 3.0 43.50 30 0.55 0.2260 3.24. .'
3, 4.5 58.50 35 ,0.55, 0.2012 . ' 4-.53,
4. 6.0 73.50 40 0.55 0.2074 6..71
5. 7.5 88.50 45 0.555 0.2043 9.03
6. 9.0 103.50 52 0.573 0.2136 13.17
7. 10.5 118.50 52 0.573 0.2260 15.96
8. 12.0 133.50 46 0.556 0.2298 15.69
9, 13.5. 148.50 60 0.60 0.2298 24.57
1O, 15.0 163.50 65 0.61 0.3336 30.29
(b) S,eed (1979) Method.

" . '(i) In. this method, the value of shear' stress at any depth induced 'by the earthq",lake is obtained
, ,.;'. exactly in th,e same manner as illustrated in Seed and ldriss (1971) method (Table 7.7)
(ii) To de,termine 1:hfirstly N-values are corrected for effective overburden pressure using Fig. 7.39.
The stress rati<?1:hla v is then obtained using the relevant curve of Fig. 7.41 for the given value
of corrected N. The details of computations are ~iven in Table 7.9.
Table 7.9 : Detail of Computations of'th by Seed (1979) Method
S.No. Depth N- Va/ue Corrected Effective

, .rh/av .rh
óóóóóóóóóóóóóóóóùóóóóóóóóóóóóóóóóóóóó
-
(m) ", N stress
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
>
1. 1.5 3 4 28.50:, 0.045 ' '1.28
. ." " - -
2. 3.0 5 6 43.50 0.067 2.91
3. 4.5 6 7 58.50 0.079 4.62
4. 6.0 9 10 73.50 0.113 8.30
5. 7.5 12 13 88.50 0.146 12.92
6:- 9.0 17 17 103.50 0.191 19.77
7.. 10.5 20 ' 18 118.50 0.194 22.99
8. 12,0 18 17 133.50 0.183 24.43
9. 13.5 24 " 20 148.50 0.225 31.93
I
10. 15.0 30 25 . 163.50 0.269 43.98

l'UeTattwn ofSolls: ,'" ,<""
I Iw-asaki's Method
.--'( i) Fir'stIy the'value of factor R is obtained using the following Eel.7.29a ;

. , . , ,,' .. '
0.35
.,
R .= 0.882~ +0.225 loglO
.. V~:+ 70, ( °50 J
The details of computations of factor R are given in Table 7.10.
" Table 7.10 :' DetaH~ of Computations for obtaining Factor R in Iwasaki's Method
S,No, Depth ay 'D5o N R
2
(m)
- - - - - -- - '- - - - - - - - - - -(mm) (kN/m )
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(I) ,(2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1. 1.5 28.50 0.18 3 0.2189

2. 3.0 43.50 0.20 5 0.2398
3. ' 4.5 58.50 ' 0.12 6 0.2950
4, 6.0 - 73.50 ,0.14 ,9 0.3104
5. 7.5 88.50 0.13 " 12 0.3394
6. 9.0 103.50 .0.16 17 0.3525
7.',' 10.5 118.50 0,20 20 0.3419
8. 12.0 133.50 0.22 18 0.3077
9. 13.5 148.50 0.22 24 0.3377
"1'0. -,':,. ". 15:0 163.50,' .' 0.24 " 30 0:3464
/.
(ii) The factor L is then obtained using Eq. 7.30 :
a a
L =
, '
max '~'r- d
. gall
The details of computations are given in Table 7.11. The ratio of factor of safety RlL is listed in the
astcolumnofTable7.11. ",' '.,
, .," ' ,
Table 7.11 : 'Details :of Computations of Obtaining Liquefaction Potential by Iwasaki's J\1ethod
S.No., - ., ,Depth (m). , . crJcrv'" rei L FL

---------------------------------
. (I).. (2) '. (3), (4) (5) (6)
, ,
L. ,).5., 1.000 0,9,9 0.0820 2.670

2. 3.0 1.345 0.98 0.1092 2.196
3. 4.5 1.513 0.97 0.1215 2.427
4. . 6.0 '!' .' .1.612 0.97 ',0.1295 2.397
5, 7.5 . ~, '1.678 0.96 0.1334 2.544
. 6: . ; 9.0 ' '1.725 0.95 0.1357 2.597
7, 10.5 i,758 0.94 . . , 0.1369 2.498
"
, 8. ., 12.0., :,,-,'~."'L787 0.92 0.1362 2.260
9. 13.5 1.808 0.91 0.1363 : 2.4 78
10,,- , ::" i'C,: 15.0. ,'L ; ...;,;',1.8,26 . 0.90 , 0.136,1 2.545
-
;:..\:; ." ,
, - ...
336 Soil Dynamics & Ml1ChineFoullda .
In Table 7.12, summary of different methods are given. It is evident from this table that liquefaction ,tl
occurs only uptoL5 m depth according to Seed and Idriss (1971) method, 3.0 m depth according to Seed $'
(1979) method; and no liquefaction according to Iwasaki's method.
Tabl-e 7.12 : Summary of Different Methods
S.No, Depth t'av t'h th /wasaki

Seed and Idriss Seed (1979) method
method (1971) FL (R/L)
(m) (kN/m2) (kNlm2) (kN/m2)
1. 1.5 1.52 1.31 1.28 2.670

2. 3.0 3.10 3.24 2.91 2.196
3. 4.5 4.64 4.53 4.62 2.427
4. 6.0 6.21 6.71 8.30 2.397
5. 7.5 7.69 9.03 12.92 2.544
6. 9.0 9.14 13.17 19.77 2.597
7. 10.5 10.54 15.96 22.99 2.498
8. 12.0 11.90 15.69 24.43 2.260
9. 13.5 13.23 24.57 31.93 2.4 78
10. 15.0 14.51 30.29 43.98 2.545
'I
Arya, A. S., ~andakumaran, p" Puri, V. K. and S. Mukerjee, (1978), "Verification of liquefaction potential by field
blast tests", Proc. 2nd. International Conference on Microzonation, Seattle-, USA, Vol. II, p. 865.
Bowles, 1. E. (1982), "Foundation analysis and design", McGraw Hill Book Co. SIngapore.
Casagrande, A. (1965), "The role of the calculated risk in earthwork and foundation engineering", 1. Geotech, Engg.
Div., ASCE, Vo\. 91, No. SM4, pp: 1-40, Proc. Paper 4390.
Castro, G. (1969), "Liquefaction of sands", Harvard Soil Mechanics Series No. 81, Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts: . . .
Castro, G. (1975), "Liquefaction and cyclic 'mobility of saturated sands", Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering
Division, ASCE, 10L(GTS), pp. 551-569.
Castro, G. and S. 1. Poulos (1976), "Factors affecting liquefaction and cyclic mobility ", Symposium on Soil lique-
faction, ASCE, National Connvention, Philadelphia, pp. 105-138.
Christian, J. T. and W. 'F. Swiger (1976), "Statistics of liquefaction and S.P.T. results", 1. Geotech. Engg. Div.,
ASCE, Vol. 101,No. G T 11, pp. 1135-1150. . .
Corps of Engineers, U. S. Dept. of the Army (1939), "Report of the slide of a portion of the upstream face at fort
peck dam", U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
DeAlba, P., H. B., Seed, and C. K. Chan (1976), "Sand liquefaction in large scale simple shear tests", J. Geotech.
Engin. Div., ASCE, Vol. 102, No. GT9, pp. 909-927. .
Dunn, J. A., 1. B. Auden and A. M. N. Ghosh (1939), "The Bihar Nepal earthquake of 1934", Mem. Geol. Surv.,
-' India, Vo\. 73, p. 32. .
Finn, W. D. L., P. L. Bransby and D. 1. Pickering (1970), "EffeCtof strain history on liquefaction of sands", 1. Soil
Mech. Found. Div., ASCE, Vat. 96, No: SM 6, pp. 1971':J934.
Finn, W. D. L, J. J. Emery and Y. P. Gupta (1970), "A shaking table study of the liquefaction of saturated sands
during earthquakes", Proc. Third Europ. Symp., Earthquake Engin., pp. 253-262.
Florin, V.A., and P. L Ivanov .(1961), '~Liquefactionof saturated sandy soils", Proc. Fifth Into Conf. Soil mech.
Found. Engin., Paris, V01. 1, pp. 107-111.
Gupta, M. K. and S. Mukherjee (1979), "Blast tests for liquefaction studies", Proc. International Symposium on
Insitu Testing of Soil and Rock and Performance of Structures, Roorkee, India; vel. I, p. 253.
Geuze, E. (1948), "Critical density of some dutch sands", Proc. 2nd ICSMFE, vol. 1Il, pp. 125-13{). ...
Gupta, M. K. (1979), "Liquefaction of sands during earthquakes", Ph. D. Thesis, University of Roorkee, India.
Hall, E. C. (1962), "Compacting of a dam foundation by blasting", ASCE Journal, Vol. 80.
Hazen, A. (1920), "Hydraulic fill dams", ASCE Transactions, Vol. 83, pp. 1713-1745.
Housner, G. W. (1958), "Mechanics of sand blows", Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., Vo1.48, No. 2, pp. 155-168.
lshibashi, 1.and sherif, M.A. (1974), "Soil liquefaction by torsional simple shear device", Journal of the Geotechnical
Engineering Division, ASCE, 100, G T 8, pp. 871-888.
Katsumi, M. M. Maraya and T. Miteuru (1988), "Analysis of gravel drain.against liquefaction and its application to
design", IXth WCEE, Tokyo, vol. Ill, pp. 249-254.
Kishida, H. (1966), "Damage' of reinforced concrete bu,ildings in Niigata city with special reference to foundation
engineering", Soil Found. Engin. (Tokyo), Vo\. 9, No. \, pp. 75-92.
.~, . .
Koppejan, A. W. ,Wamelen, B. M. and L J. Weinberg (1948), "Coastal flow slides in the dutch province of seeland",
Proc. 2nd lCSMFE, Vo\. 5, pp. 89-96, Rotterdam.
Krishnamaswamy, N. R. and N. T. lssac (1995), "Liquefaction analysis of saturated reinforced granular soil", ASCE,
Vol. 121, No. 9, pp. 645-652.
Krishna, J. and S. Prakash (1968), "Blast tests at obra dam site", J. Inst. Engin. (India), Vol. 47, No. 9, pt. CI5, pp.
1273-1284. ..,'
Kuizumi, Y.{1966), "Change in density of Sand subsoil caused by the Niigata earthquake", Soil Found. Engin.
(Tokyo), Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 38-44.
Kuribayshi, E., Tatsuoka, F.and Yoshida, S. (1977), "History of earthquake induced soilliquefactiori in Japan",
Bulletion of PWRI, 31.
Kuwabara, F. and Yoshumi, Y. (1973), "Effect of sub surface liquefaction on strength of surface soil", ASCE, JGE,.
VoI.19,No.2. .
Lee, K. L , and C. K. Chan (1972), "Number of equivalent significant cycles in strong motion earthquakes", Proc.
, First lnt. Conf., Microzonation, Seattle, Vol. 2, pp. 609-627.
Lee, K. L. and H. B. Seed (1967), "Cyclic stress conditions causing liquefaction of sands", J. Soil Mech. Found,
Div., ASCE, Yo\. 93, No. SMI, pp. 47-70.
Lew, M. (1984), "Risk and mitigation of liquefaction hazard", Proc. YIIlth WCEE, Yol. I, pp. 183-190.
Lyman, A: R. N. (1942), "Compaction of cohesionless foundation soil by explosive", ASCE Trans., Yo\. 107.
Maslov, N. N. (1957), "Questions of seismic stability of submerged sandy foundations and structures", Proc. Forth
Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Engin., London, Vol. 1, pp. 368-372.
Matsuo, H. and S. Ohara (1960), "Lateral earth pressure and stability of quay walls", Proc. Second World Confer-
ence on Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, Vol. 1, pp. 165-182. ,
Middlebrooks, T. A. (1942), "Fort peck slide", ASCE Transactions, Vol. 107, pp. 723-764.
Ohasaki, Y. (1966), "Niigata earthquake 19'64,.buildingdamag~ and soil conditions", Soil ~ound.(Tokyo), Vol. 6,
No. 2, pp. 14-37. ,', :
' ,
Ohasaki, Y. (1970), ;"Effectsof sand.c~mpacti~n on liquefaction during the Tokachioki earthquak~",,S()il.fQ.und.

. (Tokyo),Yol.;.lO,No.-2,'pp.";t112-J28... ';, '.I' ; ! i. ',! "',
338 Soil Dynamics & Machine .Foundation
O-hara, S. and T. Tamamoto (1987)" "Fundamental study on gravel pile.method for preventing liquefaction", ECEE
87, pp. 5.3/41-48.
Peacock, W. H. and H. B. Seed (1968), "Sand liquefaction under cyclic loading simple shear conditions", 1. Soil
Mech. Found., Div., ASCE, Vol. 94, No. SM 3, pp. 689-708.
Prakash, S. (1981), "Soil dynamics", McGraw HillBook Co.
Prakash, S. and M. K.Gupta (1970a), "Final report on liquefaction and settlement characteristics of loose sand
'" under vibrations", Proc. International Conference on Dynamic Waves in Civil Engineering, Swansea,
. pp. 323-328~' . .
Prakash, S, and M. K. Gupta(1970b), "Blast tests at Tenughat dam site", 1. Southeast Asian Soc. Soil mech. Found.
Engin (Bangkok), Vol. I, No. 1, pp. 41-50. .
Prakash, S. and M. K. Gupta (1970c), "Liquefaction and settlement characteristics of Ukai dam sand", Bull Indian
Soc. Earthquake Tech. (Roorkee), Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 123-132,
Prakasn, S. and mathur, 1. N. (1965), "Liquefaction of fine sand under dynamic loads", Proc. 5th Symposium ofthl
Civil and Hydraulic Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore., India
Seed, H. B. and K. L. Lee (1966), "Liquefaction of saturated sands during cyclic loading", ASCE, JGE, VoL 92, No
.
SM 6, pp, 105-34, .
Seed, H. B. and Idriss, L M, (1971), "Simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential", Journal of So;
mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, 97, SM9, pp, 1249-1273. .
Seed, H. B" Lee, K, L. , Idriss, L M. and F. L Makdisi (1971), "The slides in the San Fernando dams during tl-
earthquake of Feb, 7, 1971", Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, Proceedings, ASCI
VoL 101,No.GT7. .
Seed; H. B. and Booker, 1.R. (1976), "Stabilisation of potentially liquefiable sand deposits using Gravel dra
system", Report No. EERC 76-10, Earthquake Engineering Research Centre, University of Califc
nia, Berkeley.
Seed, H, B. (1976a), "Some aspects of sand liquefaction under cyclic loading", Conference on Behaviour of 0'
shore Structures, The Norwegian Institute of Technology, Norway.
Seed, H. B. (1976b), "Evaluation of soil liquefaction effects on level ground during earthquakes", State of the f
Paper, Symposiumon Soil Liquefaction,ASCENationalConvention,Philadelphia,pp. 1-104.
Seed, H. B. (1979), "Soil liquefaction and cyclic mobility evaluation for level ground during earthquakes", 1.Geote
Engin. Div., ASCE, Vol. 105, No. GT2, pp. 201-255.
Seed, H. B., I.Arango and C. K. Chan (1975), "Evaluation of soil liquefaction potential during earthquakes", ReJ:
on EERC, 75-28, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley.
Seed, H. B. and L M, Idriss (1967), "Analysis of soil liquefaction Niigata earthquake", J. Soil mech. Found. D
ASCE, yoL 93, No. SM 3, pp. 83-108. '
Seed, H. B. , K. Mori and C. K. Chan (1977), "Influence of seismic history on liquefaction of sands", J.Geolt
Engin. Div., ASCE, VoL 103, No. G T 4, pp. 246-270.
Seed, H. B., and W. H. Peacock (1971), "Test procedures for measuring soil liquefaction characteristics", 1.
Mech. Found. Div., ASCE, Vol. 97, No. SM 8, pp. 1099-1199. .
Susumu, I. A. I. , Koizimi, K., Node, S. and H. Ysuchia (1988), "Large scale model tests and analysis of Gr
drains", IXth WCEE, Tokyo, Vol. III,pp. 261-266.
Terzaghi, K. and R. B. Peck (1967), "Soil mechanics in engineering practice", John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New 'r
Wang, S. (1984), "Experimental study on liquefaction inhibiting effect of gravel drains", Proc. VIII WCEE, Cal
. nia, Vol. 1, pp. 207-214. .
. WaterwaysExperimentStationU. S. Corpsof Engineers(1967),"Potamologyinvestigations,report 12-18,\

cation of empirical methods for determining river bank stability", 1965Data, Vicksburg, Missis'
×¬åå¢³
Yasushi, S. and Taniquchi, E. (1982), "Large scale shaking table tests on the effectiveness of Gravel drains", Earth-
" quake Engg,Conference,Southamopton,pp. 843-847.
.Yosufurni, T., Kokusho, G. and Matsui (1984), "On preventing liquefaction of level ground using Gravel pnes",
<' ',. ' Proc. JASCE, No. 352, pp. 89-98.
,Yoshimi, Y. 'and H. Oh-aka (1973), "A ring torsion apparatus for simple shear tests", Proc. 8th International Con-
'- . -' ference on Soil mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 12, Moscow, USSR.. .
Yoshimi, Y. (1967), "Experimental study of liquefaction of saturated sands""Soil Found. (Tokyo), Vol. 7, No. 2 pp.
'.", ,20-32. ,,' " " :
, Y~~h{~i,:' Y. ;a~d H. Ohaka (1975),- "I~fl~ericeoi dJgT~e'of sh~~t str~ss revers~l on the liquefaction potential of
", .. , '
,
saturated sands""" Soil FolJnd.(Tokyo), Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 27-40.
'
'- . ' ' '
"'.. ,."'" ,,', ,'C' ,', ..' ',' :-, ,..',,',; ,---: .." , ,--,- L, '
!'..'"
PRACTICE PROBLEMS , I
:- ,'..
7.1 Explain the terms 'initial liquefaction', 'liquefaction' and 'cyclic mobility'. Illustrate your an-
. ,s~e-r 'with " neat ~ketches. ' ' "... ,
7.2 listand, discuss the factors on which liquefaction of,saturated
~, ,
sand depends.
7.3 Give the salient features of the liquefaction studies made by (a) triaxial tests, (b) shake table
tests, and (c) blast tests. '
7.4 Describe briefly the following methods of predicting liquefaction potential

(a) Seed and ldriss (1971) -method ",' ,'"
(b) Seed (1979) method
(c) lwasaki (1986) method ' '/>'
7.5 At a given site boring supplement with SPT was done' upto 20.0 m depth. The results of the
boring are as given below': . : " . '. ~ , '
,
'
Depth Classification D50 N-Value 'DR" , Remarks"
(m) of soils (mm) , ,(%) , ,"I, ;, .f
;'.2,0 SM , 0.20 . ,,4 25 (i) Position of water

4.0 SM 0.18 4 30 tabie lies 2.0 m
~.O SP 0.16 5 33, below the ground
8.0 SP 0.18 7 40 surface"
10.0 SP 0.19 9 43
12.0 SP 0.19 I0 ~' 45

14.0, , SP' 0.19 ',' 12 " 52 = 20 kN/m)
(ii) 'YmOiSI
16,0 SW 0.30 14 56
, ::' 3
18.0 SW 0.32 16 60 'Ysub= 10 k~/rn
20.0 SM
'. 0.20 18' .' ,~3 , ..~
,
This ~jte is 10catedTD.s~{smically,actIve region, ,and the .likely to be subject~4 by an ~aitliquak~,of

magnitude
, ' 7.5. Determine',:ih~"zoneof
, ,"',. " . liquefaction
' ,by the three methods mentioned in Prob. 7.4. ;-
" ,.. <':1 ':'.. t' , ; ,,
.,..'" DLJ
-.; , '. :. , , . '; " u
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MACHINE
FOUNDATION DESIGN
8.1 GENERAL
For machine foundations which are subjected to dynamic loads in addition to static loads, the conven.
tional considerations of bearing capacity and allowable settlement are insufficient to ensure a good de
sign. In general, a foundation weighs several times as much as machine (Cozens, 1938; Rausch, 1959)
Also the dynamic loads produced by the moving parts of the machine are small in comparison to th
static weight of the machine and foundation. But the dynamic load acts repetitively on the foundatior
soil system over long periods of time. Therefore, it is necessary that the soil behaviour be"elastic undt
the vibration levels producedby the machine, otherwisedeformationwill increasewith each cycle (
loading and excessive settlement may occur. The most important parameters for the design of a machir
foundation are: (i) natural frequency of the machine-foundation-soil system; and (ii) amplitude of ID!
tion of the machine at its operating frequency.
8.2 TYPES OF MACHINES AND FOUNDATIONS

There are various types of machines that generate different periodic forces. The main categories are:
8.2.1. Reciprocating Machines. These include steam, diesel and gas engines, compressors and pum;
The basic mechanism of a reciprocating machine consists of a piston that moves within a cylinder
connecting rod, a piston rod and a crank. The crank rotates with a constant angular velocity. Figure
shows the outline of a typical Gangsaw in which the out of balances forces may lead to vibration pr'
lems.
The operating speeds of reciprocating machines are usually smaller than 1000 rpm. Large feci!
cating engines, compressors and blowers generally operate at frequencies ranging with in 50-250 r
Reciprocating engines such as diesel and gas engines usually operate within 300-1000 rpm. ~
The magnitude of the unbalanced forces and moments depend upon the number of cylinders iD
machine, their size, piston displacement and the direction of mounting. The mechanism developiDf
of balance inertia forces for a single crank is ~hown in Fig. 8.2. It consists of a piston of mass mp~
'within a cylinder,"a connecting rod AB of ma~smr and crank AO of mass mewhich rotates abou~JI
. at ~freq~ency 00.The centre of g~avity of the connecting"rod is lo~ated at a distance L) from PO1~'
"the rotatmg masses are to be partially or fully balanced, counterweights of mass mwmay be locat~
their centre of gravity at point c"
c~
Genel-lll P,inciples. 0/ Machine Foundation Design 341
,,' ,
" .
, '..
Uppu slide b ao-ck
,E
In
C
0 l
-
log teed
Saw 'Modes
lit
C
., lower said~ block
E
"
- ... ' ,'r',
0
u c.onn~ctin9 rod
a.
>- c.ounter
~
weight Fly wheel
Foundation
. .,. .
.'" '
block ~
.. . "'.
. - " . . . '. .. .
Fig. 8.1 : Outline of a typical Gang-saw machiDe
Piston
mp,"
"'., '"
,-,
, 0, ..-
'..
""" "
'-v
COUnt,,-...~ttt
->
z
Fig. 8.2 : Crank mechanism
L
1RUP...&4i.
GeneJ!.al,P,inciples- of Machine Foundation Design 341
,,'
" '
UppuSl~,de., blO'ck
,E
In
c:
0 l.
-
Logteed
Saw 'blad~s
, lit
c:
., Lower slide block
E
'0
- -'-0'1'
u c.onnecting rod
Q.
>- c.ounter
~
w~ight Fly whul
-.
foundation
. .'" . block ..- ~
':: : . "'.
- - '" ,..',".
Fig, 8.1 : Outline of a typical Gang-saw machiDe
Piston
mp,"
"'., ".
,',
" 0, ..
"
'-'J' ..
"-v
Count~.. '7~t
,~'
Fig, 8,2 : Crank mechanism
.".'>i
~,"C
.,
L
342
,-" .~oil Dy"ami~. -& ~a.c~i"e F,°'!"d.f!..tiO/,'s
"~
In order to simply the analysis of the motion of the connecting rod, the mass mr is replaced by two
equivalent masses; one rotating with the crank pin A, the other translating with the wrist pin B. The
inertia forces can then b~ e~pre~sed in.t(:OI1sof thtHotal rotating 'mass (mrot)and the total reciprocating
mass (mrec)'The total rotating'mass is a'ssumedto be con~entrated at the crank pin A.
r2 L2' r;'
m =,--'-me+ - mr~- mw ...(8.1)
. rot. - "i ' -L ,ri'
'
. .' ' LI
== +~
mrec mp L mr ...(8.2)
I '
C .'
F: (m rot:+: mrec ),,~1~2c:,os "'t,
Jt r. 2CJ:)
2
F : mre c: 1 cos 2 u.J t
L
F y : mro t r1",2sin u:>t ",
'.
~
0./
.-
';~
0 1r 2'1r 31T
'
.. 00'
- "
L.1T
.'
Fig. 8.3: Variation ofinertiaJorces with time
,:,,;.' . ' ...\ ,.' ,. ;; ~:!'~
'"
-
r!ral Principles of Machine Foundation Design 343
The inertia force (Fz) in the z direction may be shown to be

2 ,
2 '~ ' 2 '
F~ = (mrot + mrec) r} 0> cos (0 t + mrec L (0 cos 2 0> t, " ..,.(S.3)

lchhas a primary component (F1 acting at the frequency of rotation, and a secondary component (F")
[ng at twice the rotation frequency.
Fz = Ft + F" ...(S.4)
And in the y direction
2 . . , ,,':- -,,' , ""'-' I
Fy = mrot . rl 0> sm 0>t .,.(S.5) '
The time variations of these inertia forces are illustrated in Fig. S.3. ,,',',
If. the rotating mass is balanced, the inertia force in the y direction disappears and that. in the z
' " -, '1
ectlon becomes ' -,
.' "
"
',: -."
"
, '
,- ..' - 0' '-," "' - "
F; = mree r 1 ,.,2 COS Cl) t + rl cos 20) t ( S, 6)

VJ
( L' ) ..,
The amplitude of the primary (F:nax)and secondary (F;ax) inertia forces are then relat~da~J.ollQWs'
r,
F" = ~ Ft '; ..:(8,7f
max L max .
The preceding development relates to a single cylinder machine, which possesses unba~ancedpri-
ary and secondary forces. As more cylinders are added the unbalanced forces and couples are modified
shown in Table 8.1 (Newcomb, 1951). With a six cylinders machine complete balance is achieved.
Different crank arrangements pertaining tot,able S.l are shown in Fig. S.4.
x ~
In-tincz cytindczr Qpposczd
~ cytindczr
lM
(a) (b) (c)
y (d)
~
(e)
h1u-
(I)
1~ 0
+~ 0 A J:m,1;t
Cranks at 180 C ran ks at 90
(g) (h)
Fig. 8.4 Different crank arrangements: (a) Single cr;ank(b) Two cranks at 180°(c) Two cranks at 90°
(d) Two cylinders at 90° on one crank (e)T,io'op~s;d ~yllnders ~~one crank (g) Four cylinders (h) Six cylinders
-', .".. ...:\
, .!
~..:. :_--~,-~
1 .' ,-"
.", ,,-..
-",!}",'1-..t"'.'"."'l't';.
-
"""""~>""">"';";""';""'. "i"
:C
"
:If'
j
,
344 Soil Dynamics & Mac/,ine Foundations
,~, "
,.
Reciprocating machines are very frequently encountered in practice. Usually the following two types
of foundations are used for such machines:
," ; (a) Block type foundation consisting of a pedestal of concrete on which the machine rests (Fig. 8.5).
; "Cb) Box or Caisson type foundation consisting a hollow concrete block supporting the machinery on
;
, its top (Fig. 8.6). " ':
',..., .
Fig. 8.S : Block type foundation Fig. 8.6 : Box type foundation
8.2.2. Impact Machines. These include machines like forging hammers, punch presses, and stamping
machines which produce impact loads. Forge hamIners are divided into two groups: drop hammers for
die stamping and forge hammers proper. These machines consist of falling ram, an anvil, and a frame
(Fig. 8.7). The speeds of operation usually range from 50 to 150 blows per minute. The dynamic load~
attain a peak in a very short interval and then practically die out. '
Anvil
Fig. 8.7 :Dro'p biu~~er wit" frame mounted-on anvil
---
:etll!rilf'Principles 'ofMddtitte'Ft1tIiidation Design '345
:able' 8.1 : Unbalanced Forc:esalid Couples for Different CFank Arrangements (Newcomb, 1951)
Crack arrangements
-------------------------
,
Forces --- '
.
Couples
(Fig. 8.4) Primary Secondary ,Primary , :-Secondary
l. --Single 'crank ..F' without counter wts. Fit 0 :0

(0.5) F' with counter wts.
7. Two cranks at 1800 F' 0 without cou~terwts.' " 0
In-line cylinders 0 2F" { (0.5) F' 0 with counterwts. :0
Opposed cylinders 0 0 0 0
... Two cranks at 900 (1.41) F' without counter wts. 0 (1.41) F' 0 without counter wts. E" 0
(0.707) F' with counter wts. (0.707) F' 0 with counter wts.
1. Two cylinders on F' without counter wts. 1.41 F" 0 0
, one crank, cylin- 0 with counter wts.
ders at 90°
-, .
e. Two cylinders on 2 F' without counter wts. 0 0 0
one crank, F' with counter wts.
,'opposed cylinders
r Three cranks at 1200 0 0 (3.46) F' 0 without counterwts. (3.46) F 0 11
(1.73) F' 0 without counterwts.

g. Four Cylinders ,-
Cranks at 1800 0 0 0 0
Cranks at 90° 0 0 (1.41) F'O without counterwts. '(4.0) F" 0
(0.707) F' 0 with counterwts.
h. Six cylinders 0 0 0 0
F' = primary force; F" = secondary force; 0 = cylinder-centre distance

Impact machines may also be mounted on block foundations, but their details would be quite differ-
ent from those of reciprocating machines.
8.2.3. Rotary -Machines. These include high speed machines such as turbogenerators, turbines, and
rotary compressors which operate at frequencies of the order of 3000 rpm to 10000 rpm. Associated with
these machines there maybe a consider~ble amount of auxiliary equipment such as condensers, coolers
and pumps witl1connectingpipework and ducting. To accomodate theseauxiljary 'equipments a common
foundation arrangement is a two storey frame structure with the turbine located on the upper slab and 'the
auxiliary equipment placed beneath, the upper slab being flush with the floot .level of machine ?all
(Fig. 8.8).
~
'... 0" '0'" .. 0',.

,0, .' ~--"" ,.__'0' '0'-. eo "-' ._- -,", -"~,
i +.tt~JJ\;
. ,> r+,.I,~I':"'," 0./ '
0.) , , + '
'1I)'J£:nh;£!"!l1l{~~,,!. n ;!' ,uP '> \' ,it
- Co< .-. .~.. ~

346 SoU Dynamics & Machine Foundatiolls
Turbin~ G ~ n ~ ra tor . "....
Floor
==:J L1m~ c::.
Upper
stab
u ': -: ::. - '0"' ",

':-:';.'~'::
.. --, ,. . .:' . :.':"'"
'-,.
Base stab
Fig. 8.8 : Concrete frame turbogenerator foundation
Rotating machinery is balanced before erection. However, in actual operation some inbalance al-
ways exists. It means that the axis of rotation lies at certain eccentricity with respect to principal axis of
inertia of the whole unit. Although the amount of eccentricity is small in rotary machines the unbalanced
force may be large due to their high speed. Figure 8.9 a shows a typical rotating mass type oscillator in
which a single mass me is placed on a rotating shaft at an eccentricity e from axis of rotation. The
unbalanced forces produced by such a system in vertical and horizontal directions are given by
Fy = me e ol sin rot ...(8.8 a)
FH = me e cos rot ... ...(8.8 b)
3
c
In
U- F :: me ~(A)l
N
/ '
F::me~w2
F( , f .)F
/
(a) Single shaft (b) Double shaft
Fig. 8.9 : Rotating mass type oscillator

"" ,.c.
meral Principles of Machine Follndation Design 347
Figure 8.9b shows two equal masses mounted on two parallel shafts at the same eccentricity, the
1aft rotating in opposite directions with the same angular velocity. Such an arrangement produces an
;;cillating force with a controlled direction. For the arrangement shown in Fig. 8.9b, horizontal force
)mponents cancel and the vertical components are added to give
F = 2 me e 002 sin 00t ...(8.9)
.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS

or the satisfactory design of a machine foundation, the following requirements are met:
1. The combined centre of gravity of the machine and foundation should as far as possible be in the
same vertical line as the centre of gravity of the base plane.
2. The foundation should be safe against shear failure.
. 3. The settlement and tilt of the foundation should be within permissible limits.
4. No resonance should occur; that is the natural frequency of the machine-foundation-soil system
should not coincide with the operating frequency of the machine. Generally, a zone of resonance
is defined and the natural frequency of the system should lie outside this zone.
If 00represents the operating frequency of the machine and oonas the natural frequency of the
system, then
(a) In reciprocating machines (IS: 2974 pt 1-1982)
For important machines: 0.5 > ~ > 2.0

(On
"
(0
For ordinary machines: 0.6 > - > 1.5
(On
(b) In impact machines (IS: 2974 Pt 11-1980)
(0
0.4 > - > 1.5
(On
(c) In rotary machines (IS: 2974 Pt 111-1992)
(0
0.8 > ;- n > 1.25
It may be noted that where natural frequency of system oonis below the operating frequency of
machine 00,the amplitudes during the transient resonance should be considered. For low speed
machines, the natural frequency should be high, and vice versa. When natural frequency is
lower than the operating speed, the foundation is said to be low tuned or under tuned, when the
natural frequency is higher than the operating speed, it is high tuned or over tuned.
5. The amplitude of motion at operating frequencies should not exceed the permissible amplitude.
In no case the permissible amplitude should exceed the limiting ampli~~e of the machine which
is, prescribed by the manufacturer.
. . . .
6. 'The vibra'tiOli~must not be amloying to the persons working in the fact~iy or be damaging to
other precis;.on machines. Th~ '~ahiie 'of vibrations that are perceptible, -annoying, or harmful
depends on the frequency of the vibrations and the amplitudes of motion. Ri~rt (1962) devel-
ùæ{æ
~-~~":"-.:,.':;;;:';';;"';":,:";::,L_:~,_-':"'".:1:L'-'~U:t "'" " '";,,, ."", ; ,""" "
348 Soil Dy",a,mics &. Machine. FollndationS"
oped a plot for vibrations (Fig, 8,10) that gives various limits of frequency and amplitude for
different purposes, In this figure, the envelop described by the shaded line indicates only a limit
for safety and not a limit for satisfactory operation of machines,
Disp la c.emen t ampl i tude AI mm

0. 0 0
0 ,0 0 '-/ A
. 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
0
0 0 . . 0
0
.....g
0
0
0
N
0
U1
0
.....
0,
N
0
U1 0..... 0
N '" -
o.
"o
0 r ') ,o
, '1»-oCO
0.<> \--':'
'b" .0
0" ,,0 ,'"
tJ1 0 ')', \--,'
)"D -0'1>
"'rig
""I 0; 0
~ q.;>0 "D
""- ",
1")'
.D )( 0" "D
C ..... 0 &>
~ 0
::J 0 '" )"D "D"""
n 0
'<
'" " ,>0
)"D
0
0"
n N
" 0 0'"
3 00 ",Y>
V'1
0
0
0
.....
..0
0
0
0
Fig, 8,10 : Limiting amplitudes ofvibratlon for a particular frequency (Richan, 1962)
8.4 PERMISSIBLE AMPLITUDE
For the design of machine foundation, the values of permi~sible amplitudes suggested by Bureau
Indian
,t,
St~ndards
-'i'
for the foundations
"," -,.
'of different typ~s
"',;', ",.
of~chines.are
',"",','"
given:"",
in Table 8,_2,' ,
,x/A (~,N~ ;: :~ " ,.,; '," '0 . - . .' -, ., ..", .
,.
eral Principles of Machine Foundation Design 349
Table 8.2: Values of Permissible Amplitudes for Foundations of Different Machines
, No. . Type of machine Permissible amplitude Reference

mm
I. Reciprocating machines . 0.2 IS: 2974 (Pt - I)

2, Hammer.
(a) For foundation block 1.0 to 2.0 IS: 2974 (Pt - 11)
(b) For anvil 1.0 to 3,0
3. Rotary machines
(a) Speed < 1500 rpm 0.2 IS: 2974 (Pt - IV)
(b) Speed 1500 to 3000 rpm 0.4 to 0.6
Vertical vibration
0.7 to 0.9 IS: 2974
Horizontal vibration (Pt -III): 1992
(c) speed> 3000 rpm 0.2 to 0.3
Vertical vibration
0.4 to 0.5
Horizontal vibration
Permissible amplitude dependents on the weight of tup, lower value for 10 kN tup and higher value for the tup
weight equal to' 30 kN or higher. ..
,5 ALLOW ABLE SOIL PRESSURE

he allowable soil pressure should be evaluated by adequate sub-soil exploration and testing hi accor-
mce with IS: 1904-1978, The soil stress below the foundation,s,hallnot exceed 80 percent of the allow-
)le soil pressure. When seismic forces are considered, the a1f6wablesoil pressure may be increased as
~ecified in IS: 1893-1978.
.6 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES OF CONCRETE AND STEEL

or the construction ofthe foundation of a machine MI5 or M20 or M25 concrete in accordance with IS:
.56-1978 shall be used. The allowable stresses of concrete and steel shall be reduced to 40 percent for
oncrete and 55% for steel, if the detailed design of foundation and components is limited to static load
)f foundati'Jn and machine. Considering temperature and all other loadings together, these assumed
,tresses may be exceeded by 33.5 percent. Alternatively, full value of stresses for concrete and steel as
;pecified in IS: 456-1978 may be used if dynamic loads are separately considered in detailed design by
lpplying suitable creep and fatigue factors.
The following dynamic moduli of concrete may be used in the design:
Grade of Concrete Dynamic elastic modulus (kN/m2)
MI5 2.5 x 107
M20 3.0 x 107
M25 3.4 x 107
M30 3.7 x 107
"',
..... '--~"'--"'- "'-"""-'-""--'---'-' '--' """'-" '-"'- '-,..""
(~~.
- -~
350 SoU Dynamics & Machine Foundatioll$
'"-.
8.7 PERMISSffiLE STRESSES OF TIMBER
The timber is generally used under the anvil of hammer foundations. Grade of timber is specified accord--\'>
ing to the size of defects like knots, checks etc. in the timbe~ Timber is thus classified into three grades."
Select, Grade I and Grade H. The best quality timber having minimum or no defects at all is of the select
~rade. ?rade I timber is one hav~g. defects not larger than the ~peci~ed ones. Grade H t~mberi.spoore~
In quahty than grade I. The permissible values of stresses are given IDTable 8.3 for species of timber of
grade I. In machIne'foundations timber of select grade is used. The permissible stresses of timber given
in Table 8.3 may be multiplied by 1.16 to get the permissible stress of timber of select grade.
t
Table 8.3 - Minimum PermissibleStress Limits (N/mm2)in Three Groups of Struc,turalTimbers
(For Grade I Material)
S.No. Strength Character Location of Use Group Group Group
A B C
(i) Bending and tension along grain Inside(2) 18.0 12.0 8.5
(ii) Shear(I) 1.05 0.64 0.49
Horizontal All locations
Along grain All locations
(iii) Compression parallel to grain Inside(2) 11.1 1.8 4.9
(iv) Compression perpendicular to grain Inside(2) 4.0 2.5 1.1
(v) Modulus of elasticity (x 103 N/mm2) All locations and grade 12.6 9.8 5.6
(I) The values of horizontal shear to be used only for beams. In all other cases shear along grain to be used":
(2) For working stresses for other locations of use, that is out side and wet, generally factors of 5/6 and
2/3 are applied ~
The permissible bearing pressures on other elastic materials such as felt, cork and rubber are gener-.J
ally given by the manufactureres of these materials. No specific values are recommended here since theY4
vary in wide limits. .
, 1
...
.. .
", "'~
}
- .
.I;
..
~~J
""'1
<-
-J
i
- ,
'
ó ùþôòþôæôùôùþù¬ùô¢åþùæùâþôæùåôôôôùôòþùô òþôþùþ
ò îÿåô
Õù
FOUNDATIONS OF RECIPROCATING MACHINES

..
9.1 GENERAL
Reciprocating machines are common in use. Steam engines, internal combustion engines (e.g. diesel,
and gas engines), pumps and compressors fall in this category of machines. Block type or box type
foundations are used for reciprocating machines.
For the satisfactory performance of the machine-foundation system, the requirements given in sec.
8.3 should be fulfilled. For this, one has to obtain (i) the natural frequency of the system, and (ii) the
amplitude of foundation during machine operation. In this chapter, methods have been presented to
obtain these two parameters in different modes of vibration. The basic assumptions made in the analyses
are: (i) the foundation block is considered to have only interial properties and to lack elastic properties,
and (ii) the soil is considered to have only elastic properties and to lack properties of interia. Design steps
and illustrative examples are given at the end of the chapter.
9.2 MODES OF VIBRATION OF A RIGID FOUNDATION BLOCK

A rigid block has, in general, six degrees of freedom. Three of them are translations along the three
principal axes and the other three are rotations about the three axes. Thus, under the action of unbalanced
forces, the rigid block may undergo .vibrations as follows (fig. 9.1) :
1. Translation along Z axis - Vertical vibration
2. Translation along Y axis - Longitudinal or sliding vibration
3. Translation along X axis - Lateral or sliding vibration
4. Rotation about Z axis - Yawing motion
5. Rotation about Y axis - Rocking vibration
6. Rotation about X axis - Pitching or rocking vibration
The vibratory modes may be 'decoupled' or 'coupled'. Ofthe six modes, translation along Z axis and
rotation around the Z axis can occur independently ot any other motion and are called decoupled modes.
However, translation along the X or Y axis and the corresponding rotation about the Y or X axis, respec-
tively, always occur together and are called coJlpled modes. Therefore the dynamic analysis of a block
foundation should be carried out for the following cases:
(i) Uncoupled translatory motion along Z axis i.e. vertical vibration.
(ii) Coupled sliding and rocking motion of the foundation in X- Z and Y - Z planes passing through
the common centre of gravity of machine and foundation.
(iii) Uncoupled twisting motion about Z axis.
oundatiQns of .Recip~oCQtingM achines 353
A rigid block being ~ problem of six degrees of freedom has six natural frequencies. The natural
requency is determined in a particular mode (decoupled or coupled) and compared with the operating
requency. Similarly, amplitude is worked out in a particular mode and compared with the permissible
~. '
vczrtical
Rocking
~--', ~ +X
Latczral
/ "
Fig. 9.1 : Modes ofvibration oh rigid block foundation
9.3 METHODS OF ANALYSIS

The following two methods are commonly used for analysing a machine foundation:
(i) Linear .elastic weightless spring method (Barkan, 1962)
(ii) Elastic half - space method (Richart, 1962)
In the first method which is proposed by Barkan (1962), soil is replaced by elastic springs. In devel-
oping the analysis the ,effects of damping andpartidpating soil 'mass are neglected. Damping does not
affect the natural.frequency of the-system appreciably, but. it affects resonant amplitudes considerably:
Since the zone of" resonance is avoided in designing !I1achinefoundations,the effect of dampingon '
amplitudes computed at operating frequency is also $mall. Hence neglecting, damping may not affect the
design apPI:eciably,and if any that on the conservative side. Empirical methods have been suggested to
obtain the soil ma~s ,participating'in vibration. ' . ,
In the elastic half-space method,;:,!he"machine:foundation is idealised as a vibrating mechanical

oscillator with.a circular' base resting ~Il,the~surface;ofgroumLThe .ground is assumed to bean elastic,
homogeneous, isotropicf;semi~infiriit~ody~~whichis referredto.asanelastic half-space. This approach
is apparently more rational, but relatively more complicated.
'-"','
.,"'.
. >i
In the above two methods, the effect of side soil resistance is not considered that is the foundation is
assumed to rest on the ground surface.
9.4 LINEAR ELASTIC WEIGHTLESS SPRING METHOD

Barkan (1962) has given the analysis of block foundation in following modes of vibration:
(i) Vertical vibration
(ii) Pure sliding vibration
(iii) Pure rocking vibration
(iv) Coupled sliding and rocking vibration
(v) Yawing motion
Machinq;
Fou ndation
Ground L<zv<z1
'"
Of
-L
Soil
Fig. 9.2: Block foundation
Let us consider a block foundation of base contact area A placed at a depth Dfbelow the ground level
(Fig. 9.2). Neglectingthe effect of side soil resistance and considering soil as weightless elastic material,
the machine - foundation soil system can be idealised to mass-spring system shown in Fig. 9.3 a to 9.3 e
for different modes of vibration. Barkan (1962) had introduced the following soil parameters which yield
the spring stiffnesses of soil in various modes:
(a) Coefficient of elastic uniform compression (C,) : It is defined as the ratio of compressive stress
applied to a rigid foundation bl~ck to the 'elastic' part of the settlement induced consequently. Thus
Cu =!!.L (Fig. 9.3 a) ...(9.2)

Sez
It is used in vertical vibration mode. From defmition, spring constant Kz
Load qz A
K= . =-=C.A ...(9.3 )
z elastic deformation Sez u
.-
""datioilS of ReCiprocating Machines 355
.1 Fz<t) t Fz(t)
-- ---------
m Fz
K.Z = Se2
L-- -- -- J
~~. S
f ez
(a) Vertical vibration

..,
I
I
I
I m
I
I I
I Fx
I
I
I
Fx (t)
. . . I
I
I
. .. . ..
Fx (t),
KX = Sex
I I
I I , .'
, -+I~'Sex
I I Kx
I ,. I
--. -"'7jN...-
....
I ---- --- (b) Pure sliding vibration
I
I
I My(t) ---"""" -'"7 My(t)
I I
I
I
I
f:\ I
I
I
I
F:)
K,=
My
T
I I
I I
'--....
-""-....
'U:{f
rp'
K~
(c) Pure rocking vibration
Fig. 9.3 : Types of motion of a rigid foundation (...Contd.)

356 , ';Soil"'vDymnnics-'>& ~Mfld,ine '-Fl1wuJtltions
, 'i = Angle ot
, nMZ{t) . torston ot ~MZ{t)
toun'da tier.
(not shown)
/ /
(d) Yawing vibration

Fd (t)
r-
, a.... ...
Fd (t)
. ..
, ......
....
I , ,
/ ,
I , "
,
,,I
,,
I
i., .... ,,
.... ...
.... I
I - 'Kx
'... '. Kx
'-.~"'-. >."'"
-i 'r' ~~tSex "...,
,"
K~
(e) Coupled slidding and rocking vibration
'. Fig~'9.3': Types of motion of a rigid foundation
(b) Coefficient of elastic uniform shear (Cr): It is defined as the ratio of the average shear stress a
the foundation contact area to the elastic part of the sliding movement of the foundation.
q
Ct = Sex
x (Fig. 9.3 b) ...{9.4
It is used in analysing sliding vibration mode. The spring constant Kx is given by

. K = Shear load = qx .A = C . A "
x t ... (9 "-
Sex Sex .
(c) Coefficient of elastic non-uniform Compression (C~ : It is used in rocking vibratic

(Fig. 9.3 c). In this case the elastic settlement of the block is not uniform over the base. It
defined as the ratio of intensity of pressure at certain location from the centre of the base of bloc
to the corresponding elastic settlement. If cpisthe angle of rotation of block, then at a distaD-
I from the centre of the base of block, the elastic-deformation will be I cp.Taking the intensity ,
pressure at this location as q, C. is given by
q
...(9.
C~ =[cp
F oLlm/lIlilJl;,. (~r J:ecfproclItillg Machines J57
The sllj},:f.::';sKIj>is'defil1E".1as the motnent per unit rotation,a~d is given by

M
K =-=C .1 ...(9.7)
<jI cp
where, J = Moment of irf'rtia of the base of block about the axis of rotation
M = Moment caused due to soil reaction
(d) Coefficient of elastic non-uniform shear (CljIJ: It is used in yawing motion. If a foundation is
acted upon by a moment with respect to vertical axis, it will rotate about this axis (Fig. 9.3 d).
Tests have shown that the angle of rotation \j/ of the block is proportional to the external mo-
ment.
Therefore, M z =K 'I' \j/ ...(9.8)
where K =C .J ...(9.9)
'I' 'I' z
J- = Polar moment of the intertia of contact base area of foundation.
In the rotation of a' foundation around a vertical axis, the base of the foundation undergoes nonllni-
form sliding, hence the term "Coefficient of elastic nonuniform shear". is applied to the Coefficient C IjI.
Barkan (1962) derived the £q. (9.10) for determining
-. the value of CU . It is based on theory of elas-
ticity. .
1.13£ 1
Cu=I-~2'JA ...(9.10)
where, £ = Young's modulus of soil
, .'
~ = Poisson's ratio
A = Area of base of the foundation
He also developed the relationships between Cu' Ccp'Ct and C'I" For analysis and design of machine
foundation, he recommended that
Cu=2Ct ...(9.11)
Ccp=.2Cu. ...(9.12)
Ct = 1.5 C'I' ...(9.13)
For preliminary design, Barkan (1962) recommended the values of ClIas listed in Table 9.1.
The procedure of determining th.evalues of cu' Ct £ and G have been given in detail in sec 4.3 of
chapter 4. As discussed in that section; dynamic elastic' constants depend on (i) base area of foundation,
(ii) confining pressure and (iii) strain level. The method of converting the value of adynamic elastic
constant obtained from a field test for using in the de~ign of actual foundation has been illustrated in
examples 4. 2 and 4.3.
j . .,'... ,..:-: " , U, !' " ',. ~ c :".; r . ~.
. .~,~. ,t. "': . n.!,

i;.'. -I
Table 9.1 : Recommended Design Values for the Coeficient of Elastic Uniform Compression Cu
2*
for A = 10 m
3
Soil Soil group Permissible static load, Cu' kN/m
kN/m2
2 3 4
4
Weak soils (clays and silty clays with sand in plastic up to 150 up to 3 x 10
state; clayey and silty sands; also soils of categories II
and III with laminae of oraganic silt and of peat)
11 Soil of medium strength (clays and silty clays with sand 150 to 350 (3 - 5) x 104
close to the plastic limit; sand)
III Strong soils (clays and silty clays with sand of hard con- 350 to 500 (5 - 10) x 104
sistency; gravels and gravelly sands; loess and loessial soils)
IV Rocks > 500 > 10 x 104
* After Barkan (1962)

9.4.1. Vertical Vibrations. For the purpose of analysis, the machine -foundaton-soil system shown in
Fig. 9.3a is represented by the idealised mass-spring system shown,in fig 9.4. Let the unabalanced force
is representd by
Fz.(t) = Fz sin rot (91.4)
³ ã Ó¿-- of machine
³
plus foundation
Kz = Cu.A
Fig: 9.4 : Equivalent model for vertical vibration

If the centre of gravity of the foundation and machine and the centroid of the base area of the foun
dation in contact with the soil lie on a vertical line that coincides with the line of action of the excitint
force Fz, then foundation will vibrate vertically only.
The equation of motion of the system is
mz + Kz' Z = Fzsin IDt' (9.15
where, M = Mass of machine and foundation

Kz = Equivalent spring constant of the soil in vertical direction for base area A of the foUl
dation = CuA
., ,-,
,tidaiiiJns of Reciprocating' MaCih;n~ 359
;.
Cu = Coefficient of elas~c uniform compression.
, .
Therefore, the natural frequency IDnz of the system is
(9.16)
ID.z = ~~z =r~ A.
The amplitude .of motion Az is given by

. Fz sin IDt Fz sin 0)t
A = = 2 (9.17a)
. Z . K -m0)2 C A-mO)
z Il
Fz sin 0)t
or A = 2
m ( 0) nz -
2 (9.17b)
Z
'
0) )
Maximum amplitude of motion Az is given by
- Fz (9.18)
Az - 2 2
. .' m (Ct>nz.-ro ) . .
3.2. Sliding Vibrations of a Block. In practice, rocking and sliding occur simultneously. But if the
bration in rocking can be neglected ,then only horizontal displcement of the foundation would occur
tderan excitingforce Fx(t) on the block of area A (Fig.9.3b). This system can be indealised as shown
Fig.9.5.
-,. I
I
I
I m
,
I
I
I
I
I
~x ~/ ,\..
Fig. 9.5: (a) Block foundation in pure sliding vibration
(b) Equivalent model
The equation of motion of the system is'
mx + K.~ = Fx sin rot (9.19)
vhere, x = Sliding displacement of,the foundation
Kx = Equivalent spring c~nstap.t of the soil in sliding for base area A of the
foundation = Ct. A, '",
Ct = Coefficient of elastic uniform shear. :
Therefore, the natural frequency Ct>nxof the system is

~;',~ fKX; =' rc;A : (9.20)
: '
nx" f;; v-;;- q
Maximum amplitude of motion

. A x is given by
. '~"-'..'>;:).,:' """:~:':,'-:I:A l_~I"'-<'Fx":. .,.; ,:~f':, ,. ", ....(9)J)

. . .. ",
", ,.1, .. " x'~'~~;x'_~2)"""'J"_: '."
,
360 SoU Dynamii;s ~,Mac;4,ine, Found~tiof}s.
9.4.3. Pure Rockmg Vibrations of a Block. Consider only the rock~ngy~bri,J,tionsin~uced in a founda-
tion block by an externally exciting moment Mv(t) (FIg. 9.3c). this "isalso a hypothetical case as
rocking vibrations are coupled with sliding vibrations. Let the unbalanced moment be given by -
My (t) = Mysin IDt -- (9.22)
where, My = Moment acting in the X - Z place'

At any time t, considering that the applied moment is actIng in clockwise -direction the"displaced
position of the block will be as shown in Fig. 9.6. In ~achine foundations, as the rotation <pis small,
tan <p= <pin radians. The equation of motion can be obtained by applying Newton's second law of motion.
My (t) = My Sin GJt
~'
(
'-,- "
...
-----x
~
( a)
qst
I
Elem<znt dA
(b)
Fig. 9.6 : Block foundation under pure rocking vibrations

The various moments acting on the foundation about the centre of rotation are obtained as descri
below:
(i) Moment MRdue to soil reaction: Consider an element dA of the foundation area in contact'
the soil and located ar ..: :..tance / from the axis of rotati~n (Fig. 9.6 b). At any time, the soil wil
ndations 361
. . ' '" of Reciprocating
1>."
Machines
"-", .
npressed nonuniformly. From t~e de~n~t~on of ~oef5cient of dastic un}form compression, ,C~ ~s
d R I dA
C~ = 14> ...(9.23 a)
.ere, d R = Soil reaction force acting on dement dA
cl> = Angle of rotation
I~~hefoundation does not lose contact with soil, then the soil reaction will be as shown in Fig. 9.6 b.
le total reactive moment MR against the foundation area in contact with soil is given by ,
A '
...(9.24 )
MR = J C~.l~dA.l ==C~.cI>JPdA = C~ I <\>
here, I = Moment of inertia of tpe foundation area in contact with the soil with respect to the axis
of rotation. .
This moment acts is the anticlockwise direction. '
(ii) Moment Mw due to .the displaced position of centre of gravity of the block: As shown in
ig. 9.6 a, the centre of gravity of the block is shifted from point 0 to 0' . As angle of rotation <\>
is small,
:le moment Mw of Weight W will be ' .
Mw =WLti\ 't' ...(9.25 )
vhere, L = Distance between the centre of gravity of block and axis of rotation.
This moment acts in the clockwise direction.
(iii) Moment Mj caused by intertia of foundation: , "
It is given by Mj = Mmo ~ . . ...(9.26)

.vhere, Mmo =; Moment of inertia of the'mass of the foundation and machine \"":"ith
respect of axis of
rotation. '
This moment acts in the anticlockwise direction. .

The equation of motion can be written by equating clockwise moments to anticlockwise moments
Therefore, My sin' (tJt + WL cl>= c cl>14> + Mmo ~
or , Mmo 4> + (C~ 1- WL) <\>= My sin Cl)t ...(9.27)
The natural frequency wn«/>

of this system is given by
wn4>_,t.l-
- M mo ...(9.28)
WL
and maximum
.
displacement
. . A
' ~ i~ given, by
. '. . ,
. My
A = 2 2 ...(9.29)
~. Mmo(ron,~ro) ".
. '. "", .' .' . ,--" .'
l
-- .-'-
362 Soil Dynamics. &Mac1iin~ Foundatiolt/;
'.0;, 'l
In practice, C. I is many times WL ; hence Eq. (9.28) may be written:'
con.=I Mmo ~ .I
If the dimensions of the footing at the base are a and b in the X andY direction~, respectively,
...(9.30)
,;~
ba3
1=- , ...(9.31)
12 , -.
Cell ba3
conI/! = "MU
/nO
Y
...(9.32)
It is seen from Eq. (9.32) that the linear dimension of the contact area perpendicular to the axis of
rotation exercises a considerably greater effect on the natural frequency of rocking vibrations than the
other dimension. This principle is sometimes used in proportioning the sides of the machine foundation
undergoing predominantly rocking yibrations. , '
The amplitude of the vertical motipn of the edge of the footing is
Azr = ~xA,
Mya/2
...(9.33'
= Mmo(O)~'- 0)2)
Similarly, the contribution of rocking, towards the horizontal amplitude is
Axr = h. A, ...(9.34
where, h = Height of the point above the base where amplitude is to be determined.
Azr and Axr are added to Az (Eq. 9.18) and Ax (Eq.9.21) respectively to obtain total vertical an
sliding amplitudes when rocking is combined with vertical and sliding vibrations.
9.4.4. Yawing Vibrations of a Block. A foundation is subjected to yawing motion if it is subjected to
torsional moment Mz (t) about Z-axis (Fig. 9.7a). The positionof the foundationat any time t mayt
defined in terms of angle of rotation "'.
Let the unbalanced moment is given by
Mz(t) = Mzsin (J)t ...(9.3
As explained in Sec. 9.4, the resistive moment due to soil is C'II'Jz "'.
The equation of motion is written by taking moment about Z- axis. It gives
Mmz iV + C'IIJ z '" = Mz sin rot ...(9.:

, ~~
where, Mmz = Mass moment of inertia of the machine and foundation about the axis of rotat
(Z-axis)
Jz = Polar moment of inertia of foundation contact area
C1jf = Coefficientof elasticnonu~iformshear
t
,.
'4
,~1
'.."i
.-
óóóòóóó
Foundations of Reciprocating Machines 363
'.
v (a) Isom~teric vi<zw
" .'
, "
, .'
( b) pia n
Fig. 9.7: (a) Yawing motion ora rigid block .
(b) Development of non-uniform shear below the base
The' expressions' for natural, frequency an{ma~imux:n angular displacements are as follows:
(J)nl/f- ...{9,37)
- tw
Mmz
J,
Mz
,A = M .
2 . 2
'I' mz( IDnljl- CD )
The horizontal displacement AhlJlc~used, by .t,orsion is

Ah'l' = r A'I' ...(9.39)
where, r = Horizontal distance of the point on the foundation from the axis of motion (Z-axis)
'9.4.5. Simultaneous'Vertical, Sliding and Rocking Vibrations. In general, a machine -foundation is

subjected to time dependent vertical force, horizontal force and moment, and therefore it simultaneously
slide, rock and vibrate vertically. In Fig. ~.8, a foundationblock subjected to a vertical force (Fzsin 00I),
....
,~
i:
~\
364 SoU-Dynamics & Machine Foundations
a horizontal force (Fx sin (J) t) and an oscillatory moment (My sin (J)t) is shown. These forces and moment
are considered to act at the combined centre of gravity 0 of the machine and the foundation, which is also-
taken as the origin of coordinates. At any time t, considering the vertical force acting in downward
direction, horizontal force in right-hand side direction, and moment in the clockwise direction, the foun-
dation block will be displaced as shown in Fig.'9.8. It is therefore subjected to (i) displacement z, in the
vertical direction (ii) displacement Xo in the horizontal direction at the base and (Ui) rotation <1> of the
base.
z
I '
Fz Sin C.Jt
Initial position
~ z
Fig. 9.8: Block foundation subjected to simultaneous vertical, sliding and rocking vibrations
The equations of motion can

- be written by evaluating the resisting and actuating
- forces
, and.moment
acting on the foundation in the displaced position. These forces and moments are obtained as give:
below: .
(i) Upward soil reaction Rv due to vertical displacement z :

Rv = Cu A z ...(9.4(
(ii) Horizontal soil reaction Rx due to horizontal displacement xo:
Rx = C't A Xo ...(9.4
As the origin is at 0, Xocan be expressed in terms of x and 4>as below:
xo=x-Lcp ..,(9.4
where L = Height of Centre of gravity 0 from base of the block
(tU) Moment MRdue to resistance of soil induced by rotation:of the foundation by $ : jJ
The MR about point 0 is given by + .-
MR-=C .'""'I .:.(90'

--"
, ' , '<, ',' , "," . ,

365
uni/ations of Reciprocating Machines
(iv) Moment Mw due to displaced position 'of the centre' of gravity of block :
The moment Mw about point 0 is given by
Mw = W L ..(9.44)
(v) Moment MxRdue to horizontal resisting force Rx :

Moment MxRabout point 0 is'give~ ~y .
MxR = Rx . L = C~ A (X - L"'
~)
.L ...(9.45)
(vi) Interial forces and moment:
(a) In the Z - direction Fiz = mi ...(9.46)
(b) In the X - direction Fix = mx ...(9.47)
(c) In the rotational mode Mi$ = Mm ~ ...(9.48)

"here' M m = Mass moment Of inertia of the machine and foundation about an axis passing through '
combined centre of gravity 0 and in the direction of Y-axis

Cheequations of the motion 'can now be written as below: .,
In the Z - direction:. mi + Cu Az = Fz sin cot ...(9.49)
In the X - Direction: mx + CtA Xo= Fx sin cot ...(9.50)
Substituting the yalue of Xo from Eq. (9.42) in Eq. (9.50), we get

mx + Ct A (x --L<I» = FX sin COt ...(9.51)
In the rotational mode.. , "
Mm + C$ I - WL 

- Ct A (x - L<I» = My sin cot
.. 2
or
Mm - Ct A Lx + (C$ I - WL + C~ AL ) = My sin COt ...(9.52)
Equation (9.49) contains only the terms of z, therefore the motion in Z - direction is independent of
any other motion. The solution of this equation is already given in Eqs. 9.16 to 9.18. Equations (9.51) ,
and (9.52) contain both x and and are interdependent. Therefore, sliding and rocking are coupled
modes. A solution for simultaneous rocking and sliding vibrations is presented below.
9.4.5.1.Naturalfrequencies of coupledrocking and sliding.The systemrepresentedby Eqs. (9.51) and

(9.52) is a two-degree-of-freedom system. The solutions for natural frequencies are obtained by consid-
ering the free vibrations of the system.
Hence, =0
mx + C~ Ax - c.~ AL ...(9.53)
, '
and Mm ~ - Ct A Lx + (C$ I - W L + C~A L2 ) ==0 ...(9.54)

Particular solutions of these equations may be assumed as
x = xI sin (con t + ex) ...(9.55)
and
 = <1>1sin (cO n t + ex). ...(9.56)
in which x I' <1>1
and exare arbitrary constants whose values depend upon the initial conditions of motion.
i::~
*
I.',
366
Soil Dynamics &I,M~chine Ft!""~
By substituting Eqs. (9.55) and (9:56) into Eqs. (9.53) and (9.54) and dividing by sin (con t + a), we get,
2
-mOOn Xl + Ct A xl - Ct A LI = 0 ".,
:"
2
or Xl (CtA -moon)-CtAL1 =0 , ...(9.57)
~
and -Mmoo~1+I(CtAL2+CcpI -WL) -C'tALxI =0 ...(9.58)

CtAL1
From Eq. (9.57), xl = 2 ...(9.59)
CtA -mOOn
By substituting the value of xI from Eq. (9.59) into Eq. (9.58), we get
<1>1
[-C~ A 2 L2+ (Cc!>I - WL + Ct AL2 - Mm oo~)( CtA -m oo~)] = 0 ...(9.60)
For a nontrivial solution, <1>1

can not be zero. Hence the expression within the parentheses mu~tJ)(
zero, This gives' , I ~
2 2 2 2 2 2
-CtA L + (C. I óÉÔõÝ¬ßÔ óÓ³×Ü²÷øÝ¬ß-mOOn) =0 ...(9.6~
The term (On'which represents the natural frequency in combined sliding and rocking, is the onI
,unknown in Eq. (9.61), which can now be solved. Equation (9.61) may be rewritten as follows:
-C~A2L2+C~A2L2+CtA(C.I -WL) -CtAMmoo~-CtAL2moo~-(C.I-WL)moo~+Mm1nro: =

...(9.6
By dividing by mMm and rearranging, one obtains
4 2 CA.I-WL C A(M +mL2) C A CA.I-WL

00 -00 'f + t m +-L- 'f =0 ...(9,(
n n [( Mm ] mMm ] m ( Mmb )
By definition, the quantity (Mm+ mL2) is the mass moment of inertia of the foundation and mach
about an axis that passes through the centroidof the base contact area and is perpendicular to the'~1:
of vibrations. This is denoted by Mmo. Thus, , ij~
2 ,M I
Mmo = Mm + mL .:;t9. '
M ~
Further, by denoting
Mmo
m = r where 1 > r > 0 , ,
.(1~
-.J
.~.
'~
Equation (9.63) may be rewritten as h

.',.:
,c
4
OOn--
oo~ C.I-WL CtA
+- +-
CtA C.I- WL
=0 .t't.;.(S
,
' "
r ( Mmo m ) m tMmo 'i ,,
'i 'f~i
CtA 2 ,.~
'4
Now, - = 00nx "' ,\,
m ~,~f:'
"
~,"..
:0' ,
", .
C.I-:-WL: 2
~, ""
M' mo '; ~ OOn,
~ --- .. --.
Foundations of !leciproC/lting Machi,!es 367
'2y writting the Eq. 9.66 in terms of OOn,and CJ)n~we ?et

2 2 2 2
2 0>nx + 0>ncp 2 0>nx Cl)n+
, 0> - 0> + =0 ...(9.69)
n r n r .
( )
The Eq. (9.69) has two positive roots, CJ)nland CJ)n2'
which correspond to two natural frequencies of
the system: The ro~ts of Eq. (9.69) are:
.
2 '2 2 2 2 2 2
0>2
nl,2
=1.2 O>nx + O>nq,:t
r
(Onx+ O>nq,
r
- 4(J)n."(J)ncil
r ...(9.70)
J ( J
[( ]
, Equation (9.70) may be rewritten as .
2 I 2 2 2 2
)+ 4 ...(9.71)
(J)nl.2= 2r [( (J)nx+(J)ncp 7"~ (O>nx+(J)ncpo
2 2 ,2 - r(J)nx (J)nq,)1
From the property of a quardratic equation:

, 2 2
. 2 2 - 0>nx + 0>ncp
...(9.72)
O>nl+O>n2 - r
2 2 0>2 0>2
=~ ...(9.73)
(J)nl x (J)n2
r ncp.
22-1. 22_"221/2
and (J)nl-(J)n2 - r [«(J)nx+ (J)ncp) 4r(J)ncp(J)ncp] ...(9.74)
It can be proved that OOnx and 00 ncpwill always lie bet~~en limiting natural frequencies 0001and 0002'
9.4.5.2. Amplitudes of coupled rocking a,nd sliding. The amplitudes of vibration are determined in the
following three cases:
Case I. If only the horizontal force Fx sin ootis acting: Eqs. (9.51) and (9.52) may be rewritten as
follows: ' .
mx+ Ct Ax - Ct AL~ = Fx sin (J)t ...(9.75)

- 2"
...(9.76)
Mm~+ ~(Ct AI.: + Ccp1- WL)-Ct ALx = 0
Assume that the particular solution to these equations are
, x ~ Ax'sin (J) t
~ ::;: Acp sin (J) t
in which Ax and Acpare the maximum sliding and rocking amplitudes respectively. By substituting these
solutions into the above equations, we get ,
. 2
Ax (Ct A - moo) - Ct ALA. = Fx ...(9.77)
-Ct A LAx + A. (Ct A L2+ C. I - WL - ~m 002),= 0 ...(9.78)
or - (C~L2 +C.I-WL-Mmoo2)
Ax - .A. ...(9.79)
CtA~
~
~~'
:' (~
,.t~
368 SDi/Dynamics '& Machine FtiuiidQiio~
«i
." .~
~
By substituting for Ax in eq. (9.77), we get ~~~

"
2 2 2
(Ct A L + C, 1- WL-Mm 00 )(CtA-moo ) - . . "
A~ -Ct ALA, - 0
CtAL
., ):'j
. . " C AL' . '.
A~ =.. CtA+(C",I-WL) 2 C tA(mL2+M ) (C",I-wt) 4 x.~t'f";.;". t.

mM . 't' -00 t m + 't' . +00
. m[ mMm [ mMm Mm ] ] .('.
= ...(9.80)
FX
2 2 Ct~L
OOIlX 00 Il~ - ~ ( 2 + 2 )+ 4
mM m r 00Il~ 00n.l.
r 00
[
' . 't'
] .
-:-':--~-By using the relations gives in (9.72) and (9.73) into'Eq. (9.80), we get
C AL ,..
A - t xF x
~ - 2 2 2 2 2 4
mMm [ oon1 oon2 -00 (oon1+oon2)+00 ] "
2 2 2
CtAL2 x
F ...(9.81)
mMm(OOn1-OO )(OOn2 -00 )
2 2 2 2 2
Let, mMm(OOn1 -00 )(OOn2 -00 ) = ~(oo ) ...(9.82)
C AL
A = t F ...(9.83)
~ ~ (00)2 x
By substituting for A~ in Eq. (9.79), we get
A = Ct AL2 +Cq. I -WL-Mm 002F ...(9.84)

x ~ (002) x ,.v
Case 11. If only moment My sin rot is acting: Eqs. (9.51)

. and,(9.52) may be rewritten as ,
mx + Ct Ax- Ct ALcp = 0 ...(9.85'

.. ..,
and Mmlj>-Ij>(CtAe+C4»I-WL)-CtALx =Mysinrot ...(9.86
By assuming solutions as for Eqs. (9.75) as (9.76), it can be shown that the following expression
hold:
'. ,'. . . '. 11.
CAL
t
My ..:(9.B';
Ax = ~ (002) - -
2
and - Ct A-moo
2
My ...(9.B'
,
A. - ~ (00.)
, ,
'i.
.. .. .. - --oii
Poundations of Reciprocating Machines 369
Case Ill.
: If both the unbalanced force Fx aJ:?dmo~ent MJLare acting, the ~plitudes of m~tion are
determined as follows:
0 - 02 0 0 0 0 . 2 . 0 -
A=
x.
(C'tAL + CtPI-:WL-Mm(O
0 A 2 )Fx + (c.~) 0 0
My ...(9.89)
0 L.l( (0 ) 0 0 0 0
. 2
and (CorAL)Fx+ (CorA -mm) My
A - ...(9.90)
" 4>- oL\(ro2)
The total amplitude of the vertical and horizontal vibration are given by
a
. Ay = Az+2A~ ...(9.91)
and Ah = Ax + h ArpH__,__- ...(9.92)

where, h = Height of the top of the foundation above the combined center of gravity.
In foundations with two degrees of freedom, specific forms of vibrations correspond to the frequen-
cies (0/11and (0112'These vibrat~ons are characterised by a certain interrelationship between the ampli-
tudes Ax and A.pwhich depends on the foundation size and the soil propet:t~es,but does not depend on the
initial conditions of foundation motion. ..- ..
Let us examine the case when the foundation is subjected to exciting moment My only. The ratio of
amplitudes Ax and A4>obtained using Eqs. (9.87) and (9.88) is given by
. 2
Ax CtA L ronx L
p = -= 2 = 2 2 ...(9.93)
AA'I' Cor A - m ro «)nx - «) 0
, o'
z z ..."\
I ",/ \
--- I ,. \
,,,
:\
\ ..."\
v \
0 , -- ' )
..J ....
L \
\
--
--- -- / ~
(
\
/
\ ",/
V
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.9: (a) Rocking and sliding in phase with each other
(b) Rocking and sliding In opposite phl1se
The following cases are important for consideration of form of vibration:
(i) If (0 « (Onx'then p ==L . It means that the.-.foundationrotates about an axis that passes through
the centroid of the base contact area and slidi~g is absent!
~
370 v Soil Dynamics & Machine Fou"datiol
'(U) If 00'= (On2' (O~2 being the lower limiting natural frequency, then oo~ - 00;2> 0 . It m~ans that
during vibration at frequency (0 n2' when the centre of gravity deviates from the equilibrium
position, for example, the positive dir~ction of the X - axis, the rotation of the foundation will
also be positive, and changes of amplitudes Ax and A, will be in phase. The form of vibration
will be as shown in Fig, 9.9 a, i.e. the foundation will undergo rocking vibrations with respect
to a point situated at a distance PI from,the centre of gravity of foundation, The value of PI is
determined by the absolute value of expression (Eq. 9.93) if 0>n2 is substituted for O>n'
(Ui) If 0> = O>nl then oo~ - 00;1< 0, P will be negative, and Ax and A~ will be out of phase, Figun
9.9 b illustrates the form of vibrations around,a point which lies higher than the centre of gravit;
and at a distance P2 determined from expression (Eq. 9.93) if 0>nl is substituted for O>n'
9.5 ELASTIC HALF-SPACE METHOD
F (t)
. . ,r<tJ .
. ' " .-4, pe .
'., ; " ~':~~':.:::::,',::~,..': ':::.:'~":','. :':'::':~"""':;"~::',<;,
G G
p P
)J JJ
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.10: Oscillating force on the surface of elastic half-space
9.5.1. Vertical Vibrations. Lamb (1904) studied the problem of vibration of a single oscillating fon
(Vertical or horizontal, Fig, 9,10) acting at a point on the surface of an elastic half space. Reissner (193.
developed the analysis for the problem of vibration of a uniformly loaded flexible circular area (Fig. 9,1
by integration of Lamb's solut~on for a point load, Based on his work; the vertical displ<icementan]
centre of the circular area is given by
Foe ;rot I' '
Z0 = Gr (J 1 + I f 2) ,..(9.9
0
where, F0 = Magnitude of oscillatory force

0> = Forcing frequency, rad/s
G = Dynamic shear modulus of the medium
r0 = Radius of the footing
/1' /2 = Displacement functions ,..,
i=H "
III .
Fountiatitins '0/ Rlc;procatin'g"Mai:h in iii 371' '-
'",.., ,
, .j:" , . ,-:,-;,-; ~ -: .', ::-,: -' ,- -
F.- i __
(..;t 'r ,: .-""
, o':! i: ;
- 0 (Z - ' .>-.
.
f
óÐ¢ýññ¢ '-
" ~
",-,-.':, - .: .-, :.i??//(/4

: . .' ~,. ~ '. -"-
,"
, ,
Go '00'0" '0 l°":::"-:':

p load
unit or(Zo
p(Zr
=
F. (ZiG.)t
~
)J 11"r20
Fig.9.11: Vibrationora uniformlyloadedcircular flexiblearea

Reissner introduced following two non-dimensional tenus :
(a) Mass ratio, b : It is given by
m W ,.
b=~=~ ..,(9,95)
pro yro
It describes the relation between the mass of vibrating footing and a certain mass of the elastic half-space.
(b) Dimensionless frequency, ao : It is given by
a =00 r Jp = Cllr Iv ...(9,96)
° ,
,oVa.. ,
O,S_,
where, m = Mass of the machine and foundation
Vs = Shear wave velocity
y = Unit weight of soil
p = mass density of soil
Using the displacement Eq. (9.94), and solving the equation ofeguilibrium forces, Reissner obtained
the following expression for the amplitude of foundation having circular base:
Az = fl2 + f22
2 2 2 2 ...(9.97)
Azn ~. ,(FofG ro) (~-:-~ao 11),.+, (bao f2)
where; ,Az = Amplitude of foundatiQn,.> ' " ' :,
. , ,,' : .., '.1 : i
,'A zn = Dimensionless
. amplitude; i ; ,::; ,', ;,
,
: ,':' i .. {J':.."
"'" , """:"',""""")"':""'j"'.'", ,", "'"",,,"
. V~lue,s,of disp~a~einentlu~ctio~fi'ai!2f2 ~~ ~o.~d dep~~dien(op. P~is~o~~sr,a~o ~..an~ ~~~~.~n~i?~~

less frequency factor a '.Their~values fo~"f1exible'"'circular'
foUndation are' giveIi'iii Table 9.2:;:'.' :-'-'.,,J!
0 . '.-it';~. ,:.[
372
SoU, DJ!n.am.ics.&, M.~~hine Fou~d~tion~;~
Table 9.2 :Values of Displacement Function 'of Flexible Foundations (Bowles, 1977}
Poisson's Ratio J.1 Valus of(fl)

0 0.318310 - 0.092841 a/ 1-0.07405 a04
0.25 0.238733: - 0.{)59683'a02 + 0.004163 a04
0.5 0.159155", 0.039789 a/ + 0.002432 a04
Values of (- 12)
0 0.214474'ao'~'. 0.029561 'a03+ 0.001528 a05
3 5
0.25 0.148594 Go- 0.017757 Go + 0.000808 Go
3 5
0.5 0.104547 Go- 0.011038 Go + 0.000444 a0
The classical work of Reissner (1936) for circular loaded area was extended by Quinlan (1953) and
Sung (1953) for the following three contact pressure distributions:
F e;w/ :
...(9.98)
(i) Rigid base (Fig. 9.12 a), fz =
2rrr0 r0 ~-
O
r
2 for r::;; ro
.. F e;w/
(ii) Uniform (Fig. 9.12 b), I~ = 0 2 for r ::;;ro ...(9.99)
~ rrro'
It is the same as considered by Reissner i.e. for flexible foundations with circular l>ase
2 (r2 - r2) F iwt
(iii) Parabolic (9.12 c), f = .0 4 0 for r ::;;ro ...(9.100)
Z : 1t ro , I
Cl ~ ~
/'
. ~-d'
(0) (b) (c) ~

.j
Fig. 9.12: Contact pressure distribution under a circular foundation
In the above equations, fz is the contact pressure at a distance r measured from the centre of foun,tf
dation. Equation (9.97) holds good for all the three types oJ conta9t pressure distributions with change4:
val~es of/l a~d/2. The v~lues off} an4/2f~~ rig~dbas~ foundatio;nswere comp~ted by Sung (19~~)?Jt1l/
'~A
the assUinpt~o!l~at the.press.ur~.di~~b~~~~ri:r~ma,in unchang'e~ with,frequency. Their values ~re ~~v , ' . .
in Table 9.3. . . .,' '" . . ~~~ ...'r'~

.,;.I. ..
datio/fs o/,Reciprocating M/lcMnes 373,
{-; ,": ',: ',' '.. . , ': , ,'-: "',. i ' " . .: -. "." '-', ' ", " , .,. , ~'; -
0.7
poisson's ratio) j.J = 0.25
,',
,
0.6
O.S
c:
N
<t
c:,I ,0.4
'U
;:)
+'
,,-.
a.
E
0
\11 0.3
-c
VI
c:,I
0
1/1
C
tI
E 0.2
b
0.1
0 ~
0, ,
0; S '. a ,-' 1.0,' 1.S
. 0 : ,- , "
.
.. "f.. ',',
"
. .' , >\'
Fig. 9.13: Plot of AZAversus ao for a rigid circular foundation subj~te~ to:constantexcitati.on,r~rce (Ric~art,I,962)
.r' ',', ;, i. , ,
.. ,
-- ,--
,~
374 Soil Dy,u,inics-&' Machilre -Fourrdations \,
Table 9.3 : Values of Displacement Functions for Rigid Foundations

~'.'<' ..' '-~'-"'-(Bowres~"f977r-'--'- 0'0 .",- .
Poisson's ratio J.1. V alues' of 11

0 2 4
0.250000 - 0.109375 ao + 0.010905 ao
0.25 0.187500 - 0.070313 a02 + 0~006131a04
0.5
0.125000 - 0.046875 a/ + 0.003581 a04
Values of -/2
0 3 5
0.21447 ao - 0.039416 ao + 0.002444 ao
0.25
0.14894 ao - 0.023677 a03 + 0.001294 a05
0.5 3 5
0.104547 ao- 0.014717 ao + 0.00717 ao
Figure 9.13 shows a typical plot of Azn versus a0 for various
. values of mass ratio b for a rigid base
circular footing subjected to a constant force excitation F0 e/(JH. A high mass ratio (greater height of
footing and smaller contact radius) implies a large amplitude of vibration for a given set of conditions.
Manytimes foundations are subjected to a frequency dependent excitation (Fig.2.1~). The amplitude
of the external oscillating force is given by
2
F=2m
0 e
em ...(9.101)
where, 2 me= Total rotating mass
For this condition, the amplitude of vibration Aze is given by
2 2 2
2 me e CO I1 + 12
...(9.102)
Aze= Ora (l-ba~/I)2+(ba;fz)2
2 2
or Az I1 + 12
:..(9.103)
Azen = (2meero2)/Oro ~ (l-ba; 11)2+ (ba; 12)2
where, Azen = Non-dimensional amplitude in frequency dependent excitation
. .
Figure 9.14 shows a typical plot of Azenversus ao for various values of mass ratio b for rigid base
circular footing subjected to frequency dependent excitation.
It may be noted that the curves shown in Figs.9.13 and 9 .14 are similar to the frequency-amplitude
curves shown in Figs.2.13 and 2.16 resp~<::tively.
Richart and Whitman ( 1967) have studied the effect of the shape of contact pressure distribution and
Poisson's ratio on amplit~d'~'~freq~en~y;esponseof rigid circular footing ~~bjectedto frequency depen-
dent excitation.Figure9.15 demonstratesthenatureof variationof Azenwith ao for three types of contact
pressure distribution; i.e. uniform, rigid and parabolic. Parabolic and uniform pressure distributions
produced higher displacement than a rigid base. The effect of Poisson's ratio on the variation of Azencap
be seen in Fig. 9.16. The peak value of Azendecreases with the increases in the value of J.1.;but the
corresponding value of ao increases with increase in J.1.. . i'
l
;.4
",
"daiions ut Reciprocating' MilChin~s 375
"--"--""'-"""""""'-'-""'-""""-'- "-'.-- '~.
0.28
poisson'5 ratio, ).J = 0.25
.'....
0.24
0.20
c
~
N
«
... 0.16
~
"0
::::J
....
0-
E
0
III
0.12
III
"
C
0
III --
C
~
E 0.08
(:)
0.04
0 -
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
°0
Fig. 9.14: Plot of AzcDversus.o for. ~igid ~in:ular foundation subJ,ectedto frequencydependentexcitation
. "" . ", ... (Rlchart,1962)
" "
-..
-- --
.. .- -, -_~_::c,i:-
- .---'-<-':":' ~'-- -'- ;-
-------- -
376
Soil Dynamiq_&Machine,Founda.(~(Jf3
0,6
b :'5
c:
~ O.S J.l : 0.25 parabolic
<t pnz ssu rq ,
~ distribution
-
-g 0.41,-
a.
E
0 0.3
U1
U1
b.I
C
0 0.2
U1
C
\:11
E
'0
0.'
0-
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
°0
Fig. 9.t 5 : Effect of c~ntact pressure distribution on the variation of Aze,nwith ao (Richart and Whitman. 1967)
c
~ 0.4-
<t
~
...
Rigid basq
"U
b : 5
~ 0.3
a.
E
0U1 0.2
III
~
0.5
c:
0
'jA 0.1
c:
~
E
0 0...
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
°0
Fig. 9.16 : Effect of Poisson's ratio on the variation of Ann with ao (Richart and Whitman, t 967)
F~omthe amplitude~frequencycurves.in,Figs.9.J3 ,and 9,.14,on~can obtain:-(i)~axffI1um amI

tude, and (ii) value of ao for maximum amplitude (i:,e;.resonance condition) for different values 01
Richart (1962) have plotted this data in graphical form as shown in Figs. 9.17 and 9.18 which
convenient for design use. -
',dations of Reciprocating Machines
100
Rotating maS5
Constant forc(Z
.£)
.
Rigid bas(Z
.-0
...
0
.... 10
III
III
0
:--.......
'....... = 0.5
"""'.......
"""'0
<,
1-
0 .2 0.4- 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
ya lu (Z of ao at r (Z50no nc (Z
Fig. 9.17 : Plot of mass ratio b versus ao for reso!,ance condition for vertical vibrations (Richart, 1962)
100
r
\ '\
\'\
\ \,
, \\
\"
, \\
\ \\
.£) I \ \\
\ \\
0 \ \\ ,
.;: ," Rigi d ba C;(Z
10 '\ \\
0 fJ Ji< \
=0.5
"
0.25
Rota'ting ma5S
. ", . .
0
..~ Con s'tant" torc(Z
. .
,-
,,; 1-
-.0 1.0 1.2 '1.4
. ~. Dim(lnsio'rde-ss',,:omplitude ot re5.0nanC(l ..~
Fig. 9.18: Plot of--;)""\"";*~;,'J..~.~,
mass ratio bversus, dim~nsio.nless~mplitude
~'",
at resonance (Ricbart, 1962)
,
"'.." '.~\!;,A ,~,{~,:'H"...;,,~) ':!l~t:...n~iv~ir~l1'i' ~(1'i 'r,;',,~~ ~, 1r~ Q...(m'\\i<l~}{ : 1l1'" ,,~4 {
'.f-
,,<'"
378
Soil Dynamics & Machine Found4ti.o.,
óó¢þò¢ù ùòù æþþùóù¢ùå¢öôº
Lysmer and Richart (1966) propose4 a .siplplifi~dmass-~pring-dashpot analog foL-calculating,the
response of a rigid circular footing subjected to vertical oscillations. The values of spril1gconstant It
and damping constant Czwere taken as giv~n ~elow :" :
. , 4Gro
K=- ...(9.104)
z I-J.t
2
and 3.4 ro er;G
C = -vpv ...(9.105)
z I-J.I.
The equation of motion may thus pe written as
2 -
.
.. 3.4 ro er;. 4 G ro iwt
mz+-vpG.z+_.z =F e ...(9.106)
I-J.i. I-J.i. Z
Lysmer and Richart (1986) also suggested the modified mass ratio as
"
1-J.I. I-J.I. m
~.-
B -- b - 3 ...(9.101'
z - 4 - 4 pro
.The damping ratio; z is obtained as
C C 3.4 r; JPG ,
...(9.108
~, C: ~ 2J~, m ~ îøïóñ´÷ù I-J.I.

~ To m
Putting the value of m in terms ofBz from Eq. (9.107), Eq. (9.108) becomes
to
; - 0.425 ...(9.t'0'
z - ùÖÐææ
The response of the system can be studied using Eq. (2.58).
The dashed curves in Fig. 9.19 illustrate how well the response curves for the analog agree with t!
response curves for half space method. The derivation of magnification factor, Mz is given below.
'3
}J = 1/3
Halt-space theory
H - --- - Si mptitied ono log

:E .1
~ 2 Bz :: 5
L-
e Constant torce excitation '"
....
u
-
0 ',1 ~
~J
-)
c Z
0
....
0
-uc
(JI
0
~
-..0
...
."I!.
:t!?
..",
0
0.5 . L0 1.S ~,
, Dimen'sioritesS' freq"uency, 'cro" "l , "
- , ~
Fig. 9.19: Response of a rigid circular footID ' for vertical vibrations (Lysmer and Rlchart, 1966) ""-"i
~ ",~'
~:
1
.I
lions of ReciproCllting Machines 379
e natural frequency of the system described by Eq. (9.106), i.e.

"" '."
= ri-L. ~
. ',".K' 2"
. <.0 ...(9.110)
. m m ~l-~ .
tting the valu'e~'of Kz, ;n a~d~~zfrom-Eqs:' (9.104), (9.107) and (9.109) into Eq.(9.110), we get
<.0
nz' ~ f(Bz - 0.36)
0'. 0 .~B r
z 0
...(9.111)
Id at resonance the amplitude is given by Eq. (2.61). i.e.

2
Fo / Kz
...(9.112)
(Az)max = 2 ~~ 1-~z 2
utting the values of ~z from Eq. (9.109) into Eq. (9.112), we get
Fo Bz
...(9.113a)
(Az)max = Kz 0.85 ~Bz - 0.18
Fo.(I-J.1) Bz
...(9.113b)
"
r (Az)max= 40'0 . 0.85~Bz - 0.18

. (A) .4G, B
vlagnificationfactor, M- = z max . 0 = z
"- Fo(1-J.1) 0.85.JBz-0.18
~or a frequency - dependent excitation ,the resonant frequency and the maximum amplitude are
1 by : H
0.90 1 -,
...(9.114)
<.onz = ,/(Bz - 0.45)P . '0
and 2 me e Bz
...(9.115)
(Az)max = -;;;- .0.85~Bz- 0.18
B'
(Az)max - z
Magnification factor, ...(9.115 a)
Mze = 3mee - 0.85~Bz-0.18)
m
:re 2 me = Unbalanced rotating mass
e = Eccentricity of mass from the axis of rotation
.2. Pure Sliding Vibrations. Amold et at. (1955) have obtained theoretical solutions for sliding
rationsof rigiq circular foundations(Fig. 9.20) subjectedto an oscillatoryhorizontalforce F0 ei(J)(.
~y have presented the solutions for two cases namely (i) constant force excitation, and (ii) frequency
)t:nderit excitation.
In constant force excitation (F0 = constant), the amplitude Ax is gi~en by

. . - . 'F. .. ... -"' .
...(9.116)
Ax = O~0 Axn
" ..
lere, Axn = No!1-dimensional amplitude factor
.-
~- "~ --. ., ."" ... """'-' -=.""---==~ ;;:;;~
380 Soil Dynamics & Machine ,Eo. .
... .. F""(Z
0 iQt
otT f
Foundation
f<i
x s.t
,
'
:~'" I
.;"-,~': -",-,...,-
-'". -. . "-' - -.' --:-.,-, ~. ;.:,\':'" ", I
" .' f ., , ,..'
1}\ ,
I
G
P r0 1 1.S
f
}.J
-h'J'
J.'I..~;
Fig. 9.20: Rigid circular foundation subjected to sliding oscillations ";J
The variation of amplitude versus frequency is shown in Fig. 9.21 by dotted lines. The envelop <Jrav.T
to these curves is used to define the frequency at maximum amplitude, The definition of mass ratio.b 1
same as given in Eq. (9.95). The plot of b versus Go for resonant amplitude is given in Fig. 9.22~
:xi
10 f-
t,
~
ti }J = 0
"0
::J
....
--- - Axn ..~,
a.
E
ß¨»²
0 c
ti ~"~
0'1 x '":I-
,
"I
.= <{ 1 it
1:) ....
.- 0
III C ~I
)( '"
T'
××Ää¥
III
ti
C
0
III
C
ti
,-E
c 0.1-
0.2 1.0
°0
Fig. 9.21 : Plots of AsDand AscIIversus ao for sliding vibrations (RIchart, 1962)
tionsof ReCiprocating Machines íèï
ïðð
£òÖãÑ
Eccentric ³¿--
ïð oscillator
×
ô
Ö
ó
Ý±² ¢¬¿² ¬
ï
ðòî ðòìò ðòê ðòè ïòð ïòî ïòìò ïòê
pð
Ú·¹ò çòîîæ Plot of mass ratio. b versus a 0 for resonance condition
.
for sliding vibrations (Richart. 1962)
For the case Fo = 2 mex.e ci ,the value of A is given by: /,

.
- 2 me e
Ax - -rAxen ...(9.117)
pro
The firm line in Fig. 9.21. shows the envelop of Axenversus ao for resonant condition. The variation
he mass ration b versus ao for resonant condition is given in Fig. 9.22.
Hall (1967) propos~d a simplified mass-spring dashpot analog for calculating the response of a rigid
:ular footing subjected to sliding vibrations. The values of the spring constant Kx and damping con-
1t Cx were taken as given below. ;
32(1-J.1) G
K = ro ...(9.118)
. x . 7-8J.1
18.4 (1 c:;:;
ro vPuo
J.1) 2
and C =
~
...(9.119)
x 7-8J.1
The equation of motion thus can be written as
.. 18.4 (1-J.1f 2 ' 32(l-J.1) G - F e;CJ)l
mx+
7 - 8J.1-
r
0
JPG.
P .x+
. . 7 - 8J.1
r .x -
0 0
..,(9.120)
He also suggested the modified mass ratio B -for sliding vibrations as

. \. " X '..
7 -8J.1
.
B = -m ...(9.120 a)
x
".',.,..".."",J,,'I,
32(1- Ji) pr3
"O,,}.
'.' "".
.
382
Soil Dynamics &: ,Mllchine Foundlltitt~ 1
The damping ratio ~x is given by

. I
~ - Cx - Cx ...(9.121)
x - Cc - 2 ~kx m
Putting the values of Cx and kx from Eqs. (9.118) and (9.119) in Eq. (9.121), we get
I
~ - 0.2875 ...(9.122) I
x- Fx
Figure 9.23 illustrates how well the response C\lrvesfor the analog agree with the response curves for
the half space model.
4
Bx = 5
Exact solution
- - -Analog solution
3
x
::E
... I I \ 2
-
L-
0
.....
u
0
.....
c 2
0
.-
.....
0
u
.-
..... It
.-
C
0'1
0 i1~.j
::E .' T.:!i;
"
..
tii.
.,'
",'
0 ,:;,,
.~.~~
0.5 1.0 1.5 (1

/1.1'
~.
~
,°0 ,J'
'1i~;r
jI.,.~
Fig. 9.23 : Response of rigid circular footing for pure sliding (Hall, 1967)
ùïïä¥ù
,dotions -of RecipI'ocatingMachines

383
The natural frequency <.olltand maximum value of amplitude (Ax}m~ can be' computed using Eqs.
23) and (9.124) respectively. . . .
<.0
nx
= f-: -2.. 1-~
m g 2
x
.
...(9,123)
.
= Ft / kx
and (AJ X
...(9,124)
" ma 2 ~x .R1- ~x
,2. Pure RockingVibrations. Amold et al. (1955) and Bycroft (1956) have obtained theoretical so-
ons for rigid circular foundations subjected to pure rocking vibrations (Fig. 9.24). The contact pres-
~ below the foundation is varied according to
. . 3 My r cosa. ejro(
q -- 3~
(for r ~ ro) ...(9.125)
27tro 'Vo -r
ere
My = Exciting moment about Y -Y axis
a = Angle of rotation
\ /
I
\rjJ I fJ /
\~I
- I Footing,
i\T7\
i
\ ~ / My Cli~,t
.~
, " - /"",
'. ., ,..' , "
., "
.". ."" , . G'. .' . '"', . . -
-: L
I-'
' ',,'
-
r
.,...
0
, ~ ~:, ':"',:" ,'"
1I
p
}J
. ~
,;" " y ,t'
. "'"~~~-~ptali~;bt
1..1 ; ';} ,
tootin9'~ .~.., : ....~ i .
Fig. 9.24 : Rigid clrcuJar foundation

"
subjected to rocking oscillations
'.;." ;,I':(V;.t.~'H;tL""'i 4;':' ,.)"~:;> Ö¼
384 Soil,Dynamics &:.Machine Fou"dtltioM .
Borowicka (1943) gave the following equation for computing static rotation of the foundation under
the static application of moment My'
3(1-J.l) Mmo
...(9.126)
A~ = 8 ~pro
Under dynamic conditions the amplitude of rocking is a function of the inertia ratio B. which is
given by
3(1-J.l) Mmo
B. =8 ...(9.127)
pro5
where, Mmo = Mass moment of interia of machine and foundation about the axis of rotation
For the dynamic moment My, the amplitude of angular rotation A. can be expressed as
A. = MY3 'A,n ...(9.128)

( Gro )
where A.n = Non-dimensionalrotational amplitude
Fig. 9.25a shows the variation of A.n with dimensionless frequency ao for various values of inertia
ratio B.. The envelop curve shown by the flfm line can be used to define the relation between ao at
maximum amplitude (resonant condition). The plot of inertia ratio B. versus ao for resonant amplitude
is shown in Fig. 9.25 b. .
Hall (1967) proposed an equivalent mass-spring-dashpot analog for calculating the response of a
rigid circular footing subjected to rocking vibrations. The plot of spring constant k. and damping con-
stant C. were taken as given below:
3
8G 1~
...(9.129)
K. = 3(1-J.l)
0.8r: ,fGP
...(9.130)
Ccp= (l-f.l)(I+B,)
'" 40
't)
:I
..
a. 'f '
E :' JJ = 0
-
0
0 10
11
,I
"
-
c
0 1I
,, , ,
.. c ,I
'I'I ,\,
0"6- \ ,
+-4
0 '\
/
~
" " \
0
c
, \ I \ I \
0 '\ I \ 1\
'"
, " \
C I 20 \ I 10 \ I S\
tII I \1 \I
\
E
0 1 ,I I
1\ (
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.4

°0
Fig. 9.25 : (a) Plot of A." versus 10 (Richlrt. 1962) (...Contd.)
'j
.j...
H'I\!~
Foundations of Reciprocatipg Machines 385
60
-e.
m )J = 0
...
0
.-
....
10
0
....
.-
0
.....
L..
C
1
0.2 0.4 0.6 1.2 1.4
°0
(b)
Fig. 9.25: (b) Plot of B. versus. ao for resonance condition for rocking oscillations of rigid circular foundation
(Richart. 1962),
/-
4 ~ 3
;j, 0.8ra "Gp .h 8Gra '" _ i(f)/
M ",+ '",+ '", - M e ...(9,131)
m$ (l-fl)(l+B~) 3(1-fl) Y
For critical damping,
c~c = 2~K~Mma ...(9.13'2)

Therefore damping ratio ~~ will be
C~ = 0.15
~~ = -c ) In ..,(9.133)
~c (1+ B$ "B~
Figure 9.26 illustrates how well the response curves for the analog agree with the response curves for
the half space model. The undamped natural frequency ron~and amplitude A$ in rocking vibrations are
givenby .
ro =
n~ ~Mina
~
My . ..
...(9.134)
...(9,135)
A. ~ k'[{l-:~r+~'ro:ni
1
386 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations ".
50
B~=S Exact solu tio n
20
- -- Analog solution
9-
-
-.. 10
-)
J
-:)
-- 5'-
:>
0
u
-
+-
-
c:
0\ 2
0
z
0.5
0 0.5 1.0 t.'
"
°0 l<
Fig. 9.26: Response of rigid circular foundations subjected to pure rocking vibrations (Hall, 1967)
9.5.3. Torsional Vibrations. Reissner and Sagoci (1944) have obtained theoretical solutions for rigid
circular foundations subjected to torsional vibrations (Fig. 9.27). The variation of tangential shear stress
is given by
3 Mr
't 9 ...(9.136)
Z 41t 3 2 2 0
. = -:-.~ro ro - r. for 0 < r < r "'.
~
where 'tz9 = Tangential shear stress I>
Wo
M = Mz ei(J)( = Moment at any time t 'if.

"!
Mz = Maximummomentabout Z-axis
~
For a static moment Mz.the angle of rotation A'IIsis given by
A -
3
M
~
",s ~[ 16G r;] z .u(9.I31~i .,.
~,.
c"'
":"
~.
---------..-.
'j'
Foulidiltions '6/ Ri!~iprdcating 'Mai:htnes 387
The amplitude of the angle of rotation Av can be expressed as

.-"-"" '-',"'. "-"'--'."-"-~"'""
'. M
Av = ~Awn ...(9.138)
Gro
where Awn = Non-dimensional amplitude factor
Under dynamic condition the am~litude'of torsion is a function of inertia ratio Bw which is given by
Mmz
Bw = -S ,..(9.139)
pro
where Mm= = Polar mass moment of inertia of the machine and foundation about the' axis of rotation .
.( Footing
TZ9
: ...""."r,
-. ,"'00"'- ',_..
,
:', :,,~(,::::~(~<'<~
G " - ro ~ ,
.,
z' . "
Flaxibl<z
foundation
,, ro
(b)
Ize
Rigid
to undat ion
ro
--'.. - -.. , ,.,..,-,,-'"
(c)
(a ).-
~'
Fig. 9.27: Rigid circular foundation subjected to torsional vibrations
Figure 9:~8 _ashows the ~ariation of Awn with~ime,n~ionless frequency aofor ~~rious values of
inertia ~atioB",:'~e' ~nveIop'cur~f's,ho~'~y !~~,:~~..lirie'c~n'~.~.~s~ato,defme 't~e relation between ao
at maXimum amplItude (resonant condItion) ana the'values of Intena ratio B", (FIg. 9.28 b)
-,
388 Soil Dynamics & Machine F:oulldatioRS
-~.
~,,--
10
tII
'0
::J
, "-
....
"-
Co
E
0
II
1\
" , .
Flczxiblcz
0
I1
rI I
"V'.......
c
"
.~ c
'" r
, I
I I
\
,
I'
,
Rigid" "
... <t .......
0
.... 1 B4' = 10! \ 5, \
'" I \,' \ .-
'"
to'
C .
/ \,
/;\
\)/ /'
0 / / \ / \
'"
C
/ / \ /' \
tII / // ~;.\./ \
E /./ "'" \ \
0.2 ññ¢óóþùþ I \ I \
Q
0 0..4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
(a) 00
60
7
m
.~
.... 10
0
L.
'"
'"
0
~
1
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
00
(b)
'.
Fig. 9.28 (a) Plot of ~ versus ao; (b) Plot of B. at resonance versus ao for torsional oscillations of .,'f;'
a rigid circular foundation (Rlchart,1962) 'w
."
iO'
~
",. .......
FiJundlltions of ReCiprocating Miichines 389

":;;-~~_'d
Richart and Whitman (1967) propose~ an equivalent mass-spring-dashpot analog for calculating the
response of a rigid circular footing subjecred to torsio~al vibrations. The values of spring constant kw and
damping constant CIjIwere taken as below;
= 16 G r3
,
~ J 0
~ ,
~::
...(9.140)
',.'"
and
...(9.141)
.. 1.6ro4.Jp G." 16 3 - ;m(

M III + . \V + - G r. \V - M e, ...(9.142)
mz 'Y I+B 3-: 0 Z
IjI .
1
"",
The damping r~tio ~1j1~ili be ,

,"
C,o.s
,..(9.143)
~1j1 = 2 ~K: .m = (1 + 2 BIj1)
The undamped natural frequency wnlj1and amphtude AIj1of the torsional vibration are given by
'K " ,
...(9.144)
wnlj1= vM:;
A = Mz ...(9.145)
W " KW[{I- ~:r +~Wro:Jr

9.5.4. Coupled'Rocking and Sliding'Vibrations. Figure 9.29 a shows a rigid circular foundation rest-
ing on the surface of elastic half-space and subjected to an oscillatory moment Mv /(JJlan a oscillatory
horizontalforce Fx e,m{.The sign convention chosen is illustrated in Fig. 9.29 b, which indicates that + x
and + F act to the right and that + 4>and + Mare clockwis'e.Figure9.29c showsthe motionof the footing
when both translation of the e.g. and rotation about c.g. are positive (i.e. in phase). In this case. the centre
of rotation lies below the base of the footing, and the motion ,is termed as first mode of vibration. If the
translation is positive while the rotation is negative, then the centre of rotation lies above the e.g. and the
motion is designated as the second mode' of vibration.
': "',1/ ,~}') ,/1' "
Nl J > 1t
."
..
390 Soil, Dynamks " ,Milehine
FOUIIdtltions I
J
My (l iwt
I
I I
... ~
I !. I Fx(li6.>t
I IL
m Er MR +x
, .. Fx ~+Fx
fMR ( b)
(a)
r ,
I I
I I ~
I 1
/:[1
1-.-
/
I
= II I +
--r I-- x
Xo1r- ' I : ~~
leA]
Lc,&
(c)
Fig. 9.29 : Coupled rocking and sliding vibrations of a rigid circular block on an elastic half space
(After Richart and Whitman, 1967)
From Fig. 9.29a

x 0 = x - L<\> ..,(9,146)
where XO = Displacement of base
x = Displacement of c.g,
<\> = Angle of rotation in radians
Therefore Xo = x- L ...(9.14'n
The equations of motion are written in terms of x and <\>.The equation of motion for sliding is ~ ,
.. .
m x + Cx + Kx Xo = Fx eirot
.
.1 ~I.
Xo
~4
or m x+ Cx (x- L~) + Kx(x- Lcp)= F.tirot r
or mx+C x x +K x -x-LC x'fd.-LK x'f'" =F .t irot ...(9:148
, .[)"\Or
The equation of motion for rocking'is
, '
.,.1~aiJ
.. . irot
., ~:y;t
Mill cp+C~ <\>+K~ <\>+C:c,xo'L+Kx,xo.L = M.ve ,
.,;,
Sustituting the value of Xo from Eq, (9.147), the above equation simplifies to ,<:;
...(9,Jf~
Mm ~+(C~ +L2tx) ci>+(K~+ L2K:c}cp- L Cx x- L Kx'x = My irol '::
''~:r
.
:".,
..t~
'~:',;~!
'Idations of Reciprocating~Machines 391
The natural frequencies of coupled rocking and sliding are obtained by putting forcing functions in
, (9.148) and (9. 149) equal to zero. Thus
³¢õÝ x ¨õÕ x ¨óÔÝ x n.-LK
'I' x .n.
'I' =0 ...(9.150)
"
2 . 2
( ) (
Mmcp+ C.+L Cx cp+ ÕòõÔÕ¨ cp-LCxx-LKx'x ) =0 ...(9.151)
The solutions of above equations can be obtained by substituting

x = A eiCiJndt ...(9.152)
cp = B eiCiJndt ...(9.153)
which A and B are arbitrary constants. By doing this the Eqs (9.150) and (9.151) become
A - LKx +i LCx,oond
...(9.154)
B-2 -m OOnd+ K x + I. c x OOnd
A -Mm OO;d+(KcjI+L2 Kx)+i(CcjI+L2 Cx)OOnd

d ...(9,155)
B L Kt, -i Ct- OOnd#.'
Equating Eqs. (9.154) and (9.155), and substituting
if -
x ff. x =~ ~= ~ Cx
oonx = -,m oonq» - M'mo r M mo ' x 2 vL'\o.x rH
C .
,d
~4I = 2 ~ K. xMmo , on simplification we get
2
2 2 22
4 roncP+ronx 4~x~~ronxron~ 2, roncpron..t
rond- r - ~. rond+ r +
1
[ ( ) J
(ro~2 - ro~2.)+
4 ~xronxrond ~~ron~rond 2- 2 2-
[ r r (ronx ro~ -0 ...(9.156)
)]
It may be noted that Eq. (9.156) reduces to Eq. (9.69) when ~x = ~cjI= O.As the effect of damping on
laturalfrequency is small, the undamped natural frequencies for coupled sliding and rocking vibrations
an be computed using Eq. (9.70). .
The damped amplitudes of rocking and sliding of a foundation subjected to a horizontal force For/°)1
aregiven by
lfJ
A xl ~
- Fr ÅøóÓ³®±îõ¢õÕ®Ôî÷î +4ro2(~,,~KrMmo+L2~x~Kxm)2 ] - ...(9.157)
m Mm, ~ (002)
2' 2
112
and A =--L- (
F L ronx ronx+4~x ro ) ...(9.158)
.1 Mm ~ (ro2)
...
392 Soi/Dynamics.& Machine Foun
2 ;~
, 2 2 2 2 '." '
where
lI. (CO2)~ [ ",4_",2 { '" ,+ :"'M 4 ~x~+;M '" ,+} + "',. r"'M ]
,
~
, 2 ln ~I
., " 't
+ [ +x m"; m (m~ -m2)+ ~.m~.. m(m;. -m2)} ]

,.
...(9-.IS~~
, "
"':'
,
The
iw
dampedamplitudesof
.
rocking and slidingof the foundationsubjectedto an excitingmoment ,c
M, e are gIven by '$I

:4
2 2 2 1/2
Mv [ (OOnx) +(2;x OOn.t) ] ,
A-'
x2 -. MIII " (00 2 ) ."(9.Jf~1
",
D. iI
!I1'r
2 2 2 2 112 t
- My [ (OO"x-OO) +(2;xoo/lxoo) "' "
]
and
A<j>2 - -Mm 2 ...(9.1~! , ,
f.. (00 )'. ~,,

When a footing is subjected to an oscillatory moment Myirot and a horizontal force Fx im/ simulb-
neously, then the resultingamplitudesof sliding and rocking are . "j
Ax = Ax1 + Ax2 ...(9.162
A<1> = Acjll + A<1>2 ...(9.163
9.6 EFFECT OF FOOTING SHAPE ON VIBRATORY RESPONSE fy

Elastic half-space theory was developed for a footing with circular contact area. Response of a footing~1
influenced by the shape of contact area. The usual practice is to transform area of any shape to an equjy:
lent circle of same area (for translational modes) or equivalent moment of interia (for rocking and)b
sional modes) (Richart and whitman, 1967 ; Whitman and Richart, 1967). Thus
~'
b
For translatory vibrations: r0 =
i!- 7t
..(9.U
,;;:.1
1/4
3 ~~~1.
.:~(~~t
For rocking vibrations: ro = ( b3: J
~aj,yt
~ ..
114 ",./I
ab (a2 +b2)
For torsional Vibraf .ns : ro =[ 61t
]
, " ~.j91,
'. ~'.~if
where ro = Equivalentradius tt'
a = Width of foundation (parallel to the axis._ofrotation for rocking) t" ,1

' '
b = Length of foundation (perpendicular to the axis of rotation for 'rocking) -
"
d1,, , ,
.'' "
,,
I "'
["'~ ,~,
i<) "4!t"l:'1
,,
~~.h..
'
'' '
,5' " .''
~ 't\', """ ,
, ,
, 'ft,
'"r",~,
394 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foun~
,.
9.7 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF EMBEDDED BLOCK FOUNDATIONS - - ~i
For an embedded foundation, the soil resistances are mobilised both below the base and on the sides. Th~
additional soil reaction that comes into play on the sides may have significant influence on the dynamit
response of embedded foundations. Typical response curves showing the effect of embedment are pre~
sented in Fig. 9.30. It gives that as a result of embedment, the natural frequency of the foundation- soil,
system increasesand the amplitude of vibration decreases (Novak, 1970, 1985;Beredugo(1971) ; Beredugo
and Novak, 1972; Fry, 1963 ; Stokoe, 1972 ; Stokoe and Richart, 1974 ; Chae, 1971 ; Gupta, 1972 i
Vijayvergiya,1981).
. The problem of embedded foundations has been analysed by both linear elastic weightless spring
approach (Prakash and Puri, 1971, 1972 ; Vijayvergiya, 1981) and elastic half-space theory (Anandkrishan
and Krishnaswamy, 1973; Baranov, 1967; Berdugo and Novak, 1972; Novak and Beredugo, 1971).Th~
analysis developed by Vigayvergiya Cl981) is simple and logical, and therefore selected for presentati9P
here. On the basis of theoretical analysis, he had recommended the.equivalent spring stiffnesses in dif-
ferent types of motion as given below: .
9.7.1. Vertical Vibrations (Fig. 9.31)

¢
! Fz5in 6>1
Machin<z
¬ Ú¦ Í·² êâù
³
~,~
-
Foundation
h
ø±¨ bxh)
0
Õ¦ä¦
1 1
f.. a
~
Fig. 9.31 : Embedded block foundation subjected to pure vertical vibration
ã Ý«Ü ßõîÝ¬¿ªø¾Üõ¿Ü÷
Õ¦» ...(9.!
where Õ¦» ã Û¯«·§¿´»²¬ spring stiffness of the embedded foundation
Ý«Ü ã Coefficient of elastic uniform compression obtained at the base of foundation
Ý¬ õÝ¬Ü
Ý¬¿ª= Averagevalue of coefficientof elasticuniformshear =-
2
Ct = Coefficient of elastic uniform shear at the ground surface
Ý¬ Ü ã Ceofficient of elastic uniform shear at the base of foundatiqn
D = Embedment depth
b = Width of base of foundation
a = Length of base of foundation
~
d
. ~""
.
..
... ...""..
~.."L... . .
The equation of motion will be
mz+Kze'z = Fzsin rot ...(9.168)
The natural frequency oonzeand maximum amplitude Aze of motion are given by
fK: ...(9.169a)
oonze = v--;;;
Fz
Aze = 2 2 ...(9.169b)
. m (
ronze - ro )
9.7.2. Pure Sliding vibrations (Fig. 9.32)
Machin<z
. , ,
Fx Sin wt
- FxSin wt Õ¨ä¦
...-. ~ ~ .. m
h
Foundation 0
ø¿¨¾¨ h)
1 1 '.
~ a -i
Fig. 9.32: Embedded block foundation subjected to pure sliding vibration
Kxe = Ct D A + 2 Cllavb D + 2 Ctav aD ...(9.170) .
where Kxe = Equivalent spring stiffness of the emebedded foundation

C +C
Cl/a v = Average value of coefficient of elastic uniform compression = !!.-
2 uD
CII = Coefficient of elastic uniform compression at the ground surface.

Similarly, the equation of motion will be
m x + Kxe ..i = ~t sin rot ...(9.171)
The natural frequency and maximum amplitude of vibration are given by
fK:: ...(9.172)
oonxe = v--;-
Fx ~.
A = 2 2 ...(9.173)
xe m (ronxe - ro )
..
~
396 Soil Dynamics & Machine Follndatioi;.\
- - -,
9.7.3~ Pure Rocking Vibrations (Fig. 9.33)

,.
Machinq
My Sin GJt m
-::.'\\,: ×
¸ × -
0
Foundation ~
ï
(axbxh)
a ./
1
I.. r
Fig. 9.33 : Embedded block foundation subjected to rocking vibration
f
-t
C~av b 3 2 Db a2
...(9.£7<
:1
Kljle =C~D.I-W.L+ 24 (16D -12hD )+2C~avlo+Ctav 2
,"1l
where Kljle = Equivalent spring stiffness of the embedded foudation
CIjID= Coefficientof elasticnon-uniformcompressionat the base levelof foundation
Cljlav= Averagevalue of coefficientof elasticnon-uniform compression= C~+2C~D

CIjI = Coefficient of elastic non-uniform compression at the ground surface
L = Height of the combined e.g. of machine and foundation from the centre of the base J
W = Weight of foundation ,
b 3,
I=~ '~J
12
3
,
I = aD
0 3
The equation of motion will be .,.
MI1IO«\>+Kljle.$ = My sin rot ...(9.I

The natural frequency and maximum amplitude of vibration are given by J';J
=
Ct)lIljIe
~ ~e
M mo
My
...(9.,.
-- i
}
A = 2 2 ..~t}
:ce M",O ( ro119- ro ) ~,
,I
.i;J
.-;i'
,.
f
j.
~ IJI
~
f'
'"
Foundations ,.Fo/llldatiolls of Reciprocating Machines 397 ~I'
.
" 9.7.4. Coupled sliding and rocking Vibrations. The equations of motion in coupled vibrations are
given as
-::.
11.
, 411
I
mx+K.u,x+Kxtp' = Fxsinrot ...(9.178) I
and ,'1
Mm~+KcI>'+Ktpx'x = My sin rot ...(9.179) I
}\There Kxx = C'tD A + 2 Cl/aVbD + 2 C'tav aD ...(9,180)
]
I
Kxtp = Ctpavb (D2 - 2 DL) - C'tD . AL ...(9.181) I
I
2 . a2 2 3 3 , ,
...(9.182)
Kq,tp = CtpD1+ C'tD AL - WL + 2 CljlavIy + C'tav bD 2 + 3' Ctpav[L + (D - L )]
~
>
...(9.183) I
~K~t2 Ktpx = - [ C'tD AL + 2 Cl/a v bD ( L- ~ ) + 2 C'ta v ( L - ~ ) aD]
~ 1'1
.
where CljIlIV = Average value of coefficient of ~Iastic nonunifonn shear
~ I ~\j
ly = Moment of inertia of area a x Dlying in the plane of vibration about axis of rotation I '11
.
Da3 aDb2
=-+- . .
12 4
,..(9,174) JI
1'he natural frequencies of the system can be obtained by solving Eq. (9,184)
d.
m Mm co~e- (r:zKtptp+ Mm Kx.~)co~e+ (K~~K~ - K~x x Kxtp)= 0 ...(9.184)
on
The amplitudes of vibration ofthesystem can be obtained as below:
D . (a) Only the horizontal force Fx sin ootis acting: The equations of motion will be :
m x + Kxx . x + Kfttp . = Fx sin 00t ...(9.185)
the base Mm ~i + Ktptp. + ~tpx X = 0 ,..(9.186)

The solution of the above equations can be represented by I
tlI
x=Adsinoot ...(9.187)
= Atpfsin 00t ...(9.188)
l F t j
By substituting x and 
from Eqs, (9,187) and (9. 188) in Eqs, (9.185) and (9.186), we get
t (Kxx - m 002) Axl + Kxtp Atpl = Fx sin 00 t ...(9.189)

2
I KtpxA.d + (Ktptp- Mm 00 ) Atpl =0 ...(9.190)
,..(9)75) By solving Eqs, (9, 189) and (9,190), we get
2 Q,
. - .(K~~- Mm 00 )
Axl - 2 2 Fx ...(9.191)
...(9.176\ '" (Kxx-moo )(Ktp~-Mmoo )-KxtpK<I1~
- -K~ '.,
Atpl - 2 2 / r. ...(9.192)
(K.n-moo ) (Ktptp-Mm 00 )-KxtpK<I1'
...(9.
I
I
I~
.I
...
~
O//II~
""i"'""
~
u
----
cl!
~
~-
ó¢ùó±
íçè Soil DYllamics & Machifle Foufldatiofls
(b) Only the moment My sin cot is acting: The equations of motion will be :
11
m x + Kxx . x + Kcpx= 0 ...(9.193)
I.i Mm ~
+ K.p.p . + K.pxx = My sin COt ...(9.194)
The solutions of the above equations can be represented as:
1I
X =Ax2 sin COt ...(9.195)
f.i
 = A.p2 sin co t ...(9.196)
;. Substituting the values of x and 
from Eqs. (9. 195) and (9.196) in Eqs. (9. 193) and (9.194), we get
2
(Kxx - m CO) Ax2 + Kx.pA.p2 = 0 ...(9.197)
2
K.px' Ax2 + (K.p.p - Mm CO) A.p2 = My ...(9.198)
4:
By solving Eqs. (9.197) and (9.198), we get
I
,f' --
Ad - 2
-Kx.p
2 My ...(9.199)
(Ku-mco )(K.p.p-Mmco )-KcpxKx.p
2
~" I
and
(Kxx -m CO)
A.p2= 2 2 My ...(9.200)
I~ (K,X,X- m CO ) (K.p.p- Mm ro ) - KcpxKx.p
If both Fx sin cot and My sin cot are acting simultaneously, then
Ax = Axt + Ax2 ...(9.201)
H:
A.p = A.pl + A.p2 ...(9.202)
Sometimes to screen the vibrations, some .air gap is left between the pit and the foundation block
ïï
åô
(Fig. 9.34). Figure 9.35 shows the comparison between the response of embedded foundation with air gap
® and without air gap. From this it can be concluded that if air gap is provided around the foundation the
amplitude of vibration increases whereas the natural frequency decreases when compared with corre-
ô sponding foundation with no air gap around it. The response of embedded foundation with air gap can
be obtained by analysis given in sec. 9.4 by using CuD' CtD,C.pDand C",Din place of CII'Ct' CeI>
and CIjI
respectively.
ô
Machinq
×
ô
òº
'" ..,\ ..//..
×æ Foundation
×ù h
(axbxh)
li Ai r gap
¬ ×
º
ïïæ
t- a ~
¬
Fig. 9.34 : Embedded block foundation with air gap
¶ò
III
u
w
1111
~
III !Ill,
Ill!
~
I!!
,..
Ii
'1111 da tio 11 s Foundations of ReciprocatillgMacltines 399

0
L.()
I
.(9.193)
I
~ i:
.(9.194)
t, L.()
--.j' I
I ~
..(9.195)
..(9.196)
f -
QC)
'"
), we get 0 ..,.,
--.j'
..(9.197) .....
... r"
...
>
1:1
..(9.198) :;
C-
I c.
'" ~
.. ~!
L.() ...
...(9.199)
M '"
I
0 Ill'
,~
:: 11
'i
'0
c
...(9.200) 1 '"
I 0 c.
'"
M tf) OJ)
c- ...
'"
V ::
...(9.201) ... 1,\
i >- 'i"'
-
...(9.202) I v
L.() c f
lion block ('4
c "
,~
::J ';...
ith air gap L.()
c- er .Q
I L.()
.dation the
vith corre-
j
,I
N
0
. c- N.
0
Cl
C7)
01
l-
LL
'>
'"
,;:
Cl l- t:...
ir gap can
II C1 " .- 0 >
m CD Cl N
CQ>and C'v
1
......
L..
...... 0 ~ \I
0« 0' Z ~
:
u=
"u 11
C
...
L.() :::!
0'
c Cl ...
.::
'-0 ...-
Cl ,/,
L.. 'C
0 ...- B
~ Ln c.
a
> "'Cl 0 «!'.
- C or,
~
Cl Cl 0-:
v tf) ..
..... ~
L.. >-
01 ...-
> :::
(/) L.()
I
0
0 0 0
0 r.f)
SUOJ:>!W c apn~!ldwV' I'
-'i
,..'
.. -- -- ,
~
(
~
~,.. ~"'--" ~~ - ..- ~'" ,-

400 Soil DYllamics & Mac/lille Foulldatiolls
9.8 SOIL MASS PARTICIPATING IN VIBRATIONS

In both the methods of analysis and design of foundations of reciprocating machines described in sec. 9.4
.,
and 9.5, the effect of soil mass participating in vibrations has not been considered.
J!
~I
I:
;1 .
'f
,
Fig. 9.36 : Stress distribution in soil mass
Pauw (1953) developed equations for the apparent soil mass by equating the kinetic energy of the
11 affected zone to theCkineticenergy of a mass assumed to be concentrated at the base of the foundation. He
i 11
. gave the following expression for apparent soil mass ms for translatory modes of vibration:
t If
b3
m =Lc ...(9.203)
P s ga. m
, where a. = Factor which defines the slope oftnincated pyramid (Fig. 9.36). It is generally taken'unity.
Cm = Functionwhich dependson sand r
~=- a.he
. b
j a
r="b
he = Equivalent surcharge defined by the ratio of foundation pressure to unit weight of soil.
ij For non-cohesive soils, Cmis obtained from Fig. 9.37 (a). No graphical data is suggested by Pauw for
cohesive soils.
The expression for mass moment of inertia of soil in rotational vibrations is given by
r
,J~. 'Yb5C.
M =---'- ..(9.204)
iI ms 12g a.
. whereC.I canbe obtainedfromFig . 9.37 b to e. In these fi gures, C~,
I C~
r and c~I denote the factors of mass
I moments of inertia about X, Y and Z axes respectively. These factors can be obtained from Figs. 9.37b
'I. to d for cohesionless soils and from Fig. 9.37e for cohesive soils.
.,
"'I
- - - -- -, --~ "-'---~ ~~---'

~--- -.'- ~'. ._-,-,
'Ill
IJI
-
ìðï
Foundations of Reciprocating Machines
Ý±¸¬-·±²´¬-- soil
0.2 0.2
"' -óóÝ
- 'tb3 Mmz = )f'b5 CX
0.5 gJ- m 0.5 5 12g-" i
I.a 1 0 1.0
'""6. - - - - - -- 1
-- - -.\"'&.a - - -- -- ---
-11
11 2.0
Cl)
Cl) 2.0
5.0 S~O
r=12JLr
0 J 0 0:6 . 0~8
Cm Cb)
(Ca)
r
0.2 0.2
;rh 5 CY
. 5 z
0.5 Mm ys
--I
- 12'3 aC.. 0.5 ,Mmzs- 129cl Cj
- rJL
~'1.a1.0
I.a 1.0
11 2.0 V) 2.0
Cl)
5.0 5.0
r::1
--'--
0 0.5 1.5
Cc) CjY 0.5 cf
--;:-3 rJ+r
¥b5 x
M.mx$-= 12 gel Cj
2
Yb5 Y
Mmys= 1290£ Ý¶
CJI.a
,"
...
5
Cj
(t)
Fig. 9.37: Apparent mass factors for horizontal contact surfac£..>

-' :.,' '
I';. ' ;
L
Balkrishna (1961) has developed the following expression for the apparent soil mass in vertical
vibrations:
3/2
m = ~ 0.4775 Q . 1t P ...(9.205)
.. s 3( 4 P)
where Q = Sum of the static and dynamic load
Barkan (1962) has suggested that the apparent soil mass may be taken as 23% of the mass of machine
plus foundation.
Hsieh (1962) gave the expressions for getting apparent soil mass as given in Table 9.9.
Table 9.9 : Effective Mass and Mass Moment of Inertia for Soil below a Vibrating Footing
(Hsieh, 1962)
Effective mass or mass moment of inertia of soil

Mode .of vibration
ïïãð 11 = 0.25 11= 0.5
Vertical translation 3 3 , 3
0.5 pro \.0 pro 2.0 -p ro
Horizontal translation 3 3 3
0.2 pro 0.2 pro 1.0 pro
5
Rocking 0.4 pro
Torsion (about vertical axis) 0.3 P r5 0.3 P r5 0.3 pr50

0 0
The apparent soil mass/mass moment of inertia is added to the mass m/mass moment of inertia Mm
or J0 to get the natural frequency and amplitude of vibration.
.
9.9 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR A BLOCK.FOUNDATION
The design of a block foundation provided for a reciprocating machine may be carried out in following
steps:
9.9.1. Machine Data. The following information shall be obtained from the-manufactures of tl:1ema-
chine for guidance in designing: -
(a) A detailed loading diagram comprising the plan, elevation and section showing details of con-
nectionsand point of applicationof all -loads on foundation; -
(b) Distance between axis of the main shaft of the machine and the top face of foundation;
(c) Capacity or rated.output of machine; -
(d) Operating speed of machine; and
(e) Exciting forces of the machine and short circuit moment of motor, if any.
9.9.2. Soil Data. The following information about the subsurface soil should be ~own :
(a) Soil profile and data (including soil properties generally for depth equal to twice the width of ;;
the proposed foundation or up to hard stratum). ~
(b) Soil investigation
. to ascertain allowable soil pressures and to determine the dynamicproperties 4
'it
of the sOIL.. ,>1
(c) The relative position of the w~ter tablebelo~'-g~o~nd ~t differe~t times of the year. 'J
The minimum distance to any important foundation in the vicinity of the machine foundation should,
alsobe accertained. .. - }I
-, ~,~-
Foundations of Reciprocating .Machines 403'
9.9.3. Trial size of the Foundation. '.
Area of Block-The size of the foundation block (in plan) should be larger than the bed plate of the
machine it supports, with a minimum all-round clearance of 150 mm.
Depth- In all cases, the depth of foundation should be such as to rest the foundation on good bearing
strata and to ensure stability against rotations in vertical plane.
Centre of Gravity"::
The combined center of gravity of the machine and the block shall be as much below
the top of foundation as.possible, but in no case it shall be above the top of foundation.
Eccentricity-The eccentricity shall not exceed 5 percent of the least width in any horizontal section.
Sharp corners shall be avoided, whenever possible, praticularly in the openings.
9.9.4. Selecting Soil Constants. The values of dynamic elastic constants (Cu' Ccfj1 Ct' C'V'G, E and J.l)
are obtained from relevant tests and corresponding strain levels are noted. ,These values are reduced to
10m2 contact area and 10 kN/m2 confining pressure. A plot is then prepared between dynamic elastic
constants and strain level. The value of dynamic elastic constants are picked up corresponding to the
strain level expected in the actual foundation. These values of dynamic elastic constants are then cor-
rected for the actual area of the foundation (if < 10m2), and confining pressure. The details of this has
alreadybeen discussedin illustrativeexample4.2 ,.-' .
9.9.5. Centering the Foundation area in Contact with Soil. Determine the combined center of gravity
(Table 9.4) for the machine and the foundationin X, Y and Z planes and check to see that the eccentricity
along X or Y axis is not over 5 percent. This. is the upper limit for this type of analysis. If eccentricity
exceeds 5 percent, the additional rocking due to vertical eccentric loading must be considered in the
analysis (Barkan, 1962) "
The static pressure should be checked; it should be less than 80 percent of the allowable soil pressure
under static conditions. This condition is met in most practical foundations. .
Table 9.4 : Determination of CG of the System

Coordinate e.g. Static moments of
Element Dimensions of the element mass of elements
of Weight of Mass of
system a.t ay az element element Xj . Yj Zj mjXj mjYj mj
2
3
9.9.6. Design Values of Exciting Loads and Moments. The fmal values of force and resulting moments
are now obtained with respect to the combined center of gravity of the system. The relative magnitudes
of the unbalanced forces and moments will decide the nature of vibrations in the block foundation.
9.9.7. Determination of Moments of Inertia and mass Moment~' of Jnertia. The moments of inertia
and mass moments of in~rtia may be obtained using the formulae given in Tables 9.5 and 9.6.
.
404 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundllliolls
Table 9.5 : Moments of Inertia

Formula for
Shape of the area Figure
Ix ~ Iz
,
ffi " I Y T
--f::.G. b ab3 ba3 ab(a2 +b2)
Rectangle
X I
y
X Jl 12 12 12
1---0 ~
y
T....
N
X X 11 1td4 1td4
Circle '0 .!!:...ct
64 64 32
J..
Table 9.6 : Mass Moments of Inertia '1;1
Formula for
Shape of Elements Figure ,
MmT Mmy Mm:
""-.
z 1'J'
m 2 m m
Rectangular block
-- 12 (b + h2) 12 (a2 + h2) 12 (i + b2) ~
"t
!j
"
.""1
z ,.~
'" f'
X
T
h
Circularblock 1/ 1- !!!-3d2 + h2 !!!- 3d2 + h2
y,u 1 12 ( 4 J 12 ( 4 )
t-d-j
Foundations of Reciprocating Machines- 405
-
-:M mo- Mm + m L2
where Mmo = Mass moment of inertiaof machineand foundationabout the axis of rotation passing
through base.
L = Distance of combined centre of gravity above base.
Mm
r=-
Mmo .
9.9.8. Determination of Natural Frequencies and Amplitudes

Linear weightless spring approach
(i) Vertical Vibration
.A
(0 nz =
W ~
m .-,.
Fz
Az = 2 2
m (OOnz-00 )
(ii) Torsional Vibration
.(On",-~cw
- Mmz
J,
and Mz
A = 2 2
'" Mmz,,(OOnw-00 )
(iii) Combined Rocking and Sliding
Sliding and rocking are coupled modes of vibration. The natural frequencies are determined as
follows:
conx ~ ~c, mA
<.oncp -- Mmo
~C.I- WL
2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
and OOnl,2 = 2; OOnx
[(
) (OOnx+OOn,) -4r
+OOn+:t OOnxOOn,
]
The amplitudes of vibration can be computed with the following equations:
2 2
(Ct AI.;+C.I- WL- Mm00 ) FJ:+(Ct AL) M
A - v Y
x - ~(oo2)
2
(CtAL)Fx+(CtA-moo )My
A -
~- ~ (002)
'lihere, Ax = Linear 4orizontal amplitu_de of the combined center of gravity
Acp = Rotational amplitude in radians around the combined center of gravity. -
2 2 - 2 , 2 ,. 2 '-
L\«o)=mMm ((J)nl-(J) )((J)n2-~ )
.
I
j
ill..
406 Soil Dynamics & Machine Fou1Jdatio"s
The amplitude of the block should be determined at the bearing level of the foundation as
a
~~~.,,~~:E-C';:,;z::..;~~;_.-,,-~..,_. ... ..'-~." '.' Av = Az+ '2 A.
Ah = Ax + h A.
where Ah = Horizontal amplitude at bearing level
h = Height of the bearing above the combined center of gravity of the system
Av = Maximumvertical amplitude
Elastic half-space approach
Equivalent radius, mass ratio, spring constants and damping factors are listed in Table 9.7
Table 9.7 : Values of Equivalent Radius, Mass Ratio, Spring Constants and Damping Factor
Modeof Equivalent Mass (or inertia) Damping Spring Constant
vibration radius ratio factor
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
(l-Il)
-- m 0.425
Vertica!
roz = f!1t Bz= 4 pro
3
z = Bz
k=-
z
4Gro
1-1l
(7 - 81l) m '0.2875 32(1-J.l)Gro
Sliding r -
ox f!
-
1t Bx= 32(I -Il) pr; x= -a- .f kx =
7-8J.l
3
3 (I - J.l)Mmo 0.15 8G ro
Rocking B = 8 5 k =
,o 31t
(ba')'14
$ pro x = (1+ B).JB; 3 (1- J.l) .!
Torsional r
°'V
=
(
ba(a2+b2)
6 1t r B=---t
Y
Mm-
pro
0.5
'V= 1+2B \jI
16
k'V=3"Gro
3 ,t
Natural frequencies and amplitude of vibrations

(I) Vertical Vibration
OOnz = ~;
.'
,,'
(it) Torsfonal Vibration

A, ~ K'[{l-(:JrZ+~,:Jr '~,
)~
and
00
n'V
=
~ M
'V
rn,!,
~1
~ ~ K.[{1_(ro:Jr~(2~.ro:Jr
--..
='oundations of Recipr-Ocating Machines 407
(iil) Coupled sliding and rocking vibration 0 '
0) = fKx
nx V-;;
O),,~ = ~
Damped natural frequencies are obtained as the roots of the following equation:
~
Mmo
2
4 2 (ID~,+ ID;") 4 V.. IDnx""; oo~ 00;,
-
O
00 na - 00 nd +
r 0 00 0 To, .0 r 00
[ { } ]
2
4 ~X 00nx 00nd 2 2 ~' 00nd cOnip 2 2
[
+ r - 00 lid + r ( 00nx - 00nd
00n,
)]
=0 ) (
Undamped natural frequencies can be obtained by using following Equations:
2 -
OOnl,2 -
~
2r [( OOnx OOn, - OOn, OOnx 4 r oon, oonx ]
2 + 2
)+ ( 2 + 2 2
0
.
)-
~ . ,- .-
2
0
2
Damped amplitudes for motion occasioned by the applied moment, can be obtained as below:
1/2
2
A = My [ (oo~) +(2~x 00n.t)2 ]

x Mm" ~(002)
112
2 2 2 -',0, 2
) ]
A =My [( OOnx-OO +(2~xoonx)..
$ M 111 /),,(00 2 )
where /)"(0)2) is given by Eq.
.. '. 2
4 2 (OO~,+OO~) 4 ;.t ~~ 00 nx 00 nljl - 00~x 00 ~~

~ (ol) = 00 -00 r 0
r. . r
[{, ( } }
, 0 0... 2 1/2
00 00 2 2 ~, 00 n, 00, 2 2
+ +x ":-(IDn+-ID)+ r (IDn,-ID)} ]
Damped amplitudes for motion occasioned by an applied force Fx acting at the center of gravity of the
foundation may be obtained as below: 0' ,
1/2
- Fx [ (-Mm 002+k, +L2Kx)2 +40)2(~~~K~Mmo+L2~x.JK7n)2 ] 0
.. ~ -m-~.m .A (0)2) '- . - -.'

2 2 1/2 .
and A - Fx 0
L coIIX coIIX+ ( 4 ~xco
'.-
) ,", "
,.'~:t'~ffl" ( /)".<co2). ..
6...
408 Soil Dynamies & Machine Foundations
9.9.9. Check for Adequate Foundation. The natural frequencies computed in.step 8 should be away
from the resonance zone i.e.
Cl) co
- < 0.5 or - < 1.5
Cl)n con
The amplitudes computed in step 8 should be less than t~e limiting amplitudes of the machine which
are usually specially by the manufacturer of the machine.
ILL USTRA TIVE EXAMPLE

I
Example 9.1
A reciprocating machine is symmetrically mounted on a block of size 4.0 m x 3.0 m x 3.5 m high. The
soil at the site is sandy in nature having cl>= 350and Ysat= kN/m3.The watertable lies at a depth of 3.0
m below the ground surface. The block is embedded in the ground by 2.0 m depth. The machine vibrating
at a speed of 250 rpm generates
Maximum vertical unbalanced force = 2.5 kN
Torque about Z-axis = 4.0 kN-m
Maximum horizontal unbalanced force = 2:0 kN at a height of 0.2 m above the top of the block.
The machine weight is small in comparison to the weight of foundation. Limiting amplitude of the
machine is 150 microns. A block resonance test was conducted at the site to evaluate the dynamic elastic
constants. The data obtained from the test is the same as given in Example 4.2 (Chapter 4).
Determine the natural frequencies and amplitudes by (a) Weightless spring m!=thod,and (b) Elastic
half-space approach.
Solution:
1. Machine data (Fig. 9.38)
2.5 Sin G.>t
2.0 Sin CiJt
Machincz
Block
4.0 Sin c..>t
:.~...
e.g.. .,. T
h = 3.5 m
2.om
T
L = 1.75m
b =3.0m "
1 1
11-- a =".Om ~ J- a = 4.0 m l
(a)Section -".,.-- - -,..~-, -- - (b) Plan -}
I"" 0" f. Y"", ..,!'
Fig. 9.3S':, Details oUoundatlon .. ,,(.
~l
.~1
,--- ,I
F oundatitJnsuf R:ecip,octlting Machines 409
'.
Operating speed of machine =500 rpm "
Weight of machine is small and can be neglected.

Fz = 2.5 sin Cl)t kN
Mz, = 4.0 sin rot kN ,m
Fx = 2.Dsin rot kN acting at a height of 0.2 m above the top of block
21t
ro = 250 rpm = 250 x 60 = 26.2 rad/s
2. Dynamic elastic constants
Refer example 4.2. The soil data and the size of the actual block are same as in that example. The
procedure of determining the values of dynamic elastic constants for analysing the block foundation is
illustrated there. Therefore, following values of dynamic elastic constants may be adopted.
Cu = 3.62 x 104kN/m3
G = 1.10 x 104 kN/m2
E = 2.98 x 104kN/m2
f.1= 0.35
C 3.62
C = ---!!.= - x 104 = 1 81 x 104 kN/m3
t 2 2 .
C41 = 3.46 Ct = 3.46 x 1.81 x 104 = 6.26 x 104 kN/m3
C", = 0.7S'Cu = 0.75 x 3.62 x 104= 2.71 x 104kN/m3
3. Foundationdata. "
Let the block is casted in M20 concrete. The unit weight material is taken as 24.0 kN/mJ~
Weight of block = 24.0 x 4.0 m x 3.0 x 3.5
= 1008 kN
1008 2
m = 9.81 = 102.8 x 10 kg
Area of foundationbase = 4.0 x 3.0 = 12.0 m2
In further analysis and design of foundation, the depth of embedment is neglected.
4. Linear weig,htles'sspring app'roach
(a) Vertical Vibration
(Onz = H
-;;;-
u A- -
Fz
3.62 x 104 x 12.0 = 65 rad/s
102.8
(AZ>max
, '
,
,. .
= m(oo~ -002)
\
.
~,-' 2.5 -
.r
.-:
,
102~~J~?2
',."".:iI...'-'::
-.2~.22J' =:=6.8 x. 10-6
".:'r~.~,l'S"""
m r. = 6.8 microns
, .'
.
.
410 SoU Dynamics & Machinl! Foundatio;
(b) Torsional vibration

ab 2 2 .4 x 32 2 4
J
z
= -12 (a + b ). = - 12 = (4 + 3 ) = 25 m .
M =!!!.. (i + b2) = 102..8x 103 (42 + 32) = 214 x 103 Kg-m2

mz 12 . . 12
(0 - -- - 56 .ras
2 d/
nw - iC" J, -
M mz 2.71 x214 .
104 x 25 -
(c) Coupled rocking and sliding
(0
nx
= re;;:=
V-;;-
1.81 x 104 x 12 = 46 rad/s
102.8
(On <p Mmo

-- ~C.I-WL
I = ba3 = 3 x 43 = 16 m4
12 12.
W = 1008 kN
L = 1.75 m
Mmo = Mm+ m L2
M ~!!!..
m 12
(i + h2) = 102.812x 102 (32 + 3.52) = 182 x 103 kg-m2
Therefore Mmo = 182 x 103+ 102.8 x 102 x 1.752 = 496.8 x 103kg-m2
= 6.26 x 104 x 16-1008 x 1.75 = 44 8 d/
OOn d.
496.8 . ra s
't' V
M 182
r = --!!L = - = 0.366
Mmo 496.8
2 - 1 2 2 +" 2 2 2 2 2
(J) 11\,2 - -2r
[(
(J)n.\"+ (J)IIcp - ) ((J)ncp+ (J)nx) - 4 r (J) ncp (J) n.\"
] 4~
= 2 x 0.366
1
[
(462+44.82):t
. .I
(462+44.82)2 -4 x 0.366 x 462 X44.8~
]
= ~ ,cot
0.732 [4123:t
.
3283] I
OOnl = 33.8 rad/s and oon2 = 100.6 rad/s .'.".'
2 2 2 2 2 ..
!J.(00 ) = m Mm ( - (J) )(Cl)n2 - )
(J)nl Cl)
, "..;~.I
= 102.8 X 182 (33.82 - 26.22) (100.62 - 26.22)
= 102.8 x 182 X 456 x.9434 = 8.05 X 1010 kg2 m2
My = 2 (0.2 + 1.75) =~.~,'kN'ni":,

------------
lundations of Reciprocating Machines 411
A = (C411- WL+C-rAL2 -Mmro2) Fx+(C-r AL) My

x - ~ (ro2)
= (6.26 x 104 x 16-1008 x 1.75+1.81 x 104 x 12x1.752_182 x 26.22) x 2.0

8.05 x 1010
4
1.81x 10 x 12 x 1.75x (3.9)
+ 8.05 x 1010
= 3080158+ 1482390 = 56.6 x 10-6 m

8.05 x 1010
2
(C-rAL) Fx + (C-rA-mro ) My
A$ =
~ (ro2)
4 4 2
= (1.81x10 x12x1.75)x2.0+(1.81x10 x12-102.8x26.2 )3.9
8.05 x 1010
= 760200+ 571876 = i6.5 x 10-6 rad

. 8.05 x 1010
a -6 4.0 -6
Hence, A = A + - A = 6 8 x 10 + - x 165 x 10
v z 2 ~. 0'
2'
= 39.8 x 10-6 m = 39.8 microns 1/
,
Ah = Ax + h' A$ = 56.6 x 10-6 + .1.75 x 16:5 x 10-6

= 85.47 x 10-6 m = 85.47 microns
5. Elastic half-space approach
(a) Vertical vibration
r = fA = ru. = 1.95m
0 V; V-;
Average effective unit weight of soil
= 20+ 10 = 15 kN/m 3
2
-' 1008
B = 1-~.m3 = 1-0.35 x
2-.
W = 1.47
Z 4 pro 4 x 1.953
( 9.81 )
K = 4Gro = 4 x 1.10 x 104 x 1.95 = 13.2 x 104 kN/m
Z 1-~ 1-0.35
0.425 ' 0.425
~z. =- ' ":= . = 0.304
B z °0-..J.195
:JB: ,t '
.
t.
412 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foulldations
CO - - 13.2 x 104 = 35.8 rad/s

nz -
.~Kz m =~ 101.8
Fz
A, ~ k{{l-( :Jf +(:~,~:J

2.5
r
~
= 29.4
13.2 x 1o~[{I -
x 10-6 m
G::~ rr + (2 x 0.304 - ~~:~ r r
(b) Torsional vibration
1/4 \14
ab(a2+b2) 4x3(42+32)
r = = = 1.9973 m
0
[ 67t
3
]
2
[ 67t
]
M mz = 214 x 10 K g -m
B = Mmz = 21~ x 9.81 = 4.40

\jI p,; 15x 1.99735
16 3 16 . 4 3 4
~ = "3 G,o ="3 x 1.1x 10 x 1.9973 = 46.75 x 10 kNmlrad
0.5 0.5
X,"= = 1 2 4 4 = 0.051
T 1+ 2 BIjf + x .
co --
nljf
9.9.10. Coupled sliding and rocking vibration

~ -- Ijf -
M mz ~
46.75 x 104 -- 46 .7 rad/ s
214
Sliding r = - = -
0 l ~ 7t
x3
7t
= 1.95m
4
32(I-Jl)Gr 32(1-0.35)x1.lxl0 x1.95
K = 0 =
x 7-8Jl 7-8 x 0.35
= 10.62 x 104kN/m
B = 7-8Jl .-m = 7-8xO.35 x

1008
x 32(I-Jl) pr; 32(1-0.35) 15x1.953
= 1.83
~ - 0.2875-: 0.2875- ,-
~x - 7B: - .J1.83 - 9.212 ,
'1
t';
..'
~"
I
r;' oundations of Reciprocating Ma.clJines 413
. - fk:: = /10.62 x 104 = 32.1 rad/s

mnx - I V-;; V 102.8
3 1/4 1/4
Rocking
-
( ab 4.0x33
ro - \. 3~ ) ~ ( ]x) ~ 1.84 ID
K = 8 G r; = 8 x 1.1X 104 x 1.843 - 4

cjI 3(1-/l) 3(1-0.35) -28.1x10kNm/rad
BcjI= 3(1-/l) x Mmo = 3(1-0.35)x496.8x9.81-

8 Pl~ 8 15x1.845 -3.75
0.15 0.15
~= (l+B<\»jB; = (1+3.75).J3.75 = 0.016
'" n<l>= J MK,1110 = 496.8-

28.1 x 104 = 23.7 radJ, .
9.9.11. Coupled Vibration. Undamped natural frequencies in couples rocking and sliding are given by
2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
m111,2 = h [(m IIX
)
+ mn<l>:t (mnx + m ) - 4 r m
n<l> IIX mmp]
= 1
2 x 0.366 [ (32.12+23.72):t (32.12+23.72)2
" -4XO.366X32.12X23.72
]
=~
0.732 [1592:t 1299]
(On1 = 20 rad/s anda mn2= 62.8 rad/s .
~ <oh [1co4 -co'

~ ( (co;.:co~) 4~x~.:"' co,.}+ co;',co;. r
2 1/2
+4
{
~. mnx m 002 -m2
.\ r ( II<\>
)+ ~<\>mn<\>
r ( n.\
00 m2 -002
)} ]
2
~ «(02) = 26.24 -26.22 1592 - 4 x 0.212 x 0.016x 32.1 x 23,7 + 32.12 X 23.72
( 0.366 0.366 ) 0.366
}
[{
. 2 1/2
+4
{ 0.212 x 32.1 x 26.2 (23.72- 26.22)+ 0.016 x0.366
0.366 23.7 x 26.2 (32.12 - 26.22) }
]
:",,'; '. ,;- . .- . .
In
[
= (471200-2966467+ 1581341)2+4 (-60772+9337)2 ] = 919697
"
l
414 SoU Dynamics & Machine Foundations ~;;
~'
A ~ ~ {(-Mm'" +K. +Kx L,)'12+4"'(~, ~K. Mm.+L' ~x~)'rl2

xl mMm ~({i)
2
= 2.0
x 26.22 + 28.1 x 104"+10.62 x 104 x 1.752)
102.8 x 182 x 919697 [ (-182
2 1I2
+ 4 x 26.22 (0.016~28.1 x 104 x 496.8+1.752 x 0.212~1O.62 x 104 x 102.8) ]
= 2.0 (2.3165x 1011+0.1496 X 1011)1/2

102.8 X 182 919697
= 58 x 10-6 ID 0
2 2 1/2
A = ~'(
(
L COnx COnx+4 ~x CO
)
<1>1
.
M
111 ~(CO2 )
.\::
r ") 1/2
= 2.0X1.75 (
32.1 321-+4XO.212X26.22)
182 919697.
l )
= 26.9 x 10-6 fad '
1/2
My [ co~'(+(2~xconx)2 ]
A - -
x2 - Mm ~ (co2)
;'"
.;
,,'",:iJ
2 2 1/2
= 3.9 [ (32.1) +(2xO.212x32.1) ]
:;;
t11
182 919697 ';::;t
= 0.81 x 10-6 ID ;~
1/2 t~
2 ~;J
'(\"
- My [ (co~x-co2) +(2~xconxco)2 ] "j

A(\I2- - 2
Mill ~ (co )
ft~11
i~
,
;" ,
2 1/2 '~",.1
iij;';i
3.9 [ (32.12_26.22) +(2xO.212x32.1x26.2)2

]
182 919697
= 8.3 x 10-6 fad
Ax = A.d + Ax2
= 58 x 10-6+ 0:81 x 10-6= 58.81 x 10-6in
A4I= A4II+ A4I2= 26.9 x 10-6+ 8.3 X 10-6= 35.2 X 10-6fad

.. - III . ~..~"
{}undations .of Reciprocating- Machines 415 .
a -6 4.0 -6
Hence A
4~
= A + -2 An.= 29.4 x
Z y
10 + - x 35.2 x 10
2
-6
= 99.8 x 10 m
Ah = Ax + h' A, = 58.81 x 10-6+ 1.75 x 35.2 x 10-6

= 120.41 x 10-6 m
It may be noted the there are significant differences in the magnitudes of natural frequencies and
mplitudes computed by the two approaches. It may be due to the reason that the value of shear modulus
J is computed from the block resonance test data using the relation between Cu' E and G. Actually in
lastic half-space theory, it is desirable that the value of G is obtained from wave propagation test. Author's
xperience indicates that the value of G obtained from wave propagation test is much higher than com-
'uted from block resonance test data. Use of appropriate value of G may bring the results of the two
pproaches closer.
:xample 9.2
)etermine the natural freque~cies and amplitudes of motion of the foundation (Example 9.1) taking into
tccount the embedment effect and apparent soil mass. , ~
,olution :
(i) Assume that the values of dynamic elastic constants at a depth of 2.0 m are 20% higher than the
values at the surface of ground. Therefore
CuD = 1.2 x .3.62 x 104 = 4.35 x 104kN/m3
Ct D = 1.2 x 1.81 x 104 = 2.18
,
x 104 kN/m3
CD = 1.2 x 6.26 x 104=7.si x 104 kN/m3

CIjID = 1.2 x 2.71 x 104 = 3.25 x 104 kN/m3
The average values of dynamic elastic constants will be
C,./aV = 4.0 x 104 kN/m3
Ctav -- 2.0 x
104 kN/m3
Ccpav= 6.89 x 104 kN/m3
Cljlav = 3.0 x 104 kN/m3
D = 2.0 m
(ii) Vertical vibration
Kze = CuD x A + 2 Ctav (bD + aD)
= .4.35 x 104 x 12 + 2 x 2.0 x 104 (3 x 2 + 4 x 2)
= .108.2 x 104 kN/m ..
24 x 3.5
he = . 15 = 5.6 m
ah 1.0x5.6 a 4
S = -:- = 3.0 = 1.867; r= b = 3" = 1.334
416 , Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations
, "C '
From Fig. 9.36 a for S = 1.867 and r = 1.334;-!!!.

r = 1.45
or Cm = 1.45 x 1.334 = 1.93
, 'Y b3 15 x 33 3
Therefore m =- C = x 1.93 = 79.7 x 10 Kg
S ag m 1.0x9.81
4"- -
108.2 x 10- = 75.8 rad/s
ffinze= VI02.8+79.7
Fe
A == 2 2
ze (m+ms) (O)nze-O) )
= 2.5
(102.8+79.7)(75.82_26:22) =2.70 x 10-6m
(iil) Coupled vibration
Kxe = C'tD . A + 2, Cuav bD + 2 Ctav aD
= 2.18 x 104 x 12 + 2 x 4 x 104x 3 x 2 + 2 x 2 x 104x 4 x 2
= 106.16 x 104 kN/m
From Fig. 9.36 b, for S = 1.867 and r = 1.334, ~r = 0.43

5
b5 15x3
M = 'Y CX = 0.43 x 1.334
m.'Cs 12ga i 12x9.81xl
2
= 17.72 kNms
Mmos= Mmxs+ ms x L2 = 17.72 + 79.7 x 1.752
= 261.80 kN ms2
Cl)
nxe
=
C
~ m+m s
.b
xe = /106.16x 104 = 76.2 rad/s
~102.8+ 79.7 "
Db 2
K~ = Cd.D
~
1- WL + ,av
24
(16 D3 - 12 hD2) + 2 C$av x 10+ Ctav x_a 2
3 3 '
I=ba=3x4 =16m4
12 11
W = 24 x 3 'x 41<.3.5 = 1008 kN
3 4 2} ,
I = aD = ~ ='.10.67 m4
0 3 3
'-,
-~
;~
;f
J
:J-j
w,~'!!' i."
Foundations of RecfprocGtingMachilies.. 417
6 89 . 04 .
K$e = 7.51 x 104 x 16 - 1008 x 1.75 + . x24
I. x 3 (16 x 23 - 12 x 3.5 x 22)
.
2
+ 2 x 6.89 x 10.67 + 2.0 x 104 x 2 x 3 x 4
2 -
= 120.16 x 104-0.1764 x 104-34.45 x 104+ 147 x 104+48 x 104

= 280.53 x 104 kN/m
4
K$e
280.53 x 10
(J)mj>
e = 182 + 261.80
Mmo + Mmos
= 79.5 rad/s
Kxx = CtD x A + 2 Cuav bD + 2 Ctav aD

= 2.18 x 104 x 12 + 2 x 4 x 104 x 3 x 2 + 2 x 2 x 104 x 4 x 2
= 90.16 x -104kN/m
2
Kx$ = CqJavb (D - 2DL) - CtD AL
= 6.89 x 104 x 3 (22 - 2 x 2 x 1.75) - 2.18 x 104 x 12 x 1.75
=-231.81 x 104kN
3 2 3 2
I. = D a + a Db
y 12 4
= ~ 12 + 4 x 2 x 3 = 28.67 m4
4
K$$ = C<j>DI + CtD AL 2 - WL + 2 C1jfOl'Iy + Ctav b ~ a2 + ~ C<j>av[L3 + (D - L)3]

= 7.51 x 104 x 16 + 2.18 x 104 x 12 x 1.752 - 1008 x 1.75 + 2 x 3 x 104 x 28.67
+ 2 x 104 x 3 x 22x 42 + ~ x 6.89 x 104 [1.753 + (2.0 - 1.75)3]
= (120.16 + 80.11 - 0.17 + 172.02 + 96 +24.69) x 104

= 512.81 x 104kNm
Õ±òô ¢ óÅÝôÜ ßÔõî C"", bD ( L- ~ )+2 C"" ( L- ~) aD]
~ -[2.18 x 104 x 12 x 1.75+2 x 4 x 104 x 3" 2 (J.75-~ )+2 x 2 x 104 (1.75-~)4 x 2]
= -[45.78+51.84+34.56] 104 = -132.18 x 104 kN

.
"
~
'(.
{KcMI-(Mm +Mmxs) Cil} Fx

AXl= 2 2
{ Kxx -(m+ms) 0) }{ KcMI-(Mm +Mmxs) 0) } -Kx4l' K~ .1'
= {512.81X 104_(182+17.72) 26.22} 2.0

---
{90.16 x 104 - (102.8 + 79.7) 26.22} {512.81 ~<104,-(182 + 17.72) 26.22 }
[ -(-231.81 X 104) (-132.18 X 104) ]
4 4
998.18 x 10 998.18x10
= 77.64 x 104 x 498.3 x 104- 30639.32 x 108 = 8048.69 x 108
-6
= 12.40 x 10 m
-K .F .
A = ~ x
cpl {Kxx -(m+ms).0)2} {Kcpcp

-(Mm + Mmxs) 0)2}-Kxcp' K~
= 132.18 X 104 X 2.0

8048.69 X 108
= 3.2 x 10-6 fad
- Kx . M.v
Ax2 = 2
~ . 2
{ Kxx - (m + ms) 0) } { Kcpcp - (M m + Mmxs ) 0) } - Kxcp . K~x
231.81x104x3.9 -6
= 8048.69 x 108 = 11.23 x 10 m c:
,: ;J
:,'
{Kxx -(m+ms) 0)2} My ""',I
Acp2 = 2 2
,
'~;
{ K,n,-(m+ms)O) } { Kcpcp-(Mm+Mxs)O) } -Kxcp K~x it
4 2 ~.
r,
,.,"
- [90.16 x 10 -(102.8+79.7) x 26.2 ]x3.9 [,
- 8048.69 x 108 ': ~
1,'1
= 3.7 x 10-6 fad fJ
Ax = Axl + Ax2 = (12.40 + 11.23) x 10-6 = 23.63 x 10-6 m 'j
Acp = A4I1+ Acp2= (3.2 + 3.7) x 10-6 = 6.9 x 10-6fad

Displacement of the top of the block
= Ax + (h - L) AqI
= 23.63 x 10-6 + (3.5 - 1.75) x 6.9 x 10-6
= 35.70 x 10-6 m
",
J;:
REFERENCE
Anandakrishnan, M. and Krishnaswamy, N. R. (1973a), "Response of embedded footings to vertical vibrations", J.

Soil Mech. Found. Div. , Am. Soc. Civ. Engg;
,
99, pp. 863-883. '
Arnold R.N. , Bycroft, G.N. and Warburton, G. B. (1955), "Forced vibrations of a body on an infinite elastic solid",
Trans. ASME, 77, pp. 391-401.
Balkrishna, R. H. A. (1961). "The design of machine foundations related to the bulb of pressure", Proc. Int. Conf.
Soil Mech. Found.' Eng., 5th, Paris, Vo\. 1, pp. 563-568.
Baranov, V.A. (1967), "On the calculation of excited vibrations of an embedded foundation (in Russian)". Vopr.
Dyn. Prochn. . 14 pp. 195-209.
darkan. D.D. (1962). "Dynamics of base and foundations", McGraw-Hill, New York.
Bereduge, Y.O. , and Novak, M. (1972). "Coupled horizontal and rocking vibration of embedded footings", Can.
Geotech. J. , 9(4), pp. 477-497.
, ,
Beredugo, Y.O. (197 I), "Vibrations of embedded symmetric footings", Ph. D. Thesis, University of Westem Ontario,
London, Canada. ',
Bowles. J. E. 91982), "Foundation analysis and design" , McGraw-Hill, New York.
Bycroft, G.N. 91956), "Forced vibrations ofa rigid circular plate on a semi-infinite elastic space and on an elastic
stratum", Phi10s.Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 248, pp. 327-268.
Chae. Y. S. (1971), "Dynamic behaviour of embedded
,. foundation-soil system", Highw. Res. Rec., 323, pp. 49-59.
Fry, Z. B. 91973), "Development and evaluation of soil bearing capacity, Foundation of Structures", Waterways Exp.
Sta., Tech. Rep. No. 3-632. /, '
Gupta. B. N. (1972), "Effect of foundation embedment on the dynamic behaviour of the foundation-soil system",
Geotechnique, 22 (I), pp. 129-137. '
Hall, J. R. (1967), "Coupled rocking and sliding oscillations of rigid circular footing", Proc. Int Symp. Wave Propag.
Dyn. Prop. Earth Mater, Albuquerque, NM, pp. 139-148.
Hsieh, T. K. 91962), "Foundation vibrations", Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 22, pp. 211-226.
Lamb.H. (1904), "On the propagation of tremors over the surface of an elastic solid", Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London,
Ser. A 203, pp. 1-72.
Lysmer,J. and Richart, F. E. , Jr. (1966), "Dynamic response of footing to vertical loading", J. Soil Mech. Found.
Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., 92 (SM-I), pp. 65-91.
Novak, M. (1970), "Prediction of footing vibrations", J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. , Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., 96 (SM-3),
pp. 836-861. , ,
'
Novak, M., (1985), "Experimeflts with shallow and deep foundations". Proc. Symp. Vib. Prob\. Geotech. Eng., Am.
Soc. Civ. Eng., Annu. Conv., pp. 1-26.
Novak, M.. and Beredugo, Y.C. (1971), "Effect of embedment on footing vibration", Proc. Can. Conf. Earthquake
Eng. ,1st, Vancouver, pp. 1I 1-125. ,
Pauw,A. (1953), "A dynamic analogy for foundation soils system", ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub!., STP, pp. 3-34.
Reissner,E.(1936),"StationareAxialymmeterischeduTcheineSchuttelndeMaSseErregteSchwingungeneine Homogenen
,Elastichen Halbraumes", Ing. Arch. 7(6), pp. 38I-39?,"" ',',
Rc'ssner, E. (1937), "Freie underzwungene
i~,<,..,.!:;.; ...,C,":
Torsionschwing-ungen
"",'"
des Elastiche~ Halbraumes", Ing.
,.(",.L.I>,..',~' ,
-Arch, 8 (4).
pp. 229-245. '.':, , , I ".
, \.< ! "','.{' ,..FfAoJ'E:<:l!...\ S } '' . . , ":~
, .
.420 Soil Dynalllics &. Machine Foundations
Reissner~.E.andSagoci, H. E.(1944),~'Forcedtorsional oscillations.ofan.elastichalfspace", 1. Appl. Phys., 15, pp.

652- 662.
Richart, F. E. Jr. (1962), "Foundation vibrations", Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., 127, Part, I, pp. 863-898.
Richart, F. E.)r. ,and'Whitman, R. V. ('1967), "Comparison of footing vibrations t~sts with theory", J. Soil Mech.
Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., 93 (SM ~6), pp. 143-168.
Stokoe,K.H.II (1972). "Dynamicrespo~seofemb'~ddedfoundations",Ph. D. thesis presented,Universityof Michigan,
Ann Arbor,- Michigan.
. .
Stokoe, K. H., 11,and Richart, F. E. Jr. (1974), "Dynamic response of embedded machine foundation",1. Geotech.
Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. , 100 (Gt-4), pp. 427-447 .
Sung, T. Y. (1953a), "Vibrations in semi-infinite solids due to periodic sutface loading", Ph. D. Thesis, Harvard
University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Vijayvergiya, R. C. (1981). "Response of embedded foundations", Ph. D. Thesis, Univeristy of Roorkee, Roorkee,
India.
Whitman; R. C. and Richart, F. E., Jr. (1967) , "Design procedures for dynamically loaded foundations", J. Soil
Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., 93 (SM - 6), pp. 169-193. .
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
9.1 (0) List the basic differences in analysing a reciprocating machine foundation by the two clp
proaches namely (i) Linear weightless spring-mass system, and (ii) Elastic half-space theot)
(b) Derive the expressions of natural frequency and amplitude of a block foundation subjectel
to vertical vibration. ,',)
9.2 Starting from fundamentals, derive the expressions of natural frequencies and amplitud~~l'
block foundation subjected to a horizontal force Fx sin rot and a moment My sin rot at the COlT
bined e.g. of machine and foundation. ,~i ,
9.3 A concrete block shown in Fig. 9.39 is to be used as a foundation for a reciproc~ting e~fi
U
operating at 500 rpm and mounted symmetrically with respect to foundation. The weight O'
~
.
'
.
.
.'.
.
..
.
.
engine is 10kN. It is ,likely that the operation of machine exerts the following: . t~
Unbalanced vertical force = 1.8 sin rot kN .;~
Unbalanced torsional moment = 6 sin rotkN I "/~

1;1't.
The values of the dynamic elastic constants for the design of the foundation may be adop'!
given below: . )ni.1.
CII = 4.5 x 104 kN/m3
G = 4.8 x 104 kN/m3
J.1. = 0.34
3
Ysoil~ 17 kN/m
3
Yconc. = 24 kN/m
. Determinethe namralfrequenciesand
-' amplitUdes~f the biock by (i)Lin~ar
"~..; elasticispj
:.approach and (il) B~stic half space theory. . -' - . - .-, .:'~
o"ca; c: ,
Fila1IliItfdils "Ol~~i:;ptoCtlii,.g
~ac{,,",a 421
, , ",,_. "
- .,
, " . ,'" -
"T'
, , -,2,(0 1ft. -0 .0
-0 ,'-,
"
1..'-
,,1
Q.5m
T-
~ 8.0 m .,'
Elevation
T
It..Om
,.
1
','
Plan
Fig. 9..~9: Details of foundation
9.4 Design a suitable foundation for a horizontal compressor driven by an electric motor. The fol-
lowing data are available: , ' / ,
Weight of compressor, = 160 kN

Weight of motor = 60 k;N
,
Speed of compressor = 250 rpm
Horizontal unbalanced'
,
force , =- 75 kN acting at a height of 1.0 m above top of pedestaL
The following tests were performed at the site of determine the values of dynamic elastic con-
stants :
(a) A verticalvibrationtest was conductedon an M-I50 concreteblock 1.5 x 0.75 x 0.7 m high,
using different eccentricities. The data obtained is given in Table 9.8.
Table 9.8
SI.No. Angle, Of setting of 1,,: Amplitude at resonance
. .'.
eccentric masses Hz mm
I 15 35.0 0.06375
2 30 ,32.0 0.150
3 45 .31.0 0.210
4 60
I
29.5 0.30
- 5
6
120
1~9
-'
-,
28.0
.,:27.0
0.525
0.620
...
422. S,iI DyntUllics
. &. Machine FollndtUWns
,., ,
(b) A cyclic-plate load test was.done on plate 300 mm ~.300 mm. The elastic settlement corre-
sponding to a load intensity of 250 kN/m2 was 6.00 mm. .
(c) A wave -"propagation test gave an average value of travel time of compression waves as
0.02 s, corresponding to a distance between geophones of 6 m.
The water table at the site is 2.0 m below the proposed depth of the foundation 3.0 m. The soil
at the site is sandy in nature.
DD
. ~~ft
1
::1
'.
~
, " , ' , .
FOUNDA TIONSOF IMPACT TYPE MACHINES
10.1 GENERAL
Impact type machines produce transient dynamic loads of short duration. Hammers are most typical of
impact machines. A hammer-fouridation-soil system consists of a frame, a falling weight known as
'tup', the anvil and the foundation block. Figure 8.6 shows a typical foundation for a hammer with its
frame mounted on the anvil. In Fig. 10.1, a foundation for a hammer with its' frame mounted on the
foundation is shown.
~,
Fig. 10.1: Typical arrangement ofa hammer foundation with A frame mounted on foundation
< '
-
,', .. ' : re .\
",'~,'f\" }, ;'i~,:;~$~~~4i.~,,'i.t!t:;..!,:~j'.;: ~, ',Lo-'
.. '"
", ';,'; ~',)' i':(, ~ 0'"
"',7; ,c" ,'" ~,..,'
424 Soil Dy,"""ks& 'Mllc"inif' F()Il1I~
',' The foundation of a hammer generally consists of a reinforced concrete block. 'Q1efollowing ar-
rangements are used depending upon the size of the hammer:
(i) For small hammers, the anvil may be directly mounted on, the foundation block (Fi~. IO.2a).
This system can be modeled as single ,degree of freedom system as sh°W!lin Fig. lO.2b.
',' ,~,',;" ,;:'::~',.:.\,.!','~ /': ~~",.:"::':\:':',:,..",'~"
..- . .. " '" ",'c ; ":':"', ,- J'~
'9T:: ,, 1
~ Tz1
'FOUNDATION,
ANVIL AND
BLOCK.RESTING
FOUNDATION
ON SOIL
'BLOCK""
'}
'~
(a) (b)
F;g. 10.2 : Anvil resting directly on the foundation block
(ii) In medium capacity hammer, a vibration isolation layer is placed between the anvil and tl
foundation block (Fig. lO.3a). Usually the isolation Jayer is an elastic pad consisting of rubbe
felt, cork, 01 timber adequately protected against water and oil. In case of high capacity han
mers, special elements such as coil springs and dampers may be used in place of elastic pa(
(Fig. lO.3b). The systems shown in Fig. lO.3a and lO.3b can be modeled as two degrees I
freedom system as shown in Fig. lO.3c.
f.
, ~I
,
WI
.
....
t
. .-
FOUNDA1'1 ON BLOCK ~ -,:1
RESTING, ON SOIL ~f&4
,"~
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.3 : Anvil resting on elastic pad/spring absorbers (...Contd.)
~,
"oundations of Impact Type Machines 425
dJ~P
122
DAMPING1N ANvrL
l
ABSORBER I
SPRINGk2
ELASTIC
PAD
FOUNDATION Tzt
BLOCK
SOIL
SPRING
kl
< ~ <
DAMPING IN SOIL
(c)
Fig. 10.3 : Anvil resting on elastic pad/spring abs'!)rbers
(Ui) For reducing the transmission of vibrations to the adjoining machines or structures, the founda-
tion block may also be supported on elastic pads (Fig. lOAa) or on spring absorbers (Fig. lO.4b).
In such a case, the foundation is placed in a reinfor<;edconcrete trough. The space between the
foundation and side of trough is filled up with some soft 'materials or an air gap is left. The
systems shown in Fig. lO.4a and lO.4b can be modeled as three degrees freedom system as
shown in Fig. lO.4c. The stiffness of trough (Fig. lO.4a) is very high compared to that of the pad
below the foundation block, the trough may be assumed to be rigidly supported on the soil
(Novak, 1983), and therefore a two degree freedom model (Fig. lO.3c) may give sufficiently,
accurate results for all practical purposes.
FOUNDATION
BLOCK
FOUNDATION
BLOCK TROUGH
ELASTIc. SPRING
PAD BELOW
FOUNDATION ABSORBER
BELOW
BLOCK
FOUNDATION
BLOCK-::
TROUGH " .~' i "
(b)
.'~,. . (a),< ,. .. "
,( ,!1 ' . ,
,'r!'
Fig. 10.4 : Foundation block on elastic pad/spring absorbers (...Contd.)
.......
. 426 Soil Dynamics & M.achine Foun.d,,:tions
~TUP
I
.
ANVIL TZ)
I
I
DAMPING SPRINGkJ OF PAD
IN PAD -. BELOW ANVIL.
TZ2
FOUNDATION
BLOCK
SPRING
k2OF PAD
BELOWTHE
FOUNDATOO
BLOCK TZ1
SOtL
SPRING
k1
DAMPING IN SOIL
(c)
Fig. 10.4 : Foundation block on elastic pad/spring absorbers
In hammer foundations, tup, anvil and foundation are geometrically so aligned that their centres fall
on one vertical axis. This will ensure that the loads act on the anvil and foundation without any eccentric-
ity.
10.2 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

10.2.1. Two Degree Freedom System. In general the anvil, pad, foundation, and soil constitute a tWo
degree system as shqwn in Fig. 10.5. This model is based on the following assumptions:
. .....-
,;'.
(i) The anvil, foundation block, frame, and tup are rigid bodies.
(ii) The pad and the soil can be simulated by equivalent weightless, elastic springs.
(iii) The damping of the elastic pad and soil is neglected.
(iv) The time of impact is short compared to the period of natural vibrations of the system.
(v) Embedment effects are neglected.' bO.
The notations used in the model have the following meaning: ,~ :r

ml = Mass of foundation and frame if the latter is mounted on the foundation, as in Fig. 'lO~t
ml = Mass of anvil (with frame if the latter is mounted on the anvil as in Fig. 8.6. ., ":~1$f
K) = C'u . AI = Equivalent spring constant of soil under. consideration
r<'oundations of Impact Type Machines 425
dJ~P
Tz2
DAMPING1N ANvrL
l
ABSORBER I
SPRING k2
ELASTIC
PAD
FOUNDATION PI
BLOCK
SOIL
SPRING
kl
'~ .
DAMPING IN SOIL
(c)
Fig. 10.3 : Anvil resting on elastic pad/spring abs'!)rbers
(iii) For reducing the transmission of vibratIons to the adjoining machines or structures, the founda-
tion block may also be supported on elastic pads (Fig. lO.4a) or on spring absorbers (Fig. 10.4b).
In such a case, the foundation is placed in a reinforc;edconcrete trough. The space between the
foundation and side of trough is filled up with some soft materials or an air gap is left. The
systems shown in Fig. lO.4a and lOAb can be modeled as three degrees freedom system as
shown in Fig. 10Ac. The stiffness of trough (Fig. lO.4a) is very high compared to that of the pad
below the foundation block, the trough may be assumed to be rigidly supported on the soil
(Novak, 1983), and therefore a two degree freedom model (Fig. 1O.3c)may give sufficiently.
accurate results for all practical purposes.
FOUNDA. TlON
BLOCK
I'
.,..
FOUNDATION '..'
BLOCK ,. TROUG H
ELASTIc. .:.
,-.' SPRING
PAD BELOW
FOUNDATION ABSORBER
: BELOW
BLOCK '8.
FOUNDATION
B LOCK,:~
"" .
.,..(a)r',
I.. . ,
,. ,.,"" .,"-.' ., . .,. . ,. ,,(b)
.
Fig. 10.4: Foundation block on elastic pad/spring absorbers (...Contd.)
........
ill -~
undations of Impact Type Machines 427
Cu' = A Cu = Modified coefficient of elastic uniform compression, to t,,;keinto account impact

condition which is different from periodic loading
t.. = Multiplying factor that governs the relationship between Cu and Cu' usually 1-2, for
impact depending upon the soil type
Cu = Coefficient of elastic uniform compression -
K2 = (E / b) x Az = Equivalentspring constantof the pad under the anvil
E = Young's modulus of the pad material
b = Thickness of the pad
Al = Area of foundation in contact with soil
A2 = Area of the pad
z\ = Displacement of foundation from the equilibrium position
z2 = Displacement of anvil from the equilibrium position
. TuP--cb
ANVIL
SPRING K2
FOUNQATION
,," BLOCK
m1
:~,
. SPRING~1
I
Fig. to.5 : Two-mass-spring analogy for hammer foundation
IO.l.I.I. Natura/frequencies. The equations of motion in free vibration are

mlz\+Klzl+Kz(Zt-zz) =0 ...(10.1)
~ 2Z+ Kz (zz --zl) = 0 ...(10.2)
The solution of the above equation can be written as
Let, zl = A sin oont ...(10.3)
and,. zz=Bsinco"t. ...(10.4)
where A and.B are arbitrary constants. Substituting the values ofzl and zz fro~ Eqs. (10.3) and (10.4) in
Eqs. (10.1) and (10.2) respectively, we get
z
.!! = .Kz+ Kt -1nl con ...(IO.S)
A KZ
428 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations. ..
B K2
and, - = 2 ...(10.6)
A K2 -"'2 con
Equating Eqs. (10.5) and (10.6), on simplification we get
4 K2 (ml +"'2) KI
OOn- +-- 2 Kl K2 -- 0
COn+
{ ml "'2 ml } ml "'2
ffi:- l+~ KZ+ Kl 00:+K2x KI 1+"'2 =0

( ml )( "'2 ml+"'2 ) "'2 ml +"'2 ( ml)
Let, ffina= Circularnaturalfrequencyof the foundationof the anvilon the pad
.". "'na ~ ~~ ...(IO.S)

(J)nl = Limiting natural frequency of the foundation and anvil on soil
.. OOnl =
~ ml+"'2
"'2
I
...(10.9)
Ilm = -;;-
I
.
Substituting the values of OOna'oonland Ilm in Eq. (10.7), we get
4 2 2 2 2 2
OOn -(1 +Ilm) (OOna+ffinl) COn+(1+llm) OOnlOOna = 0 ...(10.10 a)
r
002 = .!.I , 2 2 + . 2 2 2 2 2 ...(10.10 b)
nl,2 2l~I+llm)(COna+OOnl)- {(1+llm)(OOna+COnl)} -4(1+llm)OO,IiOOna ] ,,',I
The two natural frequencies of the hammer foundation may be determined by solving the above
equations,
10.2.1.2.
Amplitude of vibration.
The generalsolutionof the Eqs. (10.1)and (10.2) is given by
z, = AI sin ronlt +A2 cosronlt +AJ sin ron2t +A4 cosron2t ...(10.11)\
Z2 = BI sin ronl t + B2 cos (0nl t + BJ sin (0n2 t + B4 cos (0n2 t ...(10.12)
where, AI' A2' AJ' A4' BI' Bz, B3' B4 are arbitrary constants.
If system is vibrating at frequency oonl'then from Eq. (10.6)
,,1
~ - K2 =' (02na ...( 10.13arJi")~ .
"
A K2 -"'2 CO2
nl 0)2
na - 0)nl
2 = al (Say) ..
~t;;J
...
.
;"c
Similarly when con = con2
2
~ - (Ona
A - (02na _(O2=a2(Say)
n2
."i.",
IJ',J;~4
rdatioIJsoflmpa.ct Type,Machi~es , 429
It may beno~e~,that values ofal andaz are known from Eqs. (10.13 a) and (10.13 b) respectiv.ely.
r.racting az from a I we get . .
. z. 1 . 1
a I - az = Cl)na 2 . 2 2 Z
[ Cl)na - Cl) nl Cl)na - Cl)nZ ]
2 Z Z
or
(Cl)n I - Cl) nZ Cl)na) ...(10.14)
al - az = 2 Z 2' 2
( Cl) na - Cl)nl )(Cl)na - Cl)n2 )
.Equation (10.12) can therefore be written as :
.~ = al AI sin Cl)nlt +al Az cos Cl)nlt +az AJ smCl)n2 t +az A4 COSCl)nZ
t ...(10.1S)
boundary condition:
(i}At t = 0, ZI = Zz = 0
Az + A4 = 0 ...(10.16a)
and a I Az + az A4 = 0 ...(10.l6b)
It gives A Z '= A 4 = 0 ...(10.17)
, ,
(ii) At t = 0, zl = 0; Zz= Va (Velocity of anvil)
Zl = AI Cl)nl cos Cl)nl t - Az ronl sin ronl t + AJ ronZ cos ronZt - A4 ronZ sin ronZ t
or AI (Onl + AJ (OnZ = 0
A J = - A I- ni
Cl)
or ...(10.18)
. Cl)nZ
2'z = al Al Conl cos ronl t - al Az Cl)nl sin Cl)nl t + az AJ Cl)
nZco£~ nZt - al A4 Cl)nZsin Cl)
nZt
or Va = al AI (Onl + az AJ (OnZ
Va
or A = ...(10.19)
I (al -az) Cl)nl
-v
and A = a ./(10.20)
3 (al -a2) Cl)nZ I
I
. Va . Va sinCl)nzt
Therefore, Z =' SIn ronl ~ . ...(10.21)
I (a\-az) Cl)nl (al -az) Cl)nZ
Putting the value of(a,- az) from Eq. (10.14) in Eq. (10.21), we get
ZI = (CI)~a-CI)~I)(CI)~a-CI)~z) sinCl)nlt - sin Cl)n2t V

ZZ Z Cl) Cl)
...(10.22)
(
Cl)nl-CI)n2 )
Cl)na .[ nl nZ ] a
Similarly, .~ 2 Z
(CI)~a-CI)~2)SinCl)nlt (CI)~a-CI)~I)Sinron2t
v
Cl) CI)' a
(
=. . .Cl)nl-(J)nZ.
1 )[ .
nl nZ ]
.,' . ...(10.23)
Field observation (Barkan, 1962) of the amplitudes of the anvil and the foundation showed that the
ibrations occured at the lower frequency only. Therefore, it may be assumed that the amplitude of mo-
ion for sin (Onlt= 0 «Onl > (OnZ)'
430 Soil Dynamics & Machine Follndations
Hence approximate expressions for maximum displacement will be as follows (sin Cl)n2t = I): "
.. r:
(OO;a-00;1) (OO;a-00;2)
ZI = 2 2 2 . Va ...(10.24}
(
OOnaOOnl-OOn2 OOn2 )
(OO;a-00;1) Va
z2 = 2 2 ...(1 0.25} .
(OOnl -OOn2 )OOn2

10.2.2. Single Degree Freedom System. Sometimes in the case of light hammers, no pad is used be-
tween anvil and foundation. rhe system can then be represented as single degree freedom system
(Fig. 10.6). In this case the equation of vertical free vibrations of the foundation will be .
m i + Kz = 0 ...(10.26)
where,
z = Vertical displacement of centre of mass of foundation and anvil, measured from equilib-
rium position
m = Total vibrating mass,
K =C' u A 1
TUP--m
m1
SPRING K,
..'
Fig. 10.6: Single-mass-spring analogy for hammer foundation
The natural frequency of the system will be given by Cl) nz = ~

The Eq. (10.26) is the equation of free vibrationsof the foundationwithoutdamping.ThegeJi~'
solutionof this equationis :(~~.
z = A sin COn
t + B co~ Cl)n
t ...(l~t.,
The constants A and B, as usual, are dete~ined from initial conditions of motion.
., At t = 0 z = 0'a and z = V'
'JH"ir ,
; ,i2
. . ~ L
Foundations of rmpllCt Type Machines " 431
Using these initial conditions., we get

Va
A = - and E=-O
Q)n .
Va .
Therefore, A =- sm 0> t ...(10.29)
Z Q)n n
The maximum displacement will be

Va
(Az)max = IDn ...(10.30)
10.2.3. Determination of Initial Velocity of Anvil, V if

For a single acting drop hammer, the initial velocity of the tup VTi at the time of impact is given by
VTi = 1'\ ~2 g h ...(10.31)

where, h = Drop of tuP in meters
g = Acceleration due to gravity, mls2
1'\= Efficiency of drop (It lies between 0.45 to 0.80. An average value equal to 0.65 may be
adopted) .
For double - acting hammers, operated by pneumatic or steam pressure, VTi is given by
VTi = 1'\.12 gh (Wl + pAc) . ...(10.32)

Wl
where W1 = Gross weight of the dropping parts, includ~ngupper half of the die in kN.
P = Pneumatic (i.e. steam or air) pressure in kN/m2
Ac = Net area of-.cylinder in m2.
The initial velocity of anvil just after the tup' s. impact can be detennined by using the law the of
conservation of momentum. Since the anvil is stationary: .
W
Momentum of tup and anvil before impact = ---1 VTi ...(10.33 a)
. g
and
Wl W2
Momentum of tup and anvil after impact = - VTa +
.
Va
g g
where W2= weight of anvil (plus frame if it mounted on the anvil)
Va' = Velocity of anvil after impact
VTa ='Velocity oftup after impact
Wl v. - W, W2
Therefore, T' - VTa + Va
g'g. g
----
432 SoU Dy,,1IIIIics ~ Machine. FoundatiDns
According to Newton's law, the coefficient of elastic restitution, e, is given by

Relative velocity after impact
e = Relative-.velocity before impact
Va - VTa
or e= ...(10.35)
VTi
The value of e depends upon the material of the bodies involved in'iinpact. Theoretically value' of e
lies between 0 and 1. In forge hammer, usually the value of e does not exceed 0.5 (Barkan, 1962). Since
a larger e gives larger amplitudes of motion, the value of e equal to 0.5 is adopted in designing hammer
foundation. On solving Eqs. (10,34) and (10.35) we get. '
l+e
V - 'Y ' ...(10.36)
- W TI
a 1+-1.
WI
10.2.4. Stress in the Pad. Maximum compressive stress in the elastic pad below the anvil depends upon
the relative displacements of anvil and the foundation block. The worst case of compression in the pad
developes when the anvil moves downward, and at same instant of time, the foundation block moves
upward. The maximum compressive stress in the pad is thus expressed by
zl + z2 .
(Jp = K2 A' 2 , (zl' z2 In absolute values) ...(10.3?)
10.2.S. Stresses in the Soil. Stresses transmitted to the soil q through the combined static dynamic loads
are expressed by
Wt +W2 +zl Kt
q = ...(10.38)
Al
10.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR A HAMMER FOUNDATION
The design of a hammer foundation may be carried out in following.steps:
10.3.1. Machine Data. The following information about the hammer is required for the design:
(a) Type and weight of striking part of hammer;
(b) Dimensions of base area of anvil and its weight;
(c) Maximum stroke or fall of hammer, mean effective pressure on piston and effective area of
piston; .
(d) Arrangement and size of anchor bolts; and
(e) Permissible amplitudes of the anvil motion and the foundation on block. If this information is
not available, the amplitudes of motion given in Table 8.2 may be considered as limiting values.
10.3.2.Soil Data. The followinginformationabout the sub-surfacesoil shouldbe known: :
(a) Soil profile: For drop hammers of up to 10 kN Capacity, soil investigations should generally be
done to a depth of 6 m. For heavier impact machines, it is preferable to investigate soil con~~.
tions to a depth of 12 m or to a hard stratum. If piles are used, the investigation should ~
conducted to a suitable depth, ~
I 1 ~~-
'oundations of Impact Type Machines 433
(b) Soil investigation to ascertain allowable soil pressure and to determine the dynamic properties
of the soil specifically the value of Cu'
(c) 'The relative position of the water table below ground at different time of the year.
0.3.3. Trial Size of the Foundation.
(a) Weight and area: The weight of the foundation for a hammer and the size of its area in contact
with the soil should be selected in such a way that
(i) the static pressure on the soil does not exceed the reduced allowable soil pressure, and
(ii) the foundation does not bounce on the soiL
These conditions may be written as
PsI ~ a qa , and ...(10.38 a)
Az < Ap ...(10.38 b)
Nhere, PSI = Static pressure intensity
a = Reduction'factor (= 0.8)
q a = Allowable soil pressure -
Az = Amplitudeof motion
Ap = Permissible value of amplitude
For Eq. (10.38a)
W /'.
A . ~ a qa ..(10.39)
'-
Considering an average value of Ap as I mm. = (10-3 m), and assuming the system as single degree
freedom system, the Eq. (10.38b) can be written as .
(I +e) W VI '
0 I 3
...(IOAO)
~C' u W A .g < IO-
where, Wo = Weight oftup, kN
W = Weight of foundation, anvil and frame, kN
Al = Base area of foundation in contact with soil, m2
VIi = Initial velocity of tup, mls
g = Acceleration due to gravity, mls2
C' u = Coefficient of elastic uniform compression for hammer foundation, kN/m3
Substituting the value ofW from Eq. (10.39) into Eq. (10.40), we get
(1+e)WoVTi 32
...(10.41)
A. ~ ~Cuaqa
' g x 10 m
."
':
',<,' '""", '"
;i~<
,~~df
.'1t~.
"'r;l'
434 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundatio~~-" 't
~,;
Q.'i~
Substituting the value of AI fromEq. (10.39) into (10.40), Weget
W =
(1+e) Wo VIi
~
~ -3
x 10 kN ...(10.42)
"
'I,:
"C~ g
Let r.;~
W=W\+W2
where, W \ = Weight of foundation
l/
W2 = Weight of anvil
The Eq. (10.42) can be written as
WI
Vi" =
(l+e) VIi
~
~ -3 W2
x 10 -Vi" ...(10.43)
0 "Cu g 0
From, Eq. (10.42), total weight of the anvil and foundation can be obtained. Knowing the weight ot
anvil, using Eq. (10.43) weight of the foundation can be worked out. On the basis of experience (Barkan,
1962), the weight of the anvil is kept generally 20 times the weight of the tup. Further it is recommended"
that the weight of the foundation block should be at least 3 to 5 times that of the anvil.
(b) Depth: The depth of the foundation block shall be so designed that the block is safe both in
punching shear and bending. For the calculations the inertia forces developed shall also be
included. However, the following minimum thickness of foundation block below the anvil sha,If
be provided: ~
Mass of Tup kN Thickness (Depth) of foundation Block, Min (m)
Up to 10 1.0
10 to 20 1.25
20 to 40 1.75
40 to 60 2.25
Over 60 '2.50
..'
10.3.4. Selecting the dynamic elastic Constant C 'u. The procedure of obtaining Cu has already bei4:
discussed in Chapter 4 for relevant strain level. The value of C'Umay be taken as A C'u where A vari~
between 1 and 2. The value of Cu may also be obtained from the following relation: if'.
4Gr .~.
C = -1 0 ...(10.44,)
u -~
where, G = Shear modulus
~.
.. .<
r = Equivalentradius =
0 J AnI
, I!' '
D .
,I
J.1 = Poisson' s ratio
10.3.5, Natural frequencies, Compute
, 1&
O>na = v-;;;;
(}undations. 0/ Impact Type Machines 435
and " ~
oon/ V~
E
in w~ich, K2 = b . A2
, ,
'
E = Yourig's'modulus of pad material

b = ThicIaiess of the pad
A2 = Area of the pad
" ,0 ..' ,",", '
K 1 =C' u A=A.C u A "-.,,,
Natural frequencies of the combined system are given by:

'"
2
1
"
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(()nl,2 = '2
[ (l+~m)
)
(OOna+OOnl:t [ (l+~m) (OOna+OOnl)] -4(1+~m) (rona,wnl )]
10.3.6. Velocity of Dropping Parts to Anvil. Compute the velocity VTiof the tup before impact
VTi ~
11 ~2g (WIW
+ pA)h .-
in which, W 1 = Gross weight of dropping parts

p = Steam or air pressure
.. "
Ac = Area of the piston ,.
h = Drop of the tup

11 = Efficiency of drop, usually 0.65
Compute the velocity of the anvil Vaafter impact by
l+e '
Va =. W , VT I
1+ ---1-
Wl
in which, e = Coefficient of elastic restitution. The value of e may be adopted as 0.6.
10.3.7.Motion Amplitudes of the Foundation and Anvil. Compute the maximum foundation and anvil
amplitudes with following equations
(ro~a - (O~I) ( (O~a- 00~2)

Z1 = 2 2 2 VI)
OOna ( (Onl - OOn2 )OOn2

0., 2,."- 2
CO 'I '
-
(co
na, n
) V
Z2 ~ (CO~I: ro~2)cDn2I),;,
where oon2 is the smaller natural frequency.
""0"""""" . .. '
'~~-~'-_...
...
436 SoU Dynamics et Machine Foundations
10.3.8. Dynamic Stress in Pad (jp' Compute dynamic stress in ~e pad by
(J = Kz(zJ+zz)
P Az
Computed values of natural frequencies should satisfy the criteria for the frequency of operation of
the hammer. Also, motion amplitudes should be smaller than permissible values, and the stress in the"
elastic pad should be smaller than the permissible stress of the pad material.
5
!ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES'
Example 10.1
A 15 kN forging hammer is proposed to install in an industrial Complex. The hammer has the following
specifications:
Weight of tup without die = 11 kN
Maximum tup stroke = 800 mm
Weight of the upper half of the die = 40 kN
Area of piston = 0.12 mz
Supply steam pressure = 600.kN/mz
Weight of anvil block = 300 kN
Total weight of hammer = 400 kN
Bearingarea of anvil = 1.8m x 1.8m
Permissible vibration amplitude for anvil = 1.5 mm
Permissible amplitude for foundation = 1.0 mm
It is proposed to use a pine wood pad of thickness 0.5 m below the anvil. The modulus ,of elastici'
of pad"material is 5 x 105 kN/mz, and allowable compressive stress in pad is 3500 kN/mz. 'I'~
A vertical resonance test was conducted on a 1.5 ID x 0.75 m x 0.70 m high concrete block at f
proposed depth of fo~ndation. The data obtained are given below: iJ
S. No. 8 (Deg) /"Z (Nz) Amplitude at resonance (mic1'f!'Y
I. 36 41 13 t .,
2. 72 40 24
3. 108 34 32'~ I
4. 144 31 40 A
.' 'ine soil at the site is sandy in nalnre and water table lies at a depth of 3,0 m below ground ~
Allowable soil pressure is 225 kN/mz. Design a suitable foundation for the hammer. Ji;
.~
Ff!undation';-of Impact'type Machines 437
, ,
Solution:
(i) Trial dimensions of foundation.. Let the weight of the block is kept about 5 times the weight of
anvil.' The details of the suggeste~ foundation are shown in Fig. 10.7.
.
Weight of foundation = 24 x 7 x 5 x2 = 1680kN
(ii) Evaluation of Cu
Area of test block = 1.5 x 0.75 = 1.125 m2
Weight of test block = (1.125 x 0.75) x 24 = 18.9 kN.
Weight of oscillator and motor = 1.0 kN
, (Assumed)
,-',':'
',.'j ,,-<,' .,,' "; .
L.
438 SoU Dynamics & Machine Foundations'
Total weight of test block, oscillator and motor

= 18.9 + 1.0. = 19.9 kN
2 2 ' ,
CII = 41t2 Afn~ m -- 41t1.125

x 19.9 x fnz =71.1
x 9.81 fn~ kN / m3
. Amplitude at resonance
Stram level = 'Width of block
Putting the given values of fnz and amplitude at resonance, CIIvalues and corresponding strain levels
are computed and listed in cols. 2 and 3 of Table 10..1respectively.
Table 10.1 : Values of Cu and strain levels
-'
S. No. CuI x 104 kN/m3 Strain Level x 10-4 Cu2 x 104 kN/m3
1. 11.95 0.173 2.96
2. 11.38 0.320 2.82
3. 8.22 0.427 2.04
4. 6.83 0.533' 1.69
Correction for confining pressure and area:
The mean effective confining pressure croI at a depth orone-half of the widthof block is givenby
)
0'01 = cr v-(1+2K 0
3
--
where, O'v = crvl + crv2
crvl = Effective overburden pressure at the depth under consideration
cc
crv2 = Increase in vertical pressure due to the weight of block "
Assuming that the top 2.0. m soil has a moist unit weight of 18 kN/m3, and the next 1.0.m soil i..e
upto water table is saturated, then
- 0.70. "
crvI = 18 x 2.0.+ 20.2- = 43 kN/m2
,'-".
;-- 4q 2mn~m2+n2+1 .m2+n2+2 . -} 2mn~m2+n2+1
v2 - -41t m2 +n 2 +1+m 2 n 2 m2 +n 2 +1 + srn m2 +n 2 +1+m 2 n 2
[ ]
-L -1.5
m = -2 =- 2 = 2.14
z 0..70.
., ,.!
2
. 'Cl
-B 0..75
-
n = .£.z = ,0..70.
-L = 1.0.7' ::..
" '",'
""',"2 '
,,', . . 0' . , ",:, '..~ ,.!,'..,'"
q ='24 x 0..70.= 16.8 teN/ni2, '
-,~."~
Ilndations of Impact Type M~~hines

439
Substituting the above values of rn, nand q in the expression of av2, we get
al2 = 13.44 kN/m2
Gv = 43 + 13.44 = 56.44 kN/m2
Assuming =
<1> 35°, Ko = 1 - sin 35° = 0.426
- 1+2XO.426 2
aol = 56.44 [ 3 ] = 34.84 kN/m
av! = 18 x 2.0 + 20 x 1.0 + (20 - 10) x 1.5 = 71 kN/m2

7.0
2
m = 5.0 = 1.4
2
5.0
- 2 _ 10
n - 5.0 - .
2
q = 24 x 2.0 = 48 kN/m3
Substnuting the above values of rn, nand q in the expres~ion of crv2, we get
av2 = 37.2 kN/m2
cry = 71.0 + 37.2 = 108.2 kN/m2
G02 = 108.2[1+2 x30.4266] = 66.8 kN/m2

0.5
Cu2 = 0' 02 ~ 0.5 .
CuI [ 0'01 ] [ A2 ]
°.5
= 66.80 1.5x 0.75 °.5 -
[ 34.84 ] [ 7.0 x 5.0 ] - 0.248
The values of Cu of the actual foundation for different strain levels are listed in cot 4 of Table 10.1.
1.0 4
Stain level in actual foundation = 5.0 x 1000 = 2 x 10-
The strain level in actual foundation is higher than the strain level observed in the tests. Seeing the
variation of Cu with respect to strain level, the value of Cu equal to 1.3 x 104 kN/m3 may be adopted in
design. .
\
. --, ',.'
"'t~,
440 Soil DYllamics & Machine Foulldaii~~
(iii) Computations of KI' K2' ml and m2

C' = A' C
11 11
= 2.0 x 1.3 x 104 = 2.6 x 104kN/m3(A = 2.0, Assumed)

K I = C'!I ,A I = 2.6 x 104x 7 x 5 = 91 x 104kN/m
E 5 x 105
K, = -b .A 2 = 1.8x 1.8 = 324 x 104kN/m
~ 0.5
Weight of the foundation block
= (7 x 5 x 2 x 1.8 x 1.8 x 0.8) x 24 = 1618 kN
1618
m =- = 165 x 103 K g
I 9.81
Weight of the anvil and frame = 400 kN
400 '
m2 = 9.81 =40.8 x 10"'Kg

(iv) Natural frequencies of soil-foundation system
(J)1/1 =
~ nIl +"'2
l
- ~
-
'165+40.8
91 x 104
= .J4421 = 66.4 rad/s
4
r&= 324 x 10 = J79411 = 281 rad/s
(J)/la = v-;;;; 40.8
= ~ = 40.8 = 0 247
11 1/l\ 165 .
Natural frequencies are given by :

2 . 1/2
,
(J.)~1.2 = ~ [(1 + Ilm) ((J)~a+ (J)~l)J=t~ [(1 + Ilm) (O)~a + (J)~l)] -4 (1 + 11/11)
(J)~a.(J)~l}
{
1 In
=: "2[(l + 0.247) (79411 +4421)] ::t ~{[(1+ 0.247)(79411 + 4421)]2 -4 (1 + 0.247)79411 x 4421}
(J) /11.2 = 316 rad/s, 66 rad/s

(v) Velocity of dropping parts
VTi ~ ~ ,{W, ~.A, )2gh

11 = 0.70 (assumed) ; W\ = 15 kN, p = 600 kN/m2, Ac = 0.12 m2, h = 0.8 " J
..;1
-\I~
VTi = 0.70 ,iC5+ 60105
x 0.12) x 2 x9.81 x 0.8 = 6.68 mls
" .~
'h4
.:;i
~I
rtions of Impact Type Machines 441
. l+e
Va = w' VTi
. 1+-1..
W1
- 1+ 0.5 .6 68
- 400' (e = 0.5, assumed)
1+-
15
= 0.362 m/s
i) Amplitudes of vibration
(ro:a-ro:l) (ro:a-ro:2)
ZI = 2 2 2 .Vu
(rona)(ronl -ron2 )ron2
(79411-100167) (79411-4371)
= (79411)(100167-4371)(4371) .(0.362)
= - 1.695 x 10-4 m
= - 0.1695 mm «1.0 mm, safe)
Z2 = (ro:a-ro:l) ,Va
(ronl
2 -ro\n ) ro/12
(79411-100167) x 0.362
= (100167-4371)(4371) ..
= - 1.7944 x 10-5 m
= - 0.0179 mm [< 1.5 mm, safe]
vii) Dynamic stress in pad
k2 (zl +z2) .
(J2 = A2 ' (zl' z2 In absolute values)
= 324 X 104 (0.1695+0.0179) 10-3

1.8x 1.8
= 187.4 kN/m2 (\ [< 350 kN/m2 , safe]
442
Soil Dynamics & Machine Fouml'!!i!:l
Barkan, 0.0. (1962), "Dynamics of bases and foundations", McGraw-HiIl, New York.
Novak, M. (1983), "foundations for shock producing machines", Can, Geotech. J. 20 (1), pp. 141-158.
-
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
10.1 Discuss with neat sketches the various possible arrangements ofa hammer foundation to minimist
the vibrations.
10.2 Consideringa two-degree-freedommodel, derivethe expressionof amplitudesof anviland foundatio
of a hammer.
10.3 A 20 kN forging hammer is proposed to install in an industrial Complex. The hammer has th
following specifications:
Weight oftup without die = 12 kN
Maximum tup stroke = 900 mm
Weight of the upper half of the die = 50 kN
Area of piston = 0.15 m2
Supply steam pressure = 700 kN/m
Weight of anvil block = 400 kN
Total weight of anvil and frame = 500 kN
Bearingarea of anvil = 2.1 m x 2.1 m
Permissible vibration amplitude for anvil = 1.0 mm
Permissible amplitude for foundation = 0.8 mm
It is proposed to use a pine wood pad of thickness 0.5 m below the anvil. The modulus of elasticity
pad material is 6 x 10 kN/m2, and allowable compressive stress in pad is 4000 kN/m2.
A vertical resonance test was conducted on a 1.5 m x 0.75 m x 0.70 m high concrete block at :
proposed depth of foundation. The data obtained are given below:
S.No. e (Deg) f nz(Hz) Amplitude at resonance (micron
1. 36 40 14
2. 72 38 26
3. 108 35 33
4. 144 29 41
The soil at the site is sandy in nature and water table lies at a depth of 2.0 m below ground surf
Allowable soil pressure = 200 kN/m2. Design a suitable foundation.
C]
.~
i,
..Ji.
FOUNDATIONS OF ROTARY MACHINES
.1 GENERAL
le unprecedented burden cast by the importance of oil can be relieved only by exploiting indigenous
lergy resources efficiently. Major power energy resources, in long term power plan, incorporate an
,timal mix of thermal, hydel and nuclear generation. Power intensity is relatively high in our country
le to various reasons including the substantial substitution among the forms of energy in the various
lportant sectors along with the accelerated programme in rural electrification and assured power sup-
y for agricultural sector etc. -Theaim of planning to generate power higher than the demand by at least
) percent, calls for a coordinated development of the power supply inqustry. As per the present ratio, the
ermal sector caters 54 percent; hydro sector 43 percent and 3 percent catered by nuclear sector. The 15
:ar National Power Plan from 1980 onwards envisages the installation of additional generating capacity
t'almost 100,000 MW in the thermal, hydro and nuclear sectors taken together as against the existing
:neration capacity of 31,000 MW. Large capacity thermal power station at coal pit heads called Super
hermal Power stations (2000 MW capacity or more) because of their size and sophisticated technology,
ill account for as much as 50,000 MW to be commissioned during the next five year plan.
The turbogenerator unit is most expensive, vital and important part in a thermal power plant. The
perating speeds of trubogenerators may range from 3000 rpm to 10000 rpm. Auxiliary equipments such
s condensers, heat exchanger, pipe lines, air vents and ducts for electric wiring are essential features of
turbogenerator installation. Frame foundations are commonly used for turbogenerators with four
:asons :
(i) auxiallary equipment can be arranged more conveniently,
(ii) the inspection of and access to all parts of the machine become more convenient,
(ui) less liable to cracking due to settlement and temperature changes, and
(iv) more economical due to the saving in material and freedom to add more members to stiffen if
needed. .
The frame foundation is the assemblage of columns, longitudinal and transverse beams. The trans-
:erse beams may be often eccentric with respect to the column centre lines and generally have varying
:ross-section due to several opening in the top deck and haunches at the junction with columns. The
sometric view of a typical frame foundation is shown in Fig. 11.1. "I' .
. In a power - plant, the long term satisfactory performance of the turbogenerators is affected by their
r'oundations,pence there is vital need to adequately design these foundations for all possible combinations
)f static and dynamic loads. Interaction with the mechanical engine~r is also required for any adjustment
10the layout of machinery and auxiliary fittings.
... ~.;;;t. n!l""cU~

/
444 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundatiol'
""'>'
Longitudinal
beam
Top
deck
" ~
Column's
, ;.,.
'~
-,-,
..
.1
,'.' 1
Fig. 11.1 : Typical frame foundation for a turbo-generator'

"
11.2 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

For better perfonnance of aT. G. foundation, following points may be kept in view: -, .<
(i) The entire foundation should be separated from the main building in order to isolate the tfaIf~re
of vibrations from the top deck of the foundation to the building floor of the machine'-roo~~).
clear gap should be provided all around. . ,(~
(ii) Other footings placed near to the machine foundation should be checked for non-uniform str~~.
impo')cdby adjacent footing. The Pressure-bulbs under the adjacent footings should not inie1fi
significantlywith each other. ' \wa:
<jdi .
4ld
~
lundations of Rotary Machines 445
(iii) All the junctions of beams and columns of the foundation should be provided with adequate
haunches in order to increase the general rigidity of the frame foundation.
(iv) The cross-sectional height of the cantilever elements at the embedment point should not be less
than 60 to 75 percent of its span,- being susceptible
.
to excessive local vibrations.
(v) The transverse beams should have their axes vertically below the bearings to avoid torsion. For
the same reason the axes of columns and transverse beams should lie in the same vertical plane.
(vi) The upper platform should be as rigid as possible in its plane.
(vii) Permissible pressure on soil may be reduced by' 20 percent to account for the vibration of the
foundation slab. This slab has much smaller amplitudes of vibration than the upper platfom1.
- .- - - -
(viii) The lower foundation shib should be sufficiently rigid to resist non-uniform settlement and heavy
enough to lower the common centre of gravity of the machine and foundation. It is therefore:
made thicker than required by static computations. For 25 MW machine its thickness is 2m and
increases with the power of the machine to a maximum of 4m. Its weight should not be less than
the weight of the machine plus the weight of the foundation excluding the base slab and condensers.
(ix) Special reinforcement detailing as laid down in the code IS-2974 Pt III should be followed.
(x) Special care in construction is called for to avoid cracking of concrete. The foundation slab
should be completed in one continuous pouring. In this case the joint between the two concretes,
preferably at one-third column height, is specially treated to ensure 100 percent bond.
(xi) Piles may be provided to meet the bearing capacity requirement but then the consideration of
sub grade effect is essential.
(xii) As far as possible the foundation should be dimensioned such that the centre of gravity of the
foundation with the machine should be in vertical alignment with that of the base area in contact
with. the soil. . -- --
(xiii) The ground-water table should be as low as possible and deeper by at least one-fourth of the
width of foundation below the.base plane. This limits the vibrations propagation, ground-water
being a good conductor to wave transmission.
(xiv) Soil-profile and characteristics of soil upto at least thrice the width of the turbine foundation or .
till hard stratum is reached or upto pile depth, if piles are provided, should be investigated.
11.3 DESIGN CRITERIA

The design of a T. G. foundation is based on the following design criteria:
(i) From the point of view of vibration, the natural frequencies of foundation system should prefer-
ably be at a variance of at least 30 percent from the operating speed of the machine as well as
critical speeds of the rotor. Thus resommce is avoided. An uncertainty of 10 to 20 percent may be
assumed in the computed natural frequencies. However, it may not be necessary to avoid reso-
nance in higher modes, if the resulting resonant amplitude is relatively insignificant.
It is preferable to maintain a frequency separation of 50 percent.
(ii) The amplitudes of vibration should be within permissible limits. Values of permissible ampli-
tudes are given in Table 8.2..,. , - (
. ~r ':}J! 1.1 , ., > (
-=: --,-,. c . -_.._-

446 Soil Dynamics & Machine Found.
11.4 LOADS ON A T. G. FOUNDATION

The loads acting on a turbogenerator are as given below:
11.4.1. Dead Loads (DL). These include the self weight of the foundation and dead 'Yeight of the
chine.
11.4.2. Operation Loads (OL). These loads are supplied by the manufacturer of the machine anc
elude frictional forces, power torque, thermal elongation forces, vaccum in the condenser, piping fo
etc.
The load due to vaccum in condenser, ifnot supplied by the manufacturer, can be obtained fron
following equation:
Pc = A (pa - Pc) ...(1
where. Pc = Condenser vaccum load
A = Cross-sectional area of the connecting tie between the condenser and turbine
Pa = Atmosphericpressure
Pc = Vac cum pressure
The value of (p a - Pc) may be taken as 100 kN/m2.
TR TA
A
-8- Shaf-
t]
H.P.
Gcznczrator
Tu r bin czs
Fig. 11.2 : Torque due to normal operation oh multistage turbine-generator unit
The magnitude of the torque depends upon the operational speed and power output capacity (
turbines. For a T. G. unit having multistage turbine (Fig. 11.2), the torque may be calculated as be
- 105 PA kN
TA - N m ...( 1
- 105(PB - PA) kN
TB - N m ...( 1
- 105(Pc - PB) kN
Tc - N m ...( I
105P
T = c kNm ...(1
g N
where, TA = Torque due to high-pressure (H. P.) turbine in kNm
TB = Torque due to intermediate-pressure (LP.) turbine in kNm
--
Foundations of Rotary Machines 447
Tc = Torque due to low-pressure (L. P.) turbine in kNm

Tg= Torque due to generator in kNm
PA' Pa and Pc = Power transferred by couplings A, B and C respectively in KW
N = Operating speed in rpm
11.4.3. Normal Machine Unbalanced Load (NUL). As mentioned in sec. 8.2, rotary machines are
balanced before erection. However, in actual operation some unbalance always exists. The unbalance is
specified as the distance between the axis of the shaft and mass centre of gravity of rotor, and is known as
effective eccentricity. The magnitude of unbalanced forces can be obtained using Eqs. (8.8) and (8.9).
_l-
(0)
(b)
Fig. 11.3: Unbalanced forces due to rotary machines
For the case of rotors shown in Fig. 11.3a, the resultant unbalanced forces due to the two masses at
any time cancel out, but there is a resulting moment M given by
2
M=mero./e ...(11.3)
where, / = Distance between the mass centre of gravities of rotors
The components of the moment M in vertical and horizontal directions are given by
Mv=meero2/sinrot ...(11.4 a)
2
MH =meero /cosrot ...(11.4 b)
When masses have an orientation as shown in Fig. 11.4b, the machine operation will give rise to
both an unbalanced force and a moment. The unbalanced force is given by
2
F = 2 me e ro ...(11.5)
The unbalanced moment can be computedusing Eq. (11.3),
For more than two rotors on a common shaft, combined unbalanced forces and moments can be
computed in similar manner.
.
448 Soil Dynamics & Machilre Foundat
11.4.4. Temperature loads in the foundation (TLF). The effect of differential thermal expansion a!
shrinkage should be considered in the design of frame foundations. In the absence of the exact data.
differential temperature of 200 may be assumed between the upper and lower slabs. Besides, a different:
temperature of 200 may be: assu\TIedbetween the inner and outer faces of the upper slab. The upper s1;.
should be treated as a horizontal closed frame and analysed for the induced moments due to differenti
temperature.
To account for the shrinkage of the upper slab relative to the-base slab, a temperature fall of 100C
150C may be assumed.. . .
11.4.5. Short circuit forces (SCF). Short circuit condition imposes moment on the turbogenerat
foundation. A fault of this type occur when any two of the three generator phase terminals are shorte
The shock, which is in the form of couple known as "shortcircuit moment", tends to break the stator (
the foundation, and this imposes vertical loads on the longitudinal beam supporting the generator state
If accurate information is not available from the manufacturer, the short circuit moment (Msc) m.
be taken emipiricallyas four times the rated capacity (in MW) of turbogenerator unit.
Major (1980) has suggested the following fomlula for estimating the short circuit moment:
Msc = 10 r Wr kNm ...( 11.
Where, W,. = Capacity ofT. G. Unit in MW
r = Radius of the rotor in m
11.4.6. Loss of blade unbalance (LBL) or bearing failure load (BFL). One of the buckets or blades
the turbine rotor may break during the operation of turbo-generator unit. It will increase the unbalanc
force. This additional unbalanced forced wi1l depend on the weight of the bucket,. the distance of
centre of gravity from the axis of rotation and operational speed.. .. .
11.4.7. Seismic load (EQL). The horizontal seismic force is considered both in logitudinal and transve:
directions separately. It may be computed from the following equation (IS 1893-1984) :
Fs = ah I ~C S W ...(11.7)
where, Fs = Horizontal seismic force
ah = Seismic zone coefficient
I = Importance factor
~ = Soil- foundation factor
C = Numerical base shear coefficient
S = Numerical site structure response coefficient
W = Verticalload due to weight of all permanent components.
When earthquake forces are considered in design, the permissible stresses in materials and the
lowable soil pressure may be increased as per IS 1893-1984.
11.4.8. Construction loads (CL). Constructionloads occur only when the machineis being erected.
such they are not to be consider~das acting simultaneouslywith dynamic loadswhich occur only dur
the operation of the machine. The construction loads are generally taken as uniformly distributed l(
varying from 10 kN/m2 to 30 kN/m2depending on the size ofT. G. unit. . .
r.°un~a~io.nso! R~tary M~chines 449
The design of a T. G. unit should be checked for the following load combinations:
(a) Operati?n,: ~~ndition

DL+OL+N1J:r..:+JL[ ..:
(b) Short circuit condition
DL + OL + NUL + TLF + SCF} .,'..., .
(c) Loss of blade conditionlbearing failure'doridition .
DL + OL + TLF + LBLIBFL
(d) Seismic condition
DL + OL + NUL + TLF + EQL
11.5 METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

In the case of a frame foundation, it is necessary to check the frequencies and amplitudes of vibration and
also to design the members of frame from structural considerations. The methods for carrying out dynamic
analysis may be divided into two categories:
(a) Two-.dimentional analysis
(b) Three-dimensional analysis
The two-dimensional analysis is based on the following assumptions:
(i) The difference between the deformations of individual frame coluinns is insignificalll.
(ii) The deformation of the longitudinal and transverse beams is almost identical.
(iii) The torsional resistance of the longitudinal beams is insignificant in relation to the deformation
of the transverse beams. . -.. .. .
(iv) The vertical vibrations of the frames can be determined for each frame individually.
(v) The weight transmitted from the longitudinal beam can be considered as a load supported by the
column head, even in case where the transverse beam is eccentrically placed with respect to the
centre line of the column.
(vi) Both the columns and beams can be replaced by weightless elements with the masses lumped at
a few points by equating the kinetic energies of the actual and the idealised systems.
(vii) The effect of elasticity .of subsoil is neglected,
.
it being relatively much flexible.
(viii) When considering horizontal displacement the upper slab is regarded as a rigid plate in its own
plane. .
The two dimensional analysis may be carried out by the following methods:
1. Resonance method (Rausch, 1959)
2. Amplitude method (Barkan, 1962) .
3. Combined method (Major, 1980)
In subsequent sections, salient features of the above methods are given.
i "--'--'.. -" .-
ïïòêÎÛÍÑÒßÒÝÛ METHOD
In this method, the frame foundation is idealized as a single-degree freedom system, and consideration is
given only to natural frequencies of the system in relation to the operating speed of the machine. The
amplitudes of vibration are not computed in this method.
11.6.1. Vertical Frequency. For obtaining vertical frequency, each transverse frame that consists of two
columns and a beam perpendicular to main shaft of the machine, is considered separately (Fig. IlAa).
Fz sin cut
Fz sin c..>t
Wz
t Wz
Wl
ID
I.- -2a ~ ~ m= ql j-W,+2'

9
I lo I lr I
ILl I h, ho
1 I
Zb
,- .>71
1- - -7
/"
Gekrmns
J~ !
- 1I
Column
<znds
assumed
Y- - - - - - - - - - -_J
L
Base slab I (b)
fixed
(a)
11.4: (a) Typical transverse frame;
(b) Idealised model
The loads acting on this frame are
(I) Dead load of the machine and bearing, W I

(ii) Load transferred to the columns by longitudinal beams, W 2
(iii) Uniformly distributed load due to self weight of cross beam, q per unit length
(Iv) Unbalanced vertical force due to machine operation, Fz sin w t
The frame is modelled as mass-spring system as shown in Fig. II.4b. The stiffness of equivalent
spring (K) is computed as the combined stiffness of the beam and columns acting together. It is given by
W
K =- ...( 11.8)
:: 851
where, W = Total load on the frame

or W = W\ + 2W2 + q ./...(11.9)
1 = Effective span
°51 = Total vertical deflection at the centre of the beam due to bending action of beam and
axial compression in columns.
o
51 = °1 + °2 + °3 +°4 ...(11.10)
where, °1 = Vertical deflection of beam due to load WI
°2 = Vertical deflection of beam due to the distributed load q
°3 = Vertical deflection of the beam due to shear
84 = Axial compression in column
The magnitudes of 81' 82, °3 and 84 can be obtained using following expressions:
Wj ,3 2 K + 1
...(11.11)
81 = 96 E Ib K + 2
q 14 5K + 2
...(11.12)
°2 = 384 Elb' K+2
3 1 ql
...(11.13)
83 ="5 E Ab ( WI+2 )
= ~ W + WI +ql ...(11.14)
84 EA e ( 2 2 )
Ih h
where, K =-.- ...(11.15)
le 1
Ab = Cross-sectional area of beam
Ac = Cross-sectional area of column
Ib = Moment of inertia of beam about the axis of bending
le = Moment of inertia of column
E = Young's modulus of concrete
K = Relative stiffness factor
1 = Effective span of frame
h = Effective height of frame
Values of 1and h are obtained as below:
'=1 0
-2ab ...(11.16)
h =h 0 -2aa ...(11.17)
452 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundatiolls
where, 10 = Centre to centre distance between columns (Fig. 11.4 a)

ho = Height of the column from the top of the base slab to the centre of the frame beam
(Fig. 11.4 a)
a = One-half of the depth of the beam for a frame without haunches (Fig. 11.4 a) or the
distance as shown in Fig. 11.5 for a frame with haunches
b = One-half of the column width for a frame without haunches (Fig. 11.4 a) or ~he distance
as shown in Fig. 11.5 for a frame with haunches.
Knowing the values of ho' 10and b, excan be obtained from Fig. 11.6.
0.40
0.30
0<
®óóó 0.20
I
I 0
I 0.10
I
-1
b~
0-
0 0.04 0.08 0.12
b/ lo
Fig. 11.5 : Values of a and b for a frame with haunches Fi. 11.6 : CLversus b/lo
The natural frequency of a transverse frame in vertical vibrations is given by
...(11.18)
(j) nz = ~KzW. g
Average vertical natural frequency of the T. G. Foundation is taken as:
COn:1+cun:2+...+con;n
(j) n;a = n ...(11.19)
where,
(J.)I/;!'(J.)1/;2'" = Vertical frequencies of individual transverse frames
..
..
!.~-
-
The average value of vertical amplitude of T. G. foundation may be computed as
A:a IF:
...(11.20)
(I Ko),'ll-( oo:Jf+( ~:o:)'

A:a = Average vertical amplitude of T. G. foundation
L F~ = Total vertical imbalance force
2::Kz = Sum of the stiffness of the individual frames
~ = Damping ratio
For under-tuned foundation, ~, (()n = (()n-
i.e. (() < (() lI~a ~a should be used in Eq. (11.20). Then
A za 2::F:
...(11.20 a)
(2::KJ (2~)
11.6.2. Horizontal Vibrations. In a T. G. frame formulation, the deck slab undergoes horizontal vibra-
tion in the direction perpendicular to the main shaft of the machine. The spring stiffness is provided by
the columns due to their bending action, and for any transverse frame it is given by
6K+l
K = 12E le ...(11.21)
x 113 ( 3K+2 )
where, Kt = Lateral stiffness of an individual transverse frame
If L Kt = Sum of the lateral stiffness of all the transverse frames
WT = Total weight of deck slab and machine
Then the natural frequency of the T. G. frame foundation is given by
...(11.22)
"'"xa ~ p:~~)g
The average horizontal amplitude of the foundation may be computed as follows:
A = L~t ...( 11.23)

2 2
'" (LK,),/ I- ( ~ nxa ) 2 + ~nxa

[ Cl)
] ( J
Cl)
For under-tuned foundation, i.e. (() < (()n.m'

(J)11= (J)I/.HIshould be used in Eq. (11.23). Thus
LFt
...(11.23 (l)
ß©ãøÔÕÖøî¢÷
454 Soil Dynamics & Machille FoUIldatiolls
As mentioned earlier, in this method only the possibility of resonance is checked i.e. the natural
frequencies computed from Eqs. (11.19) and ( 11.22) should differ by atleast 30 percent from the ope rat-
i:1g speed of the machine. The Eqs. (11.20), (11.20a) and (11.23) for determining amplitudes are gi\'en
to be used further in combined method.
Resonance method based on idealising each transverse frame to single mass-spring system is an
oversimplification of a complex problem. Therefore the values of natural frequencies computed by this
method are very approximate.
11.7 AMPLITUDE METHOD
In this method also, the vibration analysis is carried out for each transverse frame independently. How-
ever, the frame has been idealised as a two-degree-freedom system (Fig. 11.7). The main criterion for
design is that the amplitudes due to forced vibrations are within permissible limits (Barkan, 1962).
Z2
1-
t Fz sin wt
m, mz
c-tzz 12
\
\ KZ
m, /1 -----"::::::;-mz
TI \ K, Z1
\ 1-
I z
K, \ I m,
z \
\
I columns
:.r:: :"l
/
I
(a) Section of cross frame (b) Mathemetical model
Fig. 11.7: (a) Vertical vibration ora cross frame as a two-degree-of-freec.lom system;
(b) !\Iass-spring model
11.7.1. Vertical Vibration. For the vertical frequency a two-degrce-spring-mass system shown in
Fig. 11.7 b is adopted. Mass m I lumped over the columns is given by
m = WI + W2+0.33W3 +0.25W4 ...( 11.24)

I g
,\
,ii
IIIJ
455
iations of Rotary Machines
Aass mz acting at the centre of the cross beam is given by

Wz + 0.45W4
m =
Z g
e. W 1 = Dead load of the machine and bearing
W 2 = Load transferred to be columns by longitudinal beams
W 3 = Weight of two columns constituting the transverse frame
W4 = Weight of the transverse beam
The stiffness Kl of both the columns of a transverse frame is given by
2EAc ...(11.26)
KI = h
The stiffness Kz of the frame beam is given by
1
K =- ...(11.27)
z °SI
/ (1+2K) . 3/ ...(11.28)
-re,
OS!= 96 E rb (2 + K) + 8G Ab
G = Shear modulus of beam material
E = Young's modulus of the material of columns
Ac = Cross-sectional area of a column
h = Effective height of the column
I = Effective span of the beam
AiJ = Cross-sectional area of the beam
rb = Moment of inertia of the beam
K is defined by Eq. 11.15.
The system shown in Fig. 11.7 b is identical to the system shown in Fig 1 18, and therefore can be
alysed by the procedure explained in Art. 2.8. The equations of motion in free vibration will be:
...( 11.29)
ml ZI + KI ZI - Kz (Zz - ZI) = 0
...( 11.30)
mz Zz + Kz (Zz - ZI) = 0
The solution of above equations are:
Z \ = A I sin 0)III ...( 11.31 )
Zz =A z sinO) III ...(11.32)

Substituting Eqs. (11.31) and (11.32) into eqs. (11.29) and (11.30), on simplification. we get
4 .z 2 zz ...( 11.3 3)
(I)/I-(I+~l) l(1)/111-0)12 )+(I+P)(J)IlIIO)IlIZ =0
Kl
...( 11.34)
here, 0) III 1 -
/Ill + /Il2
~ ...( 11.35)
0) Il 1Z = V--;;;;
nlz
...( 11.36)
Ilm = ml
.u-_.'
~56 Soil Dy"amics & Machi"e Fo""dations
The two natural frequencies of the system can be obtained by solving Eq. (11.33). In forced vibra-
tion. the equations of motion will be:
/1/] ZI+KI ZI-K2(Z2-ZI)=0 ...(11.37)
1112Z2 + K2 (Z2 - ZI) = F; sin OO{ ...(11.38)
The solution of the above equations can be presented as
ZI = AZI sin OO{ ...( 11.39)

Z2 = An sin OOt .. .(11.40)
Substituting Eqs. (11.39) and (11.40) into Eqs. (11.37) and (11.38), and then solving them we get
2
00,,12. F;
All = ...(11.41)
1111 [
004 - (1 + ~ ,J (00 ~ 1 I + CO~ 12 ) CO2 + (1 + ~ Ill) 00 ~ I 1 CO ~ I 2 ]
2 2 2
and [ (l+~IIl)OOllll+~IIlOOIl12-CO ] .F;

AZ2 = 2 2 2 22
...(11.42)
[ ]
-+
1Il2 00 -(1+~m) ( )
OOIlII+OOIl12 00 +(I+~/Il)OOIlIIOOIl12
11.7.2. Horizontal vibration. For analysing the frame foundation in horizontal vibration as t\VO-
degree-freedom problem, the upper and lower foundation slabs are assumed to be infinitely rigid. The
columns are taken to act as leaf-springs. The stiffness of a leaf spring is considered equal to the lateral
stiffness of the individual transverse frame.
dl<Z
~ d k1 d k3 j
I
IQ
r dm1 11
I I
It
d
m2 dm3~
II
I
. /. .
C<znterline of deck
slab (initial)
KX2 /
A1
G2 01
81
T
X
m1 m2 m3
.
-L A3~-- - ---
----- \
1 "'1'
... 8 z
AZ
Due to horizontal Due to translation
T óóóùè 3
displacement and rotation
Fi~. 11.1' : Sprin~-l1Ia" l!1odl'l for combincd horizontal and rotational vibrations of the deck slab
-
Idations of Rotary Machines 457
Figure 11.8 shows a typical mathematical model for a two bays frame foundation. The equivalent
s ( mi) lumped over the spring i (representing frame i) is given by:
m, = m ,+ m b ' + 0.33 m . + m ' ...(llAJ)
I ml I Cl gl
re. 1I111/i = Mass of machine resting on cross-beam of ith frame

IIIbi = Mass of cross-beam of i'h frame
lIIei = Mass of columns of i'h frame
l1lu",I = Mass transfered from longitudinal girders on either side
Using Eq. (11.43), values of ml' 1112and 1".13
can be obtained.
K,i represents the lateral stiffness of ith transverse frame. Thus Kxl' Kx2 and Kd can be evaluated.
In Fig. 11.8, points G1 and G2 represent the cent:e of masses (i.e. ml' m2 and 11l3) and centre of
fness (i.e. Kxl' K,2 and Kd) respectively. Line A1Bl shows the initial position of deck slab. The final
placed position of the deck slab is represented by the line A3B3 . The deck slab rotates about the mass
ltre G I' dkl' dk2 and dk3 are the distances of different masses flom point G2. The distances of different
,sses from point G 1 are shown as d 11/I ' d mL and dm 3 . e rep resents the distance between G I and G L
.
~
~
The equations of motion for the system shown in Fig. 11.8 will be:
...(11.44)
(Iml).1+ I[Kti (x+dmi 'V)] = F, sin cD(
...(IIA5)
(I/1/i dl~lI) \it + I[ K'i (x + d,lli'V) dllli] = M. sin cD(
1ere, Fx = Horizontal unbalanced force
ivL = Unbalanced moment
Denoting
lI/ = 'Ill/,I = Total mass ...(II.4())
")
Mm: ='I 11li dl~ll = Polar mass moment of inertia of all the masses about the vertical axis through G I
...{11.47)
IKti(x+dll/i'V) =xIK.ti+(IK.tidmi)'V
= x Kx + Kx . e 'V = Kx (x + e 'V) ...( 11.48)
K, represents the total lateral stiffness.
I K, i (x + dm i 'V) dill i = (I Kti dilli) X + ( I Kti dl~1i) \jI
= K, . e. x + [ L Kti( e2 + d; i)] \jI
= K, . e .\'+ K r / \jI + (L K, id; i ) \jf
= K, (x+e\jl) e+ KIjI. \jI ...( 11.49)

11
K", represents the equivalent torsional spring stiffness for the frame columns and is given by
.,
K", = IK.d dki ...(11.50)
It may be noted that IK XI . dk I = 0
'
Making the substitutions from Eqs, (11.46) to (11.50) in Eqs. (11.44) and 911,45), we get
m .~ + K .\,\ + K X . e \jI = F .r sin W{ ..,(11.51)
Mmz\jl + K\ex + (K, e2 + KII')\jI = Mz sin W{ ...( 11.52)
Equations (11.51) and (11.52) are similar to the Eqs. (9.51) and (9.52). Proceeding exactly in the
same way as discussed earlier, the solutions of Eqs. (11.51) and (11.52) can be obtained from the follow-
ing equation:
4 22 222
CDn - (
a CDnx + CD/I IjI )
CDn + CDnx . CD nljl = 0 ...(11.53)
where fK.
...(11.54)
Wnx= v-;
W
nII'
=
~
Mm=
II'
e
2
...(11.55)
a=l+Z ...(11.56)
r
m ,..(11.57)
r = ~Mm=
The amplitude of vibration in translation and rotation are given by
e22 2 2
- + - CD F\ ~ - CD2 . --=---
Mc
,2 CD/IX CD1lII'
]
m n\ Mm=
A = [
]
...( 11.58)
x L1(CD2)
2
F 2 2 M~
e
?CD/I\-
r- . m
2 X -
(conx
- CD
)---=-
M IIIz
...( 11.59)
AIjI = L1(co2)
2 4 2 2 2 2 2
where
( ) = (J)
L\ co (
- a (J)n x + co n 'v ) CD + co n x con IV ...( 11.60)
The net amplitude Air is given by

Air = At + y AIjI ...(11.61)
\vhere, v '= Distance of the point at which the amplitude is being calculated from the centre 01
gravity of the system
..,
Juniations of Rotary Machines 459
1.8 COMBINED METHOD

1 fact, the resonance and amplitude methods are complimentary. Since the amplitude method is based
n a system of two degree of freedom, it is obviously an improvement over the resonance method. How-
vel', the. fact that in under tuned foundation the increase in amplitude of vibration during acceleration
nd deacceleration stages has been ignored in this method. In combined method which is also known as
xtended resonance method, the possibilities of resonance and excessive amplitudes both during steady
ibration arid acceleration or deacceleration stages are investigated. The analysis may be carried out in
he following steps:
(i) The natural frequencies in vertical and horizontal modes of vibration as computed from Eqs.
(11.33) and (11.53) by amplitude method are compared with the operating speed. The natural
frequency in any mode of vibration should be atleast 30 percent away from the operating speed.
(ii) Amplitude.s of vibration computed from Eqs. (11.41), (11.42) and (11.61) should be within per-
missible limits.
(iii) Amplitudes of vibration computed from Eqs. (11.20 a) and (11.23 a) should also be compared
with permissible amplitudes to take care the possibility of excessive amplitudes during accelera-
tion and deacceleration stages. A suitable value of damping ratio may be adopted to use in these
equations.
11.9 THREE DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

For turbogenerator foundations of more than 100 MW capacity, a three-dimensional space frame model
is preferred for analysis. The modelling should take into account the basic characteristics of the system,
that is, mass, stiffness and damping. Special attention is required while idealising the points of excita-
tion.
Nodes are specified to all bearing points, beam-column junctions, mid-points and quarter points of
beams and columns and where the rhember cross- sections change significantly. Generally "thenumber of
nodes specified on any member should be sufficient to calculate all the modes having frequencies less
than or equal to the operating speed.
Lumped-mass approach is used having lumped masses at the node points. The machine shall be
modelled to lump its mass together with the mass of the foundation. Equivalent sectional properties of
beams and columns are used. The computation of equivalent mass moment of inertia of the frame mem-
bers pose some difficulty since these depends upon the deflection shape in each mode. These may be
discretised in the first step and considered data in an iterative manner if desired. The columns may be
assumed to be fixed at the base, disregarding the base mat.
A typical space frame model is shown in Fig. 11.9.
The dynamic analysis of the frame foundation requires the calculation of Eigen values of the system.
The problem can be handled in a systematic manner in the matrix notation. The structure is idealised into
a skeleton system which retains the properties of the original structure. The stiffness matrix of the struc-
ture as a whole is assembled from the stiffness matrices of individual members. The resulting equations
are then solved for the time periods and amplitudes.
...
460 Soil Dynamics & Machine Fou/1datio/1s
~" /"7
Fig. 1\.9: Space frame model of the found.ation shown in Fig. 1 \.1
11.1 BARKAN, D. D. (1962), "Dynamics of bases and foundations," McGraw-Hill Book Co Inc., Ne\\ York.
11.2 IS 2<174(Pt. [[1-1992), "Foundations for rotary-type macines (Medium and high frequency)".
I ,.~ \IAJOR, A. (I %2), Vib:'atlon analysis and design of foundations for machines and turbines, AkademiJI Klado.
Budapest, Collet's Hoidlngs Limited. London.
11.4 RAUSCII, E (I 9S(J). ":Y1Jchlnen fundamente und andere dynamisch beanspruchte Baukonstruclionen," VDI
VcrlJg. Dusscldorf.
DD
.:,
11
VIBRATION ISOLATION AND SCREENING
2.1 GENERAL
n machine foundations, following two types of the problems may arise:
(i) Machines directly mounted on foundation block (Fig. 12.1 a) may cause objectionable vibra-
tions.
(ii) Machine foundation suffers excessive amplitudes due to the vibrations transmitted from the
neighbouring machines (Fig. 12.1 b).
.~.
Machine Machine
!F = Fo s;n "'.
Z=ZoSin(Jt
Foundation Foundation
(0) Excessive vibrations .. (b) Excessive amplitu de due to

du<z to machine it se If vibrations transmitted
from adjacent source
Fig. 12.1 : Machine directly mounted on foundation
The first problem may be tackled by isolating the machine from the foundation through a suitably
designed mounting system (Fig. 12.2) such that the transmitted force is reduced which in turn will
reduce the amplitude. This type of isolation is termed as force isolation. This type of arrangement will
also help in absorbing the vibrations transmitted from adjacent machines. The system used for this pur-
:p'ose is termed as motion isolation. For heavier machines, the isolating system may be placed bet\\'~~n
'the foundation block and concrete slab as shown in Fig. 12.3. Here the machines are rigidly bolted to the
\:Oundation block which is isol1ted from the concrete slab through the mounting system. The mounting
system is an elastic layer which may be in the form of rubber pad. timber pad, cork pad or metal springs.
These have been already discussed in Sec. 2.5.
~62 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundatioll.
., Machi ne
'I
Isolator
= Foundation
Fig. 12.2: An isolator placed between machine and foundation
Machine
Founda'tion block
'i/i;
Isolator
ßÁòþ ôßù t::>"-.l:i'.~~'~-'O""'I\'"

å ùþ A .' . -, ." . ' .' . -.- =
óº
'A. I" 6 Concrete slab'." .'to.:".'

¢
.~ '. A.-., /},': .:..s...".'.;::': ::. .~:~:..~
Fig. 12.3 : An isolator placed between foundation block and concrete slab
The systems shown in Figs, 12.2 and 12.3 can be represented by a simple mathematical model sho\'
In Fig. 12.4. In this m represents the mass of machine (Fig. 12.2) or mass of machine plus foundati,
block (Fig.12.3). The mounting system (i.e. the elastic layer) is characterised by a linear spring witl-
spring constant K and dashpot with damping constant C. This mathematical representation involves 0
basic assumption that the underlying soil or rock possess infinite rigidity. This system is identical to t
ane shown in Fig, 2.17 (or Fig. 2,19), and the detailed analysis has already been presented in Sec. =
considering both force isolation and motion isolation separately.
~ . .
';1',,:,,:;.{
.. .
Vibratioll /so/(ltion (llld Screening 463
Fig. t 2.4 : Mathematical model

A more realistic model will be that in which the soil or rock is considered as an elastic medium. This
will make the system as a two- degree-freedom problem. the solutions of which are presented in the next
section.
The second problem in which the vibrations are transmitted from the neighbouring machines can be
solved by controlling the vibrating energy reaching the desired location. This is referred to as Vibration
screening. Effective screening of vibration may be achieved by proper interception. scattering. and
diffraction of surface waves by using barriers such as trenches. sheet-pile walls, and piles. If the screen-
ing devices are provided near the source of vibration, then it is termed as active screening or active
isolation. In case screening devIces are used by providing barriers at a point remote from the source of
disturbance but near a site where vibration has to be reduced, it is termed as passive screening or passive
isolation. Both the methods of screening the vibrations have been discussed subsequently.
12.2 FORCE ISOLATION

Since the underlying soil or rock supporting the foundation block (or base slab) does not possess infinite
rigidity, the foundation soil should be represented by a spring and not solely by a rigid sllpport as W:iS
done in Sec. 8.2. Then the mathematical model becomes as shown in Fig. 12.5. The various ~termsused
are explall1ed below:
III I = Mass of foundation block or mass of base slab
11l1 = Mass of machine if isolator is introduced between machine and foundation block or
mass of machine plus mass of foundation block if isolator is placed between foundation
block and base slab.
K I = Stiffness of the soil

K1 = Stiffness of the isolator
'
111 ~," .'t_~
..64
Soil Dynar.lics & Mac/line Folllltlatiol/s
T
Zz tF=FOSinGJt
T
Z1 rn,
//////// ~kl ///////
Fig. 12.5: Two degrees offreedom model
If the machine is subjected to a harmonic force (Fa sin wt), the equation of motion will be:
111121 -rKI2,-K2(22-21) =0 ...( 12.1 )
11/222 + K2 (22 - 21) = Fa sin ((){ ...( 12.2)
The solution ofEqs. (J2.1) and (12.2) gives
21 =
(~ nIl n~ )Sinrol
. . Fa ...(12.3)
W4 - K2 + (Kl + K2) w2 + Kl K2
[ 11~ 1nl ] nIl nIl
(KI+K~) ., .
~ -0)- ~ S111 0) (
[ 1111n~ ]
2 - .F
...(12.4)
z- 0)4_ Kz+(Kl+KZ) 0)2+KlK2 a
[~ 1nl ] nIl 1112
The principal natural frequencies of the system shown in Fig. 12.5 can be obtained by solving the
following frequency equation:
.; I K~ (Kl + K~) 2 K, Kz
c!) I; - L III~ 4- 1111 - ] W 1/ + Ill, 1112 =0 ...( 12.5)
If (,r)
/1 I and CD1/-~ re p resent the roots of the above e quation, Eq . (12.3) can be written as
K~ .
~ S1l1 0) I
2~'
l IIII III~- ) .F ...( 12.6)
I tl (0/ ) 0
where 2 - 4 Kz (KI+Kz)
tl(w ) - (J) - -+ (J)2 +-KIKz ...(12.7 ll)
[~ 1nl ] 1nl n~
or
tl(0)2) = (0)2 -0)~1)(0)2 -0)~2) ...(12.7 b)
IiJ
Vibration Isolation and Screening 465
Force transferred to the foundation block or base slab

F{ -= K} Zj
Kj K2 sin (I)f
-
l 11/} / 11-,
-
) F ...( 12.8 j
- ~(c!)2) . a
The transmissibility of the system will be
Ft
T -- ...(12.9)
F - Fa sin OJf
Kj K2
1/1}/I~
or, TF = ') ...( 12.9 a)
Ll((!)~)
The transmissibility TF depends on the system parameters given by Eq. (12.9). ror il1ustration, a
special C3se will be examined in which
KI - K2 - 2
...(12.10)
- - --p
11/, /110
/1/') .
Denoting. -=- = mass ratIO = 11 ...( 12.11)
11/, 11/
The natural frequency of machine foundation system ((Oil::)in which the isolating spring (k2) IS
ignored, is given by
K)
- ')
') - KI ~=~ ...(12.12)
(J)~:: -= 1/11+ /I~
1+ n~ 1+llm
rn,j
Using Eqs. (12.10), (12.11) and (12.12), the Eq. (12.9) can be written as
1
...(1~2.13 a)
T, = l ~~- {(I+~ )+(~'" +~f f'r II ~-{(I+~ )-(~'" +~},f't}

1
01'." [ , -= rI. ., ., I.- ;')
.,
(j)-. r
1 11m. 11~I (0':'
(
"(1+~;, ó¥ õî Ø¢³õó¼ } 1 l(1+~m)W; {( I+~;' H~",+~I' J"} 1
~
Figure 12.6 shows the plots ofT I" with ratio for two values of mass ratio 11 . It is evident from
~ " l (!) 11::' ) m
this figure that the frequency ratio ((0 I (Oil::)must exceed a particular value (depending on the magnitude
of 1111/)
before the transmissibility fal1s below unity. The particular values of ((0I (OJ,)for which the trans-
missibility equals unity are given in Fig. 12.7.
.. . ~
466 Soil Dynamics & Machille 'Foulldatiolls
10
8
6
l1..
. 2
>-
'-+-
'--
.D
,-
11\
,-11\
E 1.0
11\
c 0.8
0
....
+- 0.6
c:.I
u ).Jm=1.0
....
0
l1.. 0-4 ,.urn= 0.5 - --
}J.m = 0.1 .-------
Z
0.2 {,Jnz = kIf (rnl +rnZ) \
kllrnl = kZ Irn 2 \
\
\
0.1
0 0-..5 1-.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
Fr~quency ratio, GJ/GJnz
Fig. t 2.6: T F versus ro/ronzfor different values of mass ratio /Jm

A desIgner is more concerned in examining whether the isolating system reduces the amplitudes of
the machine and foundation.
III case no isolating system is used the maximum amplitude of machine foundation is given by
Fa
A. = 2 )
...(12.14)
(/1/ 1 + Ill)) CD . - (I)-
- /1- ( )
)
In most of the machines. the force Fa is frequency dependent (2meeun. The Eq. (12.14) can be
written as
)
2 me em-
A; = 2 2 ...(12.15 a)
(
(ml + 11/2) m n; - m )
or - 2 me e ...(12.15 h)
A. - 2
11/1(1+~II/) (al -1)
where,
CD
a I =-2b...
- ...(12.16)
(J)
VibratiOll lsolatio" a"d Scree"i"g 467
2.0
W =j<2+)Jm )(l+}Jm)
GJnz
I
1.5
E
=<.
1.0
0.5
0
0 1.0 3.0 4.0
GJ
G.)nz
Fig. 12.7 : Mass ratio versus m/mOl
If CDlla
represents the natural frequency of mass m2 resting on isolating spring, then
CD
IlU
-
~ -
2
IIlz
The values of maximum amplitudes of two degree freedom system obtained from Eqs. (12.3) and
...(12.17)
(12.4) for frequency dependent force will be
CD~a(2 me e (i)
A=1 = ...(12.18 a)
4 2 2 2 2 2
ml
[ CD -(I+l1m) (CDlla-CDII= )CD +(I+l1m)CDlla CDII=
]
2
or A =1 = (2 me e) . (/2 ...(12.18b)
J 2 J J
/Ill
[ (
1- ( 1+ I1m) (/j + (/2 - (/j (/2
)]
UJ/la
where ...( 12.19)
(/1 = (I)
Similarly. A=2 = [(l+I1I11)(/~+l1m{/i-l](2mee) ...(12.20)

2 2 2 2
m2
[
l-(I+l1m) ((/( +(/2-(/1 (/2
)]
~ ~.-- -~. ,-
468 Soil DYllamics & Machille Follndations
The Eq. (12.18b) indicates that the amplitude of vibration of foundation will be small if a2 is small.
For this oonashould be small. This can be achieved by appropriate selection of the mass above the isolator
spring ("'2) and stiffness of isolator spring (K2)' The efficiency of isolation system is defined as
A:I
11 =- A- ...(12.21)
Value of A: can be- ~omputed from Eq. (12.15a). The value of A:I may be taken equal to the permis-
sible amplitude. The value of 11 can also expressed as given below by dividing Eq. (12.18 b) by
Eq. (12.15 b). Thus
ai (1 + ~m) (a~ -1)

11 = ...( 12.22)
2 2 2"
[l-(1+~m) (a) +a2 -a] a; )]
Solving Eqs. (12.21) and (12.22) one can obtain the value of a2' For this a2' appropriate values oflll2
and K2 are selected. It will ensnre the amplitude of vibration to be within pf'mlissible limit
Total force on the isolator, Fa = Kz . A:2 ...( 12.23)
Fa should be less than the allowable capacity of the Isolator in compression.
12.3 MOTION ISOLATION
Let us examine a case when a sensitive equipment of mass 11/I ISplaced on a foundation block of mass 1112'
The spring K, represents the foundation soil and spring K2 is an isolating spring which is placed
bet\\een the masses Ill, and 1112'
in order to minimise the transmission of vibrations from the ground to the
equipment. If the ground is subjected to a periodic displacement given by Zo sin w l. the equations of
motIOn \vill be:
nzl ZI + KI Z\ - K2 (Z2 - ZI) = KI Zo sin W f ...( 12.24)
11/2Z2 +K2(l2-Z,) =0 ...(12.25)
The vafues of maximum amplitudes of motion are given by

2
~-~
ml m2 m1 ...(12.26)
A_I = KI lo
- 004 - (KI + K2) +- K2 W2 +- Kl K2
[ m, 1112] 11I,n/2
~
111) Ill.,
A :2 = K 1 Z 0 - ...( 12.27)
4
K I+J K ) KJ 2)J
K K
W - [( Ill, - + III~] W + Ill, 111;
The displacement transmissibility of the machine (Tn) is defined as the ratio of displacement ampli-
tude of mass 1f/2to the displacement amplitude of the rigid support. Then
KIK2
A:2 111,1112
T --- ...( 12.28)
0- Zo - w4_ (KI+K2)+K2 ())2+K)K2
[ 111) 1112Ã 111)11/2
~ I
Vibration Isolation alld Screenillg 469
The Eq. (12.28) is identical to Eq. (12.9), and therefore the results shown in Figs. 12.6 and 12.7 hold
good in this case also..
Equation (12.28) can also be written as:
A 2 2
- :2 - a( a2 (1 + Ilm)
To - l - 2 2 2 ., ...( 12.29)
0 l-(l+llnr) (al +°2 -al a2 )
-- is taken as permissible amplitude. and l
If A-1 0 is the applied dynamic displacement. then the ratio
A:2i lQ is known. For this value. Cl2can be determined which in turn will give the stiffness of the isolator
spring i.e. K2'
12.4 SCREENING OF VIBRATIONS BY USE OF OPEN TRENCHES
12.4.1. Active Screening. In this case the screening of vibrations is done near the source of vibration.
Figure 12.8 shows a circular trench of radius R and depth H which surrounds the machine foundation
that is the source of disturbance. The design of trench barriers is based on some field observations.
Barkan ( 1962) mentioned that the reduction in vibration amplitudes occurs only when the trench dimen-
sions are sufficiently large compared with the wave length of the surface waves generated by the source of
dIsturbance. Dolling (1966) studied the effect of size and shape of the trench on its ability to screen the
vibratIOns.
Amplitude of F (t)
s u da c e
displaclZmlZnt
Footing
L'
Circular open
t re n c h ot I
H
radius R
an d depth H I
1
~ R-1
Fig. 12.8: Vibration screening using a circular trench surrounding the source
of vibration-Active screening (Woods. t 968)
The first comprehensive study of screening vibratIOns by use of open trenches was made by Woods
and Richart ( 1967) and \Voods ( 1968). They conducted field tests by creating vertical vibrallons with a
small \"ibrator resting on a small pad at a prepared site. The vibrator could create a maximum force of
~O0:. The soil conditions at the site \vere as shown in Fig. 12.9. The water table was below 14.3 m depth.
The depth H of trenches was varied from 150 mm to 600 mm, the radius R of annular trench varied from
150 mm to 300 mm, and the angular dimension e was varied from 900 to 3600 around the source of
vibration. Frequencies of 200 to 350 Hz were used in the tests. Using velocity transducers. the amplitudes
- . 0;" ," "' i;',C",'. ."0,'. ',c.,

470 Soil Dynamics & Machine FolllldatiOlls
of vertical ground motion were measured at selected points throughout the test site before installation of
the trench and after installation of the trench. Woods (1968) has introduced a term amplitude reduction
.factor which is defined as
ARF = Amplitude reduction factor
- Amplitude of vertical vibration with trench
- Amplitude of vertical vibration without trench
~
T
~
uniform silty fine sand (SM)

1.2m
Wn = 7 0/0, e = 0.61) td = 16.4.6 k N / m3
Vc = 287 rnls
sandy silt (ML)

Wn = 230/0) Cl = 0.68) 'id = 15.77 kN/m3
3.1 m
Vc=534.m/s
Fig. 12.9: Soil stratum at the test site
Some of the resuits of field tests conducted by Woods (1968) are shown in Fig. 12.10 in the form of
ARF contour diagrams. The dimensions of the trench are expressed in non-dimensional forms by divid-
ing Hand R by the wave length ARof Rayleigh waves. ARis obtained by determining the number of waves
(/1L occuring at distance x from the source (AR= x/1I).Wavelengths ARfor different frequenciesare given
in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1: Wavelength and wave velocity for the Rayleigh Wave at the test site (Woods, 1968)
Frequency AR VR
Hz mm m/s
lOO 687 137
250 513 128
300 421 126
350 336 117
'".:,. -~.,,:i,:>},\ . (," .;'if'..":. .~. ,~ """
Vibratio" Isolatio" a"d Scree"i"g 471
Boundary of screened
zone
/.. -
1,25
~>1.25
D 1.25-0.50 H/"'R
1.452
RO/AR
0.726
D 1.25-0,50 H/AR
0,596
Ro/AR
0,596
f:::~::JO,50-0'25 F::,::':':lo,50-0,25
1::::~::)lo,25-0,125 1(':,\/:1 0,25 -0.125

:-,:,':,-:- < 0 ' 125
t~:;:.~ < 0 ' 125
p',-::-:,:,)
,',', ',"
(a) (b)
Fig, 12,10: Amplitude reduction factor contour diagrams for active screening (Woods, 1968)
The field tests of Woods (1968) thus correspond to
A H
r-R = 0.222 - 0.910 and -;-
AR'
= 0,222 - 1.82
For satisfactory screening of vibrations, Woods (1968) recommended that ARF shouid be less than or
equal to 0,25, The conclusions made on the basis of this study to keep ARF ~ 0,25 are:
(i) For full circle trenches (8 = 360°) , a minimum value of H/AR = 0.6 is required. The zone
screened in this case extended to a distance of atleast 10 wavelengths (I OAR)from the source of
disturbance
(ii) For partial circle trenches (900 < 8 < 360°), the screened zone was defined as an area outside the
trench extending to at least 10 wave lengths (10 AR)from the source and bounded on the sides by
...
.t72 Soil Dynamics & Machine Fouudations
radial lines from the centre of source through points 45° from ends of trench. In this case also. a
minimum value of H/AR = 0.6 is required.
(iii) Partial circle trenches with 8 < 90°, effective screening of vibration is not achieved.
(i,') Trench width is not an important parameter.
12A.2. Passive Screening, Woods (1968) has also performed field tests to study the effectiveness of open
trenches in passive screening (Fig. 12.11), A typical layout of these tests consisting of two vibration
e:\citers (used one at a time for the tests), 75 transducer locations. and a trench is shown in Fig, 12 12.
The sizes of trenches ranged from 100 mm x 300 mm x 300 mm deep to 2440 mm x 3050 mm x 1220 mm
deep, Frequencies of excitation varied from 200 to 350 Hz.
Equipmrznt
Amp! itude Amplitude
to be
Source of 0 f s u rfa c e of surface protected
disturbance vibration vibration
.' .. , , ..
. . .. ~ . .' , , ,
, ~
. '. .
"
. .' -.
t. , .
r
:' H
-.
R
. "
,. . ::.
Open
t rrznch ~ '; .'
"
1
Fi~. 1:!.I] : "ihration screening using a straight trench. Passive screening (Woods. I96S)
The values of Hij'I{varied from 0.444 to 3.64 and R/AR from 2.22 to 9.10. It \vas assumed in these
tests that the zones screened by the trench would be symmetrical about the 0° line. Figure 12.13 shows the
ARf contour diagram for one of these tests.
For satisfactory screening. Woods (1968) recommended that the ARF should be less than or equal to
0,25 in a semi-CIrcular zone of radius (1/2) L behind the trench. The conclusions made on the hasis of
this field study to keep ARF ::: 0.25 are:
(i) I li'I{ should be atleast 1.33
(id To maintain the same degree of screening, the least area of the trench in the vertical direction
((c, 1.11"" AI)' should be a<; follo\\'s:
-AI -=2 'i at -=7R

0
,~ .- ) -.
I'R 'R
AI R
-, .C6.0 at /' = 7.0
,- 'R
/'R
.. m
Vibratioll Isolatioll alld Screenillg 473
(hi) Trench width had practically no influence on the effectiveness of screeI'.ing.

Experimentai investigations of Sridharan et. al (1981) indicated that the open unfilled trenches are
the most effective. However the open (unfilled) trenches may present instability problems necessitating
trenches backfilled with sawdust, sand or bentonite slurry. The performance of open trench \vith sawdust
was found better as compared with sand or bentonite slurry.
320
240
/
N
0 / 16
0
/
[°
0 80
0
0
6.1 m
/ 0 0
/ 0
0
/
0
0 / /'t
0 0 0
0 0
0
0 /0 0 0
0
0 / 0
~
O 0
0
~
OOA
/". 0
<, " '<:( 0 75 pi c k u P
0
", ',0 0 benches
0 0 ',('",
", , ' " "
L
r>.
0
0 0 0 ""'
~'
' , . ",,~" .,.."" Tr en' ch barriers
0
0
I
0
/ 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
O
0
.
0
l.Sm
0
/
"
..
,/
" -',
;{~:', ,
\, v'
\,
'."
K
,,"
,
'>
/
0,
I
/
0
0
0
.\, ./ // "v :?s B
0 /
/
l.Sm
vibration exciter footings
Fig. 12.12 : Plan \iew of the field site layout for passive screening (Woods. 1968)
474 Soil Dynamics & Mac/,ine Forllldatioll.'i
Centqr
tin q
lliII1J ARF>1.25 4.6m
0 ARF
1.25-0.5
Trench
+ AA F
[tJ
ó¬ó´ó
+ + 0.5-0.25
.
ARF
Q 0.25-0.125
~ 1.5 m
HI AR = 2.38
ARF<0.125
LIAR = 4.76
R I AA = 5.96
W/'AR = 0.17
Fig. 12.\3: Amplitude reduction factor contour diagrams for !Jassive screening
12.5 PASSIVE SCREE1\I;\C BY USE OF PILE BARRIERS

There may be situations in which Rayleigh wavelengths may be in the range of 40 to SOm. For such a
casc. the open trench will be effective ifits depth range from 53 m to 66 m (i.e. 1.33 AR)' Open tren~hes
(filled or unfilled) with such deep depths are not practical. For this reason, possible use of rows of piles
as an energy barrier has been studied by Woods et al. (1974) and Liao and Sangrey ( 1978).
Woods et a1. (1974) used the principle of holography and observed vibrations in a model half-space
to evaluate the effect of void cylinderical obstacles on reduction of vibration amplitudes. A box of size
1000 mm x 1000 mm x 300 mm deep filled with fine sand constituted the model half-space (Fig. 12.14).
In this figure. 0 is the diameter of the void cylinderical obstacle and SI! is the net space between two
consecutive void holes through which energy can pass through the barrier. The numerical evaluation of
barrier effectiveness was made by obtaining the average of the values of ARF obtained on several lines
beyond the barrier in a section ::I:15° of both sides of an axis through the source of disturbance and
perpendicular \0 the barrier. In all tests. H/AR and LIARwere kept as 1.4 and 2.5 respectively. The Isola-
tion effectiveness is defined as
Effectiveness = I - ARF ...(12.31)
;"'ii[; ""1iItJ'i
Vibration Isolation and Screeni1lg 475
F(!) t
Fig. 12.14 : Definition of parameters for cylindrical hole barriers (Woods et aI., 1974)
1,0
LL
a::
«
I
11 0,5 .
. l
." " ,
111
111 "'- 0,. , .:
'O"
~',
"',
0:
,
,
"
. '
"
" 0,: " ':""
t>I
C I \\\ \ \ I "- J
t>I . '. . . . '0.: . '0:~, :', ': :' '0,. '
> J:- ' ,
"'" 0 "" :'0
.;: 0.4
u 0,15
t>I
.... "-
.......
W I ,,\\
\\
\\0.125
"-
0.21 "-
\ "
0.075 \
0
0 0.05 0,10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0,30
Snf"r
Fig. 12.15: Isolation effectiveness as a function of hole diameter and spacing (Woods et al.. 1974)
",","',,' ">,,',,' , -
.P6 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations
L Slllg the data of different tests, a non-dimensional plot of the isolation effectiveness versus S/A.R
ratio for different vaues ofD/A.R was plotted as shown in Fig. 12.15. Woods et al. (1974) recommended
that J row of void cylinderical holes may act as an isolation barrier if
D 1
-
AR ->-6 ...( 12.32)
SI!
-<- I
:.1nJ ...( 12.33)
AR 4
Soil type Barrier materials

107
f Infinitely
rigid pile
6
10
VI
-0
C
0 Steel
ZI 5 .
VI
N
10
E
QJ Concrete
u
c
0 4 Gravel Tim ber
-0 10
0.
'-E 0 ens e san d
> Hard clay
0 103 -
Si!t
..c Loose sand
crI
Very soft clay
- 2
>- 10 Plasti c foam
0
Cl:
1
10 e--
. Void boreho le
0
10 '--- !
Fi:!. 12.16 : Estimatcd \'aluc\ of Haylcigh wave impedance for ,'arious soils and p:le materials (Liao and Sangrcy. 1978)
I.lao and Sangn:y (1978) used an acoustic modcl employing sound waves in a fluid medium to
~'\,lIuak thl' possibility of the use of row of piles as passive isolation barriers. They have studied the effect
of dlal1l~.t..:r.spacing. and material properties of the soil pile system on the isolation effectiveness They
'~\'II1~'iLld~d that:
!Z.'...,'~J
Vibration Isolation and Screelling 477
(i) The Eqs. (12.32) and (12.33) proposed by Woods et al (1974) are generally valid.
(ii) Sn = 0.4 ARmay be the upper limit for a barrier to have some effectiveness.
(iii) The effectiveness of the barrier is significantly affected by the material of the pile :md void holes.
Acoustically soft piles (IR < 1) are more efficient than acoustically hard piles (IR > 1). IR is
impedance ratio which is defined as
Pp VRP
IR = ...( 12.34)
Ps VRS
where.
Pp = Density of pile material
Ps = Density of soil medium
VRP = Rayleigh wave velocity in pile material,
\' RS = Rayleigh wave velocity in soil medium
Figure 12.16 gives a general range of the Rayleigh wave impedance (p V R) for various soils and pile
materials. .
(iv) Two rows of barriers are more effective than single row barriers,
jILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES'
Example 12.1
Determine the stiffness of the isolator to be kept between a reciprocating machine and the foundation
shown in Fig. 12.17 to bring the vibration amplitude to less than 0.02 mm. The weight of the machine is
18 kN, and it produces an unbalanced force of 4.0 kN when operated at a speed of 600 rpm. The dynamic
shear modulus and Poisson's ratio of the soil are 2 x 104 kN/m2 and '0.35 respectively,
Solution:
24x4.0x3.0x1.5 ')
1. Mass of the foundation block = = 44 kNs-/m
9.81
Mass of machine = 9~~1 = 1.83 kNs2/m

Total mass of machine and foundation = 44 + 1.83 = 55.83 kNs2/111
4 G ro
Stiffness of the soil, K=-
= 1- ~l
r0 = f;fA = ~4 1tx 3 = 1.95 m

4
K = 4x2xl0 x 1.95 =24 x 104 kN/m
= 1-0.35
Natural frequency of the whole system without any isolation will be:
478 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundation
Machine
Weight = 18kN
T
1.5m
///,\,\ Foundation blo c k /\\
1
r 4.0 m
Section
~
3.0m
~ 4.0 m ~
Plan
Fig. 12.17: Machine-foundation system (Example 12.1)
~
4
-
CD - -- 24 X 10 = 65.0 rad/s
n; m 1 55.83
2 Ttx 550
CD= 60 = 57.6 rad!s
(A ) - Fa - 4.0
; max - 2 2 - 2 .,
m(oo//;-oo) 55.83(65.0 -57.6- )
=-07.9¨ 10-501=0.0790101
Vibratioll Isolatioll alld Screellillg 479
The amplitude is greater than the permissible amplitude i.e. 0.02 mm. Hece isolator is required
between machine and foundation.
2. Let the isolator be having stiffness Kz. Adopting the two degrees freedom system as shown in
Fig. 12.5.
2
11/2 = 1.83kNs Im
2
11/1 = 44 kNs Im
4
Kl = K: = 24 x 10 kN/m
(0 - = 65.0 rad/s
1/-
AZI - 0.02 = 0.253

11= Az - 0.079
Cl)n: = 65.0 = 1.13

a I = ---;;- 57.0
'nz - 1.83 = 0.0416

/-1./11
= 1111- 44
From Eq. (12.22)
a~ (l+/-I.m)(a~-l)
11 =
2 2 2 2
[l-(1-llm) (al +a2 -al a2 )J
2 .,
or '"' --
0.k53 a2(1+0.0416)(1.13--1)
2 2 2 2
[1- (1 + 0.0416) (1.13 + a2 -1.13 a2 )J
or a~ = 0.2310 i.e. a2 = 0.481

(jJ
11i!...= 0.481. It gives (011(1 = 0.481 x 57.6 = 27.7 rad's
(j)
.. 2 1 3
Ko = 1112 (jJ
Il{/
= 1.83 x 27.7- = 1.40 x 10 kN/m
3. A = [(l+llm)a~+Il",a;-1][2mee(O2]
Z2 2 2 2 1 1
1112(0[ 1-(l+1l",) al +az -aj ai ( )
= [(1+0.0416)x1.l32+0.0416xO.2310-1.-(4.0)
1 ~ ~
1.83 x 57.6- 1-(1+0.0416) (1.13- +0.2310-1.13- A 0.2310)

-~
= - 8.5 x 10 m
Force in the isolator = Ko' An = lAD x 103 x 8.5 x 10-~kN
"'1.18kt'
110
A suitable isolation system may be selected which has total stiffness of 1.40 x 103kN/m and allow-
able compressive 'load more than 1.18 kN.
Example 12.2
Determine the stiffness of the isolation system if it is placed between the foundation block and base slab
as shown in Fig. 12.3. Use the data given in example 12.1.
Solution:
(i) Let the foundation block of size 4.0 m x 3.0 m x 1.0 m high is rigidly connected with machine.
Isolators are placed between this block and base slab as shown in Fig. 12.18. Then
Machine
T Foundation block
1.0 rn
i
Isolator
T
O.Srn Base slab
-L
~ 4.0 rn ~
Fi~. 12.18: :\-Iachine-foundation isolator system (Example 12.2)
1//2 == 1.83 + -}x 44 = 31.2 kNs2/m

.-
I J
111( == 3" x 44 = 14.7 kNs-/m

4 2
Kl = 24 x 10 kNs fm
(j)n:: = 65.0 rad/s
11 = 0.253
al = 1.13
31.2
2 12
1111/
= t4.7 = .
2 2
0.253 = a2 (1+2.12)(1.13 -1)
From eq. (12.22), 2 2 22-
[ 1-(1+2.12) (
1.13 '+a2 -1.13 ([2)]
WA.--'}..',..".~;:.' ,"'ti'~:,,<. ,." ';",-,:,. "~,<~Atj;!~";,; E
"'.,:,' ">:!',., "1I
bratioll Isolation alld Screellillg 481
or ai = 0.697 i.e. a2 = 0.835
Hence, O)na = 0.835. It gives (J)na= 0.835 x 57.6 = 48 rad/s

0)
2 4
Ka = 11120)2
na =31.2 x 48 = 7.2 x 10 kN/m
[0+2.12) x 1.132 +2.12 x 0.697 -1]4.0

(ii) - An = ., 2 2'
r (1.13
31.2 x 57.6- Ll-(1+2.12) +0.697~1.13 x 0.697) ]
17.85
= 103514[-2.38]
= - 7.24 x 10--5m
Force in the isolator = Ka A.,=- ==7.2 x 104 x 7.24 x 10- 5 = 5.2 kN
On comparing with the results of example 12.1, it can be concluded that the stiffness of the isolator
and force on it depends significantly on the location of the isolator.
Example 12.3
It is planned to install a compressor having operating speed of 1000 rpm at a distance of 50m from a
precision machine. Suggest a suitable open trench barrier to provide effective vibration isolation. The
velocity of shear waves at the site was found as 140 mIs.
Solution:
Active screening
. 1000
OperatIng frequency, f = 60 = 16.7 Hz
Rayleigh wave velocity VR may be taken approximately equal to shear wave velocity i.e. 140 m/so
V 140
Therefore, Wave length AI{ == ; == 16.7 ==8.4 m
Depth of the trench for active screening is given by
H ==0.6 AI{ = 0.6 x 8.4 ==5.04 m
A partial ci~cle trench with e = 120° may be located at 4.0m distance from the source (Fig. 12.19 a),
Passive screening
Depth of the trench for passive isolation is given by
. . H = 1.33 AR= 1.33 x 8.4 = 11.2 m

Let the trench is provided at a distance of 12 m from the precision machine.
R - (50-12) = 4.52 (O.K. as lies between 2 and 7).

-AR - 84.
R
For - = 4.52, AT = 25 4.52-2.0(6.0-2.5)=4.26
AR ')..2
R . + 7.0-2.0
Soil Dynamics & Machille Foulldations
2
4.26 x 8.4
Length of trench = 11.2 = 26.8 m say 27 m
The layout of trench with respect to compressor and precision machine is shown in Fig. 12.19b.
Precision machine Precision machine
T
12n
Tren ch ) 27m
I {
I
50m
I
38m.
0
120
Tre ../ ,/
eññ£³ . -'-
Compre ssor Co m pre ssor
(a) Active isolation (b) Passive isolation
12.19.-Layout of trench with respect to compressor and precision machine
~FERENCES
"kan, D. D. (19621 "Dynamics of bases and foundations", McGraw Hill, New York."
Iling, H. J. (1966), "Efficiency of trenches in isolating structures against vibration", Proc. Symp. Vib. Civ. Eng.
Butterworth, London.
.0, S, and Sangrey, D. A. (1978), "Use of piles as isolation barriers", J. Geotech. Engg. Div.. Am. Soc. Clv. Eng..
104, (GT9), 1139-1152.
dharan. A. , Nagendra, M. V. and Parthasarathy, T. (1981). "Isolation of machine foundations by barriers", 1nL
Conf. Recent Ad\'. Geotech. Earthquake Eng., St. Louis, Vot. 1,279-282.
lads. R. D. (1968). "Screeningof surfacewaves in soils", J. Soil Mech.Found.Div. , Proc. Am. Soc. Ci\'. Eng., 94.
(SM-4),951-979.
'atio" Iso/atio" a"d Scree"i"g 483
(1967), "Screening of elastic waves by trenches", Proc. Int. Symp. Wave Propag.
)ds, R. D., and Richart, F. E. Jr.
Dyn. Prop. Earth Mater, Albuquerque., NM, 275-284.
lds, R. D., Barnett, N. E. and Sagessor, R. (1974), "Holography - A new tool for soil dynamics", 1. Geotech. Eng.
Div., Am. Soc. Civ., lOO, (GT-I1), 1231-1247.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
!.1. Explain the difference between 'force isolation' and 'motion isolation'. Sketch a suitable system
for 'force isolation'. Represent it by a mathematical model and then give the procedure of getting
the stiffness of the isolator.
2. Starting from fundamentals, derive the expression for the efficiency of isolation system.
3. Explain the difference between "Active screening" and "Passive screening". Give the procedure
of designing the open trench barrier in both the cases.
4. Give the salient features of passive screening by use of pile barriers.
5. Design a suitable isolation system for keeping the amplitude of the foundation of a reciprocating
machine less than 0.025 mm. The weight of the machine is 25 kN and it produces a sinusoidally
varying unbalanced force of 4kN in the vertical direction. The operating speed of the machine is
800 rpm. The dynamic shear modulus 'of the soil is 2.5 x 104kN/m2. Assume suitably any data
not given.
6. A compressor having an operating speed of 1300 rpm was installed in an industrial unit. Later
on it was planned to place a precision machine at a distance of 60 m from it. It was felt necessary
to protect this precision machine from any damaging vibration caused by the compressor. De-
sign open trench barrier to provide effective vibration screening for the cases of (a) active and
(b) passive screening. The velocity of shear waves was found as 160 m/s.
DD
-- -----
SUBJECT INDEX
F
f
A Culmann's construction: f
modified, 191 f
Amplitude of motion, 15
Cyclic:
Amplitude method, 454
mobility, 279
Antiliquefaction measures, 324 J
simple shear test, 118, 128, 286, 296
torsional shear test, 118, 131, 286
B triaxial compression test, 118, 133
Bandwidth method, 57
Bearing capacity D
of footings, 238
Damping: '
factors, 241
critical,
Blasting tests, field, 314
factor,
Block foundations:
ratio,
degree of freedom. 352
Degrees of freedom, 14
effect of shape on response, 394
Displacement analysis of retaining wall, 20 I
embedded. 394
in pure rotation, 210
method of analysis, 353
in pure translation, 205
modes of vibration, 352
rocking, vibrations, 354, 360, 383, 396
- using Richard Elms model, 201
using Saran et al model, 214
rocking and sliding vibrations, 354, 363, 389, 397
Dynamic bearing capacity, 238
sliding vibrations, 354, 359, 379, 395
dynamic analysis, 252
vertical vibrations, 354, 358, 370, 394
pseudo-static analysis, 238
yawing vibrations, 354. 362, 386
Block-resonance test: Dynamic earth pressure, 187
effect of saturation, 187
horizontal, 154
effect of submergence, 190
vertical,151
effect of uniform surcharge, 189
for c-<!>
soils, 193
c Mononobe-Okabe's theory. 200
CodTicienr of clastic: point of application, 200
nonllniform col11pn.:ssion,356 pseudo-static methods, 238
nonuniform shear, 357
uniform compreSSion,354 E
uniform shear. 356
Earthquake:
CrItical distance, 96,98, 100
epit:enter, 3
equivalent dynamic load, 6
focus, 3
'ct Index 485
:ensity, 4 M
19nitude, 5 Machines
constants, 68 types, 340
constants, 68 reciprocating, 340
half-space method, 370 impact, 344
ded block foundation, 394 rotary, 345
Machine foundations
categories of, 340
criteria for satisfactory action, 347
sS : permissible amplitudes of, 348
:aring capacity, 238
Mononobe-Okabe's theory, 187
:neralised bearing capacity equation, 240 Motion
)rizontal displacement, 249
amplitude of, 15.
ttlement, 249
harmonic, 15
t, 249
periodic, 15
ncy:
isolation, 35
Ircing, 15
ltural, 15
N
ysical prospecting, 93 Natural frequency, 15
p
t machine foundations, 421 Periodic motion, 15
~sign procedure, 432 Permissible amplitudes, 348
v'namic analysis, 426 Phase Jag, 16
'Pt time, %,97, 100 Phase lead, 16
R
spring method, 354 Resonance method, 450
'action, 279 Resonant column test, 118, 119
Ictors affecting, 323 Rotating mass type excitation, 30
eld tests for, 314 Rotary machines
.om standard penetration tests, 319 design criteria, 445
litial, 279 loads on, 446
Iboratory studies, 283 three dimensional analysis of, 460
lechanism, 281 resonance method of analysis, 450
:andard curves and correlatIOns, 30 I amplitude method of analysis, 454
.:rr11lnology,279 combined method of analysis, 459
one of, 306
s fiee, 19,22,40,43
isolation, 32
Sc\eening of waves, 469
force, 32
Seismic: motion, 35
coefficients, 9 measuring instruments, 36
cross-borehole survey, 147, 148 acceleratioI" pickup, 38,39
down-hole survey, 147, ISO displacement pickup, 38
forces, 9 velocity pick up, 39
zones, 9 Vibrations of rod
refraction, 94, 147, 151 end conditions, 74

fixed-fixed, 75. 79
up-hole survey, 147,150
fixed-free, 78
Shake table tests, 286, 309 free-free, 74, 76
Shear modulus, 163,165,171 of finite length, 76
Soil mass participation in vibration, 400 longitudinal, 76
torsional, 80
Standard penetration test, 159
of infinite length, 70
Strain, 67 longitudinal, 70
torsional, 72
T
Theory of vibrations, 13 w
Time period, IS Wave propagation
Transient tests in elastic half space. 86
in elastic rods. 70, 72, 76, 80
in infinite medium, 81
u Waves
Ultrasonic pulse test, 118,126 compressIon, 83, 108
Lndamped free vibration, 19 head, 95
Rayleigh, 9\
v shear. 84, 108
Vibration
absorber, 48 z
forced, 25,42,47 Zone of liquefaction, 306
ODD
if-:" . _'M- _.- ~ '----""~"'-:--~"'--:-'""~'l

, ", .\. ,- ',. 1
.,
~ .
:, \
~
~ I J
k~, " '- ~L.._":~",-" -,.~.~ :.c ,.:..."""",:"""""""","

Soil Dynamics and Machine Foundations Swami Saran - 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Soil Dynamics and Machine Foundations Swami Saran - 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

óóóóóó

~ \.-:. ~) j JW' .:r-.~ J:'" 4i~ \;S"

First Edition 1999

,';.. ". .. ',.'

Laser Typeset by .. "..

Prinled al Cambridge PrintingWorks,New Dclhi-llO028 .

(Dr. Swami Saran)

11~f1 òò×æº¬þôòò¢ ,',. ..;'

..; '.o..;oc;."" ;"'..., ,~'~:~~F~B

2. THEORY OF VIBRATIONS 13-66

3. WAVE PROP AGATION IN AN ELASTIC, HOMOGENEOUS. êéóïïé

4. DYNAMIC SOIL PRO~ER~5. '-. ."' . --.118-186

6. DYNAMIC BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS îíèóîéè

7. LIQUEFACTION OF SOILS îéçóííç

7.14 AntiliquefactionMeasures 324

(b) Dynamic load due to steady state vibration

(c) Multiple impulse loading

(d) Trice ofvertical acceleration of ground due to pile driving

. Fig. 1.1: Variation of dynamic load with time in IOmetypical cases

Fig. 1.2. : A typical earthquake record

"._.,~~""'- '=-'3"'",""""",'"""""'~,'.' ~"..",.c.,=.: "...""""~"",,...,,'.-,..,=,,====o,.-

4- Soil Dynamics cl Machine Fo"nd4tio.ns

Not felt except by a very few under specially favourable circumstances.

M = loglOA -loglO Aa . ...(1.1)

Richter Scale Magnitude (AI) Maximum Intensity, Modified

Table 1.3 : Fault Length, Affected Area,~nd Duration of.Eart~quake

5 1-2 20,000 '5

6, SoU DyIUlllfics & Mtrehille Foundations

Fig. 1.4: Distaoce corredio.o for magnitude determination

1.3 EQUIVALENT DYNAMIC LOAD TO AN ACTUAL EARTHQUAKE LOAD

Introduction, ',;. ' , H,

Table 1.4 : Equivalent Cycles for Anticipated Eartbquake

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5)

100- 80 90 5/2 = 2.5 2.6 '65

1.4 SEISMIC FORCE FOR PSEUDO-STATIC ANALYSIS

Equivalent modi fide

Fig. 1.7 : Seismic zonesof India

10 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations

Tab{e 1.5 : Values of Basic Seismic Coefficien~ <X/1

I. Containment structure of seismic power reactor for preliminary design 3.0

.Table 1.7 : Values of P for Different Soil-Foundation System

Soil Isolated Combinedor Raft Pile Well

F0 = Seismic zoni1)gfactor for average acceleration spectra (Table 1.8)

Fig. 1.8: Average acceleration spectra

Table 1.8 : Values of Seismic Zoning Factor. Fo

tILL USTRATIVE EXAMPLES'

2.3 HARMONIC MOTION

Fig. 2.3 : Quantities describing harmonic motion

16 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations

= roA sin (rot- 8 + ~)

= ro2A (sin rot - e + 1t)

Fig. 2.4: Vector representation of harmonic displacement. velocity and acceleration

c ,--- '-'" --- """'-

. ~~ 'i; 'P1>1Flg;'2.5':Motion containi.ng a beat

18 Soil Dynamics & Machine Foundations

f = i = (2~)( 0) 1;1t0) 2 ) ...(2.9)

2.4 VIBRATIONS OF A SINGLE DEGREE FREEDOM SYSTEM

(I) Spring-mlss-dashpot system (b) Frcc-body diagram

The equilibrium of mass m gives

The solution of this equation can be obtained by substituting"

-(j)~ (AI cos (j) i + Az sin (j)nt

or 'co =:1: ...(2.14)