Handout 3 - Signal transmission systems

1. Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable is a type of transmission line, used to carry high frequency electrical signals with
low losses. It is used in such applications as telephone trunklines, broadband
internet networking cables, high speed computer data busses, carrying cable television signals,
and connecting radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas. It differs from other shielded
cables because the dimensions of the cable and connectors are controlled to give a precise,
constant conductor spacing, which is needed for it to function efficiently as a transmission line.

Applications
Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its applications
include feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas, computer
network (e.g., Ethernet) connections, digital audio(S/PDIF), and distribution of cable
television signals. One advantage of coaxial over other types of radio transmission line is that in
an ideal coaxial cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space
between the inner and outer conductors. This allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to
metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other types of transmission
lines. Coaxial cable also provides protection of the signal from external electromagnetic
interference.

Description

Coaxial cable conducts electrical signal using an inner conductor (usually a solid copper,
stranded copper or copper plated steel wire) surrounded by an insulating layer and all enclosed
by a shield, typically one to four layers of woven metallic braid and metallic tape. The cable is
protected by an outer insulating jacket. Normally, the shield is kept at ground potential and a
signal carrying voltage is applied to the center conductor. The advantage of coaxial design is that
electric and magnetic fields are restricted to the dielectric with little leakage outside the shield.
Further, electric and magnetic fields outside the cable are largely kept from interfering with
signals inside the cable. Larger diameter cables and cables with multiple shields have less
leakage. This property makes coaxial cable a good choice for carrying weak signals that cannot
tolerate interference from the environment or for stronger electrical signals that must not be
allowed to radiate or couple into adjacent structures or circuits.
Common applications of coaxial cable include video and CATV distribution, RF and microwave
transmission, and computer and instrumentation data connections.
The characteristic impedance of the cable (Z0) is determined by the dielectric constant of the
inner insulator and the radii of the inner and outer conductors. In radio frequency systems,
where the cable length is comparable to the wavelength of the signals transmitted, a uniform
cable characteristic impedance is important to minimize loss. The source and load
impedances are chosen to match the impedance of the cable to ensure maximum power
transfer and minimum standing wave ratio. Other important properties of coaxial cable include
attenuation as a function of frequency, voltage handling capability, and shield quality.

Signal propagation
Twin-lead transmission lines have the property that the electromagnetic wave propagating
down the line extends into the space surrounding the parallel wires. These lines have low loss,
but also have undesirable characteristics. They cannot be bent, tightly twisted, or otherwise
shaped without changing their characteristic impedance, causing reflection of the signal back
toward the source. They also cannot be buried or run along or attached to anything conductive,
as the extended fields will induce currents in the nearby conductors causing
unwanted radiation and detuning of the line. Coaxial lines largely solve this problem by
confining virtually all of the electromagnetic wave to the area inside the cable. Coaxial lines can
therefore be bent and moderately twisted without negative effects, and they can be strapped to
conductive supports without inducing unwanted currents in them.

In radio-frequency applications up to a few gigahertz, the wave propagates primarily in

the transverse electric magnetic (TEM) mode, which means that the electric and magnetic fields
are both perpendicular to the direction of propagation. However, above a certain cutoff
frequency, transverse electric (TE) or transverse magnetic (TM) modes can also propagate, as
they do in a waveguide. It is usually undesirable to transmit signals above the cutoff frequency,
 since it may cause multiple modes with different phase velocities to propagate, interfering with
each other. The outer diameter is roughly inversely proportional to the cutoff frequency. A
propagating surface-wave mode that does not involve or require the outer shield but only
a single central conductor also exists in coax but this mode is effectively suppressed in coax of
conventional geometry and common impedance. Electric field lines for this [TM] mode have a
longitudinal component and require line lengths of a half-wavelength or longer.
Coaxial cable may be viewed as a type of waveguide. Power is transmitted through the radial
electric field and the circumferential magnetic field in the TEM00 transverse mode. This is the
dominant mode from zero frequency (DC) to an upper limit determined by the electrical
dimensions of the cable.

2. Twisted pair
Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are twisted
together for the purposes of improving electromagnetic compatibility. Compared to a single
conductor or an untwisted balanced pair, a twisted pair reduces electromagnetic radiation from
the pair and crosstalk between neighboring pairs and improves rejection of
external electromagnetic interference. It was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.

In a balanced line, the two wires carry equal and opposite signals, and the destination detects
the difference between the two. This is known as differential signaling. Noise sources introduce
signals into the wires by coupling of electric or magnetic fields and tend to couple to both wires
equally. The noise thus produces a common-mode signal which can be canceled at the receiver
when the difference signal is taken.
Differential signaling starts to fail when the noise source is close to the signal wires; the closer
wire will couple with the noise more strongly and the receiver will be unable to eliminate it. This
problem is especially apparent in telecommunication cables where pairs in the same cable lie
next to each other for many miles. Twisting the pairs counters this effect as on each half twist
the wire nearest to the noise-source is exchanged. Provided the interfering source remains
uniform, or nearly so, over the distance of a single twist, the induced noise will remain common-
mode.
The twist rate (also called pitch of the twist, usually defined in twists per meter) makes up part
of the specification for a given type of cable. When nearby pairs have equal twist rates, the
 same conductors of the different pairs may repeatedly lie next to each other, partially undoing
the benefits of differential mode. For this reason it is commonly specified that, at least for
cables containing small numbers of pairs, the twist rates must differ.
In contrast to shielded or foiled twisted pair (typically F/UTP or S/FTP cable shielding), UTP
(unshielded twisted pair) cable is not surrounded by any shielding. UTP is the primary wire type
for telephone usage and is very common for computer networking.
***What is balanced line?
In telecommunications and professional audio, a balanced line or balanced signal pair is
a transmission line consisting of two conductors of the same type, each of which have
equal impedances along their lengths and equal impedances to ground and to other circuits. The
chief advantage of the balanced line format is good rejection of external noise when fed to
a differential amplifier

***What is differential signaling?

Differential signaling is a method for electrically transmitting information using two
complementary signals. The technique sends the same electrical signal as a differential pair of
signals, each in its own conductor. The pair of conductors can be wires (typically twisted
together) or traces on a circuit board. The receiving circuit responds to the electrical difference
between the two signals, rather than the difference between a single wire and ground. The
opposite technique is called single-ended signaling. Differential pairs are usually found
on printed circuit boards, in twisted-pair and ribbon cables, and in connectors.

Advantages

 Electrical noise going into or coming from the cable can be prevented.[20]
 Crosstalk is minimized.[20]
 Cheapest form of cable available for networking purposes.[20]
 Easy to handle and install
 Disadvantages

 Deformation: twisted pair's susceptibility to electromagnetic interference greatly depends on

the pair twisting schemes (sometimes patented by the manufacturers) staying intact during the
installation. As a result, twisted pair cables usually have stringent requirements for maximum
pulling tension as well as minimum bend radius. This fragility of twisted pair cables makes the
installation practices an important part of ensuring the cable's performance.[21]
 Delay skew: different pairs within the cable have different delays, due to different twist rates
used to minimize crosstalk between the pairs. This can degrade image quality when multiple
pairs are used to carry components of a video signal. Low skew cable is available to mitigate this
problem.
 Imbalance: differences between the two wires in a pair can cause coupling between the
common mode and the differential mode. Differential to common mode conversion produces
common mode currents that can cause external interference and can produce common mode
signals in other pairs. Common mode to differential mode conversion can produce differential
mode signals from common mode interference from other pairs or external sources. Imbalance
can be caused by asymmetry between the two conductors of the pair from each other and in
relationship to other wires and the shield. Some sources of asymmetry are differences in
conductor diameter and insulation thickness. In telephone jargon, the common mode is called
longitudinal and the differential mode is called metallic

3. Flexible flat cable

Flexible flat cable, or FFC, refers to any variety of electrical cable that is both flat and flexible. A
flexible flat cable is a type of flexible electronics. However, the term FFC usually refers to the
extremely thin flat cable often found in high-density electronic applications like laptops and cell
phones.
Sometimes the term FPC (flexible printed circuit) is even—somewhat inaccurately—used for any
type of FFC[citation needed], however this is more accurately used to describe circuits that incorporate
components and are built onto a flexible material. FFCs are usually straight connections without any
components.
FFC is a miniaturized form of ribbon cable, which is also flat and flexible. The cable usually consists
of a flat and flexible plastic film base, with multiple metallic conductors bonded to one surface.
Often, each end of the cable is reinforced with a stiffener to make insertion easier or to provide
strain relief. The stiffener makes the end of the cable slightly thicker.
Flexible, flat cables are used in place of round cables for easy cable management, especially in high-
flex applications. They usually take up less space than round cables, often offering better EMI/RFI
suppression and eliminating wire-coupling issues. In addition, because the wires are protected
individually and not wrapped many times over by different materials as round cables are, they are
lighter in weight and offer greater flexibility.[1]
The ribbon cable was invented in 1956 by Cicoil Corporation, a company based in Chatsworth,
California. The company's engineers figured out how to use a new material, silicone rubber, to
 "mold" a flat cable containing multiple conductors of the same size. Since the cable looked like a flat
ribbon or tape, it was named a ribbon cable. The ribbon cable allowed companies like IBM and
Sperry/Univac to replace bulky, stiff round cables with sleek, flexible ribbon cables.
The early flat ribbon cables were used in the mainframe-computer industry, on card readers, card-
punching machines, and tape machines. Subsequently, ribbon cables were manufactured by a
number of different companies, including 3M. Methods and materials were developed to simplify
and reduce the cost of ribbon cables, by standardizing the design and spacing of the wires, and the
thickness of the insulation, so that they could be easily terminated through the use of insulation-
displacement connectors (IDC). Due to the simplicity of ribbon cables, their low profile, and low cost
due to standardization, ribbon cables are used today in most computers, printers, and many
electronic devices.

Specifications
 Pitch
The spacing of the conductors. The pitch typically refers to the distance from the center of one
conductor to the center of its neighboring conductor. A single FFC can have different pitches
between different conductors on the same cable, however this is uncommon. FFC cables are
available in many pitches, such as 0.500 mm, 0.625 mm, 0.635 mm, 0.800 mm, 1.00 mm,
1.25 mm, 1.27 mm, 2.00 mm, 2.54 mm, but the most common pitches are 0.500 mm and
1.00 mm.
 Type
Some cables (described as Type 1 by Würth Elektronik or Type A by Molex) have the exposed
contacts on the same side at each end. Other cables (labelled Type 2 or Type D) have the
exposed contacts on opposite sides of the cable (so that if the cable is lying flat, one end will
have face-up contacts, and the other end will have face-down contacts).
 Exposure length
The length of the electrical contact that has been exposed at the termination of the cable.
 Stiffener
Most FFCs have some sort of extra material attached on the opposite side of the exposed length
of the cable to facilitate ZIF or LIF connections.
 Conductors size
The width and thickness of the conductors
Now the FFC Cables are widely used in a variety of printer connection between the head and the
motherboard, plotters, scanners, copiers, stereos, LCD appliances, fax machines, DVD players and other
products, a variety of signal transmission and plate board connections. In modern electrical equipment,
FFC Cables can be found almost everywhere.

4. Single cable
A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, flexible strand or rod of metal. Wires are used to bear
mechanical loads or electricity and telecommunications signals. Wire is commonly formed
by drawing the metal through a hole in a die or draw plate. Wire gauges come in various standard sizes,
as expressed in terms of a gauge number. The term wire is also used more loosely to refer to a bundle of
such strands, as in "multistranded wire", which is more correctly termed a wire rope in mechanics, or
a cable in electricity.
Wire comes in solid core, stranded, or braided forms. Although usually circular in cross-section, wire can
be made in square, hexagonal, flattened rectangular, or other cross-sections, either for decorative
purposes, or for technical purposes such as high-efficiency voice coils in loudspeakers. Edge-
wound[1] coil springs, such as the Slinky toy, are made of special flattened wire.

Single core cables and multi core cables have different construction and application area. Single core
cables as the name suggests have a single conductor usually made up of copper or aluminium and
insulation around it. Even though it has a single conductor its gauge and thickness can differ. Larger the
diameter of the cable lesser the flexibility achieved from it. Now, conductor in these wires can be a solid
or stranded in construction. Solid single core cables have a good level of rigidity and toughness to it but
are less flexible than stranded construction. Single core cables can sometimes be chosen for particular
applications due to it being less costly and are rugged in construction. Single core cables can be chosen
at times when duct size is small or where a longer cable is required between joints.

Which Is Better ? Single Core Or Multi-Core Copper Conductor Wire ?

Single core or multi-core copper conductor wire should be based on the application of the site, the
environment, use and other specific circumstances to determine.

First analyze their respective advantages and disadvantages:

1, the advantages of single solid core electric wire is: anti tensile strength, not easy to mold off, anti
surge current strong, easy shaping, etc.. The disadvantages are: poor flexibility, poor resistance to
fracture, poor skin resistance, poor heat dissipation.
2, the advantages of multi core electric wire: good flexibility, good heat dissipation, good skin resistance,
good resistance to fracture. The disadvantage is that: anti tension is poor, easy to mold off, anti surge
current is poor, not convenient plastic.

By analyzing solid wire & stranded wire their advantages and disadvantages, we can see that the
advantage of one side is basically the disadvantage of the other party. So, in electrical engineering,
should pay attention to avoid weaknesses. Achieve reasonable design.

1, deposited in the dark, overhead power box jumper setting right field with single core wire.

2, home appliances access power supply line, the connection between the circuit board, the activities of
the workplace and other applications are advised to use multi core copper wire.

5. Fiber optics
An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter
slightly thicker than that of a human hair.[1] Optical fibers are used most often as a means to transmit
light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic communications, where they
permit transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than electrical cables.
Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss; in addition, fibers
are immune to electromagnetic interference, a problem from which metal wires suffer
excessively.[2] Fibers are also used for illumination and imaging, and are often wrapped in bundles so
they may be used to carry light into, or images out of confined spaces, as in the case of
a fiberscope.[3] Specially designed fibers are also used for a variety of other applications, some of them
being fiber optic sensors and fiber lasers.
Optical fibers typically include a core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a lower index
of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of total internal reflection which causes the
fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are
called multi-mode fibers, while those that support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF).
Multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter[6] and are used for short-distance
communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are
used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft)
Being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication.[7] This is more
complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise
alignment of the fiber cores, and the coupling of these aligned cores. For applications that demand a
permanent connection a fusion splice is common. In this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the
ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a mechanical splice, where the ends of the
fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by
means of specialized optical fiber connectors.
The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers
is known as fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian-American physicist Narinder Singh Kapany, who
is widely acknowledged as the father of fiber optics.
How fiber-optics works

Light travels down a fiber-optic cable by bouncing repeatedly off the walls. Each tiny photon (particle of
light) bounces down the pipe like a bobsleigh going down an ice run. Now you might expect a beam of
light, traveling in a clear glass pipe, simply to leak out of the edges. But if light hits glass at a really
shallow angle (less than 42 degrees), it reflects back in again—as though the glass were really a mirror.
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection. It's one of the things that keeps light inside the pipe.

The other thing that keeps light in the pipe is the structure of the cable, which is made up of two
separate parts. The main part of the cable—in the middle—is called the core and that's the bit the light
travels through. Wrapped around the outside of the core is another layer of glass called the cladding.
The cladding's job is to keep the light signals inside the core. It can do this because it is made of a
different type of glass to the core. (More technically, the cladding has a lower refractive index.)

Types of fiber-optic cables

Optical fibers carry light signals down them in what are called modes. That sounds technical but it just
means different ways of traveling: a mode is simply the path that a light beam follows down the fiber.
One mode is to go straight down the middle of the fiber. Another is to bounce down the fiber at a
shallow angle. Other modes involve bouncing down the fiber at other angles, more or less steep.

The simplest type of optical fiber is called single-mode. It has a very thin core about 5-10 microns
(millionths of a meter) in diameter. In a single-mode fiber, all signals travel straight down the middle

without bouncing off the edges (yellow line in diagram). Cable TV, Internet, and telephone signals are
generally carried by single-mode fibers, wrapped together into a huge bundle. Cables like this can send
information over 100 km (60 miles).

Another type of fiber-optic cable is called multi-mode. Each optical fiber in a multi-mode cable is about
10 times bigger than one in a single-mode cable. This means light beams can travel through the core by
following a variety of different paths (yellow, orange, blue, and cyan lines)—in other words, in multiple
different modes. Multi-mode cables can send information only over relatively short distances and are
used (among other things) to link computer networks together.

Even thicker fibers are used in a medical tool called a gastroscope (a type of endoscope), which doctors
poke down someone's throat for detecting illnesses inside their stomach. A gastroscope is a thick fiber-
optic cable consisting of many optical fibers. At the top end of a gastroscope, there is an eyepiece and a
lamp. The lamp shines its light down one part of the cable into the patient's stomach. When the light
reaches the stomach, it reflects off the stomach walls into a lens at the bottom of the cable. Then it
travels back up another part of the cable into the doctor's eyepiece. Other types of endoscopes work
the same way and can be used to inspect different parts of the body. There is also an industrial version
of the tool, called a fiberscope, which can be used to examine things like inaccessible pieces of
machinery in airplane engines.

Advantages over copper wiring

The advantages of optical fiber communication with respect to copper wire systems are:

 High bandwidth: A single optical fiber can carry over 3,000,000 full-duplex voice calls or 90,000 TV
channels.
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference: Light transmission through optical fibers is unaffected
by other electromagnetic radiation nearby. The optical fiber is electrically non-conductive, so it does
not act as an antenna to pick up electromagnetic signals. Information traveling inside the optical
fiber is immune to electromagnetic interference, even electromagnetic pulses generated by nuclear
devices.
 Low attenuation loss over long distances: Attenuation loss can be as low as 0.2 dB/km in optical
fiber cables, allowing transmission over long distances without the need for repeaters.
 Electrical insulator: Optical fibers do not conduct electricity, preventing problems with ground
loops and conduction of lightning. Optical fibers can be strung on poles alongside high voltage
power cables.
 Material cost and theft prevention: Conventional cable systems use large amounts of copper.
Global copper prices experienced a boom in the 2000s, and copper has been a target of metal theft.
 Security of information passed down the cable: Copper can be tapped with very little chance of
detection.

Uses of Fiber Optic Cables

 Internet
Fibre optic cables transmit large amounts of data at very high speeds. This technology is therefore
widely used in internet cables. As compared to traditional copper wires, fibre optic cables are less bulky,
lighter, more flexible, and carry more data.

 Computer Networking

Networking between computers in a single building or across nearby structures is made easier and
faster with the use of fibre optic cables. Users can see a marked decrease in the time it takes to transfer
files and information across networks

 Surgery and Dentistry

Fibre optic cables are widely used in the fields of medicine and research. Optical communication is an
important part of non-intrusive surgical methods, popularly known as endoscopy. In such applications, a
minute, bright light is used to light up the surgery area within the body, making it possible to reduce the
number and size of incisions made. Fibre optics are also used in microscopy and biomedical research.

 Automotive Industry

Fibre optic cables play an important role in the lighting and safety features of present-day automobiles.
They are widely used in lighting, both in the interior and exterior of vehicles. Because of its ability to
conserve space and provide superior lighting, fibre optics are used in more vehicles every day. Also, fibre
optic cables can transmit signals between different parts of the vehicle at lightning speed. This makes
them invaluable in the use of safety applications such as traction control and airbags.

 Telephone

Calling telephones within or outside the country has never been so easy. With the use of fibre optic
communication, you can connect faster and have clear conversations without any lag on either side.
  Lighting and Decorations

The use of fibre optics in the area of decorative illumination has also grown over the years. Fibre optic
cables provide an easy, economical and attractive solution to lighting projects. As a result, they are
widely used in lighting decorations and illuminated Christmas trees.

 Mechanical Inspections

Fibre optic cables are widely used in the inspection of hard-to-reach places. Some such applications are
on-site inspections for engineers and also inspection of pipes for plumbers.

 Cable Television

The use of fibre optic cables in the transmission of cable signals has grown explosively over the years.
These cables are ideal for transmitting signals for high definition televisions because they have greater
bandwidth and speed. Also, fibre optic cables are cheaper as compared to the same quantity of copper
wire.

 Military and Space Applications

With the high level of data security required in military and aerospace applications, fibre optic cables
offer the ideal solution for data transmission in these areas.

6. Attenuation
Attenuation is a reduction of signal strength during transmission, such as when sending data collected
through automated monitoring. Attenuation is represented in decibels (dB), which is ten times the
logarithm of the signal power at a particular input divided by the signal power at an output of a specified
medium. For example, an office wall (the specific medium) that changes the propagation of an RF signal
from a power level of 10 milliwatts (the input) to 5 milliwatts (the output) represents 3 dB of
attenuation. Consequently, positive attenuation causes signals to become weaker when travelling
through the medium.

Attenuation in networking

Attenuation in computer networking is the loss of communication signal strength that is measured in
decibels (dB). As the rate of attenuation increases, the transmission, such as an email a user is trying to
send or a phone call, becomes more distorted.
Attenuation occurs on computer networks because of:

 Range – over longer distances both wired and wireless transmissions gradually dissipate in
strength
 Interference – radio interference or physical obstructions, such as walls, dampen
communication signals on wireless networks
 Wire size – thinner wires suffer from more attenuation than thicker wires on wired networks

Line attenuation on a digital subscriber line (DSL) network measures signal loss between a DSL provider’s
access point and a home, for example. Attenuation is critical on DSL networks because if the line
attenuation values are too large, the data rates a household can obtain may be restricted. Values for line
attenuation on a DSL connection are typically between 5 dB and 50 dB – the lower the values, the
better.

Wi-Fi supports what’s called dynamic rate scaling that enhances the distance at which wireless devices
can connect to each other in exchange for lower network performance at the longer distances.
Depending on the transmission quality of the line, dynamic rate scaling automatically regulates the
connection’s maximum data rate up or down in fixed increments.

Attenuation in other contexts

The word “attenuation” is also used in contexts other than computer networking. For instance, sound
mixers and audiophiles may use attenuation techniques to manage sound levels when they blend
together different audio recordings.

Attenuation is also frequently used in the radiology field to discuss the characteristics of an anatomical
structure represented in an X-ray.

In brewing, attenuation refers to the process of converting sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide by
fermentation. The greater the attenuation, the more sugar has been converted into alcohol. If a beer is
more attenuated, then it is drier and more alcoholic than a beer that is less attenuated.

The importance of attenuation

Attenuation is important in telecommunications and ultrasound applications because it’s critical to

determining signal strength as a function of distance. Minimizing the loss of attenuation is important in
microwave, wireless and cellular applications because to function correctly an optical data link depends
on modulated light reaching the receiver with enough power to be correctly demodulated. This power is
reduced through attenuation, resulting in a loss of the light signal that’s being transmitted.

How to measure attenuation

The extent of attenuation is usually expressed in units called decibels (dBs).

If Ps is the signal power at the transmitting end (source) of a communications circuit and Pd is the signal
power at the receiving end (destination), then Ps > Pd. The power attenuation Ap in decibels is given by
the formula:

Ap = 10 log10(Ps/Pd)

Attenuation can also be expressed in terms of voltage. If Av is the voltage attenuation in decibels, Vs is
the source signal voltage, and Vdis the destination signal voltage, then:

Av = 20 log10(Vs/Vd)

How to increase signal strength to prevent attenuation

One of the techniques that can be used to increase signal strength to prevent attenuation is
amplification.

Signal amplification electrically increasing the strength of a line signal by one of several technical
methods. Typically, on computer networks, amplification includes logic for noise reduction to prevent
the underlying message data from becoming corrupted in the process.

A network repeater device integrates a signal amplifier into its circuitry, acting as an intermediary
between two message endpoints. The repeater receives data from the original sender (or other
upstream repeater), processes it through the amplifier then transmits the stronger signal forward to its
ultimate destination. In addition to repeaters, directional antennas and other antenna upgrades also
work well to boost signals.

7. Phase change and frequency response

In signal processing, phase response is the relationship between the phase of a sinusoidal input and the
output signal passing through any device that accepts input and produces an output signal, such as
an amplifier or a filter.[1]
Amplifiers, filters, and other devices are often categorized by their amplitude and/or phase response.
The amplitude response is the ratio of output amplitude to input, usually a function of the frequency.
Similarly, phase response is the phase of the output with the input as reference. The input is defined as
zero phase. A phase response is not limited to lying between 0° and 360°, as phase can accumulate to
any amount of time.

Frequency response is the quantitative measure of the output spectrum of a system or device in
response to a stimulus, and is used to characterize the dynamics of the system. It is a measure of
magnitude and phase of the output as a function of frequency, in comparison to the input. In simplest
terms, if a sine wave is injected into a system at a given frequency, a linear system will respond at that
same frequency with a certain magnitude and a certain phase angle relative to the input. Also for a
linear system, doubling the amplitude of the input will double the amplitude of the output. In addition,
if the system is time-invariant (so LTI), then the frequency response also will not vary with time. Thus for
LTI systems, the frequency response can be seen as applying the system's transfer function to a purely
imaginary number argument representing the frequency of the sinusoidal excitation.

8. Noise
In electronics, noise is an unwanted disturbance in an electrical signal. Noise generated by electronic
devices varies greatly as it is produced by several different effects.
In communication systems, noise is an error or undesired random disturbance of a useful
information signal. The noise is a summation of unwanted or disturbing energy from natural and
sometimes man-made sources. Noise is, however, typically distinguished from interference,[a] for
example in the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) and signal-to-noise plus
interference ratio (SNIR) measures. Noise is also typically distinguished from distortion, which is an
unwanted systematic alteration of the signal waveform by the communication equipment, for example
in signal-to-noise and distortion ratio (SINAD) and total harmonic distortion plus noise (THD+N)
measures.
While noise is generally unwanted, it can serve a useful purpose in some applications, such as random
number generation or dither.

Noise types
Different types of noise are generated by different devices and different processes. Thermal noise is
unavoidable at non-zero temperature (see fluctuation-dissipation theorem), while other types depend
mostly on device type (such as shot noise,[1][2] which needs a steep potential barrier) or manufacturing
quality and semiconductor defects, such as conductance fluctuations, including 1/f noise.
Thermal noise
 Johnson–Nyquist noise

Johnson–Nyquist noise[1] (sometimes thermal, Johnson or Nyquist noise) is unavoidable, and generated
by the random thermal motion of charge carriers (usually electrons), inside an electrical conductor,
which happens regardless of any applied voltage.
Thermal noise is approximately white, meaning that its power spectral density is nearly equal
throughout the frequency spectrum. The amplitude of the signal has very nearly a Gaussian probability
density function. A communication system affected by thermal noise is often modeled as an additive
white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel.
Shot noise
Shot noise in electronic devices results from unavoidable random statistical fluctuations of the electric
current when the charge carriers (such as electrons) traverse a gap. If electrons flow across a barrier,
then they have discrete arrival times. Those discrete arrivals exhibit shot noise. Typically, the barrier in a
diode is used.[3] Shot noise is similar to the noise created by rain falling on a tin roof. The flow of rain
may be relatively constant, but the individual raindrops arrive discretely.
The root-mean-square value of the shot noise current in is given by the Schottky formula.

where I is the DC current, q is the charge of an electron, and ΔB is the bandwidth in hertz. The Schottky
formula assumes independent arrivals.
Vacuum tubes exhibit shot noise because the electrons randomly leave the cathode and arrive at the
anode (plate). A tube may not exhibit the full shot noise effect: the presence of a space charge tends to
smooth out the arrival times (and thus reduce the randomness of the current).
Conductors and resistors typically do not exhibit shot noise because the electrons thermalize and move
diffusively within the material; the electrons do not have discrete arrival times. Shot noise has been
demonstrated in mesoscopic resistors when the size of the resistive element becomes shorter than the
electron–phonon scattering length.[4]
Flicker noise
Flicker noise, also known as 1/f noise, is a signal or process with a frequency spectrum that falls off
steadily into the higher frequencies, with a pink spectrum. It occurs in almost all electronic devices and
results from a variety of effects.
Burst noise
Burst noise consists of sudden step-like transitions between two or more discrete voltage or current
levels, as high as several hundred microvolts, at random and unpredictable times. Each shift in offset
voltage or current lasts for several milliseconds to seconds. It is also known a popcorn noise for the
popping or crackling sounds it produces in audio circuits.
Transit-time noise
If the time taken by the electrons to travel from emitter to collector in a transistor becomes comparable
to the period of the signal being amplified, that is, at frequencies above VHF and beyond, the transit-
time effect takes place and noise input impedance of the transistor decreases. From the frequency at
which this effect becomes significant, it increases with frequency and quickly dominates other sources
of noise.

Coupled noise

While noise may be generated in the electronic circuit itself, additional noise energy can be coupled into
a circuit from the external environment, by inductive coupling or capacitive coupling, or through
the antenna of a radio receiver.

Sources
 Intermodulation noise
Caused when signals of different frequencies share the same non-linear medium.
 Crosstalk
Phenomenon in which a signal transmitted in one circuit or channel of a transmission systems
creates undesired interference onto a signal in another channel.
 Interference
Modification or disruption of a signal travelling along a medium
 Atmospheric noise
This noise is also called static noise and it is the natural source of disturbance caused
by lightning discharge in thunderstorm and the natural (electrical) disturbances occurring in nature.
 Industrial noise
Sources such as automobiles, aircraft, ignition electric motors and switching gear, High voltage wires
and fluorescent lamps cause industrial noise. These noises are produced by the discharge present in
all these operations.
 Solar noise
Noise that originates from the Sun is called solar noise. Under normal conditions there is
constant radiation from the Sun due to its high temperature. Electrical disturbances such as corona
discharges, as well as sunspots can produce additional noise. The intensity of solar noise varies over
time in a solar cycle.
 Cosmic noise
Distant stars generate noise called cosmic noise. While these stars are too far away to individually
affect terrestrial communications systems, their large number leads to appreciable collective effects.
Cosmic noise has been observed in a range from 8 MHz to 1.43 GHz, the latter frequency
corresponding to the 21-cm hydrogen line. Apart from man-made noise, it is the strongest
component over the range of about 20 to 120 MHz. Little cosmic noise below 20MHz penetrates the
ionosphere, while its eventual disappearance at frequencies in excess of 1.5 GHz is probably
governed by the mechanisms generating it and its absorption by hydrogen in interstellar space.

Mitigation
In many cases noise found on a signal in a circuit is unwanted. There are many different noise reduction
techniques that can reduce the noise picked up by a circuit.
 1. Faraday cage – A Faraday cage enclosing a circuit can be used to isolate the circuit from external
noise sources. A faraday cage cannot address noise sources that originate in the circuit itself or
those carried in on its inputs, including the power supply.
2. Capacitive coupling – Capacitive coupling allows an AC signal from one part of the circuit to be
picked up in another part through interaction of electric fields. Where coupling is unintended,
the effects can be addressed through improved circuit layout and grounding.
3. Ground loops – When grounding a circuit, it is important to avoid ground loops. Ground loops
occur when there is a voltage difference between two ground connections. A good way to fix
this is to bring all the ground wires to the same potential in a ground bus.
4. Shielding cables – A shielded cable can be thought of as a Faraday cage for wiring and can
protect the wires from unwanted noise in a sensitive circuit. The shield must be grounded to be
effective. Grounding the shield at only one end can avoid a ground loop on the shield.
5. Twisted pair wiring – Twisting wires in a circuit will reduce electromagnetic noise. Twisting the
wires decreases the loop size in which a magnetic field can run through to produce a current
between the wires. Small loops may exist between wires twisted together, but the magnetic
field going through these loops induces a current flowing in opposite directions in alternate
loops on each wire and so there is no net noise current.
6. Notch filters – Notch filters or band-rejection filters are essential when eliminating a specific
noise frequency. For example, in some countries (notably the USA and Canada) power lines
within a building run at 60 Hz. Sometimes a sensitive circuit will pick up this 60 Hz noise through
some unwanted antenna (could be as simple as a wire in the circuit). Running the output
through a notch filter at 60 Hz will amplify the desired signal without amplifying the 60 Hz
noise. So in a sense the noise will be lost at the output of the filter.

8. Transfer function
In engineering, a transfer function (also known as system function or network function) of an electronic
or control system component is a function which theoretically models the device's output for each
possible input.[2][3][4] In its simplest form, this function is a two-dimensional graph of an
independent scalar input versus the dependent scalar output, called a transfer curve or characteristic
curve. Transfer functions for components are used to design and analyze systems assembled from
components, particularly using the block diagram technique, in electronics and control theory.
The dimensions and units of the transfer function model the output response of the device for a range
of possible inputs. For example, the transfer function of a two-port electronic circuit like
an amplifier might be a two-dimensional graph of the scalar voltage at the output as a function of the
scalar voltage applied to the input; the transfer function of an electromechanical actuator might be the
mechanical displacement of the movable arm as a function of electrical current applied to the device;
the transfer function of a photodetector might be the output voltage as a function of the luminous
intensity of incident light of a given wavelength.
The term "transfer function" is also used in the frequency domain analysis of systems using transform
methods such as the Laplace transform; here it means the amplitude of the output as a function of
the frequency of the input signal. For example, the transfer function of an electronic filter is the voltage
amplitude at the output as a function of the frequency of a constant amplitude sine wave applied to the
input. For optical imaging devices, the optical transfer function is the Fourier transform of the point
spread function (hence a function of spatial frequency).