MACHINE

FOUNDATION
DIGITAL ASSIGNMENT - 2

FAIZAL AHMAD ZAID A K

17MST0062
1. TYPES OF MACHINES, CAPACITY, OPERATING FREQUENCY:
Machines are categorized in to major groups, they are

 Reciprocating machines,

 Rotary machines (High speed; Low speed),

 Impact machines.

Reciprocating Machines:
 Reciprocating machines are probably the oldest machines used by mankind. The
classical example is a crank mechanism which is used to convert translatory
motion into rotary motion and vice versa

 Internal combustion engines, Steam engines, Piston-type pumps and

Compressors and other similar machines having a crank mechanism.

 This category of machines includes internal combustion engines, steam engines,

piston-type pumps and compressors and other similar machines having a crank
mechanism.

 It consists of a piston that moves within a cylinder, a connecting rod, a piston rod
and a crank. The crank rotates with a constant angular velocity.

 The direction of piston movement may be horizontal or vertical. Most reciprocating

machines have operating speeds that are smaller than 1200-1500 rpm.

 The foundations for reciprocating machines usually consist of rigid concrete blocks
that have openings for mounting the machines. The machine may be mounted
directly on a concrete block or on suitably designed elastic pads. Block foundations
resting on springs are also sometimes used.

 The foundation requirements for reciprocating machines with respect to dynamic

stability are as follows:

1. There should be at least 30 percent difference between the operating speed

of the machine and the natural frequency of the soil foundation system.
2. The amplitudes of vibration must be less than the specified permissible
values.
3. In the soil, the resultant stresses occasioned by the combined action of static
and dynamic loads should not exceed the permissible values.
 Reciprocating Machine

ROTARY MACHINES:

 Machines such as gas and steam turbines, generators, rotary compressors, and
turbo blowers fall in the category of high-speed rotary machines.

 The operating speeds of these machines are generally 3000 rpm or 3600 rpm and
may range up to 10000 rpm. Turbine units operating at 1500 and 1800 rpm are
also sometimes used.

 Turbogenerator (T.G.) units are available in different capacities or power rating

ranging from 2 MW to 2000 MW. The capacity of T.G. Units in nuclear power plants
generally varies from 200 to 1100 MW. Units of 2000 MW capacity are used in
superthermal fossil power stations.
 Low speed Rotary machines operating at less than 1500 rpm. Motor generators,
centrifugal pumps, fans and blowers, crushing mills, and roll mills are some
examples of low-speed rotary machines. For these machines both the massive-
block-type and frame-type foundations are used.

 For rotary machines such as turbines, rotary pumps, rotary compressor, fans, etc.,
the mounting parts can be balanced so that no dynamic loads exists.

 In practice however perfect balance is not achieved and dynamic loads may be
caused by misalignment or wear of moving parts.

 If the eccentricity of unbalanced mass is known the amplitude of the dynamic load
at any frequency can be determined from the expression for centrifugal force.

 Natural frequencies of the foundation-soil system should be at least 30 percent

away from the operating speed of the machine.

 Amplitudes of vibration should be within the permissible limits specified by

machine manufacturer. In case specifications by manufacturers are not available,
limiting values of design amplitudes may be adopted as follows:

ROTARY MACHINE
IMPACT MACHINES:

 Hammers are most typical of impact machines and are of many types. According
to their functions, they may be classified into forging hammers (proper) and drop
hammers. Drop hammers are used for a variety of purposes such as forging,
stamping, and ore breaking.

 The weight of the tup may vary from 0.25 to 10 tons. The height of the drop may
range from 0.3 to 2.0 m or more.

 These are many industrial processor, typically impact forging, which requires
suitable or repeated blows with a hammer, kinetic energy is given to the hammer
either by some external source of power such as steam, or more usually by gravity.

 These machines consists of a falling ram, an anvil and a frame. Its natural
frequency should be either 30 percent smaller or 2.5 times the frequency of the
impacts.

 Drop hammer for die stamping for=60 to 150 blows.

FIG:IMPACT MACHINES
Schematic diagram of a machine-foundation system subjected to dynamic
loads.
2. TYPES OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS
Machine foundations are special types of foundations required for machines,
machine tools and heavy equipments which have wide range of speeds, loads and
operating conditions. These foundations are designed considering the shocks and
vibrations (dynamic forces) resulting from operation of machines.

Following are the types of machine foundations generally used:

 Block Type Machine Foundation
 Box or Caisson Type Machine Foundation
 Wall Type Machine Foundation
 Framed Type Machine Foundation
 Non-Rigid or Flexible type of Machine Foundation

Block Type Machine Foundation

Following figure shows block type machine foundation. This type of foundation
consists of a pedestal resting on a footing have has large mass and a small natural
frequency.
A block foundation consists of a pedestal resting on a footing. If more than one
machine of similar nature is to be installed in a workshop, they can be profitably
mounted on one continuous mat. A block foundation has a large mass and smaller
natural frequency. Usually block foundation is provided for compressors and
reciprocating engines.
 Through its mass, oftentimes three to eight times that of the machinery, it
absorbs those dynamic forces which are a by-product of the work being performed by
the machine.

The more evenly balanced and smooth-running the machine, the less
unbalanced forces there are which must be transmitted from the machine, through the
grout and into the foundation. An understanding of this function points out the
importance of a good grout and anchor bolt system to join the machine to the concrete
block. Excessive vibration is often a symptom of a problem in one of the links in the
attachment system. It also can be from an abnormal machinery operating condition,
where the unbalanced forces have increased beyond normal operating forces.

Box or Caisson Type Machine Foundation

Box type foundation consists of a hollow concrete block as shown in figure

below. The mass of this foundation is less than block type machine foundation as it is
hollow. The natural frequency of the box type machine foundation is increased.

If a lighter foundation is to be provided, this type of foundation is used. In this

type weight of foundation is reduced and its natural frequency is increased.
Wall Type Machine Foundation
The wall type foundation comprises of a pair of walls featured with a top slab.
The machine is laid to rest on the top portion of slab. This type of foundation is
constructed of homogeneous materials. It is used for small machines and the machine
is rested on the top slab.
This type of foundation consists of a system of wall-columns and beam-slabs.
Each element of such a foundation is relatively flexible. Steam turbines are provided
with wall type of foundations. It is used for larger machines. The machines are rested
on the top of frames. The vertical and horizontal members of this foundation can be
constructed by different material.
Framed Type Machine Foundation
Framed type of machine foundation consists of vertical columns with horizontal
frame at their tops. It is used for larger machines. The machines are rested on the top
of frames. The vertical and horizontal members of this foundation can be constructed
by different materials.

For low speed rotary machines like crushing mills, motor generators,
compressors, and rolling mill stands. Framed-foundation supported either on a raft/pile
foundations are the suitable solution for such machines, which can prevent vibrations.
The option of raft or pile foundation depends.
The formulations used for manual computations cover only standard/ideal
frames, i.e., frame beam is rectangular in cross-section having machine mass at its
center. Analysis of a single portal frame is based on the premise that longitudinal
beams of a frame foundation are flexible enough to permit transverse frames to vibrate
independently. These procedures are only for very ideal cases, and most of the real-
life machine foundations do not fall under this category. Some of the aspects that
cannot be suitably accounted for by the manual computational methods are
• haunches,
• machine mass at off-center locations of the beam,
• beams extended as cantilevers on one side/both sides of the frame beam,
• beams inclined in elevation supporting heavy machine mass,
• no frame beam at column locations,
• higher-order frame-column vibration frequencies,
• presence of solid thick deck within the frames, and
• depression/recess in the top deck.

Non-Rigid or Flexible type of Machine Foundation

If a machine is rigidly bolted to the floor, the vibratory movement of the machine
itself may be reduced, but the vibration transmitted to the floor will be large. This may
produce harmful effects even at large distances. On the other hand, if a flexible support
is provided under the machine or its foundation, the vibration transmitted to the floor
will be considerably reduced, but this may cause significant motion to the machine
itself during normal operation or during the starting and stopping stages. Some
compromise has to be reached between the two requirements. This is achieved in
design practice by selecting a suitable natural frequency for the machine foundation.
3. EVALUATION OF REQUIRED DYNAMIC SOIL PROPERTIES BY FIELD
METHODS:
Dynamic Soil Properties:
In general, problems involving the dynamic loading of soils are divided into
small and large strain amplitude responses. In a machine foundation, the amplitudes
of dynamic motion and, consequently, the strains in the soil are usually low, whereas
a structure that is subjected to an earthquake or blast loading may undergo large
deformations and thus induce large strains in the soil.
A large number of field and laboratory methods have been developed for
determination of the dynamic soil properties. The principal properties that are
determined by many of these methods are:
1. Shear strength, which is evaluated in terms of strain rates and stress strain
characteristics;
2. Liquefaction parameters, such as cyclic shearing stress ratio, cyclic deformation,
and pore-pressure response;
3. Dynamic moduli, such as Young's modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus, and
constrained modulus with corresponding spring constants;
4. Damping; and
5. Poisson's ratio.
In machine foundations, an understanding of dynamic soil moduli (with
corresponding elastic spring constants) and damping is frequently required. Poisson's
ratio is also needed, even though it is frequently not determined. The following
methods for determining dynamic properties of soil are in use in different parts of the
world.

1. Cross-borehole wave propagation test

2. Up-hole or down-hole wave propagation test
3. Surface wave propagation test
4. Vertical footing resonance test
5. Horizontal footing resonance test
6. Free vibration test on footings
7. Cyclic plate load test
8. Standard penetration test
1. Cross-borehole wave propagation test:
In the cross-borehole method, the velocity of wave propagation is measured
from one borehole to another. A minimum of two boreholes are required, one for
generating an impulse and the other for the sensors. In Fig, the impulse rod is struck
on top, causing an impulse to travel down the rod to the soil at the bottom of the hole.
The shearing between the rod and the soil creates shear waves that travel horizontally
through the soil to the vertical motion sensor in the second hole; the time required for
a shear wave to traverse this known distance is monitored.
There are four important considerations in conducting a cross-borehole shear wave
propagation test:
(1) The boreholes,
(2) The seismic source,
(3) The seismic receiver, and
(4) The recording and timing equipment.
The major criteria for a seismic source are:
(1) It must be capable of generating predominantly one kind of wave.
(2) It must be capable of repeating desired characteristics at a predetermined energy
level.
Velocity transducers (geophones) that have natural frequencies of 4 to 15 Hz are
adequate for detecting (receiving) the shear waves as they arrive from the source. The
receivers must be oriented in the shearing mode and should be securely coupled to
the sides of the boring. The recording equipment should be able to resolve arrival
times of up to 0.2 msec or 5 percent of the travel time. Storage oscilloscopes are also
often used.
2. Up-Hole or Down-Hole Wave Propagation Tests:
Up-hole and down-hole tests are performed by using only one borehole. In the
up-hole method, the receiver is placed at the surface, and shear waves are generated
at different depths within the borehole.
In the down-hole method, the excitation is applied at the surface and one or
more receivers are placed at different depths within the hole. Both the up-hole and the
down-hole methods give average values of wave velocities for the soil between the
excitation and the receiver if one receiver is used, or between the receivers, if more
than one is used in the borehole.

3. Surface-Wave Propagation Test

Rayleigh waves and L'llve waves can be used to determine the shear moduli of
soils near the surface. The Rayleigh wave (R-wave) travels in a zone close to the
surface. An electromagnetic or other harmonic vibrator can be used to generate a
steady-state R-wave, and the ground surface can be deformed as shown in Fig. 4.34.
A mechanical oscillator is usually set to work at approximately 10Hz. One ray is drawn
away from the centreline of the oscillator.
One of the geophones connected to the horizontal plates of the oscilloscope is
fixed 30cm away from the oscillator along the ray so that the sensing axis of the
geophone is vertical. A similar geophone, connected to the vertical plates of the
oscilloscope, is moved along this ray away from the oscillator.
The second geophone is moved until the Lissajous figure on the oscilloscope
screen becomes a circle. The two signals are at the same frequency and 90° out of
phase. In case of uniform soil up to infinite depths and the Lissajous figure of a circle,
the wave length of the propagating waves is given by
4. Vertical Footing Resonance Test:
The block (footing) resonance test can be used for determining modulus and
damping values. According to IS 5249 a test block 1.5 x 0.75 x 0.70 m high is cast
either at the surface or in a pit 4.5 X 2.75 mat a suitable depth (Fig. 4.35a) and is
excited in vertical vibrations. Two acceleration or displacement transducers are
mounted on top of the block (Fig. 4.35b)
Determination of Coefficient of Elastic Uniform Compression of Soil C". The
amplitude of vibration Az at a given frequency f, is given by

in which az represents the vertical acceleration of the block in mm/sec2 , and f

is the frequency in Hz.
Amplitude vs. frequency curves are plotted for each force level to obtain the
natural frequency of the soil and the foundation system tested (Fig. 4.36). The natural
frequency, fnz, at different force levels is different because different forces cause
different strain levels below the block. This is accounted for when the appropriate
design parameters are being chosen. The coefficient of elastic uniform compression,
Cu of the soil is then determined from Eq.

in which fnz is the natural frequency in vertical vibrations, m the mass of the block,
oscillator, and motor, and A the contact area of the block (footing) with the soil.
5. Horizontal Footing Resonance Test:
For a horizontal footing (block) resonance test, the mechanical oscillator is mounted
on the block so that horizontal sinusoidal vibrations are generated in the direction of
the longitudinal axis of the block. Three acceleration or displacement transducers are
mounted on the side of the block with one near the top, a second near the bottom, and
the third in the middle along the vertical centreline of the transverse face of the block
to sense horizontal vibrations (Fig. 4.35a). The oscillator is excited in several steps,
starting from rest. The signal of each acceleration pickup is amplified and monitored.
The remaining procedure is the same as for vertical resonance test. Similar tests may
be performed by exciting the block in the direction of transverse axis.
Determination of Coefficient of Elastic Uniform Shear of Soil, Cx,. In a horizontal-
vibration test, the amplitude of horizontal vibrations, Ax is determined by the equation

in which ax is the horizontal acceleration in the direction under consideration, and f the
frequency of the horizontal vibrations in hertz. Amplitude vs. frequency curves are
plotted for each force level to obtain the natural frequency, fnx, of the soil and block
tested as for the case of vertical vibrations. The coefficient of elastic uniform shear
(C,) of the soil is then determined by using Eq.

in which Y is equal to Mm/Mm0, fnx is the horizontal resonant frequency of block soil
system, A0 is equal to A/M, I0 is equal to 3.46 (I/Mm0), Mm is the mass moment of
inertia of the block, oscillator, and motor about the horizontal axis passing through the
centre of gravity of the block and perpendicular to the direction of vibration, Mm 0 the
mass moment of inertia of the block, oscillator, and motor about the horizontal axis
passing through the centre of the contact area of the block and soil and perpendicular
to the direction of vibration, and I the moment of inertia of the foundation contact area
about the horizontal axis passing through the centre of gravity of the area and
perpendicular to the direction of vibration
6. Free Vibration Test on Footings:
Free vibration tests may be performed by pulling the block and releasing it in a
longitudinal direction or by hitting it with a hammer for vertical excitation. From the
observed natural frequency, values can then be determined.
7. Cyclic Plate Load Test:
The equipment for a cyclic-plate load test is similar to that used in a static-plate
load test. It is assembled according to details given in the American Society for Testing
Materials (1977) or Barkan (1962).
After the equipment has been set up and arranged, the initial readings of the
dial gauges are noted, and the first increment of static load is applied to the plate. This
load is kept constant for some time until no further settlement occurs or until the rate
of settlement becomes negligible. The final readings of the dial gauges are then
recorded. The entire load is removed and the plate is allowed to rebound. When no
further rebound occurs, the readings of the dial gauges are again noted. The load is
then gradually increased until its magnitude is equal in value to the next higher
proposed stage of loading; the load is maintained constant and the final dial gauge
readings are noted. The entire load is then reduced to zero and final dial gauge
readings are recorded when the rate of rebound' becomes negligible.
The cycles of loading, unloading, and reloading are continued until the
estimated ultimate load has been reached; the final values of dial gauge readings are
noted each time. The magnitude of the load increment is such that the ultimate load is
reached in five to six increments. The elastic rebound of the plate corresponding to
each intensity of loading can be obtained from the data obtained during cyclic-plate
load tests, as shown in Fig. 4.37a. The load intensity versus the elastic rebound is
plotted as shown in Fig. 4.37b.
8. Standard Penetration Test:
In the standard penetration test (SPT}, a standard split spoon sampler is driven
with a 140-lb hammer that falls freely through a distance of 30 in. The number of blows
for 12 in of penetration of the split spoon sampler is designated as the N value. This
is Nmeasured· In a design problem using N values, a correction for effective overburden
pressure is applied, although the test is designated as a standard test, there are
several personal errors as well as errors that are equipment based. Therefore, the use
of SPT to measure any soil property has been questioned by many engineers (Woods,
1978). The "uses and abuses" of SPT have been described by Fletcher (1965}, Mohr
(1966), and Ireland et al. (1970}. De Mello (1971} presented an extensive review of
SPT from which it is evident that although SPT is used extensively in soil
investigations, there has been no documented, carefully controlled research
conducted on it. Schmertmann Imai (1977) reported a correlation between
(uncorrected) N and shear wave velocity, V,(m/sec) in 943 recordings at four urban
locations in Japan and was able to establish the following relationship:

In arriving at the above relationship, be converted the N values over 50 or under

1 from the penetrating length at the time of 50 or 1 blows into the number of blows
necessary for penetration as deep as 30 cm.
4. DESIGN PROCEDURE WITH REFERENCE TO RELEVANT
CODES ASTM CODE, IS-CODE, EURO CODE
The design of machine foundations is a trial-and error process involving the
following main steps
(a) Estimate the magnitude and characteristics of the dynamic loads.
(b) Establish the soil profile and determine the appropriate shear modulus and
damping, G and D, for each soil layer
(c) Guided by experience select the type and trial dimensions of the foundation and
establish performance criteria (see below Figure)
(d) Estimate the dynamic response of this trial foundation subjected to the load of step
(a) and supported by the soil deposit established in step (b). This key step of the design
process usually starts with simplifying and idealizing soil profile and foundation
geometry, and involves selecting the most suitable method of dynamic soil-foundation
interaction analysis.
(e) Check whether the estimated response amplitude of step (d) at the particular
operation frequency conforms to the performance criteria given by machine
manufacturers or below Figure.
(f) Monitor the actual motion of the completed foundation and compare with the
theoretical prediction of step (d)
(g) Finally, if the actual performance of the constructed foundation does not meet the
aforesaid design criteria, step(c), remedial measures must be devised. This may be,
change of the mass of the foundation or the location of the machinery; stiffening of the
sub-soil through, for example, grouting; increasing the soil-foundation contact surface;
etc. Steps (d), (e) and (f) must be repeated until satisfactory design is finally achieved

Fig: Typical performance requirement for machine foundation

I.S Code Procedure:
Criteria for the Design of Machine Foundations
1. Static Loading
Without shear failure
Without any excessive settlement
2. Dynamic loading
No resonance
As per 2974 part1, r<0.5 (under tuned)
r>0.5 (over tuned)
The amplitude of motion should not exceed limiting amplitude. Permissible amplitude
is 0.2mm.Vibrations must not be annoying to the persons working in factory or
surroundings.

Fig. 8.15 Displacement amplitude vs. frequency (Richard 1962)

Method of Analysis
1. Linear elastic weightless spring MSD model
2. Linear elastic theory

Figure 8.16 Degrees of freedom for block type foundation

Linear Elastic Weightless Spring MSD Model

Coefficient of uniform elastic compression (Cu)

Where A=area of test plate

Coefficient of linear elastic shear

Barken (1962) proposed the following values:

According to IS: 5249:

Vertical Vibration of the Block

Sliding Vibration of the Block

Linear Elastic Theory

Vertical Vibration of the Block

Equation of Vertical Motion:

Sliding Vibration of the Block

Design Recommendations by Considered Code
The design recommendations by all the considered codes/standards are presented in
the form of tables as presented in Table1. Among them, the Indian Standards have
given their recommendations for the analysis and design of machine foundations
based on the type of machine to be mounted on the foundation. Hence, the
recommendations by the Indian Standards are represented separately in Table
2.The recommendations for the analysis and design of both foundation block and
pile foundation have been discussed.
Euro code Procedure
Optimal design of the machine foundation from the point of view of Euro code
the engineer-designer has taken into account following influences:
• Impact of machine vibration to structures.
• Impact of machine vibration to the people and operation (mechanic, acoustic,
optic).
• Impact of machine vibration to the technology (requirements of manufacturer).
 On the base of the evaluation of all influences it is necessary to check
following assessment:
• Criterion of limit state design of structures,
• Physiological criterion,
• Functionality criterion. The design forces and displacements are calculated using
the harmonic response analysis of the structures for normal and extreme operation.
The maximum displacements and velocities must be checked to the criterion of
standard:
• Machine frequencies < 10 Hz Maximum displacement amplitude – for normal
operation umax ≤ 63 μm – for initial state (n =0) umax ≤ 23 μm
• Machine frequencies > 10 Hz Maximum velocity amplitude – for normal operation
vmax ≤ 2.8 mm/s – for initial state (n = 0) vmax ≤ 1.0 mm/s.
Harmonic response analysis:
The harmonic response analysis solves the time-dependent equations of
motion for linear structures undergoing steady-state vibration. The equation of
motion for a structural system is defined in the following form

Reliability criteria for seismic resistance of structure Reliability of the foundation

structures is analysed in accordance of national and Euro code standard
requirements for ultimate and serviceability limit state. Horizontal reinforced plane
structures are designed on the bending and shear loads for ultimate limit state
function in the next form

Sensitivity analysis:
Analysis of the influence of the variable input parameters to the reliability of
the structures depends on the statistical independency between input and output
parameters. Matrix of correlation coefficients of the input and output parameters is
defined by Spearman in the form

Soil-foundation interaction:
The dynamic response is other in the case of stiff and soft soil due to soil-
foundation interaction effects. There are following aspects:
• Soil move can affect the rotation of foundation about its horizontal axis,
• First period of foundation under soft soil will be longer as in the case of stiff soil,
• Eigenvalues and a participation factors will be different in the case of soft and stiff
soil,
• Non proportional damping is depend on the radial and reflex damping of soil under
foundation and different damping of foundation structure.

References:
1. ACI: 351-3R-2004, "Foundations for Dynamic Equipment", American Concrete
Institute.
2. CP: 2012 (Part I)-1974, "Code of practice for Foundations for Machinery", BSI,
London.
3. DIN: 4024 (Part I)-1988,"Machine Foundations –Flexible Structures that Support
Machines with Rotating Elements", German Standards.
4. DIN: 4024 (Part II)-1988,"Machine Foundations –Rigid Structures that Support
Machines with Periodic Excitation", German Standards.
5. IS: 2974 (Part I)-1982, “Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine
Foundations - Foundation for Reciprocating Type Machines”, BIS New Delhi, India.
6. IS: 2974 (Part II)-1980, “Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine
Foundations - Foundations for Impact Type Machines (Hammer Foundations)”, BIS
New Delhi, India.
7. IS: 2974 (Part III)-1992, “Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine
Foundations - Foundation for Rotary Type Machines (Medium and High Frequency)”,
BIS New Delhi, India.
8. IS: 2974 (Part IV)-1979, “Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine
Foundations - Foundation for Rotary Type Machines of Low Frequency”, BIS New
Delhi, India.
9. IS: 2974 (Part V)-1987, “Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Machine
Foundations - Foundations for Impact Machines other than Hammers”, BIS New Delhi,
India.
10. SAES: Q–007-2003, "Foundations and Supporting Structures for Heavy
Machinery", Onshore Structures, Saudi Arabia.
5. Construction Procedure for Machine Foundations:
Apart from the normal requirements of reinforced concrete construction as
given in relevant codes of practice, a few additional points especially applicable to the
construction of machine foundations are pertinent here.
1. Concrete
M 150 concrete should be used for block foundations and M 200 concrete for
framed foundations. The concreting should preferably be done in a single operation.
The location of construction joints should be judiciously chosen. Proper treatment of
the joints with a suitable number of dowels and shear keys is required. Cement grout
with non-shrinkable additive should be used under the machine bed-plate and for
pockets of anchor-bolts.
2. Reinforcement
Reinforcement should be used on all surfaces, openings, cavities, etc., required
to be provided in the machine foundation. In block-type foundation, reinforcements
should be used in the three directions. The minimum reinforcement should be 250
N/cum of concrete. The reinforcement usually consists of 16 to 25 mm bars kept at
200 to 300 mm spacing in both directions, and also on the lateral faces. The concrete
cover should be a minimum of 75 mm at bottom and50 mm on sides and at top. Around
all openings, steel reinforcement equal to 0.50 to 0.75% of cross-sectional area of the
opening shall be provided, in the form of a cage.
3. Expansion Joints
Machine foundations should be separated from adjoining structural elements
by expansion joints to prevent transmission of vibration.
4. Connecting Elements
Base plates and anchor bolts are used to fix machines to the foundation. For
this purpose, concreting should be stopped at the level of the base plate. This gap will
be filled later by cement mortar. A 150 mm × 150 mm hole is generally sufficient for
bolt holes. A minimum clearance of 80 mm should be provided from the edge of the
bolt hole to the nearest edge of the foundation. The length of a bolt to be concreted is
generally 30 to 40 times the diameter. Boltholes should be invariably filled with
concrete. Concreting the spaces under the machines should be done with extreme
care using 1:2 mortar mix.
Machines should not be operated for at least 15 days after under-filling, since
vibrations are harmful to fresh mortar. The edges of the foundation should be protected
by providing a border of steel angles.
5. Spring Absorbers
Spring absorbers are commonly used for providing isolation in machine
foundations. These can be installed by using either ‘supported system’ or ‘suspended
system’.
 In the former, the springs are placed directly under the machine or the
foundation; in the latter, the foundation is suspended from springs located at or close
to the floor level. In the suspended system, access to the springs becomes easy for
future maintenance or replacement. For well-balanced machines, relatively smaller
springs are adequate; in such cases, the supported system may be used. For
machines with large exciting forces, heavy springs will be required; in this case, the
suspended system is preferred.
Provision for Tuning
When the necessary margin of safety cannot be realised in design to avoid
resonance, it is desirable to give due provision in the construction for tuning the
foundation at a later stage. By tuning” is meant changing the natural frequency of the
foundation system if found necessary at a later stage. To facilitate subsequent
enlargement of the foundation, dowels should be let projecting. It has been suggested
that hollows be left in the foundation block which may be subsequently concreted, if
required, to increase the mass of the foundation with the same base area.
6. Design of foundation for Nuclear power plant.

INTRODUCTION
The design of a nuclear power plant (NPP) is to assure that the plant can be
operated without undue radiological risk to the plant personnel, the public and the
environment. The performance of NPP foundation system plays an important role to
achieve this goal. NPP structures generally impose heavy loads on the foundation
systems.

Safe design of foundation aims at providing sound foundation systems for NPP
buildings and structures so that they can fulfill their functional requirements and
towards the objective of nuclear safety.
Two major tasks for ensuring safety of foundation for NPP structures are:
(a) assessing the suitability of site against ground failure, and
(b) safe design of foundation systems.

Suitability of site is required to be assessed against various ground failure

modes like slope and embankment failure, local instability, subsidence and soil
erosion. Safe design of foundation is completed in two stages. Identification of
foundation type and proportioning of founding area from stability and settlement
considerations is done in first stage. In second stage, structural design of foundation
is performed.
The foundation system of a NPP consists of three important components:
(a) Foundation structures
(b) Engineered foundation supports
(c) Foundation materials as founding media.

Foundation structures may be isolated or combined footings, raft, pile, well

foundation etc. For example, foundation of reactor building is the base raft. It may be
shallow or deep foundation depending on the site sub-strata condition. Engineered
foundation supports are backfill, lean concrete, improved and stabilised founding
media etc. Foundation materials are basic materials of founding media, which could
be either soil type or rock type. The consideration should be made on the vertical depth
and lateral extent of the soil beyond which the properties of the foundation materials
can no longer affect the plant safety. Suitability of foundation materials for NPP
structures is assessed by conducting detailed and systematic subsurface
investigations. The scope of subsurface investigation covers geotechnical,
geophysical and geological investigations.
GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
The purpose of geotechnical and geological investigations is to provide
information or basic data needed to design NPP foundation for safety and
performance. The investigation program should provide the basic data required for
detailed characterisation of the subsurface and to identify potential geological hazards
that may exist at the site. The investigation program should cater to all stages of the
site evaluation process.

Stages of Geotechnical and Geological Investigations

The investigations are generally carried out in three stages:

(a) Preliminary investigations during site survey or selection stage
(b) Detailed investigations prior to foundation design
(c) Confirmatory investigations after excavation of foundation pits.

Depending on the characteristics of the subsurface at site, confirmatory investigations

may continue during construction stage and operating phase of plant also.

The information available in various stages of investigations can be classified as:

(a) Geological information (stratigraphical, structural, and seismic)

(b) Description of extent and nature of subsurface materials
(c) Soil and rock characterisation (properties)
(d) Ground water information (regime, location, extent etc).
Requirements of Geotechnical and Geological Investigations

Preliminary Investigations

The main purpose of preliminary investigation, which is generally conducted

during site survey stage, is to assess the engineering aspects of a particular site from
geotechnical and geological considerations, and also to acquire sufficient information
for preliminary design of foundation systems. During this stage, information on general
geology, characteristics of subsurface materials, seismicity, tectonic activities,
potential for geological hazard, foundation conditions etc. are collected from the
available literature, documents and other sources of information as well as by
conducting investigation.

The information should be collected at this stage to enable to develop database for
taking up preliminary safety analysis of following aspects:

(a) Determine preliminary values of seismic design parameters,

(b) Ground water level variation,
(c) Slope and embankment stability,
(d) Liquefaction,
(e) Soil erosion and contamination,
(f) Preliminary foundation design parameters and
(g) Stability of coastal regime.

The extent of investigation in this stage should be so selected that sufficient

information could be obtained to conduct the safety analysis, as described above, with
adequate margin. Geophysical methods such as seismic refraction survey should be
employed in initial stage of investigations. Geomorphological studies should also be
carried out. The investigation requires the understanding of geology of the area of
interest and sufficient database on subsurface characteristics. This can be obtained
by field reconnaissance and a review of available current/historical reference
documents.

Limited direct and indirect investigations along with both field and laboratory
tests need to be carried out to determine the foundation design parameters. One of
the major outcomes expected out of preliminary investigation is to identify the areas
of geotechnical and geological investigations on which special emphasis is to be made
in the detailed investigation stage.

Detailed Investigations

The investigations at this stage are carried out after the plant layout along with
the locations of major plant structures have been finalised and the building loads have
been established. The purpose of the detailed investigation is to obtain the database
to conduct all the relevant safety analysis pertinent to the site. The results obtained in
the preliminary stage are used to work out the programme of detailed investigations.
These results are also verified in this stage.
 Direct and indirect method of subsurface investigations along with both in situ
and laboratory tests should be conducted in detail to evaluate geotechnical
parameters for foundation design. The selection of the methods for different
investigations should have the relevance to site characteristics.

Identification, Determination and Evaluation of Foundation Design Parameters

Single value for all subsurface parameters cannot always be determined. The
best estimates and range of variation of these parameters should be established from
the estimates or range using the following guidelines.

(a) Determine the estimates or range of parameters from more than one
investigation. For this purpose the geotechnical programme should be so developed
that for each subsurface parameter both field and laboratory tests are carried out with
preferably using alternative methods for each category, wherever possible. Number of
investigations may be increased for a particular parameter depending
on its significance on the overall safety.

(b) Select the design value of the parameter as the best estimate, using
engineering judgment, from the estimates or range of the parameters determined from
various investigations such that:

 the design value is compatible to the site condition,

 conservative results are obtained from safety analysis using this value,
 adequate safety margins are provided, and
 the design value of one parameter does not contradict with the design values
selected for other related parameters.

The results of the investigations should be interpreted as per the specifications

given in codes and references listed in this guide. However, a different approach may
be adopted if that is found to be more rational than those given in the codes and
references referred in this guide.

DESIGN OF FOUNDATION SYSTEM

Shallow foundations are, in general, adopted for nuclear safety related buildings
and structures. Deep foundations are employed when the quality of founding materials
is not adequate to support foundation structure, even after improving or replacing the
weak founding materials. The deep foundations consist of intermediate structures like
piles, caissons, which transfer the load from foundation mat to deep load bearing
strata.

Design of foundation structure has basically two steps:

(a) Geometrical design
The type and geometrical dimensions of the foundation are decided from
geotechnical safety consideration.
(b) Structural design
The strength design of the foundation structural element is carried out from
structural safety consideration.
Shallow Foundation

Isolated footing, strip and spread foundation, raft or mat are commonly used
shallow foundations for NPP structures. In selecting the geometry of the foundation,
proper attention should be given to the following:

(a) Effect of foundation dimension on bearing capacity or other foundation

design parameters
(b) Rigidity of super structure, foundation structures and foundation
materials
(c) Combined effect of super structure and foundation structure rigidity
on the foundation materials
(d) Effect of new foundation on existing foundation and vice versa during
and after construction.

Deep Foundations

Piles and caissons are example of deep foundations. Depending on soil

conditions, pile or caissons foundations may be used in Nuclear Power Plant.
The design and testing of pile foundations shall be carried out as per IS: 2911 subject
to the following:
(a) The seismic effect on pile foundation should be taken as static class of loading
unless special pile design under dynamic load is considered
(b) Minimum factor of safety to determine pile capacity by static formula shall be 3. No
decrease in factor of safety under seismic event is acceptable
(c) When pile foundation is adopted at a site which has potential to the liquefaction,
following steps should be taken:
 The pile should be taken upto a depth of soil strata which does not have
liquefaction potential
  At least one third of the length shall be penetrated through the soil strata free
from liquefaction potential
 The effective skin friction shall be taken only for the 75% of the pile length
penetrated to the soil which has no liquefaction potential
 In case the lateral resistance of vertical piles can not be mobilised, raker piles
should be used to resist the horizontal force.

Foundation Supports

Engineered foundation supports are required where the existing ground level is
lower than the design foundation level or to replace weaker subsurface materials by
able supporting materials which can withstand the loading of building/structures,
transmitted through foundation structures.

Following guidelines should be followed:

(a) To design engineered foundation supports, characteristics of both the in situ soil
and borrowed soils should be considered.
(b) In case of existing ground being lower than the design foundation level, the level
of existing ground level is brought to the required level by filling with the help of good
soil materials or lean concrete,
(c) If the original soil material needs to be replaced by superior materials, following
precautionary measures should be taken:
 The stability of the whole excavation must be maintained during excavation
 The backfill material, generally granular in nature must be of good quality and
properly compacted.
(d) If there is over cutting during excavation of foundation pit, it should be made good
by filling up with concrete of appropriate grade.

Founding Materials
It should be ensured through adequate subsurface investigations that the
founding material is competent for transferring the design loads through the
foundation. Founding materials may be soil or rock. Soil may be cohesionless soil or
cohesive soil. Rock may be hard rock or soft/weathered rock. If the founding materials
are soils or soft rock, a knowledge of the stress history of the subsurface materials
should be obtained to predict settlements and heaves and the possibility of gross
foundation (shear) failure.

Rock Anchors
In order to keep the loss of contact between foundation raft and supporting
strata within allowable limits or to achieve adequate factor of safety against overturning
or flotation of raft, it may be necessary to stitch the foundation raft to the supporting
foundation material by rock anchors. The rock anchors are of two types:
Type-A Passive anchors using high yield strength reinforcing bars. Such type of
anchors may be suitable for low capacity say upto the order of 500 KN.

TYPE-B Active anchors using pre-stressing cable. This class of anchors can be used
where higher anchorage force is required.

The uplift resistance of anchorage is given by lesser of the following:

(a) The tensile strength of the anchor bars (reinforcing bars) or cables
(b) The anchorage strength of the bars or cables (i.e bond strength between steel and
concrete/grout)
(c) The bond strength between the concrete or grout and surrounding rock
(d) The dead weight of a cone of rock which must be lifted by the anchor or group of
anchors, if failure does not occur by (a), (b) or (c).

The corrosion protection of the anchor bar or pre-stressing cable is an important

aspect. Required corrosion protection measures should be adopted in the anchorage
detailing. In case of active anchors (with pre-stressing cables), it is necessary to
monitor the residual stress in the cable periodically as also to monitor corrosion
potential. Necessary provisions should be made at the initial installation stage itself for
its long term monitoring. Care should be taken in detailing the anchor and its
connection to raft to ensure that an anchor does not form passage for ingress of
ground water into the raft or basement.