Task 3 - Electromagnetic waves in guided media

Individual work

Valentina Milord Morad

Group 40
1.110.584.363

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL ABIERTA Y A DISTANCIA UNAD

Escuela de Ciencias Básicas, Tecnología e Ingeniería
Teoría Electromagnética y Ondas
 2020 16-01

Introduction

In introducing the document's usually described, and a brief explanation or summary

thereof is given. A reader to read the introduction should be able to get an idea about
the content of the text before reading itself. (4 to 10 lines).
 Questions: (write with your own words)

1. What do you understand by transmission line? Mention some types.

Answer:
Transmission line is the long conductor with special design (bundled) to carry bulk
amount of generated power at very high voltage from one station to another as per
variation of the voltage level. [ CITATION Ele19 \l 3082 ]
A transmission line is used for the transmission of electrical power from generating
substation to the various distribution units. It transmits the wave of voltage and
current from one end to another. The transmission line is made up of a conductor
having a uniform cross-section along the line. Air act as an insulating or dielectric
medium between the conductors.[ CITATION Tra1 \l 3082 ]
In transmission line determination of voltage drop, transmission efficiency, line loss
etc. are important things to design. These values are affected by line parameter R, L
and C of the transmission line. Length wise transmission lines are three types.
[ CITATION Ele19 \l 3082 ]
Short Transmission Line
A short transmission line is classified as a transmission line with:
 A length less than 80km (50 miles)
 Voltage level less than 69 kV
 Capacitance effect is negligible
 Only resistance and inductance are taken in calculation capacitance is
neglected.
Medium Transmission Line
A medium transmission line is classified as a transmission line with:
 A length more than 80 km (50 miles) but less than 250 km (150 miles)
 Operational voltage level is from 69 kV to approx 133 kV
 Capacitance effect is present
  Distributed capacitance form is used for calculation purpose.
Long Transmission Line
A long transmission line is classified as a transmission line with:
 A length more than 250 km (150 miles)
 Voltage level is above 133 kV
 Line constants are considered as distributed over the length of the line
[ CITATION Ele19 \l 3082 ]
2. What is a bounded transmission line?
Answer:
Bound Transmission Media in Communication Networks are the cables that are
tangible or have physical existence and are limited by the physical geography. Also
known as Conducted systems, wired media generally employ a metallic or glass
conductor which serves to conduct, some form of electromagnetic energy.
Popular bound transmission media in use are twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and
fiber optical cable.
Twisted Pair (Copper Conductors)
A twisted pair is a pair of copper wires, with diameters of 0.4-0.8 mm, twisted
together and wrapped with a plastic coating. The twisting reduces the electrical noise
and the error rate of the data transmission. Each conductor is separately insulated by
some low-smoke and fires retardant substance. Polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride,
flouropolymer resin and Teflon(r) are some of the substances that are used for
insulation purposes.
Twisting process serves to improve the performance of the medium by containing the
electromagnetic field within the pair. Thereby, the radiation of electromagnetic energy
is reduced and the strength of the signal within the wire is improved over a distance.
This reduction of radiated energy also serves to minimize the impact on adjacent pairs
in a multiple cable configuration. This is especially important in high-bandwidth
applications as higher frequency signals tend to lose power more rapidly over
distance. Additionally, the radiated electromagnetic field tends to be greater at higher
frequencies, impacting adjacent pairs to a greater extent. Generally, the more the
twists per foot, the better the performance of the wire.
These are popular for telephone network. The energy flow is in guided media. Metallic
wires were used almost exclusively in telecommunication networks for the last 80
years, until the development of microwave and satellite radio communications
systems. Therefore, copper wire is now a mature technology, rugged and inexpensive.
In certain applications, copper-covered steel, copper alloy, nickel- and/(or) gold-
plated copper and even aluminum metallic conductors are employed.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) UTP as depicted in Figure is the copper media,
inherited from telephony, which is being used for increasingly higher data rates, and
is rapidly becoming the de facto standard for horizontal wiring. Horizontal wiring
specifies the connection between, and including, the outlet and the termination in the
communication closet. The horizontal wiring is limited to a maximum of 90 meters.
This is independent of the media type so that the communication closet is common to
all media and all applications operating over the media.
Shielded Copper or STP Shielded twisted pair (STP) differs from UTP in the metallic
shield or screen which surrounds the pairs, which may or may not be twisted. A single
shield can surround a cable containing multiple pairs or both techniques can be
employed in modem. The shield itself is made of aluminum, steel, or copper.The
shield is in the form of a metallic foil or woven meshes and is electrically grounded.
Although less effective the shield sometimes is in the form of nickel and/(or) gold
plating of the individual conductors
Co-axial Cable.
The main limiting factor of a twisted pair cable is caused by a phenomenon known as
the skin effect. As the frequency of the transmitted signal increases, the current
flowing in the wires tends to flow only on the outer surface of the wire, thus using the
less of the available cross-section. This increases the electrical resistance of the wires
for higher frequency signals leading to higher attenuation. In addition, at higher
frequencies, more signal power is lost as a result of radiation effects. Hence, for
applications that demand higher frequencies, another type of transmission medium
must be used. Coaxial cable minimizes both these effects.
Coaxial cable as shown in Figure is a robust shielded copper wire two-conductor cable
in which a solid center conductor runs concentrically (coaxial) inside a solid outer
circular conductor. This forms an electromagnetic shield around the former that
serves to greatly improve signal strength and integrity. The two conductors are
separated by insulation. A layer of dielectric (nonconductive) material, such as PVC or
Teflon, protects the entire cable.
The coaxial cable comes under the category of a bounded media and is still an
effective medium to use in data communication. Coaxial cable includes shield for
improved performance and therefore is expensive. Cable TV networks use coaxial
cable.
Baseband' It transmits a single signal at a time at very high speed. The signal on
baseband cable must be amplified at a specified distance. It is used for local area
networks.
Broadband It can transmit many simultaneous signals using different frequencies.
Fiber-Optics Cable
A cable with central glass tube covered with protective shield which transmit data
using photons is fiber optics cable. These cables transmit data via concentrated
bursts of laser beams which are carried through bundles of hair thin glass fibers.
They have advantages over electronic cables in transmission speed and volume. This
technology has revolutionized telecommunication applications which used electronic
cables. Fiber optics cables as free from electro-magnetic interference as well as
wiretapping. fiber optics cable considered a broad band communication
channel.[ CITATION Din \l 3082 ][ CITATION Typ \l 3082 ]

3. Define the following electrical parameters of transmission lines:

a. Input impedance Z¿ .
b. Stationary wave ratio VSWR .
c. Physical length L and electrical length 𝓁.

Answer:
An electrical transmission line involves four parameters (known as primary
parameters) affecting its ability to fulfil the requirements of its functions as part of a
whole power system: resistance, inductance, capacitance and conductance.
These parameters are essential in determining the properties of a particular PLT
channel which will be used for transmitting telecommunication signals. Resistance
levels rise significantly as frequency increases; on the contrary, inductance and
capacitance levels are not so dependent on frequency. In addition to resistance,
inductance, capacitance and conductance another two parameters are associated with
transmission lines called secondary parameters, namely characteristic impedance ZL
and propagation constant g. Both these parameters are represented by complex
numbers and are also a function of frequency (f) and the primary parameters.

 Input Impedance Z¿ :
It is emitted by a generator and is understood as the ratio between total voltage and
total current.[ CITATION Tra2 \l 3082 ]
There are variations of the electrical wave at any point of a transmission line, because
of the wave’s characteristics. The intrinsic impedance of the material and the charge
impedance had a variation too, and it affects the relation between the voltage and the
current. The line position of the voltage, as a total voltage, and the current one, as a
total current, has a relation known as Input impedance.

V (d ) 1+ Γ e− j 2 βd Z r cos ( βd ) + j Z 0 sin ( βd )
Z¿ = =Z 0 =Z 0
I ( d) 1−Γ e− j 2 βd Z 0 cos ( βd ) + j Z r sin ( βd )

The input impedance, Z IN or input resistance as it is often called, is an important

parameter in the design of a transistor amplifier and allows to characterize the
amplifiers according to their effective input and output impedances, as well as their
powers ratings and current ratings.
The impedance value of an amplifier is particularly important for analysis, especially
when cascading individual amplification stages one after the other is connected to
minimize signal distortion. The input impedance of an amplifier is the input impedance
"seen" by the source that drives the amplifier input. If it is too low, it can have an
adverse load effect at the previous stage and possibly affect the frequency response
and output signal level of that stage.
But in most applications, the common emitter and common collector amplifier circuits
generally have high input impedances. [ CITATION Cap1 \l 3082 ]
 Stationary wave ratio VSWR:
Because of the phase changes in the propagation of the electrical waves, a maximum
and minimal voltage is shown when this kind of wave pass through a transmission
line. The relation between these values is a stationary wave ratio.
V max |V i|+|V r| 1+ Γ
S=VSWR= = =
V min |V i|−|V r| 1−Γ

The VSWR of an AIS transponder is a measure of the level of stationary waves

present in the antenna cable (feeder). Stationary waves are signals that are not
irradiated to the air by the antenna(load), but reflected by the cable to the
transponder (source). In an ideal world, all the power sent to the antenna would be
transmitted through the air to other vessels, but this is only possible if the source
impedance (AC resistance), feeder and load are identical (50 ohms).
If the impedances were perfect, then the stationary wave ratio (VSWR) would be 1:1.
However, in the real world and on recreational boat installations, the rate you get is
more likely to get this between 1.1: 1 and 2.5:1.
Physical Length L and Electrical Length 𝓁.
The main concept is the electrical length, which is a measure to define the length of a
wire at a certain frequency of the wave passing through it. It’s the relation of a
physical length ( L) and the wavelength of the signal frequency ( λ ).
L
l=
λ
Electrical length 𝓁 is a unit of measurement used in the study of electrical power
transmission lines. Defined as the product between the wave phase constant and the
distance to which they are separated, it expresses the distance to the load based on
the wavelength. This parameter depends on the frequency: it appears that the load
"is farther" (in electrical length) when the distance increases. This is because you
have to travel through more spatial periods of the wave (wavelengths).[ CITATION
Che05 \l 3082 ]

 Physical length L

Length is a fundamental physical magnitude (while it cannot be defined in terms of

other measured magnitudes) created to measure the distance between two points,
that is, to measure a dimension (when the length you want to measure is in the
second dimension is called width). If the distance is measured in the vertical, the
length is usually called altitude, and the separation between the two points, height; In
addition, there is the concept of depth, which is the altitude at which a point is located
with respect to a horizontal plane measured below that plane. In many measurement
systems, length is a fundamental unit, from which others derive. However, according
to the special theory of relativity (Albert Einstein, 1905), length is not an intrinsic
property of any object, since two observers could measure the same object and
obtain different results

4. What is the purpose of Smith's Letter in the study of the propagation of waves?
Answer:
The Smith chart, developed in 1939 by P.H. Smith, is a widely used graphical tool for
working and visualizing transmission line theory problema.
It´s a graphic tool who indicates the complex impedances in a transmission line, in
order to calculate some impedances with the parameters the graphic has. It is
intended to facilitate that calculations in a line with a certain length, because of the
complex terms in those parameters.
Smith's letter, a representation of both groups of circumferences, represent the actual
part of the normalized load impedance and the others on its imaginary part. In the
commercial Smith charts, some of these circumferences with rL and sL values are
represented, the rest of the unknown impedance values must be interpolated between
those shown in the chart.
On the outside of the chart, three different scales are presented, the innermost is a
360o angle conveyor that allows direct measurement of the reflection coefficient
phase. The other two scales indicate distances, measured in wavelengths, towards the
load (the middle one) and towards the generator (the outermost), these two scales go
in opposite directions being the one that carries the clockwise which measures
distances towards the generator. Each half circumference, represents 1/4 wavelength
(from 0 to 0 25 in units), since the physical state is repeated as half a wavelength
advances in the line, which equates to a change in the phase of 2 rad (it has already
been seen that the period in the waves stationary on a transmission. [ CITATION
Cap1 \l 3082 ][ CITATION Cha \l 3082 ]
 Application exercises:

For the development of the following exercises, note that 𝐺𝐺 corresponds to the group
number (40) and 𝐶𝐶𝐶 to the first 3 digits of the identification number (111).

1. A coaxial line has the following characteristics:

Geometric parameters:
a=0.2 mm
b=20 mm
t=( 40+ 10 )=50 μm=0.00005 m
Conductor properties: (conductivity)
σ c =4.3∗108 Sm/m
Properties of the insulator:
σ d=1∗10−13 Sm/m
ϵ r=2.1
μr =1
Applied signal frequency:
f =111 KHz .

Figure 1: Geometrical parameters in coaxial line.

 a. Calculate the electrical parameters R L C G.

We find the depth of penetration into the conductive wave.

1
δ p=
√ πfσ μ 0
1
δ p= =0.0000728491375281=7.284∗10−5 m
3 8
√ ( 3.1415 ) ( 1 11∗10 ) ( 4.3∗10 ) ( 4 π∗10 )
−7

b. Using the distributed model, calculate the propagation parameters α , β , γ ∧Z 0 .

With the geometric parameters:

a=0.2 mm
b=20 mm
t=50 μm=0.00005 m
We find the relation of resistivity between alternating current and direct current:
R AC a2
=
R DC −a
2 a
2δp
δp[−1+ e δ p

] 2
R AC ( 0.2∗10−3 ) (40∗10−9 )
= = =2.083
R DC −0.2∗10 −3
2 ( 5 .305∗10−9 ) [ 1.745+0.0642 ]
[ ]
−3
0.2∗10
−5 2 7.284∗10
−5
2 ( 7.284∗10 ) −5
−1+ e
7.284∗10
According to the parameter it would be an average frequency since a> δ p >t
Therefore, to find the value of R
1 1 R AC 1
R= (x x
π σ c a2 R DC 2bt )
1 1 1
R= 8
( −3 2
π∗4.3∗10 ( 0.2∗10 )
∗2.0 83+
2 ( 20∗10 ) ( 50∗10−6 )
−3
)
1
(
R=7.403∗10−10 (25∗106 )∗2.0 83+
2 )
R=0.03855112287015=3 . 8 55∗10−2 Ohm /m
We find the value G
2 π σd

ln ( ba )
2 π∗1∗10−13
G=
20∗10−3
ln (
0.2∗10−3 )
G=1.363∗10−13 Sm/m
We find the value L
μ b
L= 0 1+2 ln
4π a [ ( )]
L=
1.257 x 10−6
4π [ (
1+2 ln
20 x 10−3
0.2 x 10−3 )]
L=1.021 x 10−6
We find the value C
2 πε
C=
b
ln
a ()
2 π∗ε r∗ε 0
2 π∗2.1∗8.854∗10−12
C= →C= =2.5368 x 10−11 F/m
b 20 x 10 −3
b.
ln
a () ln
0.2 x 10(−3 )
Using the distributed model, calculate the propagation parameters 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Z_0
We must:
γ =± √ ( R+ jωL ) ( G+ jωC )
Where:
ω=2 πf → ω=2 π∗100 x 103
ω=628. 32∗103
R=3 .8 55∗10−2
L=1.021∗10−6
G=1.363∗10−13
C=2.5368∗10−11
γ =± √ ¿ ¿
γ =0.0000960348636+ 0.0031991355198 j
Therefore, the values of 𝛼, 𝛽 are:
a=0.00009603 Np/m
β=0.0031 Rad /m
We find Z 0
dV R+ jωL
Z 0=
dI
=
√
G+ jωC
(3. 855∗10−2 )+ j∗(628. 32∗103 )∗(1.021∗10−6 )
Z 0=
√
(1.363∗10−13)+ j∗(628. 32∗103 )∗(2.5368∗10−11 )
Z 0=200.70−6 . 025 johm
=200.7083889544421−6.0250643127772 j

c. Calculate the propagation velocity V p, the wavelength λ and the attenuation

α dB / Km.
ω
V p=
β

2 π∗100 x 103
V p=
0.0032 Rad/m
m
V p=1.964 x 108
s
We find the value of the wavelength
2π
λ=
β
2π
λ=
0.0032
λ=1964 m

Attenuation
Np
∝ dB =−8.68 ∝
m
( )
m

∝ dB =−8.68∗0.00009411
m

∝ dB =−0.008168748
m

2. A Z o=75 Ω lossless transmission line has a Z L =35− j75 Ω. If it is 40 m long and the
wavelength is 111 mm, Calculate:
 Figure 2: Graphic representation of the transmission line.

a. Input impedance Z¿ .
L 40
l= → l= =360.3603603603603604=360
λ 1 11∗10−3

Z L + j Z 0 tan(2 πl)
Z¿ =Z 0
Z 0 + j Z L tan(2 πl)

Ω∗( 35− j 75 Ω ) + j ( 75 Ω ) tan ( 2 π∗360 )

Z¿ =75
75 Ω+ ( 35− j 75 Ω ) tan ( 2 π∗36 0 )

Z¿ =¿
b. Reflection coefficient Γ (magnitude and phase).
V −¿
1
Γ= ¿
+¿ Z L−Z 0
V1 = ¿
Z L+ Z 0

( 35− j 75 Ω )−75
Γ=
35− j75 Ω+75
Γ =¿

c. VSWR.
V MAX 1+|0,6384|
VSWR= =
V MIN 1−|0,6384|
1+@
VSWR=
1−@
VSWR=¿
3. Bearing in mind that Smith's letter is used to determine parameters of the
transmission lines, use the "Smith 4.1" software found in the Practical Learning
Environment to check the results obtained in point 2.

4.
5. Figure 3: Letter of Smith.
a. Input impedance ¿ .Z
b. Reflection coefficient Γ .
c. VSWR.
d. Find an electrical length 𝓁 where the input impedance Z¿ is real.
 Conclusions

Conclusion 1:

Conclusion 2:

The conclusions should be written with their own words and should focus on the
concepts explored, learned, discovered and practiced in the development of the
activity, it is suggested to present a conclusion by topic, the result of learning
obtained as evidence of conceptual assimilation.

To obtain a good writing it is suggested to read the written several times, correcting
and adjusting the text until obtaining a clear and coherent postulate. Avoid
superficiality and simplicity.

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