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Dave Hawker
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
CONTENTS
1 FUNCTIONS OF THE DRILLING FLUID ...................................................................................................... 3 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 LUBRICATION AND COOLING OF THE BIT AND DRILLSTRING ............................................................................ 3 REMOVAL OF DRILLED CUTTINGS FROM THE ANNULUS AND BIT ..................................................................... 4 CONTROL OF SUBSURFACE FORMATION PRESSURES ........................................................................................ 5 BOTTOM HOLE CLEANING................................................................................................................................. 6 TRANSMIT HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER TO THE BIT ........................................................................................... 6 SUPPORT THE WEIGHT OF THE DRILLSTRING.................................................................................................... 6 FORMATION STABILITY .................................................................................................................................... 6 FORMATION EVALUATION ................................................................................................................................ 7
2 TYPES OF DRILLING MUD............................................................................................................................. 8 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 WATER BASED MUDS ...................................................................................................................................... 8 OIL BASED MUDS .......................................................................................................................................... 10 SYNTHETIC MUDS .......................................................................................................................................... 11 COMMON MUD ADDITIVES ............................................................................................................................ 12
3 RHEOLOGY DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................................... 14 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 SHEAR RATE AND SHEAR STRESS .................................................................................................................. 14 FLUID VISCOSITY ........................................................................................................................................... 15 PLASTIC VISCOSITY AND YIELD POINT ........................................................................................................... 16 GEL STRENGTH .............................................................................................................................................. 16
4 FLUID BEHAVIORAL MODELS................................................................................................................... 17 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 NEWTONIAN FLUIDS....................................................................................................................................... 17 BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL ............................................................................................................................ 18 POWER LAW MODEL...................................................................................................................................... 19 THE MODIFIED POWER LAW .......................................................................................................................... 21 RHEOGRAM SUMMARY OF THE DRILLING FLUID MODELS .............................................................................. 22 MODEL EFFECTS ON VISCOUS FLOW .............................................................................................................. 23
5 LAMINAR, TURBULENT AND TRANSITIONAL FLOW PATTERNS ................................................... 24 5.1 LAMINAR FLOW ............................................................................................................................................. 24 5.2 TURBULENT FLOW ......................................................................................................................................... 24 5.3 TRANSITIONAL FLOW ..................................................................................................................................... 25 5.4 DETERMINATION OF FLOW TYPE.................................................................................................................... 25 5.4.1 Derivation of Effective Viscosity ............................................................................................................ 26 5.4.2 Determination of the Reynolds Number ................................................................................................. 27 5.4.3 Determination of Average Annular Velocity.......................................................................................... 27 5.4.4 Use of the Reynolds Number in determining Flow Type........................................................................ 28 5.4.5 Determination of Critical Velocity......................................................................................................... 28 6 DETERMINATION OF SYSTEM PRESSURE LOSSES ............................................................................. 30 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 FANNING FRICTION FACTOR........................................................................................................................... 30 DRILLSTRING PRESSURE LOSSES .................................................................................................................... 32 ANNULAR PRESSURE LOSSES ......................................................................................................................... 33 BIT PRESSURE LOSS ....................................................................................................................................... 34 SURFACE PRESSURE LOSSES .......................................................................................................................... 35
7 OTHER HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS..................................................................................................... 36 7.1 CUTTINGS SLIP VELOCITY .............................................................................................................................. 36 7.2 PARTICLE REYNOLDS NUMBER ...................................................................................................................... 37
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
7.3 NOZZLE VELOCITY......................................................................................................................................... 38 8 HYDRAULICS OPTIMIZATION ................................................................................................................... 40 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 BIT HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER ...................................................................................................................... 40 HYDRAULIC IMPACT FORCE ........................................................................................................................... 40 HYDRAULIC OPTIMIZATION ............................................................................................................................ 41 USE OF THE QLOG HYDRAULICS PROGRAMS ................................................................................................. 42
9 EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY................................................................................................... 45 10 SWAB AND SURGE PRESSURES................................................................................................................ 48 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 SURGE PRESSURES ....................................................................................................................................... 48 SWAB PRESSURES ........................................................................................................................................ 49 CALCULATION OF SURGE AND SWAB PRESSURES......................................................................................... 50 USE OF THE QLOG SWAB AND SURGE PROGRAM ....................................................................................... 51
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
This principle is not only determined by the physical properties of the mud but by the type of flow pattern present in the annulus. The cuttings need to be removed effectively, but damage and erosion to the cuttings has to be avoided. The removal of cuttings is primarily dependent on the annular velocity, the fluid density, the yield point and gel strength of the mud. Other factors also come into play, such as hole inclination, pipe rotation, and of course, the size, density and even shape, of the drilled cuttings. The typical density of drilled cuttings is obviously greater than the mud density. It is therefore normal for a degree of cuttings slip, where, especially when the mud is motionless, cuttings will sink, or slip through the mud. This can have the effect that the time that cuttings arrive at surface does not correlate with the correct drilled depth and with lagged parameters such as gas. This phenomenon is especially important during periods of no circulation such as a trip, when cuttings will sink and build up at the bottom of the hole (hole fill). Mud properties, such as viscosity and gel strength, have to be such so as to minimize this. The drilling fluid is then termed thixotropic, in that it possesses gelling properties. When circulating, thixotropic fluids are liquid, allowing them to transport the drilled cuttings to surface. When there is no circulation, the drilling fluid will gel, or thicken, in order to suspend the cuttings and prevent them from falling and settling around the bit at the bottom of the hole. The degree of cuttings slip will also be affected by the annular velocities: If annular velocities are reduced for any reason (eg pump volume, large hole section, downhole conditions), mud properties would have to be changed to compensate for an increased degree of slip.
If the cuttings content does build up in the annulus, higher annular velocities or changes to yield may be the solution. A common practice, especially in shallow, large hole diameter sections, is to sweep the hole with a high viscosity pill of mud. This has the advantage of maintaining good hole cleaning without having to change the properties of the active mud system.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
where
= mud density (ppg) PHYD = psi TVD = feet = SG PHYD = psi TVD = feet = kg/m3 PHYD = Kpa TVD = m
where
where
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
The drilling fluid must therefore be able to: prevent erosion or collapse of the wellbore; prevent formation pressures causing formation caving prevent swelling and sloughing of shales (oil based mud preferred, water based muds would have to be treated with Ca/K/Asphalt compounds); prevent the dissolving of salt sections (use salt saturated or oil based mud to prevent taking the salt into solution.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
This manual provides a brief summary of conventional drilling fluids used in balanced drilling applications. Broadly, they can be grouped into the following categories: Water Based including gel and polymer muds Oil Based, including Invert Emulsions Synthetic or Mineral oils (World Oil, June 2000, is the main source of this classification)
Dispersed These mud systems are typically used at greater depths where higher densities are required or problematic hole conditions require specialized treatment. The mud system will be dispersed with specific additives to provide specific properties to the mud system. Lignosulphates/lignites/tannins These are effective deflocculants and filtrate reducers, providing high density muds with a tolerance to high temperatures and solids contamination. Potassium bearing chemicals Provide greater shale inhibition
Calcium Muds Calcium (or magnesium) addition to freshwater drilling muds reduces, or inhibits, the swelling and hydration of clays and shales. High levels of dissolved calcium are used to minimize sloughing shale and hole enlargement. Calcium treated muds are also good for drilling gypsum/anhydrite lithologies because they resist contamination. However, at higher temperatures, they are susceptible to gelling and solidifying.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Polymer Muds Typically, long chain polymers (e.g. acrylamide, cellulose) are used in mud systems to provide a number of advantages: KCl/NaCl muds Encapsulate drill solids to prevent dispersion Coat shales for inhibition and prevention of sloughing Increase viscosity Reduce fluid loss (filtration) Inhibited salts such as these provide greater shale stability.
Low Solids These include systems where solids are strictly controlled, typically with total solids volume between 6 and 10% and clay volume less than 3%. They typically use polymer additives as a viscosifier and are non-dispersed. This type of system is used to significantly improve penetration rates.
Saltwater Saturated Salt Chloride concentration around 190,000 mg/l. Used to drill salt formations to prevent dissolving. Chloride concentration between 10,000 and 190,000 mg/l.
Saltwater
Muds are prepared from either fresh or brine water and salts added to the desired level of concentration. KCl would typically used when shale inhibition is required. Additives such as starch would also be added to increase viscosity and improve hole cleaning.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Due to these characteristics, typically these mud systems provide faster drilling rates. This helps to offset the higher cost of oil based systems, but a number of disadvantages remain: Environmental concerns Flammability Solids removal due to high PV (need good equipment as with polymer muds. Problems for interpretation of log information Cost
Oil based muds contain only oil in the liquid phase, and although they may pick up formation water, no additional water or brine is added. To provide viscosity to oil based muds, gelling agents or emulsifiers have to be added. Alkalinity can be improved by adding lime, organic materials or soaps.
Invert Emulsion Muds These are water-in-oil emulsions; typically with base oil or diesel as the continuous phase, and up to 50% brine in the emulsifier phase. Calcium chloride brine is a common emulsifier used in these systems.
Emulsion Muds With these fluids, water provides the major continuous phase, with oil now constituting the dispersed phase (normally 5 - 10%). With water being the main phase, costs are reduced and environmental concerns are minimized. But adding the oil provides the advantages associated with oil base systems, such as increased ROP, reduced filter loss, improved lubrication, reduced drag and torque.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
TYPE
Alkalines
PURPOSE
To control acidity and alkalinity
AGENTS
Lime, caustic soda, soda ash, bicarbonate of soda Amine- or phosphate-based products are commonly used
Corrosion Inhibition
Prevent corrosion pH control Neutralize hazardous, acid, gases such as hydrogen sulphide Prevent scale from forming in the drilling fluid Reduce foaming action, especially in brackish or saltwater muds To create a heterogeneous mixture of two insoluble liquids
Defoamers
Emulsifiers
Oil based muds fatty acids, amine-based chemicals Water based muds detergents, soaps, organic acids
Additives to reduce water loss, the tendency of the liquid phase to pass through the filter cake into the formation. Increase viscosity Improve hole cleaning De-water or clarify low-solids fluids. Particles in suspension will group into bunches or flocs, causing solids to settle out. To reduce friction, thereby reducing torque and drag
Bentonite clay, lignite, polyacrylate, pregelatinized starch. Salt, hydrated lime, gypsum, soda ash, bicarbonate of soda, polymers
Flocculants
Lubricants
Oils, synthetic liquids, graphite, glycol or surfactants Detergents, soaps, oils, surfactants Soluble calcium or potassium, inorganic salts, organic compounds.
Pipe-freeing agents
To reduce friction and increase lubricity at the point where the pipe is stuck. To reduce shale hydration when drilling water sensitive shales, thereby preventing excessive wellbore enlargement and heaving or caving of the shale. Surface active agents; reduce tension between contacting surfaces such as water/oil, water/solid, water/air etc.
Shale inhibition
Surfactants
Emulsifiers, de-emulsifiers, wetting agents, flocculants or de-flocculents, depending on the surfaces involved.
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Temperature stability
Acrylic or sulphenated polymers, lignite, lignosulphate, tannin Tannins, lignite and lignosulphates, polyphosphates
Thinners, Dispersants
These modify the relationship between viscosity and solids volume, reducing gel strength and increasing the pumpability of a fluid. A thinner, more specifically, acts as a deflocculent to reduce attraction of clay particles which causes high viscosity and gel strength.
Viscosifiers
Increase viscosity, providing better solid suspension and hole cleaning. To provide necessary density to control formation pressures, provide hole stability and to prevent u-tubing when pulling the drillpipe
Bentonite, CMC, attapulgite clays and polymers Barite, lead compounds, iron oxides, calcium carbonate
Weighting agents
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
3 RHEOLOGY DEFINITIONS
The majority of hydraulic parameters are, first of all, dependent on what type of fluid the drilling mud is and therefore which model is used for the calculations. The categories are determined by the fluid behaviour when it is subjected to an applied force (shear stress). Precisely, in terms of fluid behaviour, we are concerned with: At what point of applied shear stress is movement initiated in the fluid? Once movement has been initiated, what is the nature of the fluid movement (Shear Rate)?
v2 h
Shear Rate () = v2 - v1 h = sec-1
v1
At wellsite, the Shear Rate is determined by the rotational speed of the Fann Viscometer in which the tests are conducted. Thus, Shear Stress is recorded at rotational speeds of 600 (shear rate = 1022 sec-1), 300 (shear rate = 511 sec-1), 200, 100, 6 and 3 rpm. Shear Stress is the force per unit area required to move a fluid at a given shear rate.
Area Force
= lb. ft in2
or
lb. ft or 100ft2
dynes cm2
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
The shear stresses recorded for each of the shear rates at the different rotational speeds of the viscometer can then be plotted to produce an overall behaviour profile across the rheological spectrum.
100
200
300
400
500
600
Fluid Viscosity () = Shear Stress Shear Rate 1 poise 1 lb. ft. sec ft2
= dynes/cm2 sec-1
= poise
Viscosity controls the magnitude of shear stress which develops as one layer of fluid slides over another. It is a measure of the friction between fluid layers, providing a scale for describing fluid thickness. It will decrease with temperature. In simple terms, it describes the thickness of the mud when it is in motion. Funnel Viscosity This is a direct measurement from the Funnel (as opposed to Fann) viscometer and is measured in secs/qt. Generally, it is used at wellsite for immediate measurements, and is simply the length of time it takes for one quart of fluid to pass through the funnel. Funnel viscosity is not regarded as being applicable to the analysis of circulating performance. One final determination is Apparent Viscosity, simply 600/2
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
With the duration of a drilling operation, i.e. the age of a drilling fluid, viscosity and gel strengths will both tend to increase as a result of the introduction of solids into the mud system. More fluid can be added to compensate for this, or surface removal of mud solids can be achieved through passing the drilling mud through centrifuges.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
gradient =
where = viscosity
Most drilling fluids and cement slurries, however, exhibit non-Newtonian behaviour where the laminar flow relationship between shear stress and shear rate is non-linear. These fluids also require a certain amount of shear stress to initiate flow and thereafter, require additional stress to be applied as the shear rate increases. The level of shear stress required to initiate fluid flow is known as the fluids Yield Point.
Two main models have been used as a standard in the oil industry: 1. 2. The Bingham Plastic Model The Power Law Model
In recent years, it is generally accepted that both models have merit but that the Power Law Model is more applicable to the majority of fluids. A third, widely used, model has been developed, being a combination of both previous models. This model is known as the Modified Power Law (also known as the Yield Power Law or Herschel-Bulkley Model).
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Dial Reading
600 300
YP
gradient = PV
(rpm)
For Bingham Fluids
The Bingham Plastic Model represents, fairly well, the behaviour exhibited by fluids such as bentonite slurries, class G cements and low gravity oils. A typical Bingham fluid will have high viscosity but no gel strength. For more complex fluids, however, the Bingham model is subject to error. Whereas the Bingham model simulates fluid behaviour in the high shear rate range (300 to 600 rpm), it is generally inaccurate in the low shear range. Shear stresses measured at high shear rates are usually poor indicators of fluid behaviour at low shear rates, the area of interest for simulating annular flow behaviour. Subject to this error, the calculated Yield Point will tend to result in calculated pressure losses and equivalent circulating densities that are larger than those actually observed.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Dial Reading
600 300
300
When the log of stress and strain is plotted: -
600
(rpm)
10 K 1
For Power Law Fluids
10 = K ()n
100
1000
log
n = 3.32 log 600 300 K = 1.067 300 (511)n (lb/100ft2) OR K = 5.11 300 (dynes/cm2) (511)n
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
The Power Law rheological model better fits the behaviour of most fluids, especially polymer based fluids, than the Bingham Plastic Model. Fluids that follow this model have no shear stress when the shear rate is zero. The draw back here, is that most fluids have a yield stress but this cannot be accounted for in this model. Similar to the Bingham Plastic model, but to a lesser degree, the Power Law model accurately predicts fluid behaviour at high shear rates but shows a degree of error at the lower shear rates. The result of this is that annular pressure losses and ECDs are under-predicted by this models calculations. In many cases, however, the Power Law Model does closely approximate fluid properties even when calculated from the high shear rate values. Different values of n are possible, depending on which shear stress/rate pairings are used in the calculation. Thus, this model can be applied by using data from a range of annular shear rates, providing a better accuracy in predicting drilling fluid performance.
In the extreme case, when n=1, the fluid will become a Newtonian fluid ie = K where K will be equal to viscosity .
When to use the low shear rate pairing (6 and 3 rpm)? to more accurately describe the suspension and hole cleaning potential of a fluid in large diameter holes in horizontal drilling applications
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Shear Stress
Shear Rate
For Modified Power Law Fluids
= 0 + K ()n
where K = consistency index n = flow behaviour index
The value 0 is the fluids yield point at zero shear rate and, in theory, is identical to the Bingham Plastic yield point, though its calculated value is different.
When
n = 1, 0 = 0,
the model becomes the Bingham Plastic Model the model becomes the Power Law model
The model works well for both water based and oil based drilling muds because both exhibit shear thinning behaviour and have a shear stress at zero shear rate. The problem with the model is that the determination of n, K and 0 is very complex.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Shear Rate NOTE, in order for the QLOG system to accurately calculate realtime hydraulics, the Shear Rate values need to be updated regularly in the Equipment Table. The data can be entered in any of the 3 standard shear rate pairings i.e. 600 and 300 200 and 100 6 and 3
The industry normal is to use the 600/300 pairing but as was seen in this manual, there are applications when the 6/3 pairing can be more meaningful. Ideally, if there is a reason for using the 6/3 pairing, it should be discussed and confirmed with the drilling and mud engineers.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Non Newtonian Fluids For these fluids, the flow will not necessarily be parabolic. As the fluid becomes increasingly nonNewtonian, the velocity profile will become increasingly flatter towards the centre. This is known as plugged flow. Using the Power Law as a basis, when n is equal to one, the fluid is Newtonian and the velocity profile will indeed be parabolic. As the value of n decreases, i.e. the fluid becomes increasingly nonNewtonian and the velocity profile will become increasingly flatter. In this flat part of the profile, the shear rate will be close to zero (i.e. very little movement between adjacent laminae). Fluids that exhibit a high viscosity in this near zero shear rate condition offer significant improvements in hole cleaning efficiency.
n=1
n=0.6
n=0.2
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
With multi-directional and chaotic movement, and increased frictional; forces, shear resistances are far greater in turbulent flow than in laminar flow.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Turbulent flow will develop at higher fluid velocities with the final velocity profile tending to be reasonably uniform despite the chaotic components. For this reason, turbulent flow is actually more effective in cuttings removal, but the disadvantages outweigh this advantage. Disadvantages: erosion of cuttings, thereby destroying interpretative properties the possibility of hole erosion increased pressure losses due to higher frictional forces from the fluid movement, faster velocities and more contact with the wall removal of mud filter cake
Another advantage of turbulent flow comes during cementing operations, since the random flow helps to dislodge mud cake from the borehole walls. This will allow the cement to get a good contact on fresh surfaces and provide a good bond.
Re = DV e
Notice that the effective viscosity is used in the determination of the Reynolds number, rather than the viscosity derived by surface measurements.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
(imperial)
(metric)
v = average annular velocity Dh/Dp = hole and pipe (outside) diameters Imperial units: e = cP v = ft/min D = inches YP = lb/100ft2 PV = cP Metric: e = cP v = m/sec D = mm YP = dynes/cm2 PV = cP
e = [ (2.4 v) [ (DhDp)
(2n + 1) ] n (3n) ]
200K (DhDp) v
(imperial)
= 1916K (DhDp) x [ (4000 v) x (2n + 1) ] n 4800v [ (DhDp) ( n ) ] (2n + 1) ] n (3n) ] 0.5K (DhDp) v
(metric)
= [ (200 v) [ (DhDp)
(SI)
Imperial:
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Re = 15.47 Dv e
D = diameter v = average velocity = mud density e = effective visc D = mm v = m/sec = kg/litre e = cP D = mm v = m/min = kg/m3 e = mPa.s
Metric
Re = 1000 DV e
SI
Re = DV 60e
For Reynolds number inside the pipe, For Reynolds number in the annulus,
Note that for fluid velocity, an average velocity is used in the determination of the Reynolds Number and Effective Viscosity. In reality, as we have seen, the velocity is least at the walls of the conduit, increasing to a maximum at the centre of the channel. The average fluid velocity (annular velocity or pipe velocity) is determined using the following formulae:
Q = flowrate (gpm) Dh = hole diameter (in) Dp = pipe outer diameter (in) Q = bbls/min Diameters (in) Q = m3/min Diameters (mm)
These formulae can obviously be used to calculate the velocity of the mud within the drillstring. In this case, Dh2 would be replaced by Di2, the inside diameter of the pipe, and Dp would, in this case, be equal to zero.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
The value of the Reynolds number defines the transition between laminar and turbulent flow. Bingham Plastic The Critical Reynolds Number is 2100. If Re < Rec, then the flow is said to be laminar If Re > Rec, then the flow is said to be turbulent
Power Law The Critical Reynolds Number is given by 3470 - 1370n If Re < 3470 - 1370n, the flow is laminar If Re > 4270 - 1370n, the flow is turbulent If 3470 - 1370n < Re < 4270 - 1370n, the flow is transitional
The Critical Velocity is the fluid velocity (whether annular or pipe) at which the flow type becomes turbulent. In reality, at wellsite, the engineer is primarily concerned with the annular velocity since turbulent flow here has the associated problems of hole erosion, damage to cuttings and removal of filter cake. When analyzing annular velocity, the engineer will be looking for sufficient annular velocity to effectively lift and remove the cuttings, but within a laminar flow regime so that minimal damage is done. Many engineers will be happy with, even require, transitional or turbulent flow around the drill collar section. Here, the annular clearance is smallest so it is most important to keep the section clear of cuttings. For remaining annular sections, however, laminar flow will always be required to minimize hole damage and to keep pressure losses low.
Bingham
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Vc Dh Dp Di PV YP
= critical velocity (m/min) = hole diameter (mm) = pipe outer diameter (mm) = pipe inner diameter (mm) = mud density (kg/litre) = plastic viscosity = yield point
2n
n [ 2n + 1 ] [0.64 (DhDp)n ]
2n
1 SI Vc (m/min) = [ 9 x 10 K] [ ]
= kg / m3 D = mm K = Poise
4 2-n
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
The total of all theses losses i.e. Total System Pressure Loss should be equal to the actual pressure measured on the standpipe and is therefore equal to the pressure that the pumps are operating at. This is a very important part of hydraulic evaluation. Obviously, the maximum pressure loss possible will be determined by the rating of the pumps and other surface equipment. This maximum is normally far in excess of the pressure loss that will be desired by the drilling engineer. The logging engineers task is normally to take given parameters from the drilling engineer, then select, for example, the correct nozzle sizes that will produce the desired system pressure loss. Pressure loss is largely dependant on the flowrate, mud density and rheology, the length of each section and the diameters of each pipe and annular section. Whether the flow is laminar or turbulent is also an important influence on the pressure loss - turbulent flow will produce larger pressure losses.
For this reason, a coefficient called the Fanning Friction Factor is determined for each type of flow and whether we are dealing with pipe or annular pressure losses. The friction factor is determined from the Reynolds Number which has already been calculated for pipe or annular sections based on annular velocity, diameters, density and effective viscosity.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
where Re = Reynolds number in the pipe or annulus a = log n + 3.93 50 1.75 - log n 7
b = Transitional Flow
When using the Power Law Model, the values of the Fanning Friction are substituted into equations in order to calculate pressure losses in the annulus or in the pipe. When calculating these pressure losses, each individual section has to be calculated separately, then totaled to give an overall pipe or annular pressure loss.
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Bingham
YP L 13.26Di
Power Law Here, there is just one equation to be considered, since whether the flow is laminar or turbulent has already been accounted for by the Reynolds Number and the Fanning Friction Factor.
SI
where fp = Friction Factor in the pipe v = Average velocity in the pipe (m/min) = Mud density (kg/m3) Di = Pipe inner diameter (mm) L = Length of section (m)
Imperial
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Bingham
laminar flow,
Ploss =
YP L 13.26(DhDp)
The units are the same as those used in the drillstring pressure loss formula. Dh = hole diameter (inch) Dp = pipe outer diam (inch)
Power Law SI
Ploss (Kpa) =
L = Length of section (m) fa = Annular Friction Factor v = Average annular velocity (m/min) = Mud density (kg/m3) Dh = Hole diameter (mm) Dp = Pipe outside diameter (mm)
Imperial
Ploss (psi) =
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
SI
Ploss (Kpa) =
where = mud density (kg/m3) Q = flow rate (m3/min) Dn = nozzle diameter (mm)
Imperial
Ploss (psi) =
Unfortunately, these equations (and the QLOG software) will not produce accurate calculations for diamond bit pressure losses. Eastman Christensen suggest the following calculations: -
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
One method of calculation is based on the Bingham Plastic Model for turbulent flow pressure losses. The main part of the equation, 0.8 Q1.8 PV0.2 is multiplied by a constant representing 4 rig types or classifications.
E is the constant representing the 4 rig surface equipment types. The rig type should be attainable from charts/tables kept on the rig. If not, the usual type and default is Type 4. Classification Imperial 1 2 3 4 2.5 x 104 9.6 x 105 5.3 x 105 4.2 x 105 E Metric 8.8 x 106 3.3 x 106 1.8 x 106 1.4 x 106
In practice, this classification is generally not available at wellsite. For this reason, together with the fact that the method is based on a Bingham fluid, Datalog uses a different technique based on mud density and flowrate, together with a constant to represent different types of rig equipment. Hence:
Surface Pressure Loss = 0.35 x Factor x Mud Density x Flowrate (Kpa) (kg/m3) (m3/min)
Factor represents the value selected in the QLOG equipment table - the surface connection factor. This value can range from 0.2 to 0.5, with 0.5 being the normal default value.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
SI units
Dp p m e Vs Dp p m e Vs
= particle diameter (mm) = particle density (kg/m3) = mud density (kg/m3) = effective mud viscosity (mPa.s) = slip velocity (m/min) = inches = ppg = ppg = cP = ft/min
Imperial
Cuttings slip velocity, when the flow type is turbulent, will be clearly different from when the flow is laminar and constant forces are involved. With turbulent flow, whether the slip velocity is constant or not is dependant on the Reynolds Number determined for the cuttings. Cuttings Slip Velocity in Turbulent Flow SI units
Imperial
Note that there are no velocity or viscosity inputs into this equation. It is, therefore, entirely dependent on the Particle Reynolds number as to whether the slip velocity will be constant.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
SI units
= mud density (kg/m3) = slip velocity (m/min) = particle diameter (mm) = effective viscosity (mPa.s)
Imperial
where Vs Dp e
If the Particle Reynolds Number > 2000, the particle will fall at the same rate i.e. cuttings slip velocity will be constant in turbulent flow
In the determination of slip velocity, a Cuttings Re number is incorporated. So to, because of the different frictional forces present on the cuttings, is a friction or drag coefficient.
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Vn (m/sec) =
Q 38.71A
Vn (ft/sec) = 0.32Q A
/4 d 2 1024
Alternatively, the nozzle diameters, rather than TFA can be used: where Q = m3/min Dn = mm
SI units
Imperial
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
ID = 12.42 (315.5mm)
12 1/4 (311.2mm) hole drilled to a depth of 1500m 200m x 9 1/2 DCs, 100m x 8 DCs 300m x HWDP DP OD 9.5 ID 3.0 (241.3/76.2mm) OD 8.0 ID 3.0 (203.2/76.2mm) OD 5.0 ID 3.0 (127/76.2mm) OD 5.0 ID 4.28 (127/108.7mm)
Jets 3 x 15 (3 x 11.9mm) MD 9.8ppg 100 SPM at flowrate 2.0 m3/min 600 and 300 60/35 (make sure you set this parameter in the QLOG equipment table)
1.
What type of flow is present in each annular section? What is the Total System and Surface Pressure Loss? Compare the surface pressure loss using a factor of 0.2 Using a SCF of 0.5, what flowrate is required to produce a system pressure of 2500psi? What new jet sizes are required to reduce the pressure back to 2000psi? What is the pressure if the mud weight is increased to 10.8ppg? With a flowrate of 2.0 m3/min, what jet sizes are now required to give a system pressure of around 2000psi? Is the flow still laminar in all annular sections? If transitional flow is acceptable around the 9 1/2 DCs but not the 8 DCs, what is the maximum flowrate? With this flowrate, how many jets may have washed out if a surface pressure drop to 1650psi has been recorded?
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
7. 8.
9.
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
8 HYDRAULICS OPTIMIZATION
SI units
Imperial
The Total System Hydraulic Horsepower can be calculated by substituting the Total System Pressure Loss (in place of Bit Pressure Loss) into the same equation.
SI units
= mud density (kg/m3) Q = flowrate (m3/min) Vn = nozzle velocity (m/sec) = ppg Q = gpm Vn = ft/sec
Imperial
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
The power expended (or used up) by the bit is a proportion of the total power available (HPt).
1) Optimize Horsepower by setting the Bit HP to 65% of Total Available Power 2) Optimize Impact Force by setting the Bit HP to 48% of Total Available Power
Impact Force relates directly to the erosional force of the drill fluid and is therefore good optimization for bottom hole cleaning. Hydraulic Horsepower optimization generally requires lower annular velocities so that flow type is more likely to be laminar. Since the hydraulic horsepower at the bit is dependent on jet velocity and therefore on the pressure loss at the bit, hydraulic performance in practice can simply be optimized by selecting jet sizes to give:
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Flowrate 1.4 m3/min Mud density 10.5ppg Surface Conn Factor 0.5 600 and 300 70/42
1.
What jets would produce a system pressure of 2500 psi? With these setups, what are a) the flow types in each annular section b) the annular velocities in each section c) the % HP at the bit
2.
With a flowrate of 1.6m3/min, what jets are required to give a system pressure of 2200psi ? What now are a) the flow types b) the annular velocities c) the % HP at bit
3.
Using the following ranges and limits, attempt to optimize the hydraulics whilst retaining laminar flows in each section and good annular velocities. Flowrate Mud density 1.3 to 1.6 m3/min 10.3 to 10.6 ppg
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
= mud density (ppg) PHYD = x TVD x 0.052 where PHYD = psi TVD = feet = SG PHYD = x TVD x 0.433 where PHYD = psi TVD = feet PHYD = x TVD x 0.00981 where = kg/m3 PHYD = Kpa TVD = m
During circulation, the pressure exerted by the dynamic fluid column at the bottom of the hole increases (and also the equivalent pressure at any point in the annulus). This increase results from the frictional forces and annular pressure losses caused by the fluid movement. Knowing this pressure is extremely important during drilling, since the balancing pressure in the wellbore is changing from that simply calculated from the mud density.
Higher circulating pressure will result in: Greater overbalance in comparison to the formation pressure Increased risk of formation flushing More severe formation invasion Increased risk of differential sticking Greater load exerted on the surface equipment
The increased pressure is termed the Dynamic Pressure or Bottom Hole Circulating Pressure (BHCP).
BHCP = PHYD + Pa
Since pressure exerted is a function of density and vertical height, the increased pressure means that, effectively, the equivalent density of the mud will increase when the fluid is moving. This is termed the Equivalent Circulating Density.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
a.
(0.052xTVD)
ECD Pa TVD
b.
ECD Pa TVD
= = = =
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
1.
TVD Hydrostatic Pressure TVD Hydrostatic Pressure TVD Hydrostatic Pressure TVD Hydrostatic Pressure TVD Hydrostatic Pressure
3500ft 1729psi 14000ft 8010psi 3000m 32373Kpa 1500m 15,156Kpa 4000m 9555psi
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TVD 3000m Mud density 1150 kg/m3 Annular Pressure Losses 3000 Kpa
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
The real danger of surge pressure, however, is that if it is too excessive, it could exceed the fracture pressure of weaker or unconsolidated formations and cause breakdown. This would lead to lost circulation (mud being lost to the formation) at that zone. This in turn would lead to a drop in the mud level in the annulus, reducing the hydrostatic pressure throughout the wellbore. Ultimately then, with reduced pressure in the annulus, a permeable formation at another point in the wellbore may begin to flow. With lost circulation at one point and influx at another, we now have the beginnings of an underground blowout! It is a common misconception, that if the string is inside casing, then the open wellbore is safe from surge pressures. This is most definitely not the case! Whatever the depth of the bit during running in, the surge pressure caused by the mud movement to that depth, will also be acting at the bottom of the hole. Therefore, even if the string is inside casing, the resulting surge pressure, if large enough, could be causing breakdown of a formation in the open wellbore. This is extremely pertinent when the hole depth is not too far beyond the last casing point! Running casing is a particularly vulnerable time, for surge pressures, due to the small annular clearance and the fact that the casing is closed ended. For this reason, casing is always run at a slow speed, and mud displacements are very closely monitored.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
This frictional pressure loss causes a reduction in the mud hydrostatic pressure. If the pressure is reduced below the formation pore fluid pressure, then two things can result: -
1. With impermeable shale type formations, the underbalanced situation causes the formation to fracture and cave at the borehole wall. This generates the familiar pressure cavings that can load the annulus and lead to pack off of the drill string. 2. With permeable formations, the situation is far more critical and, simply, the underbalanced situation leads to the invasion of formation fluids, which may result in a kick.
In addition to these frictional pressure losses, a piston type process can lead to further fluid influx from permeable formations. When full gauge tools such as stabilizers are pulled passed permeable formations, the lack of annular clearance can cause a syringe type effect, drawing fluids into the borehole.
More than 25% of blowouts result from reduced hydrostatic pressure caused by swabbing. Beside the well safety aspect, invasion of fluids due to swabbing can lead to mud contamination and necessitate the costly task of replacing the mud. Pressure changes due to changing pipe direction, eg during connections, can be particularly damaging to the well by causing sloughing shale, by forming bridges or ledges, and by causing hole fill requiring reaming.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
] x Vp ]
Vp = pipe speed (ft/min) Dh = hole diameter (in) Dp = pipe outer diameter (in) Di = pipe inner diameter (in)
Dp2 Di2 ] x Vp 2 2 2 Dh Dp + Di ]
This fluid velocity then has to be converted to the equivalent flowrate by using the annular velocity equation, where: -
The change in pressure is then calculated for each annular/pipe section using the Pressure Loss equations. This is calculated for both laminar and turbulent flow with the largest value being taken. The total swab or surge pressure acting on the bottom of the hole is the sum of all of the pressure losses for each annular/pipe section.
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Required information: Bit depth and hole depth Taken from the realtime system, editable if required.
Current surge/swab pressure Taken from current recorded pressures, editable if required. Current Flow In Use Current Profile Max/Min running speed Taken from realtime system, editable if required. i.e. current hole and pipe profiles, the user should select Y(es). Limits defined by the user. Negative values should be used in order to calculate swab pressures. For example, for surge pressure, the minimum running speed may be 5m/min and the maximum 50m/min. For the same limits, the swab calculation requires the minimum to be set at -50m/min, and the maximum at -5m/min. Read from realtime system, editable if required.
Once the data is entered correctly: Press F7 to calculate the maximum and minimum pressures. Press F2 to print the data out. Press F8 to produce a plot. The plot will be pressure against running speed and will show the pressures against the max/min limits defined together with the current pressure/running speed situation.
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
This program accesses information from the realtime system. Therefore: Enter the hole and pipe profiles from Exercise 1c into the realtime files. Enter the following into equipment tablea) Mud density override 9.3ppg b) 600 and 300 50/30 (NB for the purposes of this exercises, ensure that the mud density channel is not configured so that the over-ride facility in the equipment table can be used) Using maximum and minimum running speeds of 20 and 100 m/min, calculate the swab/surge pressures with the following bit depths:
With an increased mudweight of 10.3ppg, calculate, for the same maximum and minimum running speeds, the swab/surge pressures at 3500 and 3950m.
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Exercise 1b Optimizing hydraulics 1. 46.2% HP at the bit 2. Two possible situations are: a. Mud weight 9.9ppg Flowrate 2.0 m3/min Jets 2 x 10, 1 x 11 This gives 60.2% HHP at the bit 2771psi system pressure loss Laminar flow in all sections with good annular velocities
b. Mud weight 10.15ppg Flowrate 1.9 m3/min Jets 3 x 10 This gives 63.9% HHP at the bit 2765psi system pressure loss Laminar flows, but lower annular velocities
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Exercise 1c Optimizing Hydraulics 1. 3 x 10mm jets, giving system pressure loss of 2523psi a) laminar in all sections b) 55 to 92 m/min c) 39.3 % 2. 3 x 14mm jets, giving system pressure loss of 2211psi a) transitional around collars, laminar in all other sections b) 63 to 105 m/min c) 15.3 % 3. With flowrate mud weight jets 1.3 m3/min 10.3 ppg 2 x 9, 1 x 8mm system pressure loss of 2834psi % power at bit 52.2 % Laminar flows in all sections Annular velocities 51 to 86 m/min System Ploss 2841 psi % Bit HP 49.2 Laminar flows Ann Velocity 51 86 m/min
Note that in the second situation, the annular velocities are the same (which is the objective for the 65% optimization), yet we are closer to 48% and optimum bottom hole cleaning this may be the preferred selection.
Exercise 1d Equivalent Circulating Densities 1. 9.5 ppg 2. 11.0ppg 3. 1100 kg/m3 4. 1030 kg/m3 5. 14.0ppg 6. Phyd = 1976 psi BHCP = 2226 psi ECD = 10.7 ppg EMW 7. Phyd = 33844 Kpa BHCP = 36844 Kpa ECD = 1252 kg/m3 EMW
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DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
Exercise 1e
Swab/Surge Program 35 + 211 psi 50 + 280 psi 69 + 388 psi 77 + 426 psi 85 + 461 psi
With 10.3ppg mud weight: at 3500m, min/max pressure = 77 + 460 psi at 3950m, 85 + 497 psi
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