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Transmission Lines
Objectives
List the types of transmission lines
Calculate the impedance of
transmission lines
Calculate velocity of propagation and
delay factor
Analyze wave propagation and
reflection for various line configuration
Describe how standing waves are
produced
Use the Smith chart to find input
impedance
Use the Smith chart to match loads to
lines
Definition
A transmission line is the conductive
connection between system elements
that carry signal power
This “conductor” may at first appear to
be a short circuit, but in fact will react
differently when high frequencies are
propagated along the line.
Types of Transmission Lines
Two-wire open line
Twisted pair
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
Shielded Pair
Coaxial Lines
Balanced/Unbalanced lines
Two Wire Open Line
FIGURE 11-1 Parallel two-wire line.
(UTP)
CAT5
Category 5 computer networking cable
capable of handling a 100MHz bandwidth
Most often used in LANs
Transmit data at rated up to 100Mbps for a
length of 100m
CAT5 cable consists of four color-coded pairs
of 22 or 24 gauge wires terminated with an
RJ-45 connector
CAT5
The precision in twisting along the
length and at the terminations provide a
significant increase in signal
transmission performance
Balanced operation of the wire pairs
helps to maintain the required level of
performance in terms of cross talk and
noise rejection
Important CAT5 UTP Parameters
Attenuation
The amount of loss in the signal
strength as it propagates throughout the
conductor
Cross Talk
Unwanted coupling caused by
overlapping electric and magnetic fields
Near End Cross Talk (NEXT)
A measure of the level of cross talk or
signal coupling within the cable
A high NEXT dB level is desired
Attenuation to Cross Talk (ACR)
Combined measure of attenuation and
cross talk.
The larger the bandwidth the higher the
ACR
The larger the bandwidth the greater
the data capacity
Delay Skew
Measure of the difference in time for the
fastest to the slowest wire pair in a UTP
cable
Proposed for new specifications in
CAT6 and CAT7 lines
Power Sum NEXT
Measures the total cross talk of all cable
pairs ensuring that the cable can carry
data traffic on all four pairs at the same
time with minimal interference
Return Loss
A measure of the ratio of power transmitted
into a cable to the amount of power returned
or reflected.
Signal reflection is due to impedance
changes in the cable link and the impedance
changes related to cable loss.
CAT5, CAT6 and CAT7 cables must have low
return loss specs.
Categories
CAT 3 Class C Telephone lines
CAT5 Class D Computer networks
CAT5e Computer networks
CAT6 Class E up to 250MHz
CAT7 Class F up to 600MHz
Wiring Standards for
CAT5 and RJ-45
Defined by the Telecommunications
Industry Association standard TIA568B
Shielded Pair
What is Shielded Pair?
Consists of parallel conductors separated
from each other and surrounded by a solid
dielectric.
Conductors are contained within a copper
braid tubing that acts like a shield
Assembly is covered by a rubber coating for
protection from elements and mechanical
damage
FIGURE 11-5 Shielded pair.
d
Vp = LC
Delay Line
A length of a transmission line designed
to delay a signal from reaching a point
by a specific amount of time
t = LC
Velocity Constant/Factor
Velocity constant or factor is the ratio of
actual velocity to velocity in free space
1
Vf = ε
Wavelength
Thedistance traveled by a wave during
a period of time or one cycle
v
λ =
f
Non-Resonant Line
Traveling DC Waves
Nonresonant line is one of infinite length or
that is terminated with a resistive load equal
in ohmic value to its characteristic impedance
All of the energy is transferred down the line
and absorbed by the load.
The voltage and current waves are called
traveling waves and move in phase with one
another from source to load.
The length is not critical
Traveling AC Waves
The charging of the line when AC is applied is very
similar to when DC is applied.
All instantaneous voltages produced by the generator
travel down the line in the order in which they were
produed.
If the voltage waveform is plotted at any point along
the line, the resulting waveform will be a duplicate of
the generator waveform
Since the line is terminated with its characteristic
impedance, all the energy produced by the source
will be absorbed by the load.
Resonant Line
Resonant Line
A transmission line terminated with an
impedance that is not equal to the
characteristic impedance
May be terminated with a short or open
Length of line is critical
DC—Open Terminations
Assume the characteristic impedance of
the line is equal to that of the source
Thus the applied voltage will be divided
equally between the source and the
line.
Each capacitor will
charge to the voltage of
the one before it.
No current will flow
through inductor L3 and
its field will collapse
attempting to keep
current flowing in the
same direction.
The additional current
must attempt to flow
through C3 doubling the
voltage across C3.
This increase in
voltage must be felt
by C2 and C1
Apparently there is a
voltage moving back
from the terminals
toward the source.
Reflection
The abrupt reversal in direction of voltage and
current
The polarity and amplitude of the reflected
wave voltage is the same as that of the
incident wave
The current is reflected back with an opposite
polarity because when the field collapsed, the
current dropped to zero.
Reflected waves are undesirable
DC—to Shorted Lines
The voltage reflection is out of phase
with the incident voltage wave
The current reflection is in phase with
the incident current wave
The resultant load voltage is always
zero
Standing Waves: Open Line
Waveforms that apparently seem to
remain in one position, varying only in
amplitude
At the end:
– Current is zero
– Voltage is maximum
– Voltage and current are out of phase by 900
Standing Waves: Shorted Line
At the end of a shorted termination:
– Current is maximum
– Voltage is zero
– Current and voltage are out of phase by 900
FIGURE 11-19 Development of standing waves.
Er
Γ = Ei
ZL − Z 0
Γ = ZL + Z 0
VSWR/SWR
Ratio of max voltage to min voltage
E max
VSWR = E min
1+ Γ
VSWR = 1− Γ
Effect of Mismatch
Full generator power does not reach the load
Cable dielectric may break down as a result
of high value standing waves of voltage
Existence of reflections increases the power
loss in form of I2R losses
Noise problems
Ghost signals can be created
Quarter Length Transformer
Usedto match a line to a resistive load
Example
– To match a resistive load RL to line with
impedance Z0
– Use a length of line of impedance Z01 equal
to ¼ wavelength of signal
Z 0 RL
–Z =
0
1
The main idea is to reflect two signals
equal in amplitude but separated by ¼
wavelength
They effectively cancel each other out.
The reflected signals still exist but the
source is fooled into thinking otherwise
Electrical Length
The length of a line in wavelengths as
opposed to physical length
Voltage maximums occur at λ /2
intervals
If the line is less than λ /2 , the
reflections still occur but the line is so
short that there is no voltage variation
along the conductor.
Example
For a 300Hz signal in air
– Velocity is 3 x 108 m/s
λ = 3 x 108 m/s / 300 = 1x106 m or 621mi
For a 10GHz signal in air
λ = 3 x 108 m/s / 10GHz =3cm or 1.2 in
Smith Chart
Transmission Line Impedance
ZL + jZ 0 tan βs
Zs = Z0
Z 0 + jZL tan βs