Common Sense Mechnics - Bio Mechanics

Introduction 1 1
INTRODUCTION
l
REMARKS:
Many things will be said in this book that you may never have
heard before – not even in your graduate education. Having
been interested in cause-effect relationships since my childhood,
it has always been my nature to constantly ask the question,
“WHY?” Often, I did not receive answers that satisfied my
curiosity, so from the time I began my practice in August 1962, I
began searching for the answers myself. Having a deep interest
in the clinical aspects of orthodontic treatment, I closely
observed both expected and unexpected tooth movements. I
enjoy the academics in orthodontics, but find it disappointing
when the academic and clinical aspects are not in agreement. I
sincerely hope that everyone who reads this book will find both
their personal and professional lives enhanced.
When illustrations are shown, some will be used only as visual

titles and/or enhancements to the subject and will not be labeled
as Figure 1-1, Figure 1-2, etc . However, YOU MUST
illustrations that apply to treatment will REMEMBER THIS
receive such labels. Therefore, I will
begin this entire discussion on “Common
Sense Mechanics” by initiating the very Don’t memorize, understand.
basic first level. Do not consider it
offensive if seemingly basic subjects are Understand!!!
Introduction 1 2
included. When completely understood, it will be seen what

biomechanics can really do for the individual who is interested
in clinical applications that are effective as well as exciting.
Cognitive I don’t want to challenge

Dissonance what you believe. What I
do want to challenge –
The inability to believe what and perhaps change –
you have been programmed are some of the things
not to believe, however
compelling the evidence
you do not believe.
Cognitive Dissonance Changing Your Beliefs
Looking at cognitive dissonance above, the definition and

statement that follow should clarify the intent behind the
material published in this book.
When teeth move in directions

which are unexpected,
Let’s take a look at
the effects of
archwire resiliency.
there must be a reason
WHY.
Why Do Teeth Often Move in Unexpected Directions?
Frequently, teeth are expected to move in one direction, but

often move in completely unexpected directions. Unfortunately,
this often leads to the use of rigid appliances to prevent such
Introduction 1 3
undesirable responses. Transpalatal and lingual arches may find

themselves being used routinely in order to avoid undesirable
consequences. It will later be shown that such appliances can
most often be avoided. In fact, in over 45 years of practice, the
author has never used either.
Let’s now take a look at some of the so-called visual problems

that are encountered in mechanics. These visual interpretations
are quite common in the profession and are largely responsible
for the failure to predict and recognize correct force systems.
The first examples will deal with the characteristic known as
archwire resiliency.
Can you visually determine what moment

will become present at the cuspid bracket?
Incorrect Moment on the Cuspid
Figure 1-1 Figure 1-2
This is the Correct Moment The reason lies in archwire resilience.

Introduction 1 4
In observing Figures 1-1 thru

1-5, it can be seem that the
actual moment on the cuspid
creates a force system which
can be very beneficial for many
types of treatment, such as
anchorage control and Class II
correction. Note that teeth in Response
the buccal segments have been
by-passed. The greater the inter- Figure 1-5
bracket distance, the greater will be the resiliency created by any
given archwire.
Now, let’s take a look at the occlusal view of archwire bends.

Whether resiliency occurs in the sagittal or occlusal plane makes
no difference. The confusion usually remains the same.
Changing planes of space should not

alter the prediction of force systems.
What forces (disregard the

moments) do you predict in the
occlusal plane of space?
Planes of Space Figure 1-6
Note in Figures 1-6 thru 1-8 that the archwire has been activated
by bending the wire lingual to the molars. Determine only the
forces present and disregard the moments for these examples.
Introduction 1 5

The wire in each case is bent in the same direction with forces
that are completely different. It will be seen later that the
location of the bend is significant.
Now, let’s look at a somewhat different situation, but still

involving resiliency and its effects. In this case, consider only
the moments and not the forces for Figure 1-9.
What moments
will be present at Are these
the molar tubes? moments
correct?
(Disregard the forces).

It would appear that the resulting moments in Figure 10 are
correct because of the arc through which the wire must travel
for engagement with the molar tubes. Wires are normally
placed into the molar tubes first, thereby eliminating the visual
effect of resiliency.
Introduction 1 6
The moments shown in Figure

1-11 are correct. These are
simple examples of the effects
of archwire resiliency. More
dramatic effects will be seen
Are these
moments later when the Wire/Bracket
correct? relationships are discussed in
detail.
Figure 1-11
Next, a discussion will take place involving the problems

associated with visual inspection in the sagittal plane of space.
Determine only the forces present at this time.
Same wire Same wire Same as
as below as below below
Same wire Same wire Same as

as above as above above
Figure 1-12 Figure 1-13 Figure 1-14

Each wire is bent in the same direction.
In Figures 1-12 thru 1-15, it
can be seen that although the
wires are bent in the same
direction, it is the different
Only Moments location of each of the bends
forces not
shown shown
responsible for the entirely
different forces produced on
the molars and the cuspids.
Figure 1-15
Introduction 1 7
Next, the same illustrations will be shown, but only the moments
are to be determined. Disregard any forces present.
Only Forces
Moments not
shown shown
Again, look at the completely different directions and

magnitudes of the moments involved
in Figures 1-16 thru 1-19.
With forces and moments having been

determined individually, the entire Total Forces
Force and
force systems can now be seen in Systems Moments
Figure 1-20. This is not easy for many
individuals to predict. Figure 1-20
Introduction 1 8
Remember also!
Remember this! The long section points in the direction of
Regardless of whether the smaller the force produced. Therefore, the short
moment is clockwise, counterclockwise, section points opposite to the force
or nonexistent – the net moment produced. The bracket located closest to
determines the forces present. the bend contains the largest moment.
Figures 1-21 and 1-22 offer very simple rules to predict the
forces and moments previously discussed. This is not exactly a
scientific method for identification, but it is a good memory
method until such time as immediate recognition of forces and
moments takes place. This will occur with a thorough
understanding of equilibrium requirements.
With an understanding of the above rules, it can be seen in

Figures 1-23 thru 1-29 that all the bends shown are really off-
center bends. Later, when the center bend is discussed, it will
be seen that it can be considered to be a variation of the off-
center bend. These similarities will be extremely helpful in
predicting force systems.
Molar Tip-Back Molar Tip-Back Molar Tip-Back
Cuspid Root Torque Lingual Root Torque Labial Root Torque

Introduction 1 9
Molar Tip-Back Molar Tip-Back
Toe-In Bend Toe-Out Bend
Molar Tip-Back Molar Tip-Back
In-Bend Out-Bend

What has been discussed thus far has been an elementary
introduction to force systems. The purpose is to illustrate the
unreliability of using visual inspection. Contrary to what is
taught, P.E. is not as effective as O.P.E. (Figures 1-30 & 1-31).
PERSONAL EXPERIENCE
P.E.VS.O.P.E. VS.
OTHER PEOPLE’S EXPERIENCE
Figure 1-30 Fig 1-31

Introduction 1 10
THE SHORT STORY

Orthodontic treatment involves the use of many appliances used
for control. Transpalatal and lingual arches are in common use
today because of unexpected tooth movements. With the use of
such additional appliances, rigidity interferes with the need for
teeth to be placed into the neutral zone, as rigidity overcomes
the natural forces produced by the muscles and function.
An approach has been presented to aid the orthodontist in

recognizing why these forces seem somewhat difficult to
recognize. Archwire resilience and archwire shape can be very
misleading in the prediction of force systems. Because the
typical orthodontist has been taught to read force systems by
visualizing the relationship of the archwire to the bracket slot
prior to insertion, incorrect force systems are often anticipated.
No force system is produced until an archwire is placed securely
into the bracket, at which time characteristics such as resilience
come into play. Resilience is an important factor to recognize as
it will increase or decrease with changing interbracket distances.
Wire shape has also been shown to create force systems other
than what might be anticipated.
Explanations and solutions to the above problems have been

presented at a relatively elementary level at this point. With the
material to follow, the orthodontist will be able to predict force
systems in a more sophisticated manner. What will be presented
may be far different than what you have learned in the past, but
it will offer new opportunities for the clinician.
Introduction 1 11
SUGGESTED READINGS
Mulligan TF. Common sense mechanics. Phoenix: CSM, 1040 East

Osborn Road, 1982.
Smith RJ, Burstone CJ. Mechanics of tooth movement. Am J Orthod

1984;85:294-307.
Understanding Forces and Moments 2 12
UNDERSTANDING
FORCES AND MOMENTS
2
For some reason, the terms forces and moments do not always
seem to be thoroughly understood. It is true that the English
language seems to suffer over a period of time, but in the area of
mechanics it is important to understand exactly what each term
means and to use these terms properly. The terminology which
follows will be used in a practical manner. There are exacting
definitions that may be confusing to many while there are
descriptions that may convey a practical meaning to most
clinicians.
Orthodontic clinicians know from
FORCE SYSTEMS personal experience that a specific
force system does not necessarily
produce the same response for
The same force system may produce a
different patients. Nothing in life
variable response. happens without a reason. Force
Force magnitude is a significant factor. magnitude can be very significant.
as stated in Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1
With an intrusion arch molars might erupt and/or incisors may

intrude. Bicuspids are more likely to undergo an equal and
opposite rotational response with powerchain elastics. These
responses are illustrated in Figures 2-2 thru 2-4.
Teeth may rotate
Molars may Incisors may

erupt. intrude
Forces may produce Forces may produce Forces may produce

variable response. variable response. variable response.
The following illustrations may help to clarify some of the

misconceptions that are present in the orthodontic profession.
TRANSLATION FORCES (MxA)

When a force acts through the Center of
Resistance or Center of Mass, only bodily Forces act in a straight line.
movement takes place. Forces consist of a push or pull.

In Figure 2-5, a force is applied through the center of mass, a
term used in reference to a free body such as a golf ball or
baseball. When the same force is applied through the center of
an attached body - such as a tooth - the term used is center of
resistance. This is nothing new to the orthodontist, but building
blocks will slowly be established so that confusion does not
arise later when discussing biomechanics.
The definition of a force could properly be defined as MxA

(Mass times Acceleration), but what meaning would this have
for the clinical orthodontist? If we describe rather than define a
force, it can be seen in Figure 2-6 that a force acts in a straight
line and may consist of a push or pull.
Retracting cuspids with an open coil spring does not result in

forces acting in a curve. If we push from the lingual surface of a
tooth with a lingual arch, or pull from the buccal surface of a
tooth with an archwire, the force acts in a straight line as it
passes through the tooth.
Figure 2-7 demonstrates this by using descriptions rather than

definitions which so often confuse the issue. Depending on
exactly where these forces act, moments may or may not be
produced. This will be discussed later during the subject of
forces and moments.
Forces act in
a straight line
1
– not a curve
2 3
Push from Pull from
the lingual the buccal
Figure 2-7
MOMENTS (FxD) ROTATION

The product of force x distance produces
Moments are produced as a the moment on the body.
result of forces acting away
from the Center of Resistance Therefore, 1/2 the force x twice the
distance produces the same moment as
or Center of Mass. 1/2 the distance x twice the force.
When a force acts on a body, but away from the center of

resistance (or center of mass), there is a perpendicular distance
established between the applied force and the center of the
object as shown in Figure 2-8. It is the product of this distance
and the force that produces a moment. In other words, if either
the force or the distance doubles, the moment produced would
double. This is significant because in Figure 2-9 it can be seen
that different force magnitudes can produce the same moment.
If one force is half the magnitude of the other, but acting at
twice the distance, the moments in each case will be equal. This
is important to recognize in orthodontic treatment as it affords
the opportunity to produce desirable moments without the
disadvantage of high force magnitudes, particularly in the
vertical plane of space where vertical dimension of the patient
might be compromised.
Personal experience in our lives can be of great help in

recognizing forces and moments produced in orthodontic tooth
movement. Most of us have probably played the game of pool -
often referred to as billiards - sometime in our lives or at least
observed it being played by others. It is quite popular on TV.
So, let’s take a look at the game

For those of pool and see how it may be
who are of help in learning. For those
unaware, who may not be aware, the ball
the cue-ball in question is known as the cue-
is the “white ball and is the white one seen in
ball.” Figure 2-10. Keep this in mind
so as not to become confused
Figure 2-10 with conservation of momentum
which involves the other balls. The following examples are
those we have experienced or can experience in our daily lives.
The Cue Stick represents the

Visualize the crown of force that will be applied to the
a tooth as a cue-ball brackets and tubes of the teeth.
Cue Stick
This represents the “Point

of Force Application”
The first step involved is to visualize the crown of the tooth as a

cue-ball as seen in Figure 2-11. The next step will be to identify
the point of force application shown in Figure 2-12 . The cue
stick used in the game of pool will represent the source of the
applied force. The next question is: “In what direction will the
cue-ball move and how will it rotate?” Keep in mind that the
rotation will be clockwise or counterclockwise – in pool this is
referred to as left or right English. Naturally, the ball will roll
down the table due to friction, but disregard this rotation.
CUE-BALL CONCEPT
2. A force applied away from the center of

a body will cause the body to move in
1. A force applied through the center of a same previous direction, but rotation will
body will cause the body to move in a also occur as a result of the moment
straight line and in the same direction created by the line of force acting at a
as the applied force. perpendicular distance to the center of
the body.

There are three possible
movements that may occur, just
as in the real world of
orthodontics. The first movement
3. Equal and opposite forces applied on a we observe is pure translation as
body in the same plane of space and
parallel to each other (Couple) will seen in Figure 2-13. The force
produce a pure moment causing the body has been applied through the
to rotate only.
center of the bodies shown.
Figure 2-15
Translation and rotation may occur as shown in Figure 2-14
where the force has been applied away from the center of the
body as illustrated. The moment in such a case is referred to as
the moment of a force.
Figure 2-15 shows equal and opposite forces (known as a

couple) being applied and producing pure rotation.. The moment
in such a case is referred to as the moment of a couple. A pure
moment always acts around the center of resistance. Regardless
of the where the equal and opposite forces are applied, the body
will undergo pure rotation around the center of resistance.
Let’s see where this concept applies at the clinical level.

Translation
The result of the
applied force is a
moment and a
force at the center
of resistance.
Center bend
producing equal
& opposite
moments to those
already present. This is an Equivalent Force System.
Figure 2-16
In Figure 2-16 upper left, forces have been applied at the crown
level resulting in tipping moments. The force system is always
shown at the center of resistance. Remember that a force
applied away from the center of a body will cause the body to
move in the direction of the applied force and rotate because of
the perpendicular distance. With the addition of a center (gable)
bend shown in the lower part of the illustration, moments
opposite to the tipping moments are created thereby eliminating
tipping moments measured at the center of resistance. The result
is that only pure forces remain as seen on the right in Figure 2-
16. This is referred to as an equivalent force system. Remember
the so-called powerarms that were introduced to the profession
in order to create a translatory force through the center of
resistance? Where are they now? Does this tell you how
successful or unsuccessful the results have been?
A clinical example of the above application is seen in Figure 2-

17. Tipping moments are eliminated by equal and opposite
moments resulting from a center bend. As will be explained
later, all archwire bends are done intraorally and activated 45
degrees. All adjustments for

increasing or decreasing
moments for the proper force
system are created by
adjusting whatever closing
Tipping Moments
mechanism is in use, such as
Eliminating the coil springs or powerchain.
Tipping Moments
In Figure 2-18, tipping the
Figure 2-17 incisors together would not
be acceptable. The placement
of a center bend into the wire
produces moments which
then result in bodily
movement as a result of
eliminating the tipping
A closing force at the brackets moments produced by the
produces tipping moments closing mechanism which
eliminated by Center Bends. could be coil springs or
powerchain elastics.
Figure 2-18
Translation and Rotation
Figures 2-19 and 2-20 demonstrate that a force applied away

from the center of a body will cause the body to translate and
rotate. Looking at a rotated bicuspid with space mesial to the
tooth, it can be seen that applying a mesial force at the bicuspid
bracket will produce the necessary force and moment. This
obviously simple approach is intended only to illustrate the cue-
ball concept regarding translation and rotation.

C.C.
Translation & Rotation Required Translation & Rotation Required

Figure 2-21 and Figure 2-22 demonstrate the same concept
beautifully as will be seen later when wire/bracket relationships
are discussed. For now however, simply keep in mind that by
excluding the second bicuspid brackets from the archwire, an
off-center bend has been created without the need to remove the
wire. In a full appliance the toe-in bend at the molar would
actually be a center bend when related to the adjacent molar tube
and bicuspid bracket on each side. By not engaging the wire
into the second bicuspid bracket an off-center bend has been
created. Do you remember the rules for off-center bends? An
off-center bend contains a long and a short section. The short
section points opposite to the force produced thereby indicating
a buccal force on the molar. The toe-in bend (short section) also
produces a rotational moment. This approach allows both

correction of the molar rotations and crossbites simultaneously
without removal of the archwire or use of crossbite elastics.
This is only one of many similar approaches that can minimize
chairside time for the orthodontist as well as providing a variety
of noncompliant and exciting approaches not taught in school.
This might be a good time to mention that in over 46 years of

practice - thus far - never has the author used a crossbite elastic,
transpalatal arch, lingual arch, or any other type of lingual
attachments. Why not? Because there are so many alternative
and noncompliant approaches that do not require this. Many
other types of laboratory appliances which are commonly used
today can also be avoided. This will be discussed in the
upcoming chapters.
Pure Rotation
The final cue-ball concept relating to pure rotation - moment of a

couple - can now be illustrated. Remember that equal and
opposite forces produce a couple.
Surgical
Exposure
Moment of a couple
(Pure Rotation)

Following surgical exposure seen in Figure 2-23, elastics were

utilized to create equal and opposite forces (couple) once the
cuspid was brought into alignment (Figure 2-24). The lingual
bracket had been placed at the time of exposure as no other
surface of the tooth was available for bonding. Simply adding a
labial bracket later afforded the opportunity to provide a couple.
PURE
Couple ROTATION
Required
Remember to
visualize the crown
Applied as a Cue-Ball
Couple

Although there is no difficulty in treating the above rotation with
another approach, Figure 2-25 demonstrates the application of a
couple in providing the correction seen in Figure 2-26.
Figure 2-27 will provide the

final example for pure rotation.
Following space closure, center
bends have been placed to
provide for equal and opposite
moments at each bracket in
order to parallel the roots.
Figure 2-27
While discussing forces and moments, we should look at the
effect of vertical forces acting through the molar tubes.
Undesirable consequences often occur as a result. Figure 2-28
shows that intrusive forces may cause buccal displacement of

molars due to buccal crown moments produced.
Intrusive force IMPORTANT!

produces buccal As the upper molars are widened, the
crown moment. curve of Monson increases and no longer
harmonizes with the curve of Wilson.
Intrusive force
Extrusive force produces buccal
produces lingual crown moment.
crown moment.
In the lower part of the same illustration, it is seen that an

eruptive force acting through the molar tube produces exactly
the opposite moment and therefore possible lingual
displacement of molars. These undesirable responses may or
may not occur. Steep cusps and brachycephalic individuals with
strong musculature are only some of the factors which may play
a role. When such undesirable movements do occur, an easy
solution is provided by the utilization of molar control bends to
be discussed later.
In Figure 2-29, it can be seen that buccal displacement of the

molars may also result in an increase in the curve of Monson –
an important functional curve involved in axial loading. It is
this type of occurrence that contributes so much to instability
and the increase in permanent retention seen today.
Since functional curves are an important part of orthodontic

treatment, this topic will be discussed now.
Functional Curves
Spee The long axis should
These curves lie parallel to the
Internal Pterygoid
can be helpful resulting in axial
1
in determining Monson loading (stability).
which arch is
involved and to Wilson
2 3
what degree.
Curve of Monson Curve of Wilson

Three important functional curves are shown in Figure 2-30. In
Figure 2-31, it can be clearly seen that excellent axial loading is
achieved in #1, as the curves of Monson and Wilson nicely
coincide. However, in #2 there is an excessive curve of Monson
while in #3 there is a reverse curve of Wilson. In the latter two
cases there is a loss of axial loading which is apparent. These
discrepancies can very easily result from vertical forces acting
through the molars tubes as shown earlier. It has been shown
that eruptive forces through molar tubes create lingual crown
moments while intrusive forces acting through molar tubes
result in buccal crown moments.
The following illustrations will show the potential buccal and

lingual displacements that may occur as a result of vertical
forces acting through the molar tubes. If the second molars have
not yet erupted and the first molars are displaced without the
orthodontist being aware of such displacement, then upon
second molar eruption it may mistakenly be assumed that
second molars are at fault. As a result, treating to the first molar
width may then result in a faulty curve of Monson or Wilson.
Lingual
Buccal
Crown 1 Crown
1
Displacement
Displacement
Original Molar Width Original Molar Width
2 3 2 3
2nd Molar 2nd Molar
Width is Width is
Change in Molar Width Normal Change in Molar Width Normal
In Figure 2-32 #1, the eruptive

Second Molars are in force has caused the first
normal position. molars to move lingually as
observed in #2. In #3, the
second molars have now
erupted. It remains important
to know which of the molars
Second Molars are in normal transverse dimension. are out of position. In Figure
2-33 the same series of events
Figure 2-34 has occurred with first molars
moving buccally due to intrusive forces acting through the
molars. It can be observed that second molar eruption may
create the illusion that they have erupted too far to the lingual. In
Figure 2-34 it can be seen that casual observation could easily
lead one to believe the first molars are normal in width with
second molars being the problem.
The above movements make it important for the clinician to

include the functional curves of Monson and Wilson in
observing treatment progress. A failure to harmonize these
curves may result in functional problems involving axial loading

and leading to later instability.
This concludes the chapter regarding forces and moments. What

may have appeared to be quite elementary at this point will
prove to be highly important in applying fundamental mechanics
in everyday treatment.
Most of what is contained in this book has not been taught as

part of an orthodontic curriculum. By understanding the
contents presented there will be many opportunities to treat
patients in a unique manner regarding the applied mechanics. In
addition it will be discovered that there are many approaches
available that will lessen the need for patient cooperation
without the need for appliances that displace lower incisors
because of the undesirable reciprocal effects when treating
opposing arches with interarch appliances. You are about to
discover many ways of providing intra-arch solutions for many
malocclusions that will help to avoid placing appliances on
opposing arches which may be normal and require no change.
THE SHORT STORY

Forces and moments have been discussed in a manner somewhat
different than presented in the usual literature. Rather than
defining forces, they have been described. Description has
meaning to the practicing orthodontist whereas definitions
sometime seem to separate the academic nature of mechanics
from the reality of application to the patient.
It has been pointed out that force systems for the patient produce
variable responses. Molars may erupt for one patient but not
another simply because of force magnitude. Other movements
such as reciprocal first and second bicuspid rotations tend to be
quite similar. It has been stressed that force systems must be
predicted and understood in order to effectively utilize them for
patient treatment. For many, biomechanics may seem like an
academic adventure because of unexpected responses. Different
types of responses have been demonstrated with the so-called
cue-ball concept and clinical examples illustrated. If the
orthodontist can begin to associate tooth movement with what
has been experienced in life, such association may gradually
lead to applications in orthodontic treatment.
Finally, the functional curves of occlusion have been presented.

It has been shown that the curves of Monson and Wilson should
be harmonized for axial loading during occlusion. Such
harmony contributes to stability. The forces causing a lack of
harmony have been presented and the clinician made aware of
their importance in observing functional curves.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Smith RJ, Burstone CJ. Mechanics of tooth movement. Am J Orthod
1984;85:294-307.
Dawson PE. Evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of occlusal problems.

St. Louis: CV Mosby, 1989;85-91.
Mulligan TF. Common sense mechnics. 2. Forces and moments. J Clin

Orthod 1979;13:676-683.
Static Equilibrium and its Importance 3 29
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
AND ITS IMPORTANCE
3
Everyone has had the experience in
life of being in balance or out-of-
A B
balance. Whether balance has been
lost due to excessive drinking or
playing on a teeter-totter while young,
1 the experience of imbalance at one
time or another is certainly universal
Figure 3-1 in nature.
The following few illustrations will

A
B demonstrate balance and imbalance.
No one will question the outcome of
two individuals seated on the teeter-
2
totter as shown in Figure 3-1. If two
individuals are of equal weight and
equal distance from the fulcrum in
Figure 3-2 Figure 3- 1, they will be in complete
balance - a state known as static equilibrium.
No one will question this because of personal experience. When

we experience an event, we accept it as a fact. This can lead to
an interest in learning the cause/effect relationships involved and
provide later solutions in orthodontic biomechanics.
In Figure 3-2, if the same two

B
A
individuals are of unequal weight and
sitting at the same distance from the
fulcrum, balance will only take place
3
following displacement at which time
static equilibrium will again be
established. No one is going to
Figure 3-3 question this outcome because it has
undoubtedly been experienced in childhood.
In Figure 3-3, it is shown that the imbalance that occurred in

Figure 3-2 can be restored to a state of balance if the two
individuals simply shift their weight so that the larger individual
is closer to the fulcrum than the smaller individual. Of course,
the opposite is also true. The smaller individual can relocate
a greater distance from the fulcrum. No one will question what
has been demonstrated in these three illustrations as all are based
on personal experience. The wonderful thing about personal
experience is that the outcome cannot be questioned. Instead, the
cause can be determined with an analysis.
The requirements for static equilibrium take place in orthodontic

treatment just as they do with the teeter-totter. Because there are
no exceptions to static equilibrium when archwires are fully
engaged, the orthodontist has the opportunity to determine what
forces and moments are present regardless of any visual
perceptions that may be very misleading and totally incorrect.
Many intelligent orthodontists have come to incorrect
conclusions regarding the force systems proposed for specific
methods of treatment. A thorough understanding of static
equilibrium will change many such conclusions.
Let’s begin by seeing why static equilibrium is established in the

examples of the teeter-totter. It is important to recognize that
there are three requirements for static equilibrium.
REQUIREMENTS FOR
EQUILIBRIUM
1. Sum of the Vertical Forces equals zero.
2. Sum of the Horizontal Forces equals zero.
3. Sum of the Moments around a Common

Point equals zero.
Static Equilibrium
Figure 3-4 beautifully illustrates static equilibrium whose three

requirements are stated in Figure 3-5. The first requirement
states that the sum of the vertical forces must equal zero. The
second requirement states that the sum of the horizontal forces
must also equal zero. Finally, the third requirement states the
sum of the moments measured around a common point must also
equal zero. None of these requirements may be absent in any
case regarding static equilibrium.

With prescription brackets so widely in use today, forces and

moments are produced that must always meet these three
requirements. How many orthodontists actually recognize the
total force systems produced with various wire/bracket angles
as shown in Figures 3-6 and 3-7? Since the design of
prescription brackets is to replace the need to bend archwires in
such a manner as to produce the desired shape for tooth
movement, the forces and moments produced will be those that
meet the requirements for static equilibrium. In other words, a
specific force system must meet these requirements.
Orthodontists often do not recognize the total force systems
required for equilibrium and concentrate instead on those forces
and moments desired for the particular type of tooth movement
in question. In the Class II division 2 malocclusion, forces for
overbite correction or moments for torque may be the
prime considerations without recognizing that balancing forces
will occur that can create as much undesirable response as the
tooth movement which has been intended.
The wire/bracket angles shown in Figures 3-8 thru 3-10 will be

discussed in great deal when the subject of Wire/Bracket
Relationships is discussed. Looking closely at these illustrations,
it will be noted that the wire/bracket angles are identical in both
upper and lower portions of each figure. In the upper portion,
the bracket slots are level with bends placed in the archwire,
whereas in the lower part of each illustration, the archwires have
no bends, but instead the brackets are angulated. Such angles
may be purposely introduced into the appliance or may be
produced by the malocclusion. In either case, a force system
will be produced in order to meet the complete requirements for
static equilibrium. If there is any difficulty in identifying the
total force system in each of the above, then the unrecognized
aspect of the force system may be the cause of undesirable
responses that lead to the use of
preventive measures such as lingual or
transpalatal arches. Figure 3-11 tends to
create controversy with those visually
oriented in determining force systems,
as it appears the smaller moment should
Figure 3-11 be clockwise. Such is simply not the case.
Contrary, however, to the visual assumption, resilience causes
just the opposite. Although resilience has already been
introduced as one of the factors that sometimes creates difficulty
in recognizing the correct force system, a wire/bracket analysis
will now be done to prove what the total force systems must be
in order to comply with the three requirements for static
equilibrium. Remember again there are no exceptions.
B C EQUILIBRIUM
A Wire/Bracket REQUIREMENTS HAVE BEEN
FULFILLED
Analysis A
x
D Sum of the vertical forces equals zero.
Sum of the horizontal forces equals zero.
“If you don’t believe it, you Sum of the moments measured around a
common point equals zero.
won’t achieve it.” A
ACTIVATIONAL FORCES + B + C + D = 0
In Figure 3-12, it is true that “If you don’t believe it you won’t
achieve it.” This analysis should eliminate any doubts regarding
the forces and moments present. Only Figures 3-8 and 3-10 will
be analyzed as they represent the extremes in the angles created.
Beginning with Figure 3-13, forces necessary to engage the wire

into each slot are shown. These are referred to as activational
forces. It is obvious that two activational forces will be required
at each bracket for insertion into each slot. At this point it will
be assumed that such forces are all equal in magnitude. This is
only an assumption and remains to be proven as all three
equilibrium requirements must be met and must be proven. If
the assumed forces are all equal, then their sum equals zero and
the first requirement for equilibrium has been fulfilled. There
are no horizontal forces, so therefore the second requirement has
also been fulfilled. Finally, the sum of the moments must equal
zero when measured around a common point. Any point can be
utilized, but for the sake of convenience a point marked X will
represent the point to be used. If each force is now multiplied
by the perpendicular distance to this point, it will be seen that
their sum is equal to zero. Forces A & D produce equal
and opposite moments and the same is true with forces B & C.
Therefore, the three requirements have been fulfilled as shown
in Figure 3-14.
The next step is to complete the activational force system. In

Figure 3-15, the force system is determined by taking the
already proven equal and opposite forces at each bracket and
recognizing that these couples result in pure moments.
The center bend or two off-center

bends – each producing the same
Activational Force System De-Activational Force System wire/bracket angles – result in the
same force systems.
The deactivational force system in Figure 3-16 is simply a

reversal of the activational force system. Finally, in Figure 3-
17, it is shown that a bend in the center is exactly the same as
two off-center bends whenever the angles are equal and
opposite. This is a significant relationship which will be utilized
in effective clinical treatment at a later point.
B D EQUILIBRIUM
REQUIREMENTS ARE NOT
x FULFILLED
Sum of the vertical forces equals zero.
A C Sum of the horizontal forces equals zero.
Sum of the
moments measured around a
common point does not equal zero.
THIS ACTIVATIONAL FORCE
A + B + C + D = SYSTEM IS INCORRECT
ACTIVATIONAL FORCES
Figure 3-10, shown earlier, will now be analyzed. Looking at

Figure 3-18, an assumption has again been made that the
activational forces are equal and opposite. Thus, the first two
requirements for equilibrium again are met. When summing the
moments around a common point as was done before, it can be
seen in Figure 3-19 that the third requirement has not been met,
as Figure 3-20 shows a net clockwise moment. Therefore, our
original assumption of equal and opposite forces cannot be
correct. This force system is completely unbalanced, as a
couple is required on the system in order to provide a
balancing moment in the opposite direction of the net moment

shown. When the first system was analyzed and the center bend
found to produce equal and opposite moments, one moment
balanced the other and therefore no forces were required. In this
case it can be seen that the net system consists of a clockwise
moment. It will be seen with a continued analysis that such
balancing forces will be proven to exist. In Figure 3-21, it will
now be assumed the forces acting at each bracket are unequal.
We are seeking proof that equilibrium requirements are met.
B EQUILIBRIUM
D
REQUIREMENTS HAVE
BEEN FULFILLED
X Sum of the vertical forces equals zero.
A Sum of the horizontal forces equals zero.
C
Sum of the moments measured around a
common point equals zero.
ACTIVATIONAL FORCES A + B + CD + D
A = 0 ACTIVATIONAL FORCE SYSTEM
Although the forces are unequal, when all the forces on the
system are added, the total forces in the vertical plane of space
again equal zero, so the first requirement is fulfilled. Likewise,
the second requirement is again fulfilled because there are no
horizontal forces present. The third requirement is now met as
each force, multiplied by the distance to
the common point X, when added now
equals zero as shown in Figure 3-22.
Therefore, the correct activational force
system in Figure 3-23 has been proven
DE-ACTIVATIONAL FORCE SYSTEM
and now is reversed as shown in Figure
3-24 to show the deactivational force
Figure 3-24 system. The deactivational force system
is of interest to the orthodontist as it represents tooth movement.
Now that a wire/bracket analysis has been demonstrated to

prove force systems that meet the three requirements of
equilibrium, a discussion can take place regarding the force
acting at each bracket whenever a net moment is present on
the system. Such forces are equal and opposite and constitute a
couple. Why must such forces be present? Remember that
equal and opposite forces - known as a couple - produce a pure
moment. Therefore, the presence of a couple in any force
system producing net moments at the brackets simply results in
a balancing moment. The balancing moment is opposite in
direction to the net moment produced at the brackets.
In the following clinical

examples, the couple that is
required in order to produce
balancing moments will be
shown. In Figure 3-25,
there are counterclockwise
The balancing forces moments shown for the
worsen the occlusal plane. correction of an apical base
discrepancy which result in
Figure 3-25 a worsening of the midline.
Because this would result in an unbalanced system. a couple is
automatically introduced as it provides a pure moment in the
opposite direction which is equal and opposite to the moments
placed by the orthodontist. The canted occlusal plane worsens.
If looking only at the individual force acting at each of the

incisor brackets, it can be seen that the two forces result in a
clockwise moment. No measuring is involved as this balancing
moment is equal and opposite to net moments intentionally
placed at the brackets by the orthodontist. Equilibrium is

something to be respected, as the failure to recognize the
complete force system can result in unexpected consequences
that may result in an increase in treatment time for the patient -
not to mention frustration for the orthodontist.
Not only will further balancing forces be demonstrated, but it

will also be shown that different types of tooth movement may
actually require the same force systems – not different force
systems as one might expect.
In Figure 3-26, two tooth-moving systems are illustrated. A

partial appliance is shown with a tip-back bend which on
activation will produce an intrusive force for overbite correction
while another partial
Eg. Rectangular appliance is shown with a
or square wire.
Forces & moments
wire containing twist for
remain the same. lingual root torque when
Only the activated.
nomenclature
changes.
Although the objectives
Lingual Root Torque is simply a differ, it can be seen that
Tip-back Bend “turned around.” one system is simply the
reverse of the other. When
Figure 3-26 one or the other is simply
“turned around,” the force systems are identical. In other
words, lingual root torque is simply a tip-back bend turned
around. If at all confusing, remember the early rule regarding
long and short sections which indicate the direction of the forces
present, while stating that the bracket or tube closest to the bend
contains the largest moment. This is an effective memory
system until the subject of mechanics is discussed in more

depth. However, understanding is more important than memory.
Occlusal planes may be altered by couples present to balance net

moments while occlusal planes already in balance with equal
and opposite moments require no balancing forces (couples).
Altered occlusal planes can be desirable or undesirable. This is
a choice that can be made by the orthodontist. Changes may be
made to alter the amount of anterior teeth to be shown or made
for a number of other reasons including the relationship to the
condylar path for those concerned with posterior disclusion of
teeth in protrusive movements.
Distal Crown Torque Lingual Root Torque Equal & Opposite Moments
Figures 3-27 & 3-28 demonstrate a need for a balancing couple.

Figure 3-29 shows balancing moments present and therefore no
need for a couple. Couples are created only for net moments.
As this chapter comes to a close, another look at Figure 3-1 and

Figure 3-3 shown at the introduction to the subject of static
equilibrium might now make more sense as to why balance
exists when individual weights are equal or unequal. It was first
acknowledged that experience provided acceptance of the
outcome. Now the cause of the outcome can be understood and

applied in clinical orthodontics as well.
As can be seen, the illustration

to the left in Figure 3-30
A B A
B shows two individuals with
equal weights seated at equal
1 3
distances from the fulcrum.
When analyzing the force
system, it can be determined
that the forces and moments
that are shown meet the three
Figure 3-30 requirements for equilibrium.
So, it is not only known from experience that such balance
occurs, but now it can be understood why such balance takes
place. It is the understanding which is important as it leads to
application in other areas – in this case, recognition of important
force systems in clinical orthodontics.
THE SHORT STORY

Static equilibrium is an often misunderstand subject for the
clinician. Such equilibrium has always been part of our lives.
Examples experienced in childhood, such as two individuals of
equal or unequal weight on a teeter-totter seated in various
positions, demonstrates that the results are not in question, but
only the cause as it relates to the equilibrium requirements.
These same requirements apply to orthodontic treatment during
wire/bracket engagement. The orthodontist is interested in what
forces and moments are produced as a result of wire/bracket
engagement. In static equilibrium, three requirements must be
met in order to engage archwires into the bracket slots. These
initial forces of insertion are referred to as activational forces
and always meet the three requirements of equilibrium. First, the
sum of the vertical forces must equal zero. Secondly, the sum of
the horizontal forces must equal zero. Finally, the sum of the
moments measured around a common point must also equal
zero. When only two out of three of these requirements are met,
static equilibrium does not exist. When recognizing that the
force system meets all three requirements, the system is then in
equilibrium. Once the three requirements are fulfilled, the net
activational system is determined and then reversed to
determine the deactivational system which is of concern to the
orthodontist as this is the tooth-moving aspect of the system. It
is not uncommon for the orthodontist to arrive at incorrect
deactivational force systems and therefore experience
unexpected tooth movements which often lead to the use of
transpalatal or lingual arches.
SELECTED READINGS
Demangel C. Equilibrium situations in bend force systems. Am J
Orthod Dentofac Orthop 1990;98:333-339.
Nikolai RJ. Bioengineering analysis of orthodontic mechanics.

Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1985:56-69.
Mulligan TF. Common sense mechanics. 3. Static equilibrium. J Clin

Orthod 1979;13:762-766.
Determining Forces and Relative Magnitudes 4 43
FORCES AND RELATIVE

MAGNITUDES
4
This is an interesting subject for a profession that spends its time
with forces and moments on a regular basis. Surprisingly
enough, it will be shown that several methods of determining
force systems today are simply incorrect. Forces are often
measured that are not only inaccurate in magnitude, but also
incorrect in the direction in which they act. To make matters
even worse, sometimes the forces measured disappear altogether
when the archwire is inserted. Any error in the correct
determination of force magnitude is automatically an error in the
magnitude of any moments produced, as Force X Distance =
Moment. No wonder orthodontists wonder why certain
movements seem to go nicely at times while at other times such
responses seems to diminish or even become nonexistent. It has
earlier been mentioned that force systems may vary in response
because of differences in force magnitudes. It was illustrated in
Chapter I that molars might erupt for one patient, but not for
another because of force magnitudes overcoming - or not
overcoming - the forces of occlusion. Keeping in mind that
nothing in this world happens without a cause, it is important to
recognize that when such effects do occur, the causes may be
either unknown or misunderstood.
It is the purpose of this discussion to help provide an

understanding of the factors contributing to the problem.
One of the factors requiring discussion is the cantilever, as this

is often the method used in measuring force magnitudes for a
patient, thinking that such force magnitudes will exist.
First of all, a good example of a

cantilever is the diving board
shown in Figure 4-1. A cantilever
is considered to be a simple beam
in the engineering world and is
characterized by a pure force at
one end and a single moment at
Figure 4-1 the point of attachment.The forces
of course are equal and opposite at each end.
This is a cantilever measurement.

A very common method of measuring forces is to take an
instrument such as the Richmond gauge and measure an
archwire for intrusive forces as shown in Figures 4-2 and 4-3.
This presents a problem as the cantilever only exists prior to
inserting the wire into the brackets. Following insertion into the
brackets the measurement taken is no longer valid, as moments
are introduced because of archwire resilience. This is only one
of many different factors responsible for faulty measurements.
In Figure 4-4, it is obvious that

Round
Resilience creates angles.
the archwire crosses the
incisor brackets at an angle,
thus creating the presence of
moments at these brackets. A
As a result, this is not a cantilever.
cantilever is characterized by
only a pure force. Moments
The force magnitude is no longer cannot be present, as they will
that which was measured.
alter the force measured..
Figure 4-4
If a true cantilever effect is Cantilever intrusion of cuspids is
desired, there are other ways more effective than engaging
of accomplishing such an archwire into bracket slots.
objective. Figures 4-5 and
4-6 show a practical approach
for the use of a cantilever.
Although the archwire is
inserted into the four incisor (placed under bracket wing)
brackets, the cuspid slot is
not engaged and the wire is Figure 4-5
placed under the bracket
wing as shown. When
wire/bracket angles are
discussed later, a cantilever
system will be introduced by
locating a bend at a particular
position between the brackets. Figure 4-6
Other illustrations can be seen in Figures 4-7 thru 4-9 which
show the opportunity to provide cantilevers in various situations.
Cuspid
intrusion
required
Cantilever – (Incisors excluded) Cantilever – (Incisors bracketed) Intruding six teeth - Cantilevered Cuspids
In Figure 4-7, when only cuspid intrusion is required, a

continuous archwire can be placed under the cuspid bracket
wings as shown here and in the previous illustrations. Note that
the incisors have not been bonded at this point. In Figure 4-8,
the incisors have been bonded, but the archwire previously
shown is stepped gingivally to the four incisors in order to avoid
movement of the anterior teeth while avoiding the introduction
of a moment at each of the cuspid brackets. Finally, in Figure 4-
9, the archwire has been placed under the cuspid wings and into
the incisor brackets which are now level. It can be seen that
there are a number of ways in which to provide a cantilever
force when desired. With cantilevers, pure forces may be
applied to the intended teeth without the presence of moments.
It will be seen throughout the various chapters, that the vast

majority of orthodontic treatment is being achieved with partial
appliances. By the time the various aspects of biomechanics
have been fully discussed, it will be seen that partial appliances
offer many distinct advantages over full appliances. This is not
to say that full appliances (Figure 4-10) cannot be utilized near
the end of treatment, but rather to point out that many effective
tooth movements can be achieved in the earlier stages of
treatment which would not be achieved if a full appliance were

introduced at the initiation of orthodontic treatment.
Avoiding Full Appliances Taking advantage of partial appliances

Why are partial appliances (Figure 4-11) then, not in common
use? There are several reasons. First of all, very little has been
understood in orthodontics regarding the force systems that can
be developed with partial appliances. Interbracket distances are
significantly increased and resilience increased as a result. This
resiliency may introduce moments that can be extremely
favorable for anchorage, protraction, and other problems as well.
There are those orthodontists who prefer indirect bonding, and

would like to place all brackets simultaneously rather than go
through a procedure that only allows placing a few at a time.
The orthodontic companies are in the business of selling

brackets. There are over 1100 prescription brackets on the
market and more are being developed. Many different types of
brackets are being developed and sold, not only by the
companies, but by orthodontists who are lecturing for the
companies. A number of orthodontists are also designing and
promoting their own brackets. How appealing would partial

appliances be to those in the business of selling brackets?
Bends will be discussed later that offer the choice for extremely
effective force systems with larger interbracket distances while
shorter interbracket distances limit the use and effectiveness of
these bends. Such bends can be easily placed intraorally with a
Tweed-Loop pliers and take only seconds. The reward lies in
knowledge – not effort – as well as reduced stress, increased
efficiency, and greater practice enjoyment for the orthodontist.
Eg. Rectangular Figure 4-12 offers an interesting

or square wire.
Forces & moments
insight to the subject of Forces
remain the same. and Relative Magnitudes. Both
Only the
nomenclature
illustrations show forces that are
changes. alike when each illustration is
“turned around.” In Figure 4-
Lingual Root Torque is simply a
Tip-back Bend “turned around.” 13, an intrusive force is shown
on the incisor segment above,
Figure 4-12 and an eruptive force on the
1a 1c
same segment below. The larger
moment on the molar above
becomes the smaller moment on
the molar below, while the
Rectangular Wire
1b
The result is smaller moment on the incisor
that there are above becomes the larger
no vertical moment on the incisor below.
forces present.
Does all of this seem to be
Figure 4-13 confusing? Simply realize that
these two illustrations can represent a single partial appliance
containing several different activations. In such a case, only

equal and opposite moments might occur. Figure 4-14 reveals
the net result of combining the force systems seen in the upper
and lower portions of Figure 4-13.
The significance present in this
illustration is that when the tip-
back bend in an arch is combined
with anterior lingual root torque
in the same arch, the vertical
forces will disappear whenever
Only Equal and Opposite Moments Occur
each of the activations produces
equal and opposite moments.
Figure 4-14
In other words, a distal crown moment will take place on the
molars while an equal and opposite moment will occur with the
incisors. Because the moments will be equal and opposite,
there will be no couple necessary for equilibrium. Therefore,
when inserting such wire into the molar tubes, the anterior
portion of the wire would lie in the muco-labial fold creating the
illusion of incisor intrusion. In actuality, when the wire is
engaged into the incisor bracket slots, the resulting lingual root
moment will eliminate the forces. The orthodontist can wait
forever for overbite correction but there can be none if the forces
required are not present. This emphasizes the importance of
what was taught in Chapter 3, which dealt with the importance
of understanding static equilibrium in orthodontics.
Making matters even more difficult, if lingual root torque is

increased, there will then be a net moment on the system which
requires a couple for equilibrium. Thus, an eruptive force will
actually exist on the incisor segment although it will still appear
to the orthodontist that there is an intrusive force when first

placing the wire into the molar tubes. This error is created as a
result of inserting the archwire into the molar tubes first, as a
matter of convenience, and then observing the wire lying in the
muco-labial fold. The latter may easily lead an orthodontist to
conclude there is an anterior intrusive force when actually an
eruptive force takes place upon archwire activation. So, it
should not be too difficult at this point to recognize what
happens when the net force system involves unequal moments
or equal and opposite moments. With the latter, there will be no
need for a balancing couple. However, if the moments are
unequal, the resulting net moment will require a couple for
equilibrium. The result with these outcomes may be an increase
in overbite, creation of an open bite, significant occlusal plane
changes, as well as other effects that may be considered
desirable or undesirable. If the orthodontist has a full
understanding of these possibilities, appropriate action may be
taken beforehand to prevent undesirable occurrences.
While on the subject of forces and

relative magnitudes, now is a good
time to refer to Figure 4-15, as the Regardless of the
applied forces, the
net force on a tooth during the resisting forces
application of forces to teeth in create a net force
of zero.
orthodontic treatment is always
zero. An intrusive force on an
incisor tooth will be opposed by
the forces in the periodontium and Figure 4-15
its surroundings. Component forces may be discussed, but the
total of all forces acting on a tooth is zero. If a person says he
weighs 200 lbs, that is simply the downward component created
by gravity. There is always an equal and opposite (opposing)

force so that the net force will be zero. Again, it is only
necessary to recognize that one of the requirements for static
equilibrium is that the sum of the forces in a given plane of
space must equal zero.
In Figure 4-16, it will be seen that
The forces in both moments may differ in magnitude
planes of space are
equal in magnitude.
when vertical and horizontal
Therefore, the forces are produced. This will be
resulting moments a critical element during the later
must be unequal.
discussion of molar control, as it
(F x D = Moment)
will be seen that vertical forces
Horizontal forces create larger moments.
can well be the contributing cause
Figure 4-16 of horizontal displacement of the
molar crowns due to the moments produced. Because vertical
forces usually act buccal to the center of resistance, the
perpendicular distance between the vertical force and the center
of resistance results in a moment. Eruptive forces will result in
lingual crown moments while intrusive forces will create buccal
crown moments. When either of these displacements occurs,
horizontal forces can be introduced through the molar tubes. It
can be seen that horizontal forces acting through the molar tubes
will produce larger moments than those produced by the vertical
forces, because the perpendicular distance to the center of
resistance is larger than the previous.
This will be discussed thoroughly under Molar Control, but for

now only the concept is presented.
THE SHORT STORY

Forces are frequently measured in orthodontics, whether for
patient treatment or for in-vitro studies. When such forces are
measured prior to archwire insertion into the bracket slots, a
cantilever is involved in such measuring. A cantilever is a
simple beam containing a pure force at one end. However,
archwires have resiliency which increases with interbracket
distance. Therefore, when the wire is fully engaged the
resiliency creates wire/bracket angles that did not exist at the
time the measurement was taken. The resulting forces are not
the same as those which may have been carefully measured.
Partial Appliances offer many advantages over Full Appliances,

particularly in the initial stages of treatment. The increase in
interbracket distance not only increases resilience which can be
very effective in producing desirable moments for anchorage
and retraction, but it enables the orthodontist to locate bends in
such a manner that entirely different force systems may be
produced. Small interbracket distances limit this opportunity.
Finally, vertical forces acting through molar tubes may cause

tooth displacements, but these may be readily corrected by
horizontal forces which create larger moments than those
causing the displacement. Although the forces in both planes of
space are equal because the interbracket distances are the same,
the cross-section of the wire is the same, and the activation of
the archwire is the same, the moments will differ in magnitude.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Mulligan TF. Common sense mechanics. Phoenix: CSM, 1040 East
Osborn Rd, 1982;39-43.
Nikolai RJ. Bioengineering analysis of orthodontic mechanics.

Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1985;235-237.
Understanding and Applying Wire/Bracket Angles 5 54
Understanding and Applying

Wire/Bracket Angles
5
This subject will be the basis for the force systems discussed in
the remaining chapters. For many years orthodontists have had
to bend archwires to provide force systems of choice. This was
time consuming, so the profession welcomed the introduction of
prescription brackets to replace the need for such bending. In
essence, archwire shape has been traded for bracket design. At
the time of this publication there were more than eleven hundred
prescription brackets on the market. Think about it!
If the ultimate in bracket design, including features such as

built-in tip and torque were achieved, then there would be no
need for so many different designs. Many problems are
associated with such brackets because regardless of the designer,
manufacturer, or company, static equilibrium will always
require balanced force systems. If the orthodontist is interested
primarily in torque at a given time, the entire system must be
balanced and even more importantly, recognized. However,
when disappointed in a particular type of bracket design, the
search goes on for others that are more likely to meet the desired
objectives. Obviously, the search continues.
Consider other factors as well. In order for a bracket to fulfill

the objectives for which it has been advertised, slot sizes and
cross-sectional dimensions of the archwire must be absolutely

accurate, but they are not. In spite of these weaknesses, they do
have a place in orthodontics – at least toward the end of
treatment when major tooth movements are no longer required.
Regardless of whether a prescription bracket is used - or a

standard bracket with the so-called neutral slot - the force
systems will be formed as a result of the wire/bracket angles
created when the archwire is inserted into the bracket slots.
These wire/bracket angles can easily be formed in an everyday
practice with a Tweed Loop pliers and done so intraorally. The
preferable angle formed within the archwire in any given plane
of space – frontal, sagittal, or occlusal – is forty-five degrees.
This is an angle that is easy to read and can be used effectively
with round wire without causing the wire to twist and turn
within the slots. Interestingly enough, round wire will be the
wire of choice for almost all of the tooth movements discussed,
in spite of the bad name given to it over the years because of its
inability to produce torque within the slot. The biomechanics
involved recognizes the need for torque, but keeping in mind
that moments are a product of Force X Distance, it is not
necessary to produce torque within the slot. When analyzing the
bracket torque produced by square or rectangular wire, it will
also be seen that the moment produced is a product of Force X
Distance. Because archwires are placed into molar tubes first, as
a matter of convenience, the orthodontist experiences the need to
twist the wire for anterior bracket engagement.
It is assumed that if a wire cannot produce a moment by

twisting, it is incapable of producing torque. This is not true.
Total Forces
Force and Lingual Root Torque
Systems Moments
(F X D = M)
Looking at Figure 5-1, it can be seen that bends have been

positioned in three different locations. Round wire used in the
sagittal plane of space easily creates moments at the brackets
because of the angles formed. Keep in mind that certain
moments may appear to be shown in the wrong direction, but
these moments are correct, as they have occurred due to
archwire resiliency which was discussed earlier in great detail.
While Figure 5-2 illustrates lingual root torque produced with

rectangular wire, it can be seen that the moment is actually a
product of Force X Distance, although it is not usually
visualized in this manner because of first inserting the wire into
the molar tubes. Once inserted into the molar tubes, the wire
must be twisted to attain bracket engagement with the anteriors.
Round wires are incapable of producing torque within anterior

bracket slots because of their round cross-sectional nature. It
will later be shown that lingual root torque can be created in the
anterior segment with round wire. Keep in mind that intrusive
forces acting through the incisor brackets may produce moments
when acting labially and at a perpendicular distance to the center
of resistance in the incisor segment. The moments should really

be described as labial crown moments because incisors will flare
unless prevented from doing so, at which time the moment will
then produce lingual root movement. Before any of this can
take place, it is absolutely essential to know the posterior
moments. If the posterior moments in a partial appliance are
greater in magnitude than the anterior moment, the incisors will
actually respond with lingual movement. But this is not the time
for such discussion. Wire/Bracket relationships need to be
discussed thoroughly prior to introducing the various clinical
subjects on tooth movement.
WIRE/BRACKET RELATIONSHIPS:
Figure 5-3 provides the names of

WIRE/BRACKET the three most important
RELATIONSHIPS wire/bracket relationships to be
Center Bend
discussed. There is a fourth one -
Off -Center Bend a cantilever - in which a limited
Parallel (Step) discussion will take place because
it has already been presented and
has limited clinical application.
Figure 5-3
Figure 5-4 simply indicates that X
with a Tweed Loop pliers, forty- X
five degree bends may be placed at
X
different locations specifically
chosen by the orthodontist. Each X
location will produce completely Different locations of bends produce
significantly different force systems.
different force systems.
Figure 5-4
The locations of the bends – and therefore the force systems –

will be determined in the vast majority of cases by choosing one
of the locations shown in Figure 5-5.
Each location chosen will
produce completely different
wire/bracket angles. Unlike the
X X X prescription bracket, a choice is
Archwires must be loop-free being made as to which of three
We can use any of the the force systems will best solve the
locations marked X to provide problem at hand. It is obvious
the force system of choice. that the greater the interbracket
distance, the greater will be the
Figure 5-5 choices in locating these bends.
NEUTRAL SLOT VS.

X
PRESCRIPTION SLOT 1/2
CENTER BEND
IN EACH CASE, IT IS THE

WIRE/BRACKET RELATIONSHIP THAT WIRE-BEND VS.
DETERMINES THE FORCE SYSTEM.
STRAIGHT WIRE

THE CENTER BEND
Figure 5-6 states that whether the slots are provided by
prescription brackets or are simply neutral slots, the
wire/bracket angles produced will determine the force system.
The original malocclusion will automatically create wire/bracket
angles because of malpositioned teeth and a method will be
provided later - during clinical treatment - to illustrate resolving
or minimizing the side-effects. Figure 5-7 shows the first of
three wire/bracket angles to be discussed. This one is referred to

as the center bend for obvious reasons – the bend is placed
equi-distant from the adjacent brackets. All of the angles
discussed will be related to the brackets adjacent to the bend in
question. Note in this case that the force system produced
consists of equal and opposite moments. This is rather obvious
to most clinicians, but other systems are not always so obvious.
X
1/2
CENTER BEND Two Off-Center Bends may be
used to produce the same
force system as a Center Bend.

Continuing with the center bend, Figure 5-8 illustrates the
resilience that takes place while activating the wire. Resilience
is one of the major factors that can often lead to a visual
misinterpretation of force systems. The illustration in Figure 5-9
shows that two off-center
bends are equal to a center
bend. Figure 5-10 involves the
paralleling of roots following
space closure in four first
bicuspid extraction treatment.
The application is simple, but
Center-bend for paralleling roots
significant in response.
Figure 5-10
A diastema is shown in
Figure 5-11 with converging
Center
roots on the central incisors.
Bend for
root A center bend provides the
divergency equal and opposite moments
in a required for root divergency
Diastema and future stability following
closure of the space. Crown
movement always proceeds
Figure 5-11 root movement until spaces
are closed. Further movement then becomes root movement.
The next illustration, Figure 5-12, shows that all incisors roots
can be diverged at the same
time with two sectional
wires. A continuous wire is
not able to deliver four pure
Diverging all roots simultaneously moments without creating
vertical forces, but because a
center bend is equivalent to
Two Off-Center Bends =
Center Bend two off-center bends as seen
in Figure 5-9, a wire with a
Figure 5-12 center bend between the two
central incisors and a rectangular by-pass segment with forty-
five degree bends at the lateral incisor brackets, each provide the
necessary moments for all four teeth and create root divergency
without vertical forces being developed. Using this by-pass wire
is one of the very few times a rectangular wire is preferred.
Figure 5-13 is another example of using two off-center bends to

produce paralleling moments in an extraction site. In this case, a
military family did not have knowledge as to whether they

would remain at Luke Air Force base for a few weeks or for
several months. Therefore
the decision was made to
extract teeth and permit
eruption of maxillary
cuspids while retracting
lower cuspids. Because
the mandibular second
deciduous molars were still Paralleling
in place, the cuspids were Roots
retracted with off-center
bends placed just mesial to Figure 5-13
the first molar tubes. Remember what was said earlier. The
bracket or tube located closest to the bend represents the
location of the larger moment, thus making the molars the
anchor units during cuspid retraction. However, the cuspid roots
then required uprighting so another off-center bend was added
as shown in Figure 5-13. This provides the opportunity to
parallel roots prior to the eruption of the second bicuspids. Much
can be accomplished during the so-called waiting period that
might take place while a patient’s family is waiting for a job
assignment or a military transfer.
Next, the cantilever bend will be discussed. In the center bend,

it was seen that the bend was placed exactly in the center
between two adjacent brackets. Now the bend will be located at
the one-third position between the two adjacent brackets. This
results in a long section and a short section with the long section
occupying two-thirds of the interbracket distance and the short
section covering the remaining one-third.
X
1/3
OFF-CENTER BEND X
(CANTILEVER) 1/3
OFF-CENTER BEND
(CANTILEVER)
WIRE-BEND VS.
STRAIGHT WIRE

THE CANTILEVER
In Figure 5-14 it can again be seen that level brackets with a
bend placed in the one-third position produce exactly the same
wire/bracket angles as seen when the wire is straight and the
brackets are angulated. It now becomes easy to see that
determining the total force system by visually interpreting the
latter becomes much more difficult. To many orthodontists, the
straight wire with angulated brackets may be thought to contain
moments at both brackets because of the angles formed when
reading an archwire prior to activation. Looking at Figure 5-15,
it is seen that when the wire is activated by inserting it into the
bracket slots, resilience occurs and results in no angle at the
bracket on the right. This is true whether the slot size is .018 or
.022 and regardless of whether the interbracket distance is small
or large. The rules regarding long section vs short section still
exist as the long section points in the direction of the force
produced while the short section points opposite in direction to
the force produced. The bracket located closest to the bend
contains the largest moment and the bracket furthest from the
bend contains the smaller moment - or no moment. So the rule
itself remains valid but the information given now is more exact,
as it describes the smaller moment as being zero.
Figures 5-16 thru 5-18 illustrate

various approaches to the
practical application of the
cantilever in a clinical practice.
Placing the bend in the one-
third position as previously
Anterior Segment with discussed is accurate, but small
Continuous Arch Overlay
amounts of tooth movement
Figure 5-16 can alter the force system.
Cantilever intrusion of cuspids is
more effective than engaging In Figure 5-16, a continuous
archwire into bracket slots. archwire overlays an anterior
segment. This can be applied in
various ways to provide a pure
force acting through the center
(placed under bracket wing) of resistance, if so desired.
Figure 5-17 Finally, Figures 5-17 and 5-18

illustrate the most commonly
used cantilever approach for
cuspid intrusion. The archwire
These are cantilevers
is placed under the incisal
for cuspid intrusion. wings of the cuspid brackets
and within the slots of the
incisor brackets during overbite
correction.
Figure 5-18
This concludes the discussion regarding the cantilever bend.

Although the cantilever is not required for clinical application, it
is discussed as one of the several wire/bracket angles. When

prescription brackets are being used, this system may very well
be encountered with no recognition, as resilience is not
visualized when reading wire/bracket relationships. Location of
the bends when slots are level provides the most reliable
determination of the force systems.
Although technically the cantilever just discussed is an off-

center bend, because of the decision to minimize its use, the
following wire/bracket angles will be referred to as off-center
bends. Otherwise, cantilever bend will be the term used.
X
OFF- CENTER BEND
OFF- CENTER BEND

WIRE-BEND VS.
STRAIGHT WIRE

THE OFF-CENTER BEND
It will not be necessary to repeat all that was said regarding the
previous illustrations as the concept remains the same for each.
Figure 5-19 provides a force system quite different than any
discussed thus far. For most orthodontists, the smaller moment
would appear to be in the wrong direction, but looking at Figure
5-20, it can be seen again that archwire resiliency is responsible
for the counterclockwise moment, as the wire crosses the
bracket at a completely different angle when activated than
when simply visualizing or reading the archwire prior to
activation as shown in Figure 5-19. The moments appear in the

same direction. Forces and moments are predictable by the rules
regarding long section vs short section although the smaller
moment is more accurately described when the force systems
are determined by location of the bends. Instead of referring to
the moment as the smaller moment, the specific direction –
clockwise, counterclockwise, or zero – is indicated.
Off-Center Bend
Note anterior moment!
(Toe-In Bend)
WHY?
The clinical example shown in Figure 5-21 illustrates the use of

a tip-back bend at the molar, which is an off-center bend. As
said earlier, round wire cannot produce torque within incisor
bracket slots. Although the moments shown previously were in
the same direction when occurring in the sagittal plane of space,
the anterior moment shown in this figure is opposite in direction
because it is formed by an intrusive force acting labial to the
center of resistance in the anterior segment, rather than because
of torque produced within the incisor bracket slots.
The toe-in bend in Figure 5-22 is another form of off-center

bend and produces the force and moment on the molar predicted
by the short section in Figure 5-21. Changing planes of space

does not affect the force system on the molar in either figure.
Figures 5-23 and 5-24 reveal a noncomplicated approach to

rotating molars and correcting crossbites simultaneously. The
secret lies in avoiding engagement of the archwire into the
second bicuspid brackets as seen in the upper arch. If all
brackets were engaged, the toe-in (off-center) bends would
become center bends and would therefore not provide buccal
forces. Remember that the toe-in bend represents the short
section and results in a force acting in the opposite direction.
It is not uncommon to find

molars that have drifted
mesially and then rotating and
moving into lingual crossbite.
Center Bend Center Bend
utiized to rotate converted to Off- This is an easy and effective
second molar. Center Bend by
Second molar now removing first
method for simultaneous
requires buccal molar tie. Buccal correction without the need to
movement force is created.
remove an archwire.
Figure 5-25
Looking at the left side of Figure 5-25, the second molar has
been rotated with a center bend. However, it requires some
buccal movement, but there is no buccal force present. By
simply removing the tie on the first molar, the center bend is
converted to an off-center bend, which introduces a buccal force
in addition to the molar rotational moment shown. This is
certainly a less time-consuming approach than would be
required if removing the archwire to place a bend. These are
simplified procedures that make orthodontics more fun, less
stressful, and probably lead to greater longevity both in practice
and life as well.
The final clinical example of
the off-center bend is shown
in Figure 5-26. Locating the
bend just mesial to the
bicuspid bracket creates an
anchor side to the extraction
Note Off-Center Bend during
site, as the tooth closest to the
cuspid retraction. (It will become
a Center Bend upon space closure). bend has the largest moment.
Once the space is closed, the
Figure 5-26 moments become equal and
opposite because the bend becomes centered. This change in
the force system takes place without removing the archwire at
anytime from the very beginning of space closure.
Throughout the discussion on wire/bracket angles, it will be

noted that brackets are not added or removed for the purpose of
creating a particular force system. For example, brackets may or
may not be present on cuspids. The various wire/bracket angles
may be introduced at any time and do not require adding or
removing backets to attain the force system of choice.
THE PARALLEL (STEP) BEND
X
X
X X
PARALLEL (STEP)
BEND PARALLEL (STEP)
BEND
WIRE-BEND VS.
STRAIGHT WIRE
The final wire/bracket relationship to be introduced is the

parallel relationship - also referred to as the step. In Figure 5-27
the same two situations are repeated as shown in the previous. It
is obvious again that the wire/bracket angles are equal whether
the wire contains activating bends and level slots, or involves a
straight wire with angulated slots. The step bend, when
compared to the off-center bend shown previously, is nothing
more than an additional bend placed at the adjacent bracket and
reversed in direction, thus creating two parallel short sections.
Of all the wire/bracket angles discussed, this relationship
involves the highest force magnitudes. The reason is very
obvious. Since both moments are equal in magnitude and act in
the same direction, the net moment is the highest of any
demonstrated thus far. Therefore the balancing forces must be
greater in order to create a balancing moment, a moment which
must be equal and opposite to the net moment just discussed.
The step relationship, because of the higher force magnitudes,

will find its greatest usefulness in the occlusal plane of space
when positioning molars that have been displaced such as in
crossbites. The higher force magnitudes may be desirable in the

treatment of older individuals where response is usually not as
great as that seen with younger patients. The step bend can also
be applied in the sagittal plane of space when vertical forces do
not pose a threat to the vertical dimension of the patient.
Brachycephalic individuals provide good examples.
Cuspids bonded Cuspids not bonded When molar and

cuspids are
bracketed, a true (Rigidity
parallel vs
wire/bracket Resilience)
Parallel (Step) Bend
relationship exists.
Figure 5-29 Figure 5-30 / Figure 5-31
Figure 5-29 shows two examples of the step bend. In the left
picture the cuspid brackets are present while absent in the
picture to the right. Technically speaking, the first picture is a
genuine step relationship while in the second, bends are applied
in the same manner, but with cuspids not bonded. As a result of
cuspid brackets not being present, a true step relationship does
not exist and the forces produced will be less in magnitude.
However, this is a practical approach as will be seen later in the
discussion on molar control.
The higher force magnitudes in Figure 5-30 and 5-31 result from
a step relationship and are very effective in restoring central
groove relationships between first and second molars and
increasing the posterior transverse dimension for the patient.
The step bend is only used when higher force magnitudes are
desired. Otherwise, the off-center bend is the bend of choice.
Because of the high forces that
can be created with the step
bend, it must be recognized
that it can have distinct
disadvantages in the sagittal
plane of space when there are
vertical dimension problems
Parallel (Step) Bends
present. This is particularly
true with full appliances and in
Figure 5-32 many cases the use of the step
bends as seen in Figure 5-32 has led to the need for posterior
high-pull headgear in order to overcome extrusive movements.
The step bend creates force magnitudes that are up to four times
greater than those produced by a cantilever acting at the same
interbracket distance with the same degree of activation. In
closing this chapter, a further discussion of the step bend and the
cantilever will be presented in order to better understand each.
What happens if we section ANSWER: We recognize that

the parallel bend? the parallel bend is actually a
combination of two half-length
cantilevers.

In Figure 5-33, it is decided to section a step bend into two
halves. In Figure 5-34, the two halves constitute cantilevers.
Figure 5-35 explains the

LOAD/DEFLECTION RATE load/deflection rate for
FOR CANTILEVERS cantilever beams and is
The load/deflection rate is inversely useful in helping to ex-
proportional to the cube of the wire length. plain why force levels are
If the length is doubled, the force becomes
1/8 per unit of deflection. Therefore, if we as high as previously
reduce the length to one-half, the force will stated. Keep in mind the
increase 8X. (Assuming vertical deflection archwire activation may
of the archwire remains constant)
involve different bends as
seen in the figures below.
Figure 5-35
Figure 5-36 illustrates the step-
down arch. An increase in LOAD/DEFLECTION RATE
archwire length does not result
in an increase in the vertical Step-down arch
deflection. The load/deflection As the length of the wire

rate is 1/8th the force per unit of doubles, it takes only 1/8th the
force per unit of deflection.
deflection. If the length is (Step-down arch)
doubled, it will take 1/8th as
much force for the same wire
deflection. Figure 5-36
LOAD/DEFLECTION RATE
In Figure 5-37, a tip-back bend
is shown. When the wire length Tipback arch
is doubled with this type of wire
activation, vertical deflection
will also double. If the force is But with the tip-back bend, when the
reduced to 1/8th per unit of length doubles there are two units of
deflection requiring twice the force.
deflection and there are now (2x1/8) = 1/4th as much force.
two units of deflection, then 2 x
1/8th = 1/4th of the original force. Figure 5-37
Since the tip-back bend (off-center bend) will be the activation

of choice throughout this book, Figure 5-37 will be the one that
will be most important to understand and remember.
One
Unit of
Deflection
X 1/8 X 4X 1/2 X
Two Units of
Deflection Force = X Force = X
1/4 X X
Figure 5-38 shows the increasing vertical deflection with the use
of the tip-back bend. Because the vertical deflection doubles
when the wire length is doubled, the load/deflection rate shown
in Figure 5-39 is 1/4th the original. Figure 5-40 reveals that a
half-length cantilever will require four times as much force for
activation than will the same cantilever with twice the length
and only one unit of vertical deflection.
Finally, this subject will close with comments regarding the

cantilever. It seems that the cantilever has created much
confusion with many orthodontists regarding the fact that no
moment is present at a bracket where one would appear to be
based on visual inspection of that bracket. Because reading an
archwire prior to insertion into the bracket slot indicates the
presence of an angle, it is easy to assume that a moment must be
present at that bracket. Although an attempt has already been
made to clarify the issue, the questions do not seem to disappear.
In order to further clarify the matter beyond the explanations
already given regarding resilience, an additional explanation will
be offered which should eliminate any doubts.
Understanding
Center Bend the Cantilever
Observe the right bracket
As the bend moves to the left, the

wire/bracket angle on the right continues
Step Bend
to reduce in a counterclockwise direction.
Understanding Understanding
the Cantilever the Cantilever
In order to go from clockwise In order to go from clockwise

to counterclockwise, the to counterclockwise, the
transition must encounter zero. transition must encounter zero.

When the various wire/bracket angles were discussed, the
extremes involved the center bend with equal and opposite
moments and the step bend with equal moments in the same
direction. The latter also had balancing forces present while
none were required in the center bend. Looking at Figure 5-41,
note that the brackets shown on the right involve opposite
angular relationships. In Figure 5-42, it is seen that as the bend
is moved from the centered position to the final step position,
the new angles formed have all rotated counterclockwise.
In Figures 5-43 and 5-44, the bracket slot has moved from its
original angular position to its final angular position, which is
now opposite the original. It should now be evident that a wire
cannot rotate from one angle to an opposite angle without

passing through a zero angle. The zero point is shown in Figure
5-45 and represents a point at which only a pure force is present
at the bracket. Note the archwire forming no angle with the slot.
Understanding
the Cantilever
X
1/3
CANTILEVER
In order to go from clockwise
to counterclockwise, the
transition must encounter zero.
Figure 5-46 is shown once again to illustrate that archwire

resiliency is responsible for the zero angular relationship
whenever a bend is placed at the one-third position between two
brackets. These statements apply to loop-free wires. For
clarification purposes, resiliency causes a zero angle in the one-
third position and this zero angle must exist somewhere between
the two extremes of a clockwise moment in the center bend and
a counterclockwise moment in the step as seen in Figure 5-41.
Nothing in life happens without a reason and orthodontics is part

of our lives. Understanding the causes - and not just the effects -
affords the opportunity to add innovative treatment procedures
to an everyday orthodontic practice.
You just might decide to add years to your practice and life!
THE SHORT STORY

There are several wire/bracket relationships that may take place
in a loop-free wire which offer the orthodontist an opportunity to
choose specific force systems by simply choosing a particular
location for placing an activational bend. Three of these angular
relationships are extremely useful in orthodontic treatment,
particularly at a stage where partial appliances are in use.
Although a cantilever system may be created by properly

locating a bend, there are more practical ways to create such
force systems in an orthodontic practice. The archwires may be
placed beneath the wings of the brackets rather than in the slots.
Center bends may be very useful for paralleling roots following

space closure and diverging roots in diastemas, as well as being
beneficial in several other areas of treatment. The off-center
bends are extremely effective for retracting and protracting
teeth, for buccal and lingual movements, rotational corrections,
vertical movements, and several other movements, as well.
The step bend produces the highest force magnitude of any of

the wire/bracket relationships and has its particular usefulness in
the occlusal plane of space. Because it produces equal moments
in the same direction, the balancing forces are higher than the
other relationships and can therefore be a threat to vertical
dimension problems when used in the sagittal plane of space. It
is extremely effective for increasing posterior transverse
dimensions and is the relationship of choice for the older patient.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Burstone CJ, Koenig HA. Force systems from an ideal arch. Am J
Orthod 1974;65:270-289.
Burstone CJ. Rationale of the segmented arch. Am J Orthod

1962;48:805-822.
Mulligan TF. Common sense mechanics office course. Phoenix, AZ.

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Introduction 1 1

When illustrations are shown, some will be used only as visual

included. When completely understood, it will be seen what

Cognitive I don’t want to challenge

Cognitive Dissonance Changing Your Beliefs

Looking at cognitive dissonance above, the definition and

When teeth move in directions

Frequently, teeth are expected to move in one direction, but

undesirable responses. Transpalatal and lingual arches may find

Let’s now take a look at some of the so-called visual problems

Can you visually determine what moment

Figure 1-1 Figure 1-2

This is the Correct Moment The reason lies in archwire resilience.

Figure 1-3 Figure 1-4

In observing Figures 1-1 thru

Now, let’s take a look at the occlusal view of archwire bends.

Changing planes of space should not

What forces (disregard the

Planes of Space Figure 1-6

Figure 1-7 Figure 1-8

Now, let’s look at a somewhat different situation, but still

Figure 1-9 Figure 1-10

The moments shown in Figure

Next, a discussion will take place involving the problems

Same wire Same wire Same as

Figure 1-12 Figure 1-13 Figure 1-14

Figure 1-16 Figure 1-17

Figure 1-18 Figure 1-19

Again, look at the completely different directions and

With forces and moments having been

Figure 1-21 Figure 1-22

With an understanding of the above rules, it can be seen in

Molar Tip-Back Molar Tip-Back Molar Tip-Back

Cuspid Root Torque Lingual Root Torque Labial Root Torque

Figure 1-23 Figure 1-24 Figure 1-25

Molar Tip-Back Molar Tip-Back

Toe-In Bend Toe-Out Bend

Figure 1-26 Figure 1-27

Molar Tip-Back Molar Tip-Back

Figure 1-28 Figure 1-29

Figure 1-30 Fig 1-31

THE SHORT STORY

An approach has been presented to aid the orthodontist in

Explanations and solutions to the above problems have been

Mulligan TF. Common sense mechanics. Phoenix: CSM, 1040 East

Smith RJ, Burstone CJ. Mechanics of tooth movement. Am J Orthod

With an intrusion arch molars might erupt and/or incisors may

Teeth may rotate

Molars may Incisors may

Forces may produce Forces may produce Forces may produce

Figure 2-2 Figure 2-3 Figure 2-4

The following illustrations may help to clarify some of the

TRANSLATION FORCES (MxA)

Figure 2-5 Figure 2-6

The definition of a force could properly be defined as MxA

Retracting cuspids with an open coil spring does not result in

Figure 2-7 demonstrates this by using descriptions rather than

MOMENTS (FxD) ROTATION

Figure 2-8 Figure 2-9

When a force acts on a body, but away from the center of

Personal experience in our lives can be of great help in

So, let’s take a look at the game

The Cue Stick represents the