Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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Objectives of this book:
Constitute a reference for the principles and methodology of intervention
for food aid and alternatives to food aid,
from initial assessment to implementation and monitoring.
Table of Contents
PREAMBLE ...............................................................................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................................................5
Chapter 1 : ACFINs Position on Food Aid .............................................................................................................7
I Introduction............................................................................................................................................................7
II Technical approach...............................................................................................................................................7
III Context and objectives of food aid programs......................................................................................................8
IV Impact of food distribution .................................................................................................................................8
V Intervention principles of food aid and its alternatives ......................................................................................10
VI Argument ..........................................................................................................................................................10
VII Summary..........................................................................................................................................................11
Chapter 2 : Preliminary Assessments.....................................................................................................................12
I Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................12
II Context Study .....................................................................................................................................................13
III Study of food markets .......................................................................................................................................13
IV Identifying the populations needs....................................................................................................................15
V Estimating the number of individuals in a population........................................................................................16
VI Other actors present ..........................................................................................................................................16
VII Logistical assessment.......................................................................................................................................16
VIII Deciding on an implementation plan for a distribution program...................................................................17
IX Summary...........................................................................................................................................................18
Chapter 3 : Choice of the Type of Distribution Program.....................................................................................19
I Establishing an intervention strategy...................................................................................................................19
II Responses to a lack of food availability .............................................................................................................22
III Responses to a lack of access to food................................................................................................................29
IV Key questions for the choice of program type ..................................................................................................34
V Summary ............................................................................................................................................................35
Chapter 4 : Development of the Program..............................................................................................................36
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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I Targeting the vulnerable population ....................................................................................................................36
II Selecting work-exchange projects ......................................................................................................................39
III Determining the ration to be distributed............................................................................................................41
IV Supply logistics.................................................................................................................................................49
V How are the populations and local structures involved?....................................................................................54
VI Human resources...............................................................................................................................................56
VII Summary..........................................................................................................................................................62
Chapter 5 : Registration of Beneficiaries ...............................................................................................................63
I Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................63
II Obtaining lists realized by a third party..............................................................................................................64
III Realizing the registration process......................................................................................................................64
IV Ensuring the quality of the registration.............................................................................................................67
V Summary ............................................................................................................................................................70
Chapter 6 : Distribution Conditions .......................................................................................................................71
I Choosing a food distribution program.................................................................................................................71
II System of cash distribution.................................................................................................................................72
III Site selection and number of distribution points ...............................................................................................73
IV Awareness .........................................................................................................................................................74
V Adjust the conditions in the case of absent beneficiaries ...................................................................................75
VI Summary...........................................................................................................................................................76
Chapter 7 : Food Distribution Circuit ....................................................................................................................77
I Stations prior to actual distribution of the foodstuffs ..........................................................................................77
II Actual distribution of the foodstuffs...................................................................................................................78
III Examples of distribution circuits.......................................................................................................................80
IV Canteen circuit ..................................................................................................................................................84
V Summary ............................................................................................................................................................86
Chapter 8 : Flow Planning and Management ........................................................................................................88
I Flow of a food distribution program....................................................................................................................88
II Planning the supply of distribution points..........................................................................................................90
III Basic documents................................................................................................................................................91
IV Flow management .............................................................................................................................................94
V Itemize the losses................................................................................................................................................95
VI What weight should be taken into account?......................................................................................................96
VII Reports.............................................................................................................................................................98
VIII Flow reconciliation and monitoring ...............................................................................................................99
IX Flow of a cash distribution program...............................................................................................................100
X Summary ..........................................................................................................................................................101
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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Chapter 9 : Program Monitoring and Evaluation...............................................................................................102
I Verifying the registration list and the targeting criteria.....................................................................................102
II Food Basket Monitoring (FBM) ....................................................................................................................104
III Post distribution monitoring (PDM).............................................................................................................106
IV Information to collect......................................................................................................................................108
V Role of nutritional surveys ...............................................................................................................................110
VI Summary.........................................................................................................................................................110
Chapter 10 : Frequently Asked Questions about Food Aid................................................................................111
I What is a food aid program?..............................................................................................................................111
II What is meant by alternatives to food aid?....................................................................................................111
III A food aid program: is it Logistics or Food Security? ....................................................................................111
IV When should a food aid program start, and when should it stop?...................................................................112
V How can we be sure that the food aid reaches the most vulnerable? ...............................................................112
Examples .................................................................................................................................................................113
Figures .....................................................................................................................................................................114
Tables.......................................................................................................................................................................114
Appendices ..............................................................................................................................................................115
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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PREAMBLE
This book is part of a series of food security books developed by Action Contre la Faim (ACFIN
1
) and is based
upon a consolidation of experiences and investigations led over the past ten years in the field. This series looks at
and develops specific aspects of the different food security programs, especially the technical tools that can be used
within the scope of precise projects. Each of these books can be read alone or they can be complemented and
reinforced with the other ACFIN Food Security books included in the series constituting a food security kit which
can be presented as follows:
The books address a variety of audiences including the international humanitarian community, technical and
operation field workers and the general public who wishes to learn more about food security at the international
level. Each book contains a detailed index with examples of the different tools that can be used for the
implementation of the programs, a glossary of technical terminology and commonly asked questions that can give
the reader a quick response to key points highlighted throughout the document. This series could eventually be
completed with other types of food security programs depending on the development and research led in the field
(i.e., food security in the urban context, in the pastoral environment or other topics such as community
participation). All of these books are subject at all times to additions and or improvements following the
development of the food security department at Action Contre la Faim and the continued internal and external
evaluations of the different food security activities.
INTRODUCTION
This book presents the principles and methodologies specific to food aid interventions and the alternatives to food
aid. The alternatives to food aid are programs based on monetary support that may be either direct (cash
distribution) or indirect (stamp or voucher distribution). Due to the diverse contexts and situations found in the
field, this book does not provide an exhaustive response to all the problems encountered but will furnish a certain
number of keys and tools which will facilitate the implementation of food aid programs according to the needs of
the population in a given context.
Chapter 1 presents the position of Action Contre la Faim on food aid through its objectives, its stakes, and its
intervention principles.
1
ACFIN is the international network comprised of ACF Canada, ACF France, ACF Spain, ACF UK and ACF USA. The international network shares a
common charter and global objectives.
Introduction to
Food Security:
Intervention Principles
Food Aid and
Alternatives to
Food Aid
Income
Generating
Activities
Agricultural
Rehabilitation
Food Security
Assessments and
Surveillance
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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Chapter 2 readdresses the specifics of the initial assessment of any food aid program (the methodologies of which
having already been widely developed in the book, Food Security Assessments and Surveillance). This assessment
determines the nature and the level of the food security, as well as, where indicated, the conditions of intervention.
Chapter 3 presents and compares the different types of food aid programs and the alternatives that may constitute
the intervention strategy so as to implement the most appropriate solution possible.
Chapter 4 explains how to determine the essential aspects of intervention strategy, and Chapter 5 specifically
addresses the methodologies of the registration of the programs beneficiaries, a step crucial to the success of the
program.
Chapter 6 discusses the different possible distribution systems so as to help make the most appropriate choices
according to the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Chapter 7 details the organization of the distribution sites according to the selected conditions, and Chapter 8 gives
the tools necessary for planning, monitoring, and the control of the flow of products to be distributed.
Chapter 9 complements this process with the tools of follow-up and evaluation, making it possible to measure the
programs progress and to make adjustments when indicated.
Chapter 10 ends with the most frequently asked key questions. The responses highlight the key points developed
throughout this book.
Acknowledgements:
It is not possible to name each person who contributed to the development of this book; however, the methodology
and examples illustrated here are a compilation of experiences from hundreds of ACFIN expatriates and local staff
over the last ten years. Special thanks should be given to all those who have worked in the food security
departments of ACFIN headquarters and who all contributed in some way to develop the department and laid the
foundation of this Food Security Series.
Special recognition should go to Fred Mousseau, food aid expert, for having written the initial version of the food
distribution module that remains the backbone of the current book,
Kate Ogden, Caroline Wilkinson, and Henri Leturque, for their technical contributions,
Batrice Carr and Anne-Laure Solnon for their volunteer and professional work on the quality control of
foodstuffs and the capitalization of ACFIN experiences on food aid alternatives, respectively,
Laurent Mirione and Vincent Tanguy, directors of the mission logistics service, for their constructive collaboration
on the common tools necessary for the food aid programs,
This book was updated this year by Fred Michel in coordination with a peer review team consisting of Hanna
Mattinen, Pascal Debons and Lisa Ernoul.
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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CHAPTER 1 : ACFINS POSITION ON FOOD AID
I Introduction
2
Despite the promises of the World Food Summit in 1996 to halve the number of malnourished people by 2015, this
number has not ceased to grow at a rate of 4.5 million per year. In 2004, over 842 million people were considered
malnourished, even though millions of tons of food aid are provided annually.
Food aid volumes continue to depend on the stock available and the international trading price of cereals, especially
wheat. When the prices are low and the available stock becomes more abundant in developed countries, delivery of
food aid increases, and vice versa. Bilateral aid from state to state remains a political and economic tool which is
most often monetized to help support the commercial balances of the beneficiary countries, generally without
connection to the needs of the hungry. Moreover, for decades international food aid has participated in the
impoverishment of the food crop economies by the dumping of foodstuffs produced in developed countries,
flooding the national markets with low prices because of subsidies given to the Northern farmers. For almost ten
years, the majority of international food aid has been allocated to emergency and restoration operations, with the
help of bilateral aid: this positive sign reflects a better understanding of humanitarian needs because it is addressed,
on the basis of the analysis of the needs, to the populations without buying power and theoretically does not affect
local production. The development of the capacities and expertise of emergency humanitarian organizations
contributes to the improvement of international food aid, making it a true humanitarian action. It is within this
perspective that ACFIN places itself in order to better fight against hunger.
II Technical approach
Action Contre la Faim aims to save lives, to relieve human suffering, and to re-establish and preserve food security,
by acting at different levels, while respecting the dignity of the people and protecting the populations.
The technical strategy of ACFIN takes into account the different levels of causes (direct, underlying, or basic) that
determine the nutritional status of the individuals. This general method of tackling the problem is represented by
the flow chart on the causes of malnutrition (see figure 1).
Food security for ACFIN is based on the definition provided by the World Bank in 1986: ensure the access and
availability by all people at all times to enough quality, healthy and appropriate food. The key words here are
clearly: access, availability, quality, healthy, appropriate food.
The use of the food is also taken into consideration, leading to a tight collaboration with the nutritional department.
This service provides the necessary expertise on the nutritional impact of the foodstuff according to their
composition (nutrients), their methods of conservation, and their preparation.
The objective of the food aid programs is to respond to food destitution by directly providing food, while
promoting the self sufficiency of the beneficiaries
3
. Consequently, the ACFIN food security service has developed
specific expertise through the recruitment and training of professionals who manage the food aid programs, from
emergency programs to those of longer-term food security.
The programs make up part of a global strategy including:
- The analysis of the multiple components of food security
- Immediate food aid in response to food destitution
- Household economic support, with the goal of reinforcing the coping mechanisms to increase the access to
foodstuffs (production, exchange).
2
Adapted from the report written for ACF by Fred Mousseau, Bitter wheat, food aid, and the fight against hunger, October 2005
3
At the ACF headquarters in France, food aid was integrated into the food security service in 2001. The fusion of food aid and food security means a precise
contextual analysis may be carried out, and immediate food security activities are encouraged, while limiting the potential negative effects and the duration of
food aid activities.
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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This approach, developed by the food security service at Action Contre la Faim, is based on the analysis of the
local food markets and the populations mechanisms to live and survive, as well as on the identification and
targeting of the most vulnerable groups within the populations.
III Context and objectives of food aid programs
Food aid or its alternatives are indispensable in emergency situations, when the populations lose their means of
livelihood (harvests, livestock, economic activities) because of a conflict, an economic or political crisis, or a
natural disaster, and find themselves confronted with food destitution.
In these situations, distribution should be implemented in a fast, efficient manner in order to ensure the peoples
survival. If necessary, parallel, complementary actions should be developed. These may include: reserves of
drinking water; medical care and treatment for the malnourished in the nutritional centers. Simultaneously, food
security responses over a longer term should be prepared to replace the emergency intervention.
In such a context, the distribution should help the crisis victims survive by providing available and accessible food
products, of adequate quality and quantities in order to prevent the development of malnutrition and disease.
Another objective of food aid is to prevent the peoples resorting to the kinds of coping mechanisms which could,
over the long term, create negative consequences on the peoples living conditions and food security: total or partial
migration of the members of a household, transfer of capital, new and unsustainable economic activities such as
wood harvesting, decapitalisation of productive goods, etc.
Depending on the cause and the severity of the food deficit within the households, the type of aid program will be
based on providing either foodstuffs or cash.
Table 1: Type of aid to be provided according to the food problematic
Conditions and Causes of food destitution Food problematic Response to provide
Level of harvest inexistent or very
low
Level of food stock inexistent or very
low
Market destitution, non-functioning
markets
Elevated prices of staple foods
Lack of food availability
Injection of foodstuffs
Significant drop in buying power due
to loss of revenues (work, loss of
production tools) and/or the loss of
working capacity (illness, death,
emigration)
Functioning markets which can
respond to the increase in demand
Lack of access to foodstuffs
Injection of cash and food
coupons
IV Impact of food distribution
The expected impact of the food distribution program is above all nutritional because it tends either to improve the
nutritional status of the beneficiary population or to prevent its deterioration. Nevertheless, food aid often has more
or less desirable effects that must be anticipated and evaluated before deciding on the kind of intervention and the
conditions.
In order to reduce the negative impacts of food aid programs, Action Contre la Faim analyses the following
parameters prior to engaging in type of activity:
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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Local economy and living standards of the population
Aid constitutes an economic resource for the beneficiary population. It can be sold or exchanged and can provide
resources which are indispensable to the household in dealing with the necessary expenses. Sometimes, food aid
represents an essential part of the resources of the people in crisis situations. As such, it can become a major stake
for the populations but also for the authorities or the rival groups in an armed conflict.
International politics and commerce
Aid can also be a commercial or economical political tool of international contributors, accentuating the
dependence of a beneficiary country on external aid. Often the volume of food aid is based on international market
prices rather than the degree of the populations food needs. The agricultural excesses of rich countries make up the
greater part of the food aid. For example, such food aid does not permit the use of the local food availabile when
they exist and can, in such a case, generate significant degradation of the economic outlets of the local producers.
Political situation and social relationships within a group
The economic importance of the aid can naturally tempt politicians and the local despots to divert these resources
towards political ends. Food aid, in particular, may serve as a substitute for the social assistance of a government.
Additionally, depending on the distribution method, the aid can influence the internal relationships within a group.
For example, it could create a foundation of power or situations of dependence. Aid can also facilitate a certain
social cohesion or, by contrast, create tensions (for example, in the case where only certain groups are targeted).
Security of the people
The value of the aid can also attract the attention of armed groups, military groups, or Mafia, thereby creating new
risks, especially when there are new governments and/or population movements.
Economic organization of a zone
Aid can enter de facto into competition with the local production, harm the pre-existing commercial networks, and
thereby cause a modification of the prices of foodstuffs in the beneficiary zone. This concerns not only the impact
of the distribution but also the choices made with regards to the merchandise (local or regional purchases or
importation from another region), the foodstuffs (type and varieties chosen), and the type of distribution (actual
food or a food coupon system). Inversely, local purchases in large quantities when availability is insufficient could
cause a price increase that would penalize the entire population of the zone.
Population movements
Aid can stabilize populations in the beneficiary zone, or it can stir them up. The local authorities or the military
forces may be tempted to use the aid as a political instrument for displacement or regrouping. By contrast, local
authorities or military forces could oppose the aid if they believe it encourages an undesirable situation to continue.
Perpetuation of a crisis situation
Aid can demotivate or even discourage the populations during their necessary return to self-sufficiency following a
crisis. In certain cases, as a result of taxation, theft, or the more or less voluntary participation of the aid recipients
in a war effort, aid can also become a source of provision for armed groups implicated in the crisis.
Health of the populations
Although food aid normally has a positive effect on the health of the beneficiaries, the distribution of rations that
are insufficient in vitamins and minerals could cause the development of epidemics and serious deficiencies, for
example pellagra, scurvy, or beriberi. International aid focuses on the macronutrients (lipids, proteins) and rarely
considers the micronutrients in the composition of its rations. Food aid therefore becomes a risk, especially when it
is the principle resource (i.e., not complemented by other sources) over a prolonged period.
Ecological environment
Certain distributed foods require more fuel than others for their preparation. This may have an ecological impact
over the long term, engendering deforestation. On the other hand, favoring local foods reduces the risks that
foodstuffs containing genetically modified organisms
4
might be used as planting seeds.
4
For more information, refer to the ACFIN paper on positioning concerning genetically modified organisms.
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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Cultural aspects
Importing foodstuffs can have long-term consequences on local customs. Here again, local food should be favored
in order to prevent upsetting the local eating traditions.
V Intervention principles of food aid and its alternatives
Food aid consists of distributing the food to the beneficiary populations. When alternatives to food aid are more
appropriate, non-food items (blankets, jerry cans, cooking utensils, emergency shelters) and/or cash could also be
distributed.
In conformity with the project cycle management, the activities are defined with the goal of minimizing the adverse
effects previously mentioned and to maximize the results expected from the desired objectives (see above, section
III).
Distribution programs are based on the following principles:
All food aid programs are preceded by an assessment and an analysis of both the needs of the populations
and the socio-economic and geopolitical contexts, including the aid politics of international contributors.
This analysis shows the pertinence of the intervention and helps determine objectively identifiable
indicators to monitor the potential activities.
Food aid is a means and not an end: an exit strategy is prepared at the beginning of the intervention; food
security activities that are aimed at longer-term objectives may be gradually introduced.
Program implementation takes into account the logistical capacities and the human and financial resources
of ACFIN, including the capacity to manage the security necessary because of the context or the type of
project.
Food rations should consider the composition with regards to an appropriate supply in nutrients
(micronutrients included), local customs, and respect for the environment.
Local and regional purchases are, when possible, favored in order to ensure culturally appropriate food and
in order to support the local economy.
Food products of good quality are provided by respecting the definition of the appropriate specifications
and a systematic quality control of the foodstuffs from the supplier to the beneficiary.
The existing local capacities and resources are identified and used throughout the program as much as
possible.
Effective measures are adopted in order to ensure that the most vulnerable groups are effectively reached,
while taking into account the security risks
5
, the local context, and the dignity of the populations.
All of the programs activities are subjected to ongoing monitoring and systematic evaluations throughout
the duration of the program. An impact analysis is carried out in order to reorient the activities, if
necessary, and to optimize the definition and realization of future programs.
The activities are coordinated with the other partners onsite, with the goal of obtaining optimal aid cover.
VI Argument
ACFIN aims to contribute to reducing hunger by informing the public and by influencing the politics and the
practices of the principal actors through a proof-based analysis.
Its argument is based on the following principles:
Detailed analysis of the causes, responsibilities, and solutions of the hunger problem in certain countries.
Identification of the common factors of the hunger problem in the countries where ACFIN intervenes, in
order to define global tendencies.
Defend the cause of hunger before the national and international communities.
5
Security risks for the populations and ACFIN teams
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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Depending on the stakes involved, the food aid programs can be at the heart ACFINs lobbying, especially on the
international system of food aid to contribute to its improvement for the benefit of the populations suffering from
hunger.
ACFIN means thereby to denounce as much as possible the downward spiral of a food aid system....
- Which offers only a default response to the deeper problems which continue to be overlooked,
- Which contributes to reduced food crop farming and increased dependence on the importation of foodstuffs,
- Whose allocations depend less on objective needs assessments and more on the political or commercial
interests of the donating countries.
This is why ACFIN proposes a certain number of paths for lobbying and action
6
:
Reject the conditionality of the aid: aid should be provided according to objective assessments of the needs
and not the interests and agendas of the donating countries. Food aid should especially be provided
independently of the market reforms.
Encourage the donating countries to reduce actual food aid in preference for direct financial aid, which
would permit the financing of other types of actions and of local food aid purchases in the developing
countries.
Encourage food aid purchases in the Southern countries, ensuring that this will benefit the poorest countries
and their small farmers.
See that the food aid is no longer the dominant response in emergency situations nor the default response to
structural deficit problems and chronic food insecurity. Food aid should become an instrument among
others and be used pragmatically and within limits.
Reform or eliminate the international institutions that govern food aid, whose existence and mandate reflect
the logistical measures of dealing with surplus in developed countries.
Review and reconsider aid politics in order to give priority to the local farmers and to favor food self-
sufficiency in the poorest countries.
Return the responsibility and the means of fighting international hunger to the FAO (United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organization) by implementing a more responsible aid politic with the governments and
the NGOs.
Give the poorest countries the political and financial means of fighting hunger, through the elimination of
debt, enhanced development aid, and the right to food sovereignty.
VII Summary
Food aid and its alternatives are tools for improving food security of populations having suffered adverse
conditions.
Food aid programs are necessary when a certain population or group no longer has the capacity to feed
itself.
Food aid responds to a lack of food availability: the alternatives respond to the populations lack of access
to the foodstuffs.
Intervention principles enable risk reduction and maximized impact of the aid program.
Food aid should remain short-term and can be relieved by longer-term programs that restore autonomy in
the targeted population.
Food aid at ACFIN also aims to contribute to the improvement of the international system by denouncing
any wrongdoings witnessed in the intervention fields and by making recommendations.
6
Extract of the report written for ACFIN by Fred Mousseau, Bitter wheat, food aid, and the fight against hunger, October 2005.
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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CHAPTER 2 : PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENTS
I Introduction
Action Contre la Faim follows the causal approach of malnutrition to evaluate humanitarian needs. As the
conceptual chart shows (see figure 1), malnutrition is not only related to a problem of accessibility or availability of
food, and other factors must be taken into consideration. Identification of the populations needs is therefore not
centered only its food situation; it also takes its social, medical, or sanitary problems into account. In the same
approach, the basic causes at the economic and political levels must also be fully understood. Even in the case
where Action Contre la Faim would not be able to develop responses to all the needs identified, it is important to
perform this type of multi-sectional assessment in order to ensure that the proposed response is indeed the most
appropriate. Additionally, it may serve as a way to lobby for the intervention of other actors.
Figure 1: Causal chart of malnutrition
7
In a crisis situation, the general context analysis and an initial needs identification make it possible to recommend
possible activities. When it is decided that food aid must be provided, these assessments should necessarily be
complemented by further investigation to help establish the pertinence and feasibility of this type of intervention.
The methodologies of the investigations are presented in the book, Food Security Assessments and Surveillance.
7
Adapted from UNICEF, 1997
MORTALITY
INADEQUATE FOOD
SUPPLY
LOCAL PRIORITIES
FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANISATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS
POLITICAL IDEOLOGY
RESOURCES
Human
Social
Environmental
Structural
Financial
FUNDAMENTAL CAUSES
UNDERLYING CAUSES
IMMEDIATE CAUSES
HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY
Food availability
Food accessibility
PUBLIC HEALTH AND HYGIENE
Sanitary environment
Access to health structures
Availability, quality, and access
to water
MALNUTRITION
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND RESPONSIBILITY
Behaviours and responsibility
Role, status, and rights of women
Social and organisational networks
DISEASE
Use of food
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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II Context Study
The context in which a crisis has occurred should be studied in depth, from various angles:
Social
Socio-cultural characteristics of the population: way of life, habitat, customs, role and status of women, etc.
Local capacities and resources: administrative or traditional structures in place, their functions, their
capacities and reliability, level of education of the local population, languages spoken, capacities and
capabilities, particular constraints related to their characteristics.
Political and social structure of the population: institutions, social system, etc.
Security
Conditions of access of the affected population as well as the factors influencing the safety and security of
that population and the people who intervene: risk analysis, study of the different actors involved in a
conflict, etc.
Economic
Economic and food situation of the targeted region: the principle resources and dependencies in the zone;
exporter zone, deficitary zone, balanced zone; types of foodstuffs imported/exported
Environment, climate, agricultural calendar and their effects on the populations in terms of activities and
movement
III Study of food markets
As soon as a serious perturbation of the livelihood of the affected populations is suspected in terms of food
(production crisis, breakdown in the supply system), we must first, before developing any sort of program, evaluate
the food availability in the affected zone and its prospects according to the possible market reactions. The goal is to
determine whether the program should respond to the problematic of a lack of food availability or a lack of food
accessibility.
Seasonal variations must always be taken into consideration (agricultural calendar of local production, for example)
to identify the real impact of the crisis on the food economy. The results of this study, led at the country level as
well as at the target zone level, are then combined with the analysis at the household level (see section IV).
First, an analysis must be performed on:
The availability of basic products before and after the crisis, in the affected zone and within the whole country,
based on macro-economic data:
- Seasonality of the exchanges in a normal year
- Level and sources of production (deficitary zones and surplus zones)
- Level of the accessibility and functionality of production sources
- Level and origins of imports
- Level and destinations of exports
- Level of stock (private and public
8
) and government politics on the use of reserves
- Level of bilateral donations
- Evolution of internal and external flow (cross-border)
- Evolution of the exchange rates (official and parallel) and their impacts on the prices
The conditions of functioning market:
- Price levels
- Existence of speculative phenomena
- Situation of a monopoly of the actors (merchants, government) where prices are fixed
- Level of integration (connections) of principle and secondary markets
- Creation/disappearance of markets
- Creation of new supply circuits
- Sufficient or insufficient availability of staple products
9
8
There may be national cereal offices having the role of stabilising the prices of cereals by manipulating the purchase and reselling of a part of the national
production and/or of imported products.
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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- Changes in the types of foodstuffs and their packaging
- Types of exchange: monetary or barter
- Level and evolution of prices of staple products
- Evolution in terms of exchange
- Number of active merchants, and their capacity and willingness to respond to an increase in demand (for
example, by transfer from a surplus zone to deficitary zones)
- Capacity for storage (size of warehouses, turn-over) and for transport (delivery frequency, truck size)
- Existence of internal exchange barriers (taxes, road and bridge conditions, insecurity, front line, border
closings)
- Evolution of buying power of the population in terms of credit systems
Later, the possible market reaction scenarios must be identified in order to understand the impact on the food
availability of the affected zone according to whether food or cash is to be injected.
Table 2: Type of aid according to the conditions on the food markets (Oxfam, 2005).
Scenario Problematics and possible impacts Recommendation
No available food in the zones neighboring
markets
OR
Non-functioning markets
Problem of food availability without
possibility of being addressed by the
local markets.
Food aid
Abnormally high food prices
AND
Non-functioning markets
Problem of accessibility due to the loss
of buying power because of elevated
prices. Cash injection would elevate the
prices even more.
Food aid
Food available in neighboring markets
AND
Loss of revenues in the population
AND
Functioning markets
AND
Hindered exchange actions (taxes, conflict)
OR
Non-competitive markets (prices controlled by
merchants/speculators)
OR
Non-integrated (or non-connected) markets
OR
Merchants not willing or unable to respond to the
increased demand
Problem of access to food.
Cash injection would elevate prices
because the offer could not be increased
in the zone because of...
--exchange barriers,
--elevated adjustments of the controlled
prices,
--neighboring markets not being
connected to supply the zone (increase
the offer)
--merchants not increasing the offer of
foodstuffs on the markets.
Food aid
Food available in neighboring markets
AND
Loss of revenues in the population
AND
Functioning markets
AND
Exchanges unhindered
AND
Competitive markets (prices controlled)
AND
Integrated markets
AND
Merchants willing and able to respond to the
increased demand
Problem of access to food.
The injection of food would lessen the
demand and prevent development of the
local economy of the food markets
(production, commerce).
Cash injection would cause an increase
in demand and the conditions in the food
markets would provide a response to the
problem while developing their
activities.
Direct aid on the
buying power by
injection of cash or
food coupons.
9
The staple products are classically the traditional food products consumed by the population (in terms of cereals, legumes, fats and oils, fruits and
vegetables) as well as the products of primary necessity such as soap and fuel.
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Additionally, food needs at the household level must be understood: especially the potential impact on their level of
resources and their coping strategies.
IV Identifying the populations needs
The nutritional survey will estimate the level of malnutrition prevalent within a given population through the use of
anthropometrics criteria and supplies good indications on the definition of the programs priorities.
10
The food
security assessment
11
seeks to identify the causes of this malnutrition and of the food insecurity. It should evaluate
the populations food availability, determine the food access and food consumption mechanisms, identify the
categories of the population that are most affected, and understand the adaptation or coping mechanisms employed.
It should also evaluate the capacities of the population to resist adverse conditions over time.
The identification of the food security needs results from this capacity to cope with a crisis in order to minimize the
deterioration of their livelihood means. (See figure 2 in the book, Food Security Assessments and Surveillance, for
more information on the coping mechanisms.)
For the specific identification of the food needs, the assessment should respond to the following questions:
- What is the current rate of malnutrition, and how has it evolved?
- What are the causes of the malnutrition?
- How much reduction or loss of livelihood has the population suffered (in terms of production, revenues,
tools/productive assets)?
- What is the cause of the loss of buying power? (elevated prices, loss of revenues)
- How have the prices of staple products evolved on the markets, and what are the exchange terms (when the
economy is poorly monetized or not monetized)?
- How have the types of foodstuffs being consumed changed?
- How significant is the drop in number of daily meals and quantities consumed?
- What changes in the sources of supply have occurred (purchase, loan, begging, gathering)?
- What changes in the levels of household food stocks have occurred?
- Are the coping mechanisms adopted unbearable or risky?
- What is the capacity of the households to cope with the adverse conditions?
- What are the prospects of revenue (economic and agricultural) according to the seasonal variations?
The crosscheck of the needs analysis of the population and the study of the food markets (see section III) help
determine whether the problematic is a lack of access to or a lack of availability of food, or both.
As the conceptual chart shows (see figure 1), malnutrition is not necessarily linked to a problem of food access or
availability, and other factors must be taken into account. For example, a problem of malnutrition is sometimes the
result of poor weaning practices or sanitary problems related to poor drinking water quality that would obviously
not be improved by food supply.
Also, even if the nutritional needs are identified as priority and the food aid represents an adapted response, the
programs impact can be reduced because other needs have not been taken into account. For example, it is possible
that the beneficiaries would have to resell a part of their foodstuffs to cover other needs which were not covered by
the assistance, such as the purchase of hygiene products or reconstruction materials. The nutritional supply would
therefore be inferior to that which had been initially planned and would not respond to the objectives fixed by the
program.
The identification of a populations needs is a step that must be taken prior to any intervention, but it should also be
continued throughout the programs ongoing verification and monitoring. The monitoring and evaluation should
help measure the results and the impact of the activities and therefore continue to identify the evolving needs of the
population (see the book, Introduction to Food Security, for more information concerning the project cycle).
10
Nutritional investigations are led exclusively by nutritionists who have the required expertise. Without this investigation, it is still possible to perform
MUAC measurements on children under five, with the technical advice of the Nutrition department, in order to verify whether acute malnutrition is present or
not. The results should never be used as statistically viable data.
11
For the information collection techniques and methodologies, see the book, Food Security Assessments and Surveillance.
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V Estimating the number of individuals in a population
During an initial needs assessment, it is imperative to have at least a rough estimation of the number of people
affected as well as their demographic characteristics in order to be able to evaluate the magnitude of the crisis, the
feasibility of the intervention, and the volume of assistance required.
Two options may be available from the outset:
- Figures and statistics obtained from administrations, community representatives, or other organizations
present
- Calculations based on local existing lists (in cases of displacement camps, for example).
In cases where this information might not be available or seems unreliable, crosschecking of different sources will
be needed, such as comparing local administration census figures to those of a vaccination campaign performed by
another organization. The number of people can also simply be estimated by the aid workers using two methods
that are explained in Appendix 3.
VI Other actors present
It is crucial to take the current or planned actions led by other organizations or local authorities into consideration.
The following elements should be studied in particular:
- The real on site presence of the actors: NGOs (local and international), international organizations (ICRC,
United Nations agencies, especially WFP, UNICEF), sponsors, local authorities, social institutions, local
groups...
- Their analysis and position: What approach are the actors taking to the crisis? What assistance are they
giving or planning to give?
- The current or forthcoming national politics: Is there a cereal reserve? How is it used to stabilize the
markets? Are any zones being neglected?
- The type of assistance provided: rations provided for distribution but also the other activities being
implemented in the other technical sectors (water and clean-up, medical, nutrition)
- How much geographic cover is included in the assistance: Which beneficiaries are targeted? How many?
In which sites or what region?
- The selection methods of the beneficiaries employed: What selection criteria are used? How are they
applied? How are the beneficiaries registered?
- The distribution methods employed: direct? How often?
- Different constraints encountered during the registration of beneficiaries and foodstuff distribution.
- Expectations and capacities for future action, which actions, when?
- Access to the affected populations? Have any zones been overlooked?
This study is essential because it constitutes the first step toward good coordination among the actors and a
cohesion of the interventions. It helps identify the zones that are not covered or poorly covered. Insufficient
coordination may, in fact, cause later iniquities or program overlaps and even limit the impact of the assistance.
Some groups could receive too much aid, others not enough. If rations or selection criteria are different, this could
encourage people to relocate in order to be in the place where they feel they will receive the most aid.
Additionally, joint cover by the different actors could influence the priorities or needs in a specific zone. Such a
zone might have such poor cover that, in the end, it appears that it should have been targeted in the first place.
VII Logistical assessment
It is essential that the logistics service be involved at the initial stage of the assessment and especially in the
perspective of developing distribution programs which require significant logistical support for the supply of
products. The logistical plan should be defined at the same time as the program to ensure its feasibility and to be
activated as soon as the budget has been validated.
The logistical assessment will study the conditions of the beneficiaries access to the intended aid and thereby
establish the feasibility of the implementation of activities. It therefore considers the possible alternatives for the
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purchase or reception of the foodstuffs, their shipment, their storage, and their delivery to the distribution points
where indicated.
This study thus investigates:
The possibilities of transport and storage (including in the affected zones)
The entry points (ports, border crossings, airports) and their import capacities (equipment and materials)
Location of existing foodstuff stocks, their availability, their costs, their mobility
Identification of the private suppliers and assess their capacity to respond to the demand (quality, quantity,
delivery time)
Identification of the capacity of the humanitarian actors present who are susceptible to provide foodstuffs
and other primary necessity goods (WFP, UNICEF, UNHCR, ICRC)
The possible routes between the supply points (entry points, stock) and the affected zones
The customs procedures and formalities and national legislation concerning the importation of specific
(nutritional) products
Transportation, storage, and warehouse costs
The potential risks (security, access, quality of foodstuffs)
Appendix 4 shows an example questionnaire for a rapid assessment of the different logistical aspects in an affected
zone.
VIII Deciding on an implementation plan for a distribution program
The different assessments mentioned above should not only provide an objective view of the different domains
studied but also take the foreseeable or possible effects of food aid into account (see Chapter 1): displacement of
the population towards distribution points, aggravation of insecurity in areas adjacent to the distribution sites,
depopulation of agricultural production areas, upset of the local market, reduction in the agricultural production
volume, environmental impact, etc.
Even so, it is often the case that in an emergency context that access conditions and insecurity prevent aid workers
from performing as complete and in-depth assessments as would normally be desired. Consequently, it will be
necessary to construct a certain number of working hypotheses that will later need to be confirmed or invalidated
through the program monitoring. The monitoring and ad-hoc assessments of both the program and its impact
should thus provide a way to review the hypotheses and the corresponding choices and to consequently adapt our
actions.
There is not only one solution for the definition and implementation of a food aid program. Only by synthesizing
and comparing different assessments can the most appropriate program be decided, its pertinence and feasibility
determined, and its implementation plan drawn up. The decision to implement a food aid program should thus
systematically be based on a variety of objective indicators, such as those presented in the table below, initially
helping to establish priorities the needs of a food aid program.
Table 3: Indicators to determine the pertinence of a program
Indicators Description
Degree of food needs
Rate (evolution) of acute malnutrition
Food consumption level (quantity, diversity/quality) of families
Production and food resource levels of families
Breakdown of the production system and/or crop supply
Local coping mechanisms (households, economic actors)
Level of needs Number of people affected
Presence of humanitarian actors Capacity to cover food needs
Level of risks of adverse affects
according to the context
Access to the population
Substitution of the role of local authorities
Upset of the local economy
Manipulation or misappropriation of organized aid
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Security and political risks to the beneficiaries and the personnel
Risks of aggravation of an unfavorable situation
Potential lobbying themes
Local purchases
Nutritional qualitymicroelements
Forgotten populations/discrimination
Effects on the local economy caused by an international aid system
Technical and operational goals How transversal it is (with the food security and other technical activities)
Development and capitalization of innovative projects (which could be
reproduced in other intervention zones)
IX Summary
The initial assessment establishes an analysis that serves as a reference to follow the evolution of the
situation and the causes of the identified problem.
The nature of the food problematics (lack of availability or lack of access) determines the type of response
to be provided (injection of food or cash).
It is at the household level that the intervention needs are confirmed; program monitoring and evaluation
ensure an ongoing needs analysis in order to respond in the most appropriate manner.
The capacities and the intentions of the actors present determine the help determine the intervention
context.
Logistics are an essential part of the initial assessment so that the constraints and resources necessary for
the implementation of the program may be integrated from the very beginning.
The decision to intervene is based on the totality of the indicators identified during the assessment process.
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CHAPTER 3 : CHOICE OF THE TYPE OF DISTRIBUTION PROGRAM
I Establishing an intervention strategy
Strategy design is based on the causal analysis of malnutrition (see figure 1). The purpose of the ACFIN
intervention is the prevention of malnutrition or the improvement of the general nutritional status of the affected
population. Establishing an intervention strategy goes back to the basic definition of all the actions to implement in
time and space to attain the programs objectives.
Complementarity of the intervention strategy:
The food aid programs can ensure the immediate availability of food and/or reinforce the mechanisms of access to
food. These programs are generally limited to a short period and are complementary to other actions carried out
either at the same time as these programs or after them.
During an acute nutritional emergency, simultaneous actions are led: in nutrition, in order to treat the people
suffering from malnutrition, and in free food distribution, in order to provide a satisfactory nutritional allowance to
the entire affected population. Parallel agricultural or economic support may be provided in order to contribute to
the autonomy of the populations and to progressively decrease the needs for distributions.
Other actions may be necessary in the health, water, and sanitation sectors if such needs are identified. These
actions may also have a direct impact on the nutritional status of a population; in this way, having drinking water
could prevent the appearance of diarrhea-related illnesses that would otherwise directly affect the nutritional status
of the population.
In a relatively stable context, food aid or its alternatives could respond not only to immediate causes but also to
underlying causes of malnutrition and prevent a deterioration of the means of livelihood such as the decapitalisation
of productive tools. The selected beneficiaries could receive food (or cash according to the nature of the needs) in
exchange for restoration work on the collective infrastructures (roads, dykes, irrigation networks). The restoration
work is determined in order to facilitate later agricultural or economic development. Interventions involving
agricultural boosts could possibly relieve distribution, helping the populations re-establish their access to
foodstuffs. In some cases food distribution may be necessary in conjunction with seed distributions, so as to protect
the seeds from consumption and to reinforce the impact of the agricultural boost.
If the crisis has caused a displacement situation, it is crucial to estimate future population movements as much as
possible: return to their places of origin or establishing themselves in their places of displacement, etc. According
to the situation, it may be necessary to plan assistance for return journeys or setting up home again (distribution of
seeds and tools or construction materials), which would allow the beneficiaries of the program to have a free
choice, unconstrained by a need to maintain the level of resources furnished by aid.
Planning strategy:
After specifying the specific objective of the program and the type of intervention, designing the strategy requires
rigorous planning to maximize its impact according to the agricultural calendar (hunger gap, harvest), the rainy
season (conditions of access), seasonal migration movements (pastoral populations, work opportunities), movement
of displaced persons/refugees, etc (see Example 1).
Retro planning thus determines the calendar of all the necessary activities according to the type of distribution
chosen and is useful for adequately foreseeing the human and material needs. For more information, see the book,
Food Security Assessments and Surveillance.
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Example 1: Planning depends on the objective
The theoretical chart below presents the possible evolution of food and nutrition factors. The red line shows how
food cover levels for the most vulnerable households may evolve over one year of poor harvest, and the yellow line
shows how the prevalence of acute malnutrition might evolve over that same period. This represents a typical
situation found in rural zones when the most vulnerable populations depend heavily on the level of their
agricultural harvests (Taylor, 2004).
The type of intervention and its timing could be different according to the fixed objective:
- If the food distribution begins in January it could prevent the deterioration of the nutritional status of the
population.
- If the intervention begins in March it could prevent the sale of personal goods, i.e., the decapitalization of
households.
- In April/May, distribution could prove useful to limit the emigration movements and permit the households to
maintain their work force for the preparation of agricultural planting.
- After June/July, the intervention could consist of protecting the seeds to ensure an agricultural boost at the
moment of planting and increase the food availability during the hunger gap.
- After the month of August, a cash distribution would be most appropriate, given the improved food availability in
the zone.
Finally, it is important to include the conditions and steps for concluding the aid program in the intervention
strategy: the exit strategy. This is made easier if the distribution program has been planned as a complement or a
forerunner to a longer-term type of assistance that would contribute to the affected populations return to
autonomy.
Formalization of the strategy and monitoring indicators:
It is the whole process that determines the intervention strategy; it should be formalized within a logical
intervention framework
12
: this ensures coherence among the general objective, the specific objective, the expected
results, and the activities to be led.
(See Appendix 5 for an example of the logical framework of a direct distribution project.)
12
Refer to the book, Introduction to Food Security, for the use of a logical intervention framework.
80
60
40
20
0
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct
% food needs
covered
% prevalence of
acute
malnutrition
Sale of pers.
goods
Exceptional migration
harvests
harvests
Hunger gap
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Each of these intervention phases should be monitored according to objectively verifiable indicators previously
identified. The indicators should be defined during strategy development to guarantee the possibility of monitoring
the programs progress and pertinence: a must to ensure if the response is appropriate to the evolving needs of the
population. The difficulty is in measuring the desired results in terms of prevention: it is hard to objectively
measure the part of the productive capital which was not have been sold because of, for example, a distribution
program. It is preferable to observe how the revenue sources have evolved by using qualitative investigations (post-
distribution interviews) to see if the decapitalization phenomenon has indeed been stopped or reduced during the
program: such a trend would show the programs pertinence for this aspect.
The indicators will therefore be different according to the objective and the type of program. In Table 4, below, the
most frequently seen indicators are listed.
Table 4: Examples of distribution program monitoring indicators
Objectives and
desired results
Objectively verifiable indicators Sources of verification
The targeted
population receives
food baskets or cash
Cycles of distribution carried out
Number of beneficiaries served
Number of beneficiaries registered
Quantity of food and/or cash
distributed
Number of food baskets provided
% of beneficiaries who received the
entire defined ration
% of beneficiaries who are satisfied
with the quality of the rations provided
Activity report
Distribution report
Registration list
Distribution and stock
report
Distribution report
FBM
13
and PDM
14
PDM
Food availability
within the households
is improved
Use of the food basket
Duration of the food basket
Quality of diet
% of the nutritional needs covered by
the food basket
PDM
PDM
PDM
PDM
Access to foodstuffs is
improved
Use of the food basket
Structure of the household expenses
Quality of diet
Evolution of the staple food prices
PDM
PDM
PDM
Market survey
Decapitalization of
productive goods is
reduced
Evolution of the sale of goods in
overall income
Evolution of the herd size
PDM, food security
survey
PDM, food security
survey
The accessibility of the
zone is improved
(through a restoration
project)
Costs of transportation and of products
Evolution of the number of merchants
Food security survey
and focus group
discussions
The seeds are protected
from food consumption
(through food basket
distribution)
Area of sowed land
Level of harvests
Pre-harvest survey
Post-harvest survey
Depending on the nature of the food crisis, the program will be defined with the goal of optimizing its impact
within the affected population while minimizing the risks and potential adverse effects. The type of distribution
must be selected according to set objectives, taking into account the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
activity. Sections II and III, below, present the different types of distribution implemented by ACFIN according to
whether they respond to a problematic of lack of food availability or a lack of food access.
13
FBM: Food Basket Monitoring is the verification of quantities for each foodstuff in the ration, performed at the exit of the distribution site (see Chapter 9).
14
PDM: Post-Distribution Monitoring is the follow-up after distribution via a sampling of the distribution beneficiaries (see Chapter 9).
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II Responses to a lack of food availability
II.1 Free general (or targeted) food distribution
II.1.1 Description
One or several kinds of foodstuffs are freely distributed to populations affected by a lack of food availability in the
zone. The food basket is defined on the basis of the nutritional needs
15
and the food security analysis of
households, who may also be simultaneously suffering from access to food.
This type of distribution can cover a selected population in a general manner or in a targeted manner according to
the objective criteria (see Chapter 4, Section I) leading to a cover for the most vulnerable people. This type of
targeting allows us to complement the nutrition programs during a significant nutritional crisis. General food
distributions or distributions targeting a sector of the population (children under 5) allow the activities to be quickly
set in motion without having to register the beneficiaries, while at the same time, effectively curbing a nutritional
crisis as the following example shows:
Example 2: Free distribution to children under 5 years old
Southern Darfur Sudan, September 2005
Close to Nyala, the capital of Southern Darfur, the Kalma camp housed approximately 70 to 90 thousand refugees
fleeing combats and perpetrated violence for more than a year. Often following several displacements, these
civilians found Kalma to be their ultimate refuge, finding access to assistance from humanitarian organizations, on
which they were totally dependent in terms of medical care and food. Distributions were theoretically carried out
every month. Even so, the rate of acute malnutrition during this period was constantly rising, reaching more than
20% among children under 5 years of age. After an investigation, the principle reason for the increased
malnutrition was determined to be poor cover of the general distribution due to a lack of systematic registration of
the new arrivals and to the logistical constraints that prevented proper supplying of full rations. It was decided to
rapidly implement a targeted distribution to all children less than 5 years old (estimated to be about 15,000 people)
with a mixed ration (equivalent to one porridge meal per day) in order to prevent the risks of malnutrition among
this particularly vulnerable population. This targeted distribution, which lasted nearly 5 months, worked well in
complement with the general distribution and the nutritional centers that could not cope with the growing number
of cases of malnutrition.
If the food security analysis indicates a lack of access to foodstuffsin other words, an excessively weak buying
power resulting from a loss of revenues even though the level of availability is normala complementary or
unique distribution of non-food products or cash is indicated to help improve the access to food (see below, Section
III).
II.1.2 Specific objectives:
- Ensure survival
- Improve the nutritional status of the populations
- Improve the household means of livelihood
II.1.3 Desired results:
- Availability of food in quality and in quantity
- Reduction or prevention of malnutrition
- Prevention of risky coping mechanisms
- Reduction of the decapitalization of productive goods (livestock, tools)
- Prevention of new, unsustainable economic activities or of falling into debt
- Increase in the capacity of households to concentrate on productive activities
II.1.4 Order of program events:
- Identify the needs of the population (see Chapter 2)
- Identify the targeted population (see Chapter 4, Section I)
- Determine the food rations to be provided (see Chapter 4, Section III)
- Prepare the supply (see Chapter 4, section IV)
- Establish distribution committees and awareness campaigns (see Chapter 4, Section V)
15
By nutritional needs is meant the deficit between the current diet and the minimum required to remain in good health.
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- Organize the team (see Chapter 4, Section VI)
- Register the beneficiaries (see Chapter 5)
- Determine the distribution systems and site installation (see Chapter 6)
- Distribute food rations and manage flow (see Chapters 7 and 8)
- Verify the quantities actually received and the use of the foodstuffs (see Chapter 9)
- Evaluate the impact with regard to the fixed objectives (see Chapter 9)
II.1.5 Initial conditions:
Context:
- Large-scale emergency
- Sudden natural catastrophe
- Significant movements of the population
- Abnormally high or rising level of malnutrition
- Disintegrated social structures, lack of reliability and equity of social structures (thereby not being able to
manage distribution themselves)
Food market:
- Breakdown of production or market supply system
- Absence or inefficacy of public organisms to regulate cereal markets
- Elevated food prices and/or rapid inflation
- Abnormally low availability of staple foods, absence of certain foodstuffs
Population:
- Population cut off from its usual food source (refugees, displaced persons)
- Population having lost its harvest or means of livelihood
- Insufficient capacity of the families to produce or generate incomes (weak proportion of active workers in
the family, monoparental family)
- Poor access to production means / access to land, forests, sea, possession of assets
Logistics/security:
- Easy access to populations in terms of geography and security
- Possible distribution sites are accessible and of adequate size
Table 5: Advantages and disadvantages of free distribution
Advantages Disadvantages
Immediate impact, rapid implementation
Limited risks of aggravation of the
nutritional situation
Direct contact with beneficiaries and
possibility of large-scale awareness
Reduction of the risk of
misappropriation of distributed goods
(no intermediary)
No discrimination for access to food
Reaches the most vulnerable people or
families
Lowered food prices on the market =>
rise in buying power
Stimulates local economy and
production when the rations are
purchased locally
Can complement the goods available on
the market
Economic value of the food, making it
possible to transfer expenses to other
primary necessity stations
Requires enough time and resources to select and register the
beneficiaries
Requires significant capacities of transportation and storage,
high logistical costs
Is work-intensive
Sometimes requires repackaging the food into individual
rations
Does not always respects the dietary habits and customs
compared to the lack of local availability
Does not take into account the differences between villages
and between families when there is no targeting
Creates dependence on the donor when the donation is in
pure form (incertitude, supply delays, types of rations and
foodstuffs)
Develops dependency and may cause lack of motivation for
auto-production
Risks keeping the populations where they are, or
discouraging the return of refugees/displaced persons.
Risks destabilizing the local markets (unbalanced offer or
demand) and lowering the revenues of local producers.
Creates security risks due to large quantities of foodstuffs
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II.2 Canteens
16
II.2.1 Description
Distribution of cooked food rations to nutritionally vulnerable groups (the poor, children...) directly or through
existing institutions. Distribution is daily and the site may or may not offer the possibility to eat on site. A canteen
program most often aims to complement the resources of a targeted population, and the meals are distributed to
cover one meal per day, five or six days per week. Even so, it is still possible to distribute dry rations for the meals
that are not covered by the program if the needs require it. Setting up canteens can also be perceived as a primary
phase of a micro-project that the local managing committee could take over during the programs duration.
Example 3: Canteen programs
Gonaives Haiti, December 2004
Prior to Hurricane Jeanne, the city of Gonaives was already especially vulnerable after years of economic and
political crisis. The vast majority of its population was living in the shantytowns at the time the hurricane hit. After
the storm ravaged the weakened city, these shantytown populations were cut off from their meager resources
(fishing, market gardening, craftsmanship, small businesses). The city itself was no longer supplied in foodstuffs
that were usually imported from domestic or foreign production zones. The first food aid was literally looted by a
desperate population. In this situation, the weakest were unable to benefit from this food distribution, which
required police protection. Fearing a rapid aggravation of the nutritional situation and in the impossibility to carry
out any socio-economic targeting which would only cause greater tension, Action Contre la Faim decided to
implement a canteen program. The canteens were set up in the very heart of the shantytowns. In collaboration with
committees from these neighborhoods, the canteens provided a way to distribute one bowl of porridge per day to
each child under 5 years of age, the only fair and acceptable selection criteria for the population. This distribution
also ensured that the infantile population was protected from the risks of malnutrition while saving their families
the money that would have been spent on these meals. This distribution method allowed the weakest populations to
access the program, and the nuisance of having to come each day to collect prepared porridge stopped the people
without real need from taking food. Also, the volume of the food distributed per canteen and per day was not
attractive enough for the looters. The program was continued for four months, the time needed to stabilize the
situation and to see the markets once again receiving new stocks.
II.2.2 Specific objectives
- Prevent malnutrition and furnish a food supplement to the most needy people in nutritional terms
- Provide financial support by lessening family food expenses
II.2.3 Desired results
- Availability of food in quality and in quantity
- Reduction or prevention of the cases of malnutrition
- Prevention of risky coping mechanisms
- Reduction of the decapitalization of productive goods (livestock, tools)
- Prevention of new, unsustainable economic activities or of falling into debt
- Reinforcement of local capacities
II.2.4 Order of program events:
- Identify the needs of the population (see Chapter 2)
- Identify the targeted population (see Chapter 4, Section I)
- Determine the rations and number of meals to be to be distributed per person, per day (see Chapter 4,
Section III)
- Establish management committees and increase awareness among the populations (see Chapter 4, Section
V)
- Register or possibly not register the under-5 population (see Chapter 5)
- Set up the canteens (see Chapter 6)
- Distribute daily rations and manage flow (see Chapters 7 and 8)
- Verify the quantities actually received and the use of the foodstuffs (see Chapter 9)
- Evaluate the impact with regard to the fixed objectives (see Chapter 9)
16
These canteens should not be confused with the school canteen programs that aim to improve the scholarity and education rates of the children. These
goals are not part of the ACFIN mandate. These school canteen programmes are not directly supported by ACFIN. For more information, refer to the
evaluation of the school canteen programmes led by DFID in 2004.
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II.2.5 Initial conditions
Context:
- Breakdown of the social institutional system
- Significant concentration of the population (camp, urban context)
- Level of malnutrition abnormally high or rising
Food market:
- Breakdown of the market supply or markets not accessible to the population
- Raised food prices and/or rapid inflation
- Abnormally low availability of staple foods
Population:
- Excluded population (in economic, political, and/or ethnic terms)
- Displaced population (with intent to return) without material capacity to prepare meals
- Population surrounded by armed groups
- Population at risk, with regard to malnutrition (children less than 5 years old, pregnant and nursing
women)
Logistics / Security
- Predation risks: looting of the populations by armed groups
- Possibility of accessible distribution sites, of sufficient size, with a small, secure warehouse
Table 6: Advantages and disadvantages of canteens
Advantages Disadvantages
Possibility of inducing self-targeting (rations are
not very attractive and are on a daily basis)
Ensures the consumption of the distributed ration
(impossible to store)
Low risk of misappropriation of foodstuffs: small
quantities delivered at the distribution points,
cooked rations
Wide-spread support in terms of fuel and water
Verification of the nutritional quality
Possibility of screening the beneficiaries
Community involvement (canteen management)
Employment of numerous people (effect of cash
injection)
Possibility of purchasing fruits and vegetables
from the local markets to complete the rations
Possibility to boost the dynamics of the social
network
Possibility to transfer the management of the
canteens at the end of the project (exit strategy)
Difficult to offer varied daily meals
Difficult to offer non-stop service (7 days a week)
noon and night
Significant logistical means (transportation, storage,
site preparation, water, fuel)
Complicated flow management of foodstuffs
Significant human resource needs (15 to 20 per
canteen)
Scarcity of fuels, which degrade the environment,
entailing the use of an expensive alternative (gas)
Difficult to monitor the distributed quantities
(rations prepared in large quantities, in 50-liter pots)
Obligation of beneficiaries to come every day to the
site for several hours, which reduces their
availability for other essential activities
Risk of ration sharing once it is taken home
Competition with local economic activities (sale of
prepared meals)
II.3 Seed protection rations
II.3.1 Description
Agricultural entrants and food are simultaneously distributed, covering needs for the planting season even though
the hunger gap has already begun. Adequate planning of the distribution ensures that the seeds will be used
appropriately and eliminates the constraint of food deficit (and the risk of seed consumption) that the farming
households must face.
Example 4: Seed protection program
Southern Darfur, Sudan, June 2005
In the agropastoral zone one hour south of Nyala, the situation remained relatively stable enough to allow the
population that had fled the violence to return home to prepare their fields. In order to help them get out of the
vicious circle of dependence on food aid, Action Contre la Faim decided to support these populations. They were
assisted in their renewed agricultural efforts by receiving seeds and tools. However, the seeds were at great risk of
being consumed prior to planting because of the zones existing lack of food, compounded by an abnormally early
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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hunger gap. Thus, to ensure that the distributed seeds would not be even partially consumed, a months worth of
complete food rations were distributed to all the beneficiary families of the agricultural program. Consequently, the
farmers were able to take more risks (early sowing) in their planting strategies, depending on their forecasts for the
first rainfalls, in order to obtain optimal returns.
II.3.2 Specific objectives
- Increase the targeted populations food production by securing the planting season
- If necessary, cover the entire hunger gap, up to the harvest, depending on the need level
II.3.3 Desired results
- Availability of food in quality and quantity
- Mobilization of the work force in agricultural activities
- Optimization of the use of agricultural entrants
- Prevention of the decapitalization of productive goods
- Contribution to a return to food autonomy
II.3.4 Order of program events:
- Identify the needs of the population (see Chapter 2)
- Identify the targeted population: most often the beneficiaries an agricultural rehabilitation program (see
Chapter 4 Section I)
- Determine the ration to cover the planting period (see Chapter 4, Section III)
- Prepare for the supply (see Chapter 4, Section IV)
- Inform and increase awareness of the population
- Coordinate the distribution of seeds with that of agricultural entrants (see the Agricultural Rehabilitation
book)
- Verify the quantities actually received and the utilization of the foodstuffs (see Chapter 9)
- Evaluate the impact with regards to the fixed objectives (see Chapter 9)
II.3.5 Initial conditions:
Context:
- Hunger gap
- Rural zone
Food market:
- Raised food prices and/or rapid inflation
- Abnormally low availability of staple foods
Populations:
- Population capable of farming
- Access to land and to entrants
Logistics/security:
- Stable situation allowing medium-term planning
Table 7: Advantages and disadvantages of seed protection
Advantages Disadvantages
Easy targeting because it corresponds to that of
the seeds and tools beneficiaries
Short period of assistance calculated from the
planting season: automatic exit strategy
Possibility of spreading out the food assistance
up until the harvest if the food availability
remains insufficient
Exclusion of vulnerable families which do not have
farming capacities (lack of access to land, lack of
workers)
Heavy logistics for a supply over a very short period
Transportation constraints for the beneficiaries who
receive a large total ration (seeds, tools, and
foodstuffs)
Security risk for the beneficiaries because of the
attractive qualities of the rations
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II.4 Food for work
II.4.1 Description
The program consists of restoring community projects by the inhabitants (residents or displaced persons) who
receive a food basket as payment for their work.
The choice of the programs location is based on the identification of the most vulnerable zones (zoning) in which
the potential projects will be selected. The nature of the projects should require a great number of workers to obtain
a significant impact on the improvement of the food availability in the targeted village. The restoration of
infrastructures should help improve development conditions within the targeted zone, for example the restoration of
a road or irrigation structures. The restoration project should be technically feasible and be long-lasting: it should
be the result of a selection process based on criteria defined by the community in advance. These criteria also take
into account the severity of the food needs: the pertinence (impact and durability) of the projects could become
secondary in order to better favor a rapid implementation of the work, such as cleaning activities. As a result, the
food baskets are packaged at the work site and the selection of beneficiaries stems from the selection of villages
directly concerned by the realization of the projects. It is then possible to establish rules for selecting workers
within these villages to ensure the participation of the most vulnerable families. By definition, only the families
having a work force can participate in the program; therefore it is recommended that the distribution be
complemented by including a proportion of free aid for the vulnerable families who lack the physical capacity to
work. The program planning should be rigorously studied so as to not present competition with other ongoing
activities, especially farming jobs.
Example 5: Food for work program
Hazaradjat Afghanistan 2000-2005
Hazardjat is a mountainous region in the center of the country. Mostly populated by the Hazaras who are
of Shiite faith contrary to other ethnicities, this region has traditionally been neglected by the central
government. The infrastructures are practically inexistent in most of the districts that compose the region
and this isolation becomes total during the winters when the passes are blocked by snow and ice for
several months. Heavily dependent on their own production, the essentially rural population of this region
has suffered successive droughts in full force. Migratory movements began for the households who had
nothing left to decapitalize. In this situation of lack of food availability, Action Contre la Faim decided to
establish a food for work program, restoring a local road network. This type of restoration requires little
technical competence, and any able-bodied man can participate. For the vulnerable families without a
work force, a part (10%) of the aid distributed was allocated to them per village according to the selection
criteria decided between Action Contre la Faim and the local representatives (Shura). This program
allowed the populations of the participating villages to obtain food baskets covering the four months of
the hunger gap. The direct effect was the reduction of livestock decapitalization in particular. The other
result of the program was the opening of the zone, allowing small local markets to develop, offering new
economic opportunities for these populations.
II.4.2 Specific objectives
- Improve household food security
- Improve the economic and/or agricultural development of the zone (village)
II.4.3 Desired results
- Availability and accessibility to food, in quality and quantity
- Prevent short-term or risky coping mechanisms
- Creation of a favorable return context
- Lessening of debt
- Improvement of infrastructures
- Reinforcement of the local organizations
- Facilitate access to zones (opening)
II.4.4 Order of program events:
- Identify the needs of the population (see Chapter 2)
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- Identify the most vulnerable zones and villages (see Chapter 4, Section I)
- Select the restoration projects (see Chapter 4, Section II)
- Select the workers (see Chapter 3, Section II) and register the beneficiaries (see Chapter 5)
- Determine the salary rate (daily ration) (See Chapter 4, Section III)
- Determine the number of working days per task (see Chapter 4, Section II)
- Formalize the villagers contract (see Chapter 4, Section II)
- Prepare the supply (see Chapter 4, Section IV)
- Monitor the worksites and take roll of presence and absences
- Distribute and monitor the flow (see Chapters 6 and 8)
- Verify the quantities actually received and their use (see Chapter 9)
- Evaluate the impact with regard to the fixed objectives (see Chapter 9)
II.4.5 Initial conditions
Context:
- Chronic or foreseeable food crisis
- Beginning of the hunger gap / before the period of agricultural work
- Urban or rural context
- Lack of or poor condition of infrastructures: labor-intensive work opportunities
Food market:
- Poor monetization of the local economy
- Elevated food prices and/or rapid inflation
- Abnormally low availability of staple foods
- Breakdown of the market supply system
Population:
- Lack of access to farming land or other income generating opportunities
- Population without prospects for generating revenues or producing food
- Population located close to possible worksites
- Population capable of working (able and willing)
Logistics/Security:
- Stable situation allowing for medium-term planning
Table 8: Advantages and disadvantages of the distribution through food for work program
Advantages Disadvantages
Possibility of inducing self-targeting
Low risk of misappropriation of payments in
food
No systematic obligation to distribute a
complete and balanced ration: supply is
simplified whenever one type of foodstuff is
sufficient
Possibility of reinforcing the local capacities
by subcontracting the technical components
of the work
Possibility of involving the communities for
maintaining the finished products
Respect of the dignity of the people: aid in
exchange for work which reduces the effect
of victimization
Difficult to obtain pertinent targeting because the
beneficiaries must be live close to the project
infrastructures and have able-bodied members available
to work
Little opportunity to involve women in the restoration
projects (depending on the culture)
Heavy logistics for food and tool supply with an often
intensive distribution schedule (payment of completed
tasks)
Difficult to monitor: daily presence sheet must be used
Slow implementation when the payment is daily and not
per task
Technical competence required to ensure a minimum
quality of the restorations
Difficult to verify the minimum age of the workers
Exclusion of people not able to perform physical work
(women, elderly...)
Difficult to keep the finished products well maintained
following the closing of the project
Risk of competition with agricultural work
Risk of substituting the role of local authorities
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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III Responses to a lack of access to food
III.1 Cash for work
III.1.1 Description
Similar to the food for work distribution program, this program consists of having community projects restored by
the inhabitants (residents or displaced persons) who receive cash in payment for their work. The big difference is
that the program is implemented in the zones where the food availability is sufficient but not accessible to the
population because of a lack of buying power in a local monetized economy.
The zones identified as the most vulnerable (zoning) will be considered priority to benefit from the program. Then,
the collective work projects that are the most pertinent and have the most potential for employing a large number of
workers (highly intensive-intensive work) are identified. The restoration projects should be the result of a selection
process according to criteria of feasibility, durability, and significant impact as well as the improvement of the
buying power at the level of the targeted villages. These criteria also take into account the severity of the food
needs to be covered: the pertinence (impact and durability) of the projects may become secondary in order to better
favor a rapid implementation of the work, such as cleaning activities. The selection of beneficiaries is conditioned
by the location of the restoration project; it is always possible to set up selection regulation to favor the greatest
number of vulnerable households, for example, impose socio-economic criteria on the households (number of
dependants, for example) and/or impose a maximum number of workers per home and /or a time limit for each
worker. For the households without working capacity, complementary interventions should be set up to cover their
needs (proportion of the freely distributed aid). Program planning should be rigorously studied so as to not compete
with other simultaneous activities, such as agricultural work, and its effect on the prices should be monitored to
prevent inflation due to cash injection.
Example 6: Cash for work program
Aceh RegionIndonesia, May 2005
Following the devastation of the entire coastal zone of the province of Aceh by the tsunami of December 26, 2004,
the emergency was to provide food, water, and medicine to the entire population of the villages directly affected
and those receiving the surviving populations. As the food availability gradually increased with the March and
April harvests and the restoration of the local market systems, Action Contre la Faim decided to stop general food
distributions in order to set up a distribution program of cash for cleaning projects (debris evacuation). This
program responded to the lack of food access of the households directly affected by the tsunami; these people had,
in fact, lost their homes, their production tools (materials and fishing boats especially), agricultural land and/or
their working capacity (death in the family): all this was translated into a loss of revenues and a collapse of their
buying power. This program therefore provided a way to ensure access to food for the vulnerable households,
making the markets more attractive by increasing demand, which in turn further restored the markets supply.
III.1.2 Specific objectives
- Improve the food security of the populations
- Provide support in terms of revenues, boost the buying power (and increase the rights of access) over a very
short term
- Improve the economic and/or agricultural development of the zone (village)
III.1.3 Desired results
- Improvement of access by increasing the buying power
- Before the hunger gap, allow farmers to put more of their harvest aside as a precaution
- During the hunger gap, provide employment and supplemental revenues
- Support the work market in favor of the poorest workers
- Prevent short-term or risky coping mechanisms
- Lessen debt
- Create a favorable return context
- Improvement of infrastructures
- Reinforcement of local organizations
- Facilitate access to zones (opening access)
III.1.4 Order of Program events:
- Identify the needs of the population (see Chapter 2)
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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- Identify the most vulnerable zones and villages (see Chapter 4, Section I)
- Select the restoration projects (see Chapter 4, Section II)
- Select the workers (see III.2) and register the beneficiaries (see Chapter 5)
- Determine the salary rate (daily share) (see Chapter 4, Section III)
- Determine the number of working days per task (see Chapter 4, Section II)
- Formalize the villagers contract (see Chapter 4, Section II)
- Monitor the worksites and check presence and absences
- Distribution (see Chapter 6, Section II, and Chapter 8, Section IX)
- Oversee the quantities of cash actually received and its use (see Chapter 9)
- Analyze the impact of cash injection on access to foodstuffs (see Chapter 9)
- Evaluate the impact with regard to the fixed objectives (see Chapter 9)
III.1.5 Initial conditions
Context
- Rural or urban contexts
- Lack of access to food due to low revenues (buying power too weak)
- Lack of access to land and income generating opportunities
- Lack of or poor condition of infrastructures: opportunity for intensive-intensive work
Markets
- Monetization of the local economy
- Availability of food on the markets
- No obstacles for commercial exchanges
- Competitive markets (not held by speculators, free of monopolies) which are integrated between the surplus
zones and the deficient zones
- Capacity and willingness of the merchants to develop their activities (increase offer)
Population
- Population no longer having sufficient buying power to cover their basic needs
- Population without prospects for generating incomes or producing food
- Population capable of working (able-bodied)
- Population located close to the worksites
Logistics/Security:
- Stable situation allowing for medium-term planning
Table 9: Advantages and disadvantages of a distribution program of cash for work
Advantages Disadvantages
Boost of the local economy by increasing
the demand for goods and services
Allows free choice of expenses for the
beneficiaries
Possibility of inducing self-targeting if the
salary rate is low or comparable with daily
labor wages
Possibility of reinforcing the local
capacities (subcontracting the technical
jobs)
Possibility of involving the community by
having them keep the project going and/or
well maintained
Respect of the dignity of the people:
payment for work reduces the effect of
victimization
Less complicated logistics for supplies
Difficult to obtain pertinent targeting, which by necessity
must occur where the project infrastructures are located,
with populations capable of physical work
Few opportunities to include women in the restoration
projects (depending on the local culture)
Difficult to monitor: necessary to use daily presence sheets
Must have technical competence to ensure a minimum
quality of the restoration projects
Difficult to verify the minimum age of the workers
Exclusion of people incapable of physical work (women,
elderly...)
Difficult to obtain permanence of the projects through
maintenance after the close of the project
Risk of inflation if the market supply is insufficient
Risk of competition with agricultural work
Risk of substitution of the role of local authorities
Security risks for cash transportation and management
Greater risk of misappropriation if the distribution is not
direct
Risk of upsetting the work market if the payment is
superior to their minimum wage
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III.2 Coupons (Stamps)
III.2.1 Description
This program consists of providing coupons to households identified as vulnerable. The coupons are valid for a
certain quantity per type of food that the beneficiaries should collect from selected merchants during a given
period.
A contract with ACFIN guarantees that each selected merchant will ensure the supply of necessary foodstuffs for
the beneficiaries in both quantity and quality. The terms of the contract may allow a cash advance to the merchant
to be able to acquire such a supply and a final payment upon presentation of the coupons as proof of having
provided the foodstuffs to the beneficiaries.
In emergency situations, cash distribution as opposed to coupons may be possible in a similar context (see initial
conditions): the advantage here is the rapidity of the implementation (no selection nor contract with sellers) and the
free choice given to the beneficiaries for the products purchased; the disadvantage is the loss of guarantee that the
distribution will cover the food needs in priority. Free distribution of cash has not yet been tested by ACFIN.
Example 7: Food coupon distribution program
NRS Burma, 2003
The Muslim minority suffers discrimination by the Buddhist central government that neglects them from their
economic development plans. Maintained in a state of vulnerability by a system of taxation on the agricultural
production and by forbidding relocation, this community has no prospect of improving their living conditions. At
the slightest change (price increase, drop in self-production, illness), the households can no longer cope without
sacrificing their already minimal food consumption. Even though the hunger gap is accompanied by a price
increase of staple foods, Action Contre la Faim decided to implement the distribution of food coupons to the most
vulnerable households. This coupon could be exchanged with a selected seller under contract with Action Contre la
Faim for 50 kg of rice. Other than the goal of ensuring access to a staple food (which usually constitutes more than
2/3 of household expenses), this system of distribution provided a way achieve this goal while respecting the
dignity of the beneficiaries who went directly to the local stores as if buying the rice with their own money during
the agreed period. The sellers, who were selected based on their capacity to carry out such an operation, benefited
from a contract that guaranteed the sale of certain predetermined quantity. Without any risks, they were easily able
to increase the offer of foodstuffs for the program.
III.2.2 Specific objectives
- Prevent malnutrition by improving access to foodstuffs
- Provide support in terms of revenues, boost the buying power (and increase rights to access) over a very
short term
III.2.3 Desired results
- Improve access by increasing buying power
- Prevent short-term or risky coping mechanisms
- Lessen decapitalization
- Prevent debt
- Support local merchants / retailers and develop local markets
III.2.4 Order of program events
- Identify the needs of the populations (see Chapter 2).
- Target the beneficiaries (see Chapter 4, Section I).
- Determine the ration (value of the coupon) (see Chapter 4, Section III).
- Select the sellers and sign contracts with each seller
17
: (quantity and quality per food item, terms of payment,
procedures for distributing the foodstuffs).
- Register the beneficiaries and distribute the coupons (see Chapter 5).
- Exchange the coupons for foodstuffs during the given period.
- Provide sellers with the final payment at the end of the collection period.
- Verify the quantities actually collected and their use (see Chapter 9).
- Evaluate the impact with regard to the fixed objectives (see Chapter 9).
17
Refer to ACFINs kit log for the procedures on buying and contracting with the local suppliers.
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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III.2.5 Initial conditions
Context
- Lack of access to food due to low revenues and loss of buying power
- Abnormally high or increasing level of malnutrition
Markets
- Inflation
- Food available on the markets
- Capacity and willingness of merchants to develop their activities (increase the offer)
- No obstacles to commercial exchanges
Population
- Population having lost buying power and unable to cover their basic needs
- Population with no prospects over the short term to generate incomes or produce food
- People/family without work capacity
Logistics/Security
- Sufficient capacity of merchants to transport and store
- Capacity to generate multiple contracts
Table 10: Advantages and disadvantages of food coupons
Advantages Disadvantages
Supports the local economic network
Reduces the effects of imports (pressure on local
production)
Simplified logistics (supply managed by the sellers)
Possible flexibility for the choice of foodstuffs by
the beneficiaries
Allows targeting of the most vulnerable populations
Allows beneficiaries to collect the foodstuffs at their
convenience during a given period
Respects dignity by proposing a system which
follows the usual custom of collecting food from the
stores
Lack of viable seller depending on the
geographic zones identified as the most
vulnerable
Risk of inflation by large purchases with
merchants who do not compensate by ordering
more supply
Heavy management and monitoring of
contracts
Impossible to set up in an environment of
dispersed homes (lack of merchants)
Risk of substitution of the social politics of the
local government
Risk of inflation if the offer is not developed
above the needs of the program
III.3 Subsidized sales
III.3.1 Description
The population targeted by this program can buy certain foodstuffs in a limited quantity at a price that is lower than
that on the local markets. Other than the identification of food needs, the calculation of the price takes the current
level and the annual evolution of staple food prices on the local and national markets into account. This type of
intervention is very specific in its application: it is planned from the moment of significant speculations on the
markets during the hunger gaps. This type of program responds to a lack of access to food caused by elevated
prices even though the markets are not competitive and the prices are fixed without a connection between supply
and demand.
By presenting their registration cards at the selling points set up especially for the program, the beneficiaries pay
for their rations directly in cash. The cash generated generally serves as co-financing of the operation itself.
Depending on the terms of the contract with the sponsor, the reinvestment of the income in a longer-term
intervention for the improvement of food security of the populations may be proposed (such as the creation of a
grain bank). The supply source in this type of program should be thoroughly investigated: international aid should
not be monetized through this program; rather, the focus should be on playing a role of periodic regulation of the
prices whenever the local capacities no longer have the means to curb seasonal inflation.
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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Example 8: Subsidized sales program
Kanem Chad, 2001
The semi-desert province of Kanem is traditionally in food deficit, such that, aside from its dune millet and the
market gardening produce raised on the few acres of irrigable land, the markets are supplied by surplus imports
from the southern regions. In this context, the merchants play a prominent role in the food availability in Kanem.
During the hunger gap, the speculative game is in full force and it is not unusual to see the prices double on the
small secondary markets, the only markets accessible to the majority of the households in this environment of
dispersed homes. This inflation provokes a significant loss of buying power of the most vulnerable households who
are forced to reduce their food consumption; the rate of malnutrition increases regularly during this same period.
With the goal of curbing this inflation by restoring access to grains for all the households in the region, Action
Contre la Faim offered each vulnerable household the possibility of buying a fixed quantity of foodstuffs at half the
average market price. The efficacy of the operation required the installation of numerous selling points to ensure
that the entire population could access and benefit from the program. Each selling point was set up in collaboration
with a local committee that then, itself, establishes ties with each village committee to ensure that the diffusion of
the informational campaign. The quantity sold to each household represented less than a months worth of
consumption, but the principle result was the price drop on the markets which led to a global reacquisition of the
buying power of the households.
III.3.2 Specific objectives
- Improve the food security of the population
- Provide support in terms of revenues, boost the buying power (and increase the rights of access) over a very
short term
III.3.3 Desired results
- Improve access by increasing the buying power of the targeted population
- Reduce prices of foodstuffs on the markets and improved access for the entire population
- Prevention of short-term or risky coping mechanisms
- Decrease instance of decapitalization
- Debt prevention
- Stimulation of the local development through the benefits gained by the sale of food products
- Reduce speculation
III.3.4 Program order of events
- Identify the needs of the population (see Chapter 2)
- Identify and register the beneficiaries (see Chapter 4, Section I)
- Determine the foodstuffs and the quantities to provide for the beneficiaries (see Chapter 4, Section III)
- Analyze the buying power and determine the level of subsidization for the selected foodstuffs
- Constitute selling and awareness campaign committees (see Chapter 4, Section V)
- Establish selling points (see Chapter 7)
- Sell foodstuffs at subsidized prices and manage flow (see Chapter 8)
- Verify the quantities actually sold and their use (see Chapter 9)
- Follow the price level on the local markets (see Chapter 9)
- Evaluate the impact with regard to the fixed objectives (see Chapter 9)
III.3.5 Initial Conditions
Context
- Deficit in isolated zone and existence of a surplus zone
- Lack of access to food: loss of buying power due to elevated prices of staple foods
Market
- Merchants involved in speculation games (stocked foodstuffs awaiting market highs)
- Functional but non-competitive markets
- Inflation
Population
- Population no longer having buying power which is sufficient to cover their basic needs
- Population with no prospects of generating incomes or producing food over the short term
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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Table 11: Advantages and disadvantages of subsidized selling
Advantages Disadvantages
Reduction of the effects of dependence,
because of the act of purchasing foodstuffs
Provides a way to control the price of
foodstuffs on the markets, which are
accessible to a population greater than just
the beneficiaries, by reducing market prices
The monetary counterpart could be used to
give a longer-term prospect (financing a
communal stock, for example)
Boost of local economic activities by the
increase in demand
Requires heavy supply logistics
Difficult to follow the financial flow (sales products)
Difficult to subsidize several different type of foodstuffs,
which reduces the impact of the accessibility to food
Supply sources are reduced to only the local surplus
zones
Risk of substituting the government role in price
stabilization
Risk of misappropriation by the merchants (buy from the
beneficiaries at a higher price for re-export)
Difficult to set up in a rural zone where the markets are
small and dispersed
IV Key questions for the choice of program type
The presentation of the different types of programs reveals a wide range of possible interventions. In order to
choose the most appropriate program, certain key questions must be answered, which will show, first of all,
whether the supply must be reinforced by injecting food, or the demand must be reinforced by injecting cash
(Harvey, 2005). Then, depending on the operational constraints (logistical and security limitations), the most
appropriate type of distribution will be easy to determine.
Note:
The complexity of the situations and their rapid evolution could nevertheless require a combination of several types
of parallel or follow-up distribution depending on the specific needs of the targeted population groups.
(See the theoretical example of a combined cash/food distribution in Appendix 6.)
Table 12: Key questions for the choice of program type
Problematics Key Questions How to obtain the response
Needs of the
populations
What is the impact on the sources of food and incomes of
the populations who have suffered the crisis?
What are the coping mechanisms put in place by the
population?
What is the degree of emergency?
What are the preferences of the population with regards
to support in food versus cash?
Semi-structured interviews
and questionnaires
Food availability Is the food available in sufficient quantity and quality at
the local level? At the national level?
Will the seasonal variations influence the food
availability?
Will the roles of the government or other actors influence
the food availability?
What are the foreseeable effects of food injection on
local production?
Semi-structured interviews
and questionnaires
Focus group discussions
with the producers
National statistics
Information on the
government policies
Markets Are they in such a situation as to allow them to increase
the supply of the foodstuffs?
Are the markets open, free of price fixing?
Do the merchants have an interest in increasing the
supply following the crisis?
What effect would there be on the prices depending on
whether cash or food is injected?
Focus group discussions
with the merchants, the
transporters
Market investigation and
price follow-up
Market analysis in the zone
with their connections in the
neighboring zones
Security Is the population threatened if it receives assistance that
makes it more attractive to the combatants?
Interviews with the
population about their
prospects
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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Is the population free to move at will?
Does the tension level allow targeting?
Will the situation remain stable over the medium-term?
What are the risks specific to a cash flow management?
Context analysis
Focus group discussions
with the financial agents
(bankers, merchants, money
changers)
Gender Is there a difference in the conception of the use of food
versus cash between men and women?
Can women be included in the program?
Focus group discussions
with the men and the women
separately
Cost and
capacity
What are the logistical and human resources necessary
for the implementation of the program?
What will the program implementation cost?
Comparative analysis of the
costs of foodstuffs,
transportation, storage, and
human resources among the
different programs
Risks What is the risk of corruption?
What is the risk of manipulation?
What is the risk of upsetting the local economy?
Investigation and interviews
with key informants on the
risks of political corruption
and manipulation
Investigation of food
markets
V Summary
The strategy determines the objectives, the expected results, and the activities to achieve them. The food
aid programs should be complementary to the other humanitarian activities over the short term in such a
way as to obtain the expected results.
All programs must be defined with the monitoring indicators to guarantee the pertinence of the
intervention with regard to the evolution of the needs.
The types of distribution program differ according to whether they respond to a lack of food availability or
a lack of access (loss of buying power) to food. Then, depending on the conditions imposed by the context,
the markets, the type of population to reach, and the security, the choice is determined through weighing
the advantages and disadvantages of each type of program.
The complexity of the different situations demands ongoing reactivity and may require several types of
distribution according to the evolution of the needs and the initial conditions.
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CHAPTER 4 : DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROGRAM
I Targeting the vulnerable population
I.1 Objectives and principles
The analysis performed during the needs assessment should help establish the selection criteria for the beneficiaries
of the program. In this way, depending on the situation and the type of distribution chosen, either the entire
population or just a part of that population may be selected as program beneficiaries. Targeting exists because the
food situation of the people in the same zone is heterogeneous. Distribution can therefore either be general
(organized for the entire population) or targeted to specific groups.
Targeting is essential in order to:
- Ensure that the aid is distributed based on identified needs,
- Prevent any adverse effects of the aid,
- Optimize the use of the resources.
Targeting is an ongoing process and should be checked during and after distribution (see Chapter 9), and modified
when necessary.
Different types of targeting may be employed and used in combination:
Targeting generally begins with zoning which establishes the levels of vulnerability by geographical zone:
which zones are most affected?
The targeted groups may be vulnerable households who are in a socio-economic situation which does not
allow them to respond to their needs self-sufficiently: for example, farmers who have lost their harvest,
breeders who have lost their livestock, displaced persons or refugees, resident families sheltering displaced
persons, families having a lack of sufficient work capacity, etc.
Targeting at the individual level is mostly used for the nutrition programs. However, other than preventing
or treating cases of malnutrition, this type of targeting is generally poorly adapted to reach the people who
are vulnerable in socio-economic terms.
Self-targeting is led entirely by the population itself according to its values and knowledge of each persons
situation. It makes it possible to rely on the traditional mechanisms of internal assistance while reinforcing
them rather than letting them compete against each other. Self-targeting may also be induced depending on
the type of program chosen and based on the opportunity costs of the distributed products (value received
versus the time and/or the effort to receive it).
Targeting defines the needs of the groups identified within the population. Two conditions of effective targeting are
as follows:
The targeting criteria must be clear and verifiable and should allow a practical selection of the population
groups or individuals.
These criteria must be acceptable, well understood, and well accepted by the population and the local
administration.
As the situation and the needs could evolve, targeting may occur during the course of the program by the selection
of certain beneficiaries who continue to receive assistance and by stopping distribution for others. Performing such
targeting should thus be part of the intervention strategy and can represent a step prior to stopping distribution
entirely.
Generally, and in this case in particular, it is critical to give great attention to this operation: misunderstandings,
feelings of injustice, and jealousy can bring tension that could endanger the program or create security issues. The
social and political impact of the targeting is therefore to be taken into careful consideration.
The socio-cultural factors are generally decisive when it comes to the feasibility of targeting and the form that it
could take on: it is important to keep in mind the different perceptions of the affected populations who legitimately
consider the assistance to be an equal right for all whereas the targeting entails a selection based on differentiated
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needs. Whenever a society has a caste system, it is highly likely that the notion of vulnerability will seem strange to
them, all the more so since a traditional redistribution system is perhaps already in place.
Example 9: Criteria for distribution targeting
Chechnya, 2004
After several years of general distribution in the southern regions of Chechnya, Action Contre la Faim effected a
change in methods in order to eliminate the adverse effects of this food aid, especially the reselling of certain
foodstuffs that upset the commercial exchanges of this zone with the zones of the North and of Daghestan. In order
to target the most vulnerable households, successive food security assessments were performed to determine that
the working force within the households was the determining factor for vulnerability. In order to translate this
factor into objective and acceptable criteria, composition analyses were carried out on typically very vulnerable
families. As a result, only the monoparental families and families of five or more members were eligible to receive
the food rations.
Different targeting methodologies can be developed: geographic targeting, or on an individual or household level.
It is also possible to establish no criteria at all but to leave the community to carry out self-selection. Generally,
targeting often has better chances of functioning whenever the community actively participates in the process from
the beginning, in order to better adapt the process to their unique situation.
I.2 Geographic targeting
By nature, targeting occurs in the initial stages of program development through the selection of the most
vulnerable zones. Zoning determines the levels of vulnerability in order to identify the zones most affected by the
crisis. This type of targeting is thus systematically applied and is itself based on objective criteria.
After the preliminary assessments, more precise geographic targeting is performed to determine the situation at the
village level according to the consequences of the adverse events: access to commercial axes, amount of production
or livestock, degree of the destruction of infrastructures, access to water, rates of morbidity and malnutrition, etc.
(See the book, Food Security Assessments and Surveillance, for more information concerning the methodology of
zoning.)
In the cases of distribution in exchange for work, targeting at the village level is the crucial step because by its very
nature, the work should be communal and will require the participation of people coming from this community. It
can also be difficult to get people who are exterior to the beneficiary community to come work on the restoration
project. In a later step, zoning is crossed with the selection of a specific population group in the chosen zone.
Example 10: Geographic targeting for general distribution
Chechnya, 2000
In the same targeted distribution program presented in Example 9, the initial general distribution was based on
geographic targeting: after the Chechen conflict was reopened (1999), the consequences of the crisis were fairly
heterogeneous in the country: the almost unaffected northern zone had practically no destruction, the population
remaining stable, and the economic activities continuing relatively normally.
The central zone (Grozny and the plains zone) was the most severely affected by the conflict with severe
destruction of infrastructures and homes, large-scale population movements (towards Ingushetia especially), and
heavily upset economic activities. For these reasons, almost all the humanitarian aid was concentrated on this zone.
The southern mountainous zone was also affected in lesser proportions due to the population being more dispersed
and the access paths being more difficult. The population had moved relatively little. The living conditions were
degraded due to the fact that it was impossible to continue most of the economic and agricultural activities. The
absence of humanitarian actors operating in this zone, except in the medical domain, was the supplemental reason
that led Action Contre la Faim to decide to carry out general food distributions for the entire population of this
zone.
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I.3 Individual targeting
Anthropometrical data (height/weight ratio) provide an objective basis for the selection of people. The nutritional
programs systematically function with this type of criteria. Food aid usually does not follow this type of criteria
because it is sufficient to widen the cover of the nutritional programs to complement the aid within the population.
In emergency situations, some population groups are more vulnerable to the risk of malnutrition. For example,
children can be identified as a particularly vulnerable group with easily identifiable objective criteria (see Example
11, below). Similarly, targeting pregnant and nursing women is relatively easy to do and corresponds to a
vulnerable population group in situations of food crisis because their status requires nutritional needs in quality and
quantity that are above average. This type of targeting usually complements the emergency nutritional programs on
a temporary basis (a few months).
Finally, through the existing social institutions, it is possible to reach groups of vulnerable individuals such as
hospital patients or orphans, if there are identified food needs. Similarly, schools can be used to reach the class of
children over five years old if it has been shown that they are more affected by the crisis than other classes of the
population.
Beyond these types of normal targeting, it is usually difficult to target individual members of the household, for
example, elderly or handicapped people. The fact that they do not have the capacity to work and thus lack direct
access to food does not imply that they are more vulnerable, depending on how they are taken care of by their
family or the community. For this reason, it is often recommended to carry out targeting rather at the household
level.
Example 11: Individual targeting of children less than 5 years old
Darfur Sudan, 2005
In a situation of nutritional crisis provoked by a severe lack of food availability, food aid activities aimed to cover
all the children under 5 years old, a class of the population that is particularly vulnerable to the risk of acute
malnutrition. Here, the identification may be performed by the verification of the identity papers, but in most
intervention contexts, this is rarely feasible. It becomes necessary to depend on identification by height so as to
remain the most objective and efficient: on average, a child under 5 is less than 110 cm tall. Usually, this objective
selection criterion is easily accepted by the affected populations.
I.4 Household targeting
The vulnerable households must be distinguished from those which have a specific food need. Although generally
the two categories coincide, the objective of the program sometimes entails targeting a predetermined category.
For example, if the impact of an agricultural rehabilitation program is reinforced by protecting the seeds through
the distribution of food rations, the targeted households are necessarily farming households; these may not
necessarily be the most vulnerable, though, compared to the households without access to land or other economic
opportunities.
Socio-economic analyses of the population identify the vulnerability factors that may be used to establish the
typology of the population according to their levels of vulnerability. However, it can be difficult in practice to
impose certain socio-economic criteria coming from the food security assessment (such as income levels or the
type of work, the surface area of the cultivated land, or the size of livestock herds). It is rarely possible to verify
such criteria, and the risks of inclusion and exclusion
18
are high. The choice of the criteria to be applied, according
to the results of our analyses, should be decided together with the concerned populations. Finding a good
compromise by involving the populations in the process minimizes the risks of inclusion/exclusion by making them
responsible for such risks.
Often, it is possible to redefine the simple and objective criteria which more or less confirm the results of the food
security assessment. For example, the composition of the households and the ratio of active workers / family size
18
The inclusion risk is that of integrating people among the beneficiaries even though their situation does not require it. By contrast, the exclusion risk is that
of not helping people who should be among the beneficiaries because their type of needs could be covered by the program.
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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can demonstrate the vulnerability level of monoparental families, female headed households or even large families
having few active members capable of work (children, handicapped members, elderly).
To protect against an inflation of the number of eligible households, it is possible to set a maximum proportion of
beneficiaries. This proportion should come from the analytical results and focus on the most vulnerable households
among the population, who should be receiving our aid. (See an example of indicators to establish the different
socio-economic vulnerabilities during the distribution program in North Moluku, Indonesia (2002), in Appendix
7.)
Note:
Household targeting based on medical criteria remains problematic even though it is often proposed in pandemic
situations such as HIV/AIDS. The vulnerability of a household is not directly related to whether or not it is affected
by HIV/AIDS. Targeting only those households affected by the virus results in the exclusion of numerous
vulnerable households. It is preferable, therefore, to base the targeting on socio-economic criteria with the
hypothesis that the households affected by HIV/AIDS and made vulnerable due to the lack of work force within the
family will be covered by the distribution program.
I.5 Self targeting
I.5.1 Led by the population
Few programs have been used this process, even though it carries the great advantage of placing the responsibility
on the populations, who best know who should benefit in priority from food aid. Most often, the difficulty is in
obtaining a relationship of mutual confidence between the teams and the community representatives. This
relationship of confidence should be constructed around a common interest: optimizing the impact of the program.
Sharing and agreeing on the needs analysis and the objectives to be attained through targeting should be the first
step with the community representatives. They should then be able to choose, completely transparently, the priority
households for assistance according to their knowledge of the reality of each household as well as they means of
livelihood and their ability to cope with the crisis. It is important to remember that their prospects and their values
may be different from those of ACFIN. Moreover, the community naturally will take the existing, traditional
solidarity system into account and could legitimately wish to reinforce that. As a verification exercise, the criteria
and the arguments presented by the community representatives should later be verified.
I.5.2 Results from the type of distribution:
In each case, the results of self-targeting are influenced by how attractive the populations find the distributed ration,
which must be optimally decided (see chapter 4, section III).
The distribution of food coupons could induce self-selection of the people with the greatest need whenever the
program has a limited quantity and the staple foods are not very attractive because they have little resale value.
Distribution of basic cooked meals (open canteens) is a similar case. The beneficiaries must actually go to the
canteen site on a daily basis and often wait several hours to obtain the meal, and these inconveniences discourage
those who have less need (their opportunity costs are too high).
Food or Cash for work programs could be a strategy to reach the most needy who are motivated to obtain rations
equivalent to the value of the lowest market salary in exchange for physical work. Generally the for work programs
are not very technical and often laborious, thus inducing even further the self-targeting.
II Selecting work-exchange projects
The restoration projects should be seen above all as contributing to the improvement of food security in the targeted
zone, and their identification should be the result of a socio-economic assessment of the zone (existing and
potential commercial pathways between the deficit and surplus zones, for example). The restoration projects
inherent to the distribution for work programs should be the result of a selection process and the expected impact of
the restoration sector is just as important as that of the cover of the food need. The primary objective of this process
is to choose the most pertinent project.
The next step is to ensure the feasibility of the project and its appropriateness to the human, financial, and logistical
means. The purely technical definition of the projects will not be discussed here, because by definition each project
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will be specific to an intervention zone and this domain stems most often from an expertise in civil engineering.
Based on experience, the types of restoration projects for work may be but are not limited to:
- Road restoration (widening, protection, gutters, reinforcement)
- Bridge restoration
- Restoration of public social buildings: schools, health centers
- Restoration of dykes, protection walls
- Restoration / cleaning of canals
- Restoration of irrigation structures
- Digging a water reservoir
- Cleaning and evacuating debris (following a natural catastrophe or conflict)
- Clearing and cleaning of arable land
II.1 Specifications of the project
This step is used to determine the necessary resources for realizing the project and verifying its feasibility. The
following different aspects of the project must be specified:
Information on the location of the project and the characteristics of the vulnerability of the concerned
villages (degree of destruction, level of agricultural production, situation of isolation, etc.). Establishing a
map that presents the entire project is recommended.
Information on the concerned population: total number of households for each village, typology and
proportion according to the level of vulnerability to crosscheck with the geographical targeting information
of the zone.
The technical characteristics of the project. For example, for the roads, the length, width, and surface depth,
and the different tasks to be performed: excavation, banking up, compaction; for canals, the length and the
width at the base, etc.
An estimation of the volume of work in man-day units: for each type of task the number of days necessary
for completion of that task per person should be estimated. This estimation should be realistic and be
established in agreement with the local personnel and population. Through this estimation, payment per
task can be established by multiplying the number of fixed days for that task by the determined daily salary
(see Chapter 4, Sections III.4.4 and III.5 and refer to Appendix 8 which provides an example of the
payment ratio in food according to different tasks.)
An estimation of the number of qualified workers (excluding the salaried team) and a description of the
tasks allocated to them. (Most often these are team leaders and technicians: masons, carpenters, surveyors.)
Workers may have to be selected through a certain process. According to the cover of food needs that is
given as an objective, the maximum duration per worker may be fixed. Consequently, the number of
workers needed to realize the project can be determined: if this exceeds the number of potential candidates
participating in the project, it will be necessary to establish selection rules (see Section I.5.2).
It is recommended to include a supplemental allocation dedicated to the vulnerable families which cannot
participate in the project due to their physical inability to do so (absence of working force in addition to
vulnerability criteria).
The minimum age of the workers should be set according to the national law in order to prevent child
labor.
The timetable of the project which establishes the calendar for all the activities: supply of material,
registration of the workers, realization of the projects, worksite monitoring, distribution, verification of the
use of the food or cash distributed.
II.2 Confirmation of the project: the villagers contract
A distribution for work program requires heavy implication of the beneficiary populations to ensure that they adopt
the program as their own and see it perpetuated. The collective quality of the projects means there must be a pre-
established agreement between the representatives of the beneficiary populations (village authorities) and ACFIN.
The final phase of the work project selection process is thus the signing of a contract (written and translated)
between the representatives of each concerned village and ACFIN.
The terms of the contract should at the very minimum specify the following points:
- The rules for the selection of workers
- The number of days and workers necessary
- All the tasks to be performed
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- The pay level for each type of task
- The frequency of the payments
- The payment procedure, according to the verification of the projects progress
(See Appendix 9 for an example of a villagers contract for a food for work distribution program.)
III Determining the ration to be distributed
III.1 Minimum needs of an individual
The ration should be established on the basis of a needs and food habits assessment of the populations by the
Action Contre la Faim nutritionists and technicians in food security.
III.1.1 Macro-nutrient needs
The minimum food needs of an individual vary in quantity and in quality, depending on age, health, types of
activities, living conditions, climate, etc. However, as it became necessary to calculate average nutritional
requirements without taking all the individual variations into account, the following norms have been established
(adapted from the standard WHO/SPHERE):
2,100 calories per person, per day,
10 to 15 % of the total energy stemming from proteins,
20 to 30 % from lipids
55 to 70 % from carbohydrates
Particular attention is given to the amount of lipids, which should be defined according to:
- The activity level of the targeted populations
- The health status of the targeted populations (pregnant or nursing women)
- Climate / temperature (in colder climates, more energy provided by lipids is necessary)
III.1.2 Micronutrient needs
19
The micronutrients are usually forgotten in the food aid baskets where traditionally the actors are concentrating on
the supply of macronutrients. However, this presupposes that the populations have a diversified diet with
continuous access to fresh fruits and vegetables. The reality is obviously different whenever the populations are
suffering from a crisis and they no longer have access to this natural food resource, such as when displaced (or
refugee) populations are assembled in camps, cut off from food markets and gathering sources: they initially
depend entirely on exterior aid. However, the absence of vitamins and minerals in a diet over a two- to four-week
period could cause death, and even today there are still epidemics (scurvy, pellagra, beriberi) that are due entirely
to deficiencies in micronutrients.
For these reasons, it is imperative to consider micronutrients in a separate category as a component of the food
basket whenever the need is shown: absence of fruits and vegetables in the populations diet. The goal is to provide
at least the minimum requirements as defined by the SPHERE standard (see Appendix 10).
To prevent deficits in micronutrients, the food basket should be improved by one or more of the following:
Supply in fresh fruits and vegetables
Fortification of certain foodstuffs (vitamins A&D fortified oil, mixed flour such as Corn-Soy Blend (CSB)
or Unimix, custom fortified legumes or cereals depending on the specific needs)
Supply in products concentrated in vitamins and minerals (called condiments) such as Sprinkle, TopNutri,
or QBmix.
Supply of vitamin and/or mineral pills (tablets)
19
The micronutrients are the vitamins and minerals essential for good human health; they are found in food in its natural state.
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Table 13: Advantages and disadvantages of different products rich in micronutrients
Products Advantages Disadvantages
Fresh fruits and
vegetables
Supply most of the essential
micronutrients
Provide a nutritional response to a
nutritional problem
Could boost local production and
markets
Easily integrated into the food
habits of the population
Very difficult to manage in logistical
terms (very short shelf life)
Limited supply sources for large
quantities
Risk of upsetting the local markets
Season-dependent availability
Mixed and fortified
flours
(CSB, UNIMIX,
SP450 etc.)
Provide nutritional balance (in
macro- and micronutrients)
Supply the essential micronutrients
Provide a nutritional response to a
nutritional problem
Source of curative treatment
Relatively long shelf life (1 year)
Often available through
international suppliers
Expensive (3 to 5 times the price of
normal flour)
Prevent local supply of cereals in
particular
Do not meet the minimum
requirements for all the
micronutrients
Fortified foodstuffs
(cereals, legumes,
oil, salt) in vitamin
A, iron, calcium,
thiamine, niacin,
riboflavin, iodine
Provide cover specific to needs
Provide a nutritional response to a
nutritional problem
Relatively long shelf life (1 year)
Could (technically) easily be
produced by international
suppliers
Long delay in setting up production
Prevent supply on the local markets
(requires a long-term investment to
ensure the quality and durability)
The impact depends on the
preparation method for certain heat-
sensitive micronutrients
Protein biscuits
(BP5, NRG5)
Nutritionally balanced (macro- and
micronutrients)
Supply the essential micronutrients
Provide a nutritional response to a
nutritional problem
Easy to manage in logistical terms
Easy to distribute (appropriate
packaging)
Very expensive
Never available on the local markets
Attractive to combatants
Condiments
(industrialized
products
concentrated in
vitamins and
minerals, such as
Sprinkle, Top Nutri,
QBmix)
Cover most of the needs in
micronutrients
Provide a nutritional response to a
nutritional problem
No risk of overdose
Easy to manage in logistical terms
Possible to supply locally if the
rest of the ingredients of the ration
(cereal, legumes, oil) are supplied
locally
May be expensive
The impact depends on the
preparation method and precise
measurements
Acceptance by the populations has
yet to be tested
Require an awareness campaign and
verification of the use
Pills/tablets
(vitamin C, vitamin
A, Folic acid,
multivitamins
Easy to distribute from a logistical
point of view
Give rapid impact for the
deficiency
Could have a life-saving curative
impact
Possible to respond to a specific
deficiency (of a specific vitamin or
mineral)
Often affordable and available
Must follow a specific protocol
Dangerous risk of overdose for
certain micronutrients
No impact over the medium term
and does not respond to causes
Creates the impression that a
deficiency in micronutrients is a
medical problem
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Example 12: Distribution of a vitamin-C-enriched food basket
Ghor - Afghanistan, 2002
The Ghor province in Afghanistan is cut off from the rest of the country during the winter period. As in the
majority of the country, in 2002, this rural region experienced its third consecutive year of drought. At the end of
winter, an investigation was carried out to explain the hundreds of declared deaths following similar symptoms:
painful joints, paralysis of the lower extremities, ecchymosis of the legs, gingivitis, bleeding diarrhea. The results
of the investigation confirmed that it was a scurvy epidemic, due to a lack of vitamin C in the populations diet. At
the time of the investigation, the number of scurvy cases was dropping significantly. The population was once
again able to access wild plants and an herb, particularly rich in vitamin C, which was used in their daily tea.
However, the effects of the disease continued to be perceived by the population as a consequence of the cold. At
the beginning of the following winter, the lack of food availability was evident: it was once again caused by
another drought which prevented their having sufficient food stocks. Action Contre la Faim therefore decided to
carry out a general distribution in the entire province for the estimated 210,000 people, in complement to the wheat
distributed by other actors. The objective was to offer a better nutritional balance by distributing a food basket of
lentils, oil, and iodized salt for the adults, and CSB and sugar for the children. Above all, the desired result was to
prevent a new epidemic because the continued adverse conditions (lack of access to micronutrient sources). The
first option considered was to add cans of tomato sauce to the ration because this product, reputedly rich in vitamin
C, is well known and accepted by the population. The results of the analyses of the different tomato sauces
available from local and foreign (European) suppliers showed that vitamin C was virtually absent in their products.
With the precious little time remaining before the beginning of winter, a decision was finally made to complement
the ration with vitamin C tablets. At the distribution points, the beneficiaries were received in groups inside a tent
to inform them of the risks and causes of scurvy and to explain the dosages. The post-distribution investigation
showed that this information had been well respected. There was no scurvy epidemic that year. Continuing towards
this same objective, ACF led market gardening programs the following year in order to contribute to the improved
diversification of the populations diet.
III.2 Complete or complementary food basket?
Except for specific cases of population displacement (people no longer being able to have direct access to
foodstuffs), the population affected by a crisis is often still equipped with a way to find within its own resources a
part of the food that it needs. It is difficult, practically speaking, to precisely determine what additional part is
necessary, all the more so since even if the population is able to find a part of its resources itself, it can often
compromise the familys food security over the long term (for example, decapitalization of livestock, migration,
etc.).
Despite this difficulty, it is necessary to estimate the foodstuffs available to the potential aid beneficiaries. The
following must be taken into account:
The possibilities of acquiring foodstuffs on the market, income generating opportunities, and coping
mechanisms set in action
The potential from gathering and the access to plants and wild animals,
The seasonality of the agricultural production, the populations access to these production means.
Whenever the populations have access to other food sources, a decision may be made to reduce the rationfor
example in halfby considering that it acts as a complement to other resources. With the same logic, a decision
may be made to supply only oil and legumes if the availability and access to cereals is sufficient(see Example 12
above). In these cases, the food basket provided will not be considered to be nutritionally balanced without
integrating the estimation of the cereal resources of the population.
III.3 Food basket contents
Once the necessary nutritional requirements have been estimated, the foodstuffs must be selected. In order to do
this effectively, the following elements must be taken into consideration:
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Local availability of foodstuffs and potential impact of local purchases on the market,
Food habits and the acceptance of these foods and their preparation methods by the population
20
,
The nutritional quality and supply of these foodstuffs
21
,
The quantity of fuel necessary to prepare them,
The targeted population: for the children less than 5 years old, it is sufficient to provide foodstuffs that may
be cooked into a porridge. In zones where there is a high prevalence of HIV/AIDS, very high-calorie foods
should be provided to palliate the loss of appetite and facilitate preparation with minimum physical effort
(cereals in flour form rather than grain form, for example),
The maximum number of different foodstuffs, according to our capacity, to be distributed in the
appropriate conditions
The monetary equivalent of the chosen foodstuffs whenever self-selection of beneficiaries is induced or
whenever economic support of the households is indicated
In principle, milk is excluded from the composition of food baskets
The distribution of milk could easily discourage breastfeeding that is otherwise supported by the ACFIN
nutrition programs. If a woman stops breastfeeding, it could have harmful consequences on her childs health
(poorer milk quality, possible contamination of the added water, poorly washed bottles) and can create a
dependence on expensive products that must be purchased after the distribution program has ended. Without
strict monitoring of the mothers use of milk, it is not conceivable to distribute this product.
It is also necessary to know the national or local politics set in action by the authorities concerning foodstuffs,
especially the practices of subsidized or imposed prices.
The identification of the most appropriate foodstuffs is realized through semi-structured interviews with key
informants, women in priority, as well as through a study of the local markets and the flow of foodstuffs
(production, imports and exports in the zone). Interviews with local merchants and transporters may also prove
useful.
Post-distribution monitoring (PDM) provides useful elements for possible readjustment of the food basket (see
Chapter 9, Section 2): How is the received food basket used: consumed, resold, etc.? How effectively has the food
basket covered the food needs? What is the impact of the distribution on local production or the local market?
III.4 Calculating the food basket according to type of distribution
The composition of the food baskets may be easily calculated by using the Nutcalc software that is based on a
standard table of the nutritional characteristics of each kind of foodstuff. The quantities for each food resulting
from this calculation should precisely establish the nutritional and caloric supply of the ration corresponding to the
programs objective.
It is important to take into account the quantities actually available to the families: especially for cereals, if they are
supplied in grain form, the beneficiaries must grind them; an estimated 10% of the quantity is lost on average
during this process, plus an additional percentage given as payment to the miller where applicable. In this case, the
quantity should be reconsidered and raised to within the theoretical norms to compensate for these losses,
depending on whether a miller must be paid or not. This information is verified during the post-distribution
monitoring phase.
Whenever the distributed food is in grain form and is suspected of containing genetically modified organisms
(GMO), ACFIN takes action to ensure that this grain cannot be used to agricultural ends (see Chapter 4, Section
IV.4). If there is such a risk, the grain must be ground. The quantities per ration will be calculated for the ground
foodstuff and not in grain form.
Note:
Calculations are always based on the supply of an individual daily ration that is then projected over the duration of
the distribution cycle. If a decision is later made in favor of family food baskets, the calculations should correspond
20
In a canteen, the meal should be tested, and the opinions of the beneficiaries and the cooks should be collected.
21
Protein is principally supplied in meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, and legumes; the latter are generally chosen for their low price and their facilitated
logistical management (dry material). Lipids are supplied in all the animal or vegetable oils; the latter are generally very easily available. Carbohydrates are
principally found in the cereals. Micronutrients are supplied principally in fruits and vegetables (see Choice of Food Basket below).
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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to the number of individuals within each household, with each member receiving an equal portion. In emergency
cases, with the goal of accelerating the onset of distributions, it may be necessary to establish a standard per-family
food basket depending on the average family size. This distribution scheme should be temporary except for the
distribution for work program that are not adapted to a system of paying each worker according to the size of his
family (see Chapter 6 for more details).
III.4.1 Complete food basket
A complete food basket should comprise of at least 2100 kcal/day/person and be nutritionally balanced.
Table 14: Example of complete food baskets
Foodstuff Daily ration (g) Monthly ration (kg)
Food Basket 1: Classic
White flour 400 12.00
Vegetable oil 45 1.35
Lentils 120 3.60
Iodized salt 5 0.15
Total 570 g 17.10 Kg
Energy = 2125 Kcal
from lipids = 22.2 % (52.4 g)
from proteins = 12.6 % (66.8 g)
Food Basket 2 with ingredients for children
Sorghum 400 12.00
Vegetable oil 40 1.20
Dry beans 80 2.40
Mixed flour (CSB) 40 1.20
Sugar 10 0.30
Iodized salt 5 0.15
Total 575 g 17.25 Kg
Energy = 2138 KCal
from lipids = 23.6 % (56 g)
from proteins = 12.6 % (67.5 g)
The two food baskets described in the above example represent a complete and balanced daily needs cover for an
individual in terms of macronutrients (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins). They are generally used initially in
emergency situations where the affected populations have no other source of access to food. Food basket 2 is more
adapted to cover the needs of young children (under 5 years old) within the family through the presence of mixed
flour and sugar so as to prepare a porridge.
These food baskets can be complemented with products rich in micronutrients if necessary (see Section III.1.2).
III.4.2 Children under 5 years old food basket
It is difficult to rule on the caloric content of a food basket for children under 5 years old. Their needs are very
variable depending on their age, and it is not acceptable to establish one food basket corresponding to the average
age because it would be insufficient for the older children in this category. It is thus necessary to consider at least
the needs of a five year-old child, which is about 1250 Kcal/day. However, it is recommended to increase this
estimation to 1500 Kcal/day to take into account the significant risk that the ration will be shared with brothers and
sisters who are older than 5 and will not have additional food assistance.
Table 15: Example of food baskets for children under 5 years old
Foodstuff Daily ration (g) Bimonthly ration (kg) Monthly ration (kg)
Mixed flour CSB 260 3.90 7.80
Vegetable oil 35 0.53 1.05
Sugar 60 0.90 1.80
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Total 355 5.33 10.65
Energy = 1540 KCal
from lipids = 29.6 % (50.6 g)
from proteins = 12.2 % (46.8 g)
This food basket may be distributed in a premixed, cooked, or dry form. (See below the comparison chart of
advantages and disadvantages of these three forms of the food basket.) For the cooked ration, the cooking method
in a canteen setting (adding water) must be taken into consideration for the calculation of the final portion of the
cooked meal to be given to the beneficiaries. (See Appendix 11 for an example of a recipe to prepare porridges in a
50-litre pot.)
Table 16: Advantages and disadvantages of the different types of food baskets
Advantages Disadvantages
Mixed
ration
The women can collect the food basket
more quickly and continue their daily
activities
The distribution cycles can be once a
week or once every two weeks, and
daily activities can be continued
There is less embarrassment when meal
preparation is still the mothers
responsibility
The ration may be prepared at the same
time as the family meal
No control over who consumes the
ration
No control over how the ration is
used
The food basket could be resold or
exchanged on the market
Requires distribution at least every
two weeks (shelf-life of the ration)
The ration could cause diarrhea if
not consumed within 2 weeks
Cooked
ration
The nutritional balance of the meal is
ensured as well as the quality of the
water used in its preparation
Strong chance that the ration will be
consumed by the targeted beneficiary
Induced effect of self-targeting of the
most vulnerable households
Weak market value (attractiveness) of
the ration, which prevents predation risk
No additional fuel expenses for the
family
Increased feelings of
embarrassment which may prevent
certain households from coming to
the canteen
The collection time is longer
Upsets the daily activity schedule
Dry ration
The women can collect the ration more
quickly and continue their daily
activities
Distribution times do not affect ongoing
daily activities
Reduced feelings of embarrassment
The ration may be prepared at the same
time as the family meal
The shelf life is longer, which makes it
possible to have less frequent
distribution
No control over who consumes the
ration
No control over how the ration is
used
The ration could be resold or
exchanged on the market
Increased predation risk
III.4.3 Ration of protein biscuits
In acute emergencies, the most efficient distribution is the use of protein biscuits (BP-5 or NRG-5), which alone
provide a balanced ration (33.6% of energy from lipids and 12.9% from proteins). The distribution should be
accompanied with an awareness campaign on the use and possible preparation of the biscuits: in emergencies it is
recommended to distribute a simple note in the local language with a few illustrations to ensure good
comprehension for everyone.
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This product can be prepared into a porridge for children and can thus be consumed by all the age groups. Another
great advantage is that this product does not require preparation for its consumption, (other than something to drink
as the biscuits are fairly dry and difficult to swallow). The packaging has been studied so as to obtain the daily
rations corresponding to the nutritional needs:
One box contains 500 grams, in the form of 9 individually wrapped bars. Each bar is made up of two biscuits.
The caloric value of one box is 2275 Kcal, which is equivalent to the needs for one (active) adult for one day.
The caloric value of one bar is 253 Kcal.
In this way, it is easy to calculate the number of boxes or bars according to the ration to be provided. For example,
a complementary ration covering half the nutritional needs over a period of one week requires distribution of three
boxes and five bars.
III.4.4 For work ration or salary rate
Although the cash and food distribution programs are carried out in different situations, determining the daily
ration (salary rate) follows the same logic: the food value of the daily salary rate is considered in its monetary
equivalent according to the price of foodstuffs on the local market.
This salary rate is determined based on three conditions:
The salary rate should be maintained at a level which is inferior to that practiced on the work market so
as to not deviate the economic actors from their traditional activities and create inflation. Sufficiently
low level, but acceptable salaries can result in self-selection of the most needy workers. This criterion
is predominant when the local economy is monetized and especially so for the salary rates in cash
form.
The rate should be sufficient to cover the identified food needs (depending on the price of foodstuffs on
the local market). This criterion is predominant when the economy is poorly monetized or not
monetized and especially so for the salaries in food form.
The rate should be slightly superior to the revenues obtained by the risky coping mechanisms adopted
by the populations, such as collecting firewood, for example, so that the program is profitable for the
worker.
One supplemental criterion could be added: the responsibility and competence level (for the team leaders), which
may correspond to a higher amount. Even so, take care to maintain a pay scale of not more than two levels
(qualified and non-qualified workers) to keep the system manageable.
It should be noted that for this type of distribution, it is not possible to distribute rations per worker according to the
size of his family. As is true for the determination of all rations, the salary rate will be determined according to
market survey (cost of labor, price of foodstuffs) and semi-structured interviews with the affected households
(adopted coping mechanisms) and key informants (economic actors: merchants, craftsmen, farmers, government
workers, etc.).
III.5 Time period covered by each food basket
Once the daily requirements to be supplied have been defined, the frequency of food basket distribution is
established. Based on the examples above, it may be decided to supply certain food baskets monthly if the goal is to
cover all the needs, or every two months if covering only half the needs. Ideally the food baskets will be fractioned
as little as possible for logistical reasons. Depending on the access constraints (such as the rainy season or
dispersed homes), a food basket covering several months may be distributed if is not possible to access the
distribution points more frequently than that.
The disadvantages for the beneficiaries should also be considered: the total weight of the provided food basket
could become a veritable constraint for its transportation. For example, a monthly ration for one person could
weigh 17 kg. If a decision is made to distribute a food basket covering a family of five people over a period of two
months, this would mean this family would have to transport approximately 170 kg of food back to their home. It is
recommended to consider the price of transportation because the beneficiaries generally pay this by giving a certain
percentage of the ration. In this case, it is preferable to either increase the ration to include the necessary payment
proportion or organize transport for the family. In conclusion, a fair compromise must be made between the
advantages and disadvantages:
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Table 17: Advantages and disadvantages of the time periods covered by the food baskets
Duration Advantages Disadvantages
Short
(bimonthly or
less)
Each distribution is performed more
rapidly (less volume at each cycle)
and its organization is easier
The beneficiaries have smaller
quantities which are easier to
transport
Predation risk is reduced (less
attractive rations)
Greater flexibility when the delivery
flow is strained (or even uncertain)
Much more time allocated to the
collection of the food basket for the
beneficiaries
Significantly greater organizational
requirements for distribution and
monitoring
Could incite the beneficiaries to migrate
to the distribution points
Long
(monthly or
more)
More appropriate when the
beneficiaries have long distances to
travel or farming activities to carry
out
Less effort and less cost for the
implementation of the program
Each distribution takes more time
The beneficiaries could have to pay for
transportation and/or storage for their
food basket
Risk of reselling certain higher-priced
foodstuffs
Greater risk of predation
In the case of premixed food baskets (oil/CSB/sugar), the amount of food per beneficiary is calculated for two
weeks maximum: beyond this time, the oil mixed with the flour turns the ration rancid and makes it likely to cause
diarrhea. Distribution should be carried out at least twice a month. For the fresh products that are difficult to
conserve during the summer months or in hotter climates, it is preferable to supply the canteen with fresh products
on a weekly basis.
For the distribution for work programs, it is advised to set up payments based on the completion of tasks. The
workers are informed that they will be paid once the task has been completed within a certain deadline. This
deadline per task results in the realistic and reasonable estimation (often established with the help of local
personnel), which helps determine a predefined hourly rate. For the program, this method of payment minimizes
the risk of disturbing the project schedule. If the work is finished earlier, the workers have the option of performing
a supplemental task to increase their salaries. This approach presents the advantage of maintaining the principle of
the opportunity cost of the work, while allowing the workers who have a greater need for cash to be able to earn it.
Even so, it sometimes happens that it is preferable to set a maximum working time, after which time the worker
should hand over his place to other beneficiaries so as to widen the program cover.
In this way, each worker (of the same level) will receive the same ration; this could present a problem in certain
situations where large families are most vulnerable. Two options are possible in this case: increase the number of
family members eligible to participate for the large families (going from one to two, for example), and/or allow the
workers belonging to large families have a longer time limit. (See Appendix 8 for an example of food for work
food baskets according to the tasks.)
The definition of a food basket will be defined on the basis of nutritional needs and the analysis of food security,
but it must also conform with our capacity to acquire, transport, store, and distribute the chosen foodstuffs within
the fixed deadlines and with the desired quantities, which could lead us to reconsider the quality or quantity of the
food initially selected.
III.6 Choosing the right packaging
Minor variations of the food basket can be planned for practical purposes related to packaging constraints. For
example, a ration of 90 cl of oil could be increased to one liter in order to distribute the oil in its original bottle. In
the same way, we have seen that the packaging of protein biscuits was especially studied so as to obtain ready-to-
distribute and ready-to-eat rations. Similarly, combining the foodstuffs into a carton or a packet (kit) is a factor of
speed and efficiency in the distribution process. This system is advantageous for the simplicity of the distribution
structure required; it is especially interesting in cases of security problems or when rapid distribution is called for.
However, pre-packaged rations require advanced preparation for the repackaging of the foodstuffs and are
expensive to realize (cost of packaging in materials and labor).
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When the purchases are made by Action Contre la Faim, it could be worthwhile to negotiate kit packaging by the
supplier. If this is not possible, a repackaging assembly line could be set up.
Another problem of a kit is its fragility, especially when it contains foodstuffs in fragile containers. This is the case
of plastic oil bottles that run the risk of leaking onto other foodstuffs or of breaking. Working upstream from the
packaging, for example establishing with the supplier a reinforced container for the oil, could prevent such
problems all along the supply chain and during distribution. The blending of the kit with a distribution of certain
additional foodstuffs is also a way to prevent this type of problem.
Another advantage of the kit is the management and the monitoring of the stocks and the flow because only one
article must be inventoried.
Whenever distribution by kit is not possible, it is necessary to distribute the foodstuffs in individual packets per
type of foodstuff, which requires setting up an appropriate distribution circuit and the practice of scooping for loose
food item distribution. Another possible method is distribution by group, which provides a good compromise. This
refers to having several food baskets grouped together in sacks, tins, and/or cartons depending on the original
packaging of each type of foodstuff (see Chapter 7, Section II).
IV Supply logistics
The question of the supply of foodstuffs to be distributed is an integral part of the definition of the program because
it determines not only which foodstuffs it will be possible to distribute but also when the distributions may begin
and where they may take place. The objective is to have planned the logistics before hand so that the procurement
process can begin as soon as the start of the program has been confirmed. Without this anticipation and the
effective coordination between the logistics and food security teams, the intervention would lose precious time
from its very beginning, which would result in diminished impact.
IV.1 Internal organization and coordination
See figure 2 for the general distribution of the roles of the logistics and food security teams. The specifics of a food
distribution program make up, through their good coordination of various actions, an undeniable stake in the
success of the intervention. The logistical chain from the purchase to the distribution should be established for large
quantities of foodstuffs, in contexts that are often difficult due to inadequate infrastructure and transportation. In
emergency situations the supply deadlines are determined to guarantee the positive impact of the intervention.
Therefore, it is necessary to be able to plan and manage the different logistical activities in a fast and efficient
manner. However, it is impossible to know how to place an order and therefore start distribution before carrying
out an initial assessment which identifies the beneficiary population and the quantities and qualities of the aid to be
provided, and which helps define the distribution methods (packaging of foodstuffs, thus system of distribution,
etc).
In a similar way, distribution cannot commence before carrying out registration or verifying the beneficiary lists.
The activities thus occur in a chain sequence, and each of these links should be put in place in a way that is both
coherent and coordinated with the others. This coherence necessarily occurs via a coordination mechanism that
provides a way to set the tempo of the different activities and to manage the priorities: in this way, hypotheses
should sometimes be established (for example, the number of beneficiaries forecast) so as to be able to move ahead
in the program implementation (for example, place an order with a supplier).
Information flow is dependent on the establishment of a system and of appropriate tools that ensure that each actor
receives the information he or she needs within the set timeframe. Other than the management tools described in
Chapter 8, action plans must be used in order to visualize the expectations of the planned activities. (See Appendix
12 for an example of an action plan.) The capacity to manage the constraints and priorities of the program on a
daily basis depends partly on the flexibility of the established systems (for example, the use of security margins in
storage areas) and partly on the communication mechanisms and effective decision processes (meetings,
coordination stations, etc.).
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Figure 2: Role distribution between the logistics and food security services
-Definition supply
chain
-Feasibility
-Security
Quantities and
specifications of
foodstuffs
Purchase or
donations
contract
Order form
Awareness
Registration
Planning
Distribution
FBM
Monitoring
(PDM)
Reception
Quality
control
Storage
Packaging
Delivery
schedule
Deliveries
Distrib
report
Reconciliation
distribution and
stock reports
LOG
FOOD
SEC.
Adjustment of methods according
to the results of the PDM
-Target population
-Food baskets
-Distribution period
- Population cible
Quantitative report to the
sponsor/donor
A
S
S
E
S
S
M
E
N
T
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IV.2 Supply source
Two large sources of foodstuff supplies are usually possible. They may be used in combination:
- Purchases made by ACFIN locally, regionally, or from headquarters
- Partnership with the World Food Program (WFP) or another specialized organization which would supply
us with the food to be distributed
The WFP often plays a key role, as much in the mobilization of the food aid as in the primary logistics. It is
sometimes responsible for all the logistics, up to the extended delivery point, or the land destination point closest to
the intervention zone. Action Contre la Faim then takes over the responsibility of the transportation between the
extended delivery point and the distribution site, as well as the distribution to the beneficiaries. The extended
delivery point is either a secondary warehouse of Action Contre la Faim or a distribution point where food is
delivered, store, and distributed. All partnerships with WFP are formalized by a contract
22
, which defines the
responsibilities of each party.
The choice of the supply source should take into account a certain number of elements:
The impact of the purchases
In a food deficit zone, making local purchases could upset the local market and result in a price increase or even the
disappearance of certain foodstuffs from the market. Such an effect could weaken the food security of the
population living in the purchasing zone. By contrast, if the local market is well supplied (no problems of
availability) and the food insecurity of the targeted population is related only to a weakness of its means of
purchasing foodstuffs (problem of access), then a local purchase could be beneficial not only to the local population
who produces but also for the program which is thereby rapidly supplied.
The costs of buying and transporting the foodstuffs
The budgets for our interventions are limited, and the costs will often influence our capacity for action by limiting
the volume of available food and thus the number of rations that we can buy and distribute.
The delivery time
Local purchases generally permit rapid availability of the foodstuffs whereas foreign supplies could take anywhere
from several weeks to several months to arrive. The degree of urgency of the situation will define the acceptable
delays and generally influence the logistical choices, at least at the beginning of the intervention. The possibilities
of borrowing can also be investigated with the other actors present.
The quality of the foodstuffs
The food basket defined by Action Contre la Faim is composed of a certain number of foodstuffs, the availability
and costs of which must be evaluated on the different markets or with our partners. The quality of the packaging:
the selected distribution method leads us to define the necessary packaging specification (loose bulk, individual
rations, family rations, etc.). In certain countries, marking the containers may prove to be necessary in order to
respond to the legal obligations (national laws may require specific information to appear on the package) or to
provide certain information to the beneficiaries (for example, cooking directions). These specifications will not
necessarily be available everywhere.
The cultural quality: the local markets offer the advantage of providing foodstuffs that are culturally known and
accepted by the concerned populations.
The capacity for logistics management
The choice of the supply source should be realistic and coherent with our logistical capacity to buy, transport, and
store the foodstuffs. The customs and administrative constraints: it is impossible to import food into certain
countries; in others, importing means paying exorbitant taxes or import fees. For certain specific products such as
the condiments, the customs procedures could be even more complicated and unknown products could be
considered medication rather than a type of foodstuff.
The independence of the action
Depending on WFP or another organization could be a constraint in terms of efficiency because we would no
longer oversee the supply chain nor the quality and quantity of the foodstuffs. This could also be a constraint
whenever our needs analysis and our assessment of the responses to the crises differ from those of our partners.
Similarly, this independence could be necessary in order to remain coherent with our position on aid and neutral
concerning the international politics.
The local sanitation protocols and norms
22
In fact, the partnership is formalised for each operation by a letter of intent declaring the responsibilities of each party (Field Level Agreement), a formal
intervention proposal, and a budget.
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The local authorities can require sanitation, nutrition, or other protocols and norms, which would impose or exclude
certain foodstuffs: the refusal of foodstuffs possibly containing genetically modified organisms, for example.
(See Appendix 13 for a feasibility control sheet, which covers the logistical aspects for the preparation of the
logistics plan.)
IV.3 Supply chain
Depending on the type of distribution chosen and the size of the program, the supply chain will be more or less
complex and will require rigorous coordination for the delivery schedules from the warehouses to the distribution
sites. Figure 3 (below) presents an example of the supply circuit.
In the case of canteens, deliveries to the sites are usually done weekly at the most either because the storage
capacity is limited or, more importantly, in order to minimize the predation risk and prevent having an attractive
volume in stock. The transportation and inventory needs, which become significant in this kind of scenario, thus
should be anticipated.
In the case of distribution of mixed rations for children under 5 years old, it is necessary to repackage the rations so
that they may be rapidly distributed on the sites, especially when the beneficiaries are not registered (see Chapter
5). Moreover, these rations cannot be kept longer than 2 weeks, and this preparative work should thus be set to this
intensive rhythm. This type of distribution, covering several thousand beneficiaries, consequently requires a
significant volume of work in the warehouses to mix and package the food baskets. (See Appendix 14 for an
example of the preparation of 13,000 mixed food baskets by a team of 120 people.)
For the distribution of food coupons: the supply chain is generally delegated to the selected merchants. The
preparative work here involves the selection and contracting with these merchants. Logistical expertise will be
necessary for developing the terms of the contracts to guarantee an effective supply (quality, quantity, deadline) so
as to achieve the programs objectives.
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Figure 3: Example of a supply chain for food distribution
7
7
7
7
7
ACF base
Secondary warehouse
ACF base
Secondary warehouse
Capital base,
primary
warehouse
Supply source
Distribution
points
Distribution
points
Distribution
points
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IV.4 Quality control of the foodstuffs
The principle is to ensure that the distributed foodstuffs are not hazardous to the health.
23
. Quality
control is implemented from the procurement to the distribution of the foodstuffs to the
beneficiaries
24
. Even if the logistics service is responsible for the implementation of formally defined
controls, especially in a systematic manner upon reception of the foodstuffs, it is the responsibility of
each intervenient throughout the process to participate in quality control:
The food security team defines the technical specifications of the foodstuffs including the
norms of quality
25
.
The logistics team contract the suppliers (or donors), ensures storage and transportation.
The food security team distributes the foodstuffs to the beneficiaries.
The administrative team ensures the budgeting and authorize expenses to control the quality
The head of mission generally guarantees the quality of the programs with the populations and
the partners (authorities, sponsors).
The food security team should consequently perform sensory tests (visual and tactile aspects, taste and
smell) of the foodstuffs systematically upon reception of the supply. If something appears suspicious,
the logistics service should be notified so that a sample may be taken and tested in the laboratory.
Distribution is thus suspended and cannot continue until after confirmation by the test results that the
foodstuffs are safe for human consumption.
(See Appendix 15 for the main possible alterations by type of foodstuffs and the recommended steps
to be taken depending on the quality problem.)
IV.5 Position of ACFIN on genetically modified organisms
26
ACFIN first respects the current national legislation concerning genetically modified organisms in the
intervention site.
ACFIN makes a distinction between foodstuffs and seeds for GMO. In short, ACFIN does not
recommend testing for the presence of genetically modified organisms in the distributed foodstuffs.
Additionally, these tests are rarely available and are often very expensive. Until now, there has been
no proof that genetically modified organisms may be dangerous to human health. Given the urgency of
the food crises, it is unrealistic to be able to guarantee the absence of genetically modified organisms,
and such an enterprise would be detrimental to the objective of the intervention: rapidly curb the food
deficit of the affected populations.
For the seeds, however, ACFIN advocates the exclusive distribution of local products adapted to the
environment and to the agricultural techniques of the populations. Consequently, to prevent the risk of
distributed foodstuffs such as corn or wheat from being used as planting seeds, ACFIN recommends
having them ground (or crushed).
V How are the populations and local structures involved?
In principle, considering the local populations as responsible actors rather than passive victims
encourages them to actively participate in the identification, implementation, and monitoring of the
responses. It is the populations who best know their needs and resources. Such implication is often a
23
Refer to the ACFIN position paper on quality control - 2005
24
Refer to the quality control section in the ACFIN Kit Log
25
The technical specification (quality norms) of the staple foods used in the distribution programs are described in the
specifications of staple foods available in the food security department or in the Kit Log. This tool should be used in cases
where no existing quality norms have been established in the country of intervention.
26
Refer to the paper on the position of ACFIN on genetically modified organisms March 2003.
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gauge of efficacy and speed in the distribution because it is founded on pre-existing expertise,
mechanisms, and structures.
Finally, supporting the existing social structures and the reaction mechanisms already set in action by
the population should limit the phenomenon of dependence on exterior aid and favor the stabilization
or development of autonomous mechanisms of access to foodstuffs.
The local social structures are usually present in three major forms:
- The local or national administration
- The traditional organization
- The local civil organizations, associations, and cooperatives
An assessment of the context and the actors should help to evaluate the pertinence of the involvement
of these structures in the implementation of the program and then to decide the form and level that this
involvement could take on. (See also Chapter 2, Section IV, Other actors present.)
This assessment should include three major questions for each structure considered:
Social and geographical cover
Is it present in all the targeted regions? Is it available for all the individuals, social categories, or
social groups targeted?
Capacity
What is the capacity to participate in the implementation of the program? What are the human and
material resources available, the motivation and the seriousness of the personnel? What type of
expertise do they have?
Social and political position
What is its credibility in the eyes of the population? Will its participation create discrimination
risks, whether positive or negative? Could it have an impact on the political dealing, the control
and security of the populations, the social relationships, and the balances of power present? Could
it cause a negative perception of the neutrality of Action Contre la Faim, thereby compromising
the presence or security of the teams?
The investigation could show the existence of national or local politics, practices or programs already
in progress, such as the systems of social protection or of redistribution led by the administration or
the traditional organization. These pre-existing politics or mechanisms must be respected as much as
possible, but these systems should also be used as a foundation for the implementation of the program.
(See Example 15 on the program in the Sakhalin Island.)
If it appears that no social structure has survived the crisis or that it would not be opportune for the
present structures to participate in the program, Action Contre la Faim could intervene directly,
without local support.
Whenever the capacity of the local structures is insufficient to participate in the program, it is often
preferable to reinforce these structures through training, or material, human, or financial support,
rather than disregarding them and creating an entirely separate Action Contre la Faim structure.
Coordination with these local structures could be a key element for the exit strategy. In this case it is
recommended to promote the creation of ad hoc structures within the local population as soon as
possible, in the form of committees made up of elected representatives of the beneficiaries or local
population. These committees could thus be in charge of implementing a more or less significant part
of the assistance, such as the registration of beneficiaries, storage, handling, or distribution.
Such committees are veritable relays between the population and Action Contre la Faim, providing
representation for the latter, an information path, and reciprocal listening. They can be formally
established for the necessity of food distribution, but their existence can also ease the exchanges with
other organization or the local authorities. (See Appendix 16 for an example of the establishment of
committees and the distribution of the actors capacities during the subsidized selling program in
Kanem, Chad, 2001.)
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Given the collective character of the infrastructure to be restored in the for the work programs, each
community should form a local project committee. This committee should become a partner that will
finally take over the finished project and will be responsible for its maintenance (provided that they
have the means to do so). It is upon the foundation of this common interest that the partnership should
be built. The committee has an operational facilitator role and is in charge of:
- Presenting projects to Action Contre la Faim,
- Helping with and participating in asessments to determine the material needs,
- Providing qualified personnel on the site,
- Mobilizing the work force,
- Providing the construction materials and other inputs not provided by Action Contre la Faim,
- Supplying the guarantees and authorizations from local administrative authorities (village
leaders and /or town leader and/or district leader).
It should also relay the awareness messages and participate in the process of worker selection and,
where indicated, the selection of vulnerable households who are incapable of participating in such
projects.
Whatever solution chosen, it is important to put the collaboration terms in black and white with a
partnership contract, establishing the responsibilities of each party in the implementation of the
program. (See the example of a formalized partnership in Appendix 17.)
The role of women
Women generally take care of the acquisition, storage, and preparation of the foodstuffs within a
family; they also play an important role in the distribution of the foodstuffs among its different
members. It is recommended to encourage their active participation in the different steps of the
program.
VI Human resources
VI.1 Making a team
The personnel needs often depend on the capacities and involvement of the population and the local
structures in the program. Other factors, such as the number of beneficiaries, the number and the
geographic dispersion of the sites, and also the various constraints related to the context (especially
insecurity) will also be determining when defining the number and the level of competence of the
people to recruit.
A list of the functions and qualifications usually required is presented in Section VI.2 below. It is a
delicate task to define the composition of a typical team because the needs vary from one program to
another. Thus, some positions are not required in some cases or should be multiplied in others. For
example, when the community itself manages registration, Action Contre la Faim generally provides
methodological support and tools (forms, maps) and ensures monitoring through the presence of
monitors who verify that the process occurs smoothly.
By contrast, in the case of distribution implemented by Action Contre la Faim, a complete distribution
team is required, composed of a supervisor, monitors, distributors, etc., at the distribution site. The
ACFIN team will ensure at least the general supervision of the distribution, beneficiary selection
management, and foodstuffs flow management.
Logically, the constitution of a team will begin with the exhaustive review of the different activities
led by Action Contre la Faim. Once the activities are identified, the quality and the number of
positions to be filled must be decided. The size of the team will thus be determined according to the
required calendar to perform all the activities according to the retro-planning method. If, for example,
10 distribution sites must be covered each month, and each of these sites requires an average of five
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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working days (roundtrip transportation, site preparation, awareness, distribution, PDM) to perform the
monthly distribution, at least two distribution teams are necessary.
The same method can be applied for all the phases of the project. Similarly, the number of necessary
monitors will be determined by the number of visits in the village and of questionnaires with
beneficiaries that must be completed. Including the estimated time for preparation, realization, and
analysis of the collected information, we will know how many monitors should be recruited so as to
have the tasks completed within the set deadline.
As for expatriate teams, these will also vary depending on the size of the project, the available profiles,
the degree of urgency, and the duration of the project. (See figure 4 for a presentation of the general
organization chart of the distribution programs.)
Working under the hypothesis that a project requires more than one expatriate, we have three
possibilities:
Distribution of the Food Aid
27
responsibilities by geographic zone with the same
prerogatives (identical description of job position, other than the location)
Distribution of the responsibilities by task within the same geographic zone: depending on the
profiles of the Food Aid expatriates, the positions are specialized partly in the organizational
aspects (logistic aptitudes) and partly in their analytical aspects (socio-economic aptitudes).
Distribution of the responsibilities by geographic zone and by task
Note: in any case, all the positions considered here are Food Aid positions (without title distinction)
and supervised by the responsible of food aid within the Food Security Service or the food security
coordinator, if there is one for the mission. Where there is a specialization by task, it is possible to
send expatriates from the logistics pool to cover the organizational aspects and expatriates from the
food security pool for the analytical aspects.
As for all the Action Contre la Faim projects, the logisticians have the role of ensuring supply, storage,
and transportation/delivery in addition to security management, communication, and vehicle
management. However, in certain configurations, when the project is very large, it is necessary to have
a logistician dedicated only to the tasks of supply, storage, repackaging, and delivery of foodstuffs to
the distribution points. Even if this logistician works exclusively for a food aid project, he is managed
by the logistics service at headquarters and by the missions logistics coordinator (or the
logistician/administrator). In this case, it is recommended that the title supply logistician or
support logistician be used rather than distribution logistician in order to prevent role confusion.
In the case of cash distribution, the role of the logistician is replaced by that of the administrator who
manages the supply and transfer of the cash on the mission. In the case of a work for distribution
program, the technical part of defining and selecting the projects often requires the specific expertise
of the activity sector in question: civil engineering for restoration of an infrastructure (roads, bridges,
irrigation canals), hydraulics (reservoirs), architecture (homes), etc. In this case, the organization chart
will be divided into two teams: the food security team identifying the vulnerable zones and people plus
the distribution and monitoring, whereas the technicians will define the restoration projects and follow
their progress.
Regardless of the type of program, it is crucial to have a clearly defined structure, founded on an
organization chart and the descriptions of the position, with accurate details of the responsibilities of
each team member as well as the relationships among the different positions.
27
Food Aid designates the expatriate responsible for a distribution program.
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Figure 4: General organization chart for distribution programs
Whenever the project does not require the Log support position, those responsibilities fall under Log/Admin. Similarly, when the FA1 and/or FA2 positions are not indicated,
the responsibilities described for them fall under those of the team supervisor.
Geographic
distribution
Needs assessment
Define methods
Implement distrib.
Monitoring (PDM)
PDM report
Distrib. report
Centralization/mon.
Needs assessment
Define method
Centralize request &
planning
Implement distrib
Monitoring (PDM)
Centralize reporting
(distrib and PDM)
Food Aid (FA)
Logistician/
Admin.
Head of
Mission
Coord
FA/FS
Coord
Log
Log.
support
FA 1 FA 2
-Management
security+admin+
comm+vehicles
-procurement
monitoring
-Representation
-Reconciliation &
Finalization report
for donor(s)
-procurement
-Storage,
-Packaging/
premix
-Delivery
- Stock report
Distribution by task
FA1:
Needs assessment
Define methods &
register
Monitoring (PDM)
PDM Report
FA2:
Distrib calendar
Implement distrib
Distrib report
OR
Distrib report
Donor report
Resp.
logistics at
HQ
Resp.
food aid at
HQ
VI.2 Which qualifications for which functions?
The activities led during the course of food distribution activities require the following:
Know and understand
Candidates with suitable training or experience in sociology, economics, or agriculture, depending on the context,
will be needed for the research, monitoring, and investigation work. They will also need good prior knowledge of
the socio-cultural context and a real capacity for analysis. Good person-to-person and leadership qualities are also
useful for heading meetings and interviews.
Depending on the situation, the knowledge of the context should be specific to a particular domain, such as the
social services system, if that is implicated in the intervention.
Train and facilitate
The training of Action Contre la Faim personnel or that of its local partners in the operation requires particular
attention. The objectives and principles followed by the program should be properly understood if they are to be
correctly transmitted and discussed with the local population. The tools and methods used should be known and
understood by the personnel, which is even more important when considering that these people may have to assume
relatively heavy responsibilities (related to food management or the list maintenance).
Communicate and lead
At every level of the program, conversational exchange and communication between Action Contre la Faim and the
local population or its representatives is crucial. This requires mostly human and audiovisual resources because
reunions must be led, information must be received and transferred, etc.
Count and register
Registering the program beneficiaries is a meticulous and precise job of collecting and verifying information, and it
requires good person-to-person contact and professionalism. Establishing beneficiary lists on the computer initially
requires specific qualifications of being able to create and edit the database, and to plan and supervise the data entry
by the data entry team. This team should have minimum computer skills (to use EXCEL spreadsheet software).
Organize and manage
Regardless of the context and the method of distribution chosen, it is necessary to have supervisory personnel with
strong organization and management skills. In fact, these qualifications are necessary whether for finalizing or
managing the flow of merchandise, to set up and manage distribution points, or to count and process the names on
the lists, etc.
Distribute
Physical distribution of the foodstuffs requires a certain number of functions. The first two functions, handling and
security, are described below. Additionally, public information must also be ensured on site. Identities must be
verified and beneficiary signatures acquired at the entrance of the distribution site. The food must be taken out from
the stock and given to the beneficiaries. Sometimes verification at the exit is also necessary. Whenever the rations
are premixed or cooked, hygiene measures must be set in place. A team supervisor, who oversees and coordinates
everything, will be responsible for ensuring that the distributions run smoothly.
Transport and storage
The presence of logistics professionals is vital to ensure the supply of merchandise. The actual number of
professionals needed and their exact qualifications will be defined according to whether the supply is handled by
Action Contre la Faim or subcontracted to one of its partners or to a private company.
Handlers are employed for loading and unloading the merchandise from the trucks at the distribution sites, for
supplying the foodstuffs in the distribution lines from the site stock as well as transport that stock outside the
distribution line directly to the beneficiary. A volunteer team within the community most often performs this work.
When this is not possible, the employees are often daily workers, paid by the ton handled.
Ensure security
Whether during registration or distribution, it is always necessary to ensure the security of the site and of the
personnel. It is preferable that the community itself perform this task by designating volunteers who will be in
charge of controlling crowds and ensuring the security of the stocks and the site. When that is not possible, a
security team can be recruited to cover these tasks. Employing daily workers is not recommended; it is better to
place the responsibility on regular employees.
The development and implementation of a distribution program requires a wide range of profiles and
skills: investigators, monitors, data entry operators, socio-economists, social workers, nutritionists,
agronomists, logisticians, administrative and coordination personnel. These qualifications and the
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activities ensured by them are complementary and interdependent. The needs in terms of personnel and
specialties should thus be identified and planned so that all the required activities may be optimally
carried out (assessments, registration, supplying, distribution, monitoring, etc.) by teams with the
corresponding skills.
(See Appendix 18 for job descriptions in distribution programs whether held by expatriate or local personnel.)
VI.3 Worker under pressure
In food distribution, there are numerous sources of pressure on the personnel, whether they be expatriates or
nationals, truck drivers or monitors or supervisors. The following is a list of potential sources of such pressure:
Pressure from the group
In a crisis context where many people are in a precarious situation, a person hired by an international organization
could be seen as having access to significant resources, whether by that persons salary, the responsibility that
person may have over the registration of beneficiaries, the management of foodstuffs, etc.
Pressure from local or traditional authorities
These authorities sometimes see their power short-circuited by the registration system and the distribution
implemented by Action Contre la Faim. As a result, they may place pressure on the Action Contre la Faim
personnel so as to receive a part of what they feel is due them or so as to direct the assistance toward themselves,
whom they see as priority. Threats are possible, especially when the employees family lives in the intervention
zone.
Personal interest
The often massive quantities of food passing through Action Contre la Faims programs of is sometimes the
principle resource of a region or a given population. This can represent astronomical amounts compared to the
buying power in the intervention country.
Human needs
Faced with a significant crisis, when the food quantities are limited, it is not always easy to decide to give priority
to the most vulnerable groups when the entire population has obviously been affected.
Several principles should be highlighted:
Supervision and control
The supervisory personnel should ensure their regular presence within the teams, especially onsite during
registration and distribution.
Listening to the personnel
Some people hesitate to talk about problems during team meetings, and so individual contact is very important.
Having a good understanding about how the people function and work is imperative; one must be observant and
identify the problems and anomalies in order to be able to remedy them.
Organization
Good distribution of the tasks and the responsibilities is crucial to avoid problems. Some tasks should not be
performed by the same teams, especially registration and list verification, physical distribution and PDM.
A true partnership with the communities and their representatives is necessary; this means having good information
and transparency concerning the intervention (targeting criteria, etc), an open mind, and willingness to listen to the
concerns of the beneficiaries or the communities.
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VII Summary
The development of a distribution program consists of precisely defining:
- Who is addressed by the program (targeting)?
- Which restoration project will be the object of for-work programs?
- What ration should be distributed
- Where the rations may be obtained and how they will be delivered
- With whom the distribution will be carried out (local structures and human resources)
The more convinced the population is of the pertinence of the targeting, the more effective it will be.
The food basket should cover the observed needs in macro- and micronutrients.
The food distribution program requires significant logistics support that demands a clear responsibility
chain and ongoing coordination.
Involving the local populations and local structures facilitates the work of Action Contre la Faim and the
adhesion of beneficiaries to the program.
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CHAPTER 5 : REGISTRATION OF BENEFICIARIES
I Introduction
Registration is the establishment of beneficiary lists indexing a certain amount of information about them. It
constitutes a crucial step in the intervention, ensuring the quality and the impact of the distribution program.
Registration involves:
Making a precise census of the number of beneficiaries
Identifying the target population according to the established selection criteria
Registration has multiple objectives:
Obtaining nominative lists of beneficiaries or heads of families which will be used during distribution
Precisely quantifying the number of beneficiaries per distribution site and for the whole program
Obtaining a minimum of personal information to better know the family identity and situation and certain
socioeconomic data relative to the beneficiaries (such as family size, origin, and profession)
Making identity verification during distribution possible, using this information
Registration is mainly used for the implementation of the distribution program. It can also, if necessary, contribute
to the development of our understanding of the beneficiary population by increasing the amount of information
available. Only the most useful (related to the objectives of the program) and usable information should be
collected. For example, when wanting to have better knowledge of the displaced populations, these people may be
asked their places of origin, their arrival dates, their current professional activities. When targeting a specific
population group, information concerning the selection criteria can also be collected: access to land, number of
family members who are working or able to work, number of children, presence of handicapped or elderly people,
etc.
Registration should theoretically be completed before any distribution is carried out. However, in practice,
sometimes registration cannot precede the distribution due to the level of the nutritional urgency or security
constraints and problems of access to the population. In these cases, registration should be completed as soon as the
situation allows.
Distribution without registration: one possibility
The only possible case of non-registration is targeted distribution for children under 5 years old. This is a strategy
that is reactive in emergency situations because it does not lose precious time in registration and lessens the volume
of work: the beneficiaries are identified by height, which is a quick and easy verification method at the entrance to
the distribution centers (maximum allowable height 110 cm). From that point on, the eligibility of that beneficiary
is guaranteed. However, the disadvantages of non-registration are as follows:
- all the beneficiaries must be covered in no more than one day. The beneficiaries are marked with ink, if that is
culturally acceptable, and thus it would be impossible to identify these beneficiaries the next day (or even several
hours later) and know which ones had received their rations and which had not (unless they receive the ink mark at
the moment of actual distribution). To lessen this time constraint, it is possible to separate the children by gender
and thus serve only girls one day and only boys another day.
- without having advance registration, it is not possible to know precisely how many beneficiaries are expected on
the day of distribution. This creates the risk of not having prepared enough rations. However, it is possible to have
estimations of the proportions of children under 5 among the population through different national studies or
through other actors when family composition is taken into account (nutrition, food security, medical situation,
sanitation, etc.). If this is not possible, experience has shown that planning for an estimated 20% of the total
population is recommended.
Although technically registration is for establishing lists of beneficiaries, it is also used as a way to distribute
distribution cards to the programs beneficiaries. Existing cards are upgraded, or new cards are handed out to
beneficiaries who do not already have them or who have unusable cards. Finally, the term registration can be
stretched to an even wider meaning:
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As a way to apply the predefined targeting criteria: beneficiary candidates apply to be qualified as
beneficiaries of our program. It is usually during registration that we can verify that these people
correspond to the criteria. If they are eligible, they are included in the program.
As a way to update the beneficiary list by excluding the people who do not meet or who no longer meet
these selection criteria and, on the other hand, by including new eligible people who do meet these criteria.
The initial assessment (see Chapter 2) should establish the feasibility of registration and its conditions.
The security conditions and access to the population, the social or administrative structures in place, the
capacity of the personnel, and the degree of emergency are also determining in the choice. Awareness of
the population should also be integrated into the preparation. To prevent repetition, the information to be
collected about the beneficiaries should be determined in collaboration with the partners as much as
possible, whenever the lists are shared for different ends.
II Obtaining lists realized by a third party
Registration can be realized by our partners or by the population itself.
Registration realized by a partner (authority / other organization)
It can be carried out by another actor present, the local administration, or a humanitarian partner. This may be the
case of UNHCR when a population of refugees or another organization has already gone through registration to
fulfill the needs of another assistance program.
Action Contre la Faim need only validate the quality of the completed registration by verifying the following points
in particular:
- The reliability of the partners targeting: what type of population has it registered? If the category of the
registered population does not correspond to our targeting criteria, is it possible to create new lists
according to our criteria?
- What type of information has been collected from the population? Can its conclusions or evaluation also
be provided?
- What are the registration methods used? This will help determine their oversights or litigation points if this
becomes necessary.
- What are the materials that can be used following this registration? lists, whether on computer or not, and
distributed registration cards?
We must ensure the quality of the lists provided ourselves. (See section IV, Ensure the quality of the registration,
below.)
Registration realized by the beneficiaries themselves
The beneficiary lists are obtained from the beneficiaries themselves. For this, it is necessary to create or use a
committee or representative of the beneficiaries, who will perform this work with the population. This could be a
good solution to obtain quick, reliable results. The objectives must be presented to the committee with great care
and attention, as well as the criteria and the steps to follow. The realistic means to be used to complete this task
must be defined with the committee. These different elements, especially the selection criteria, should be
understood and accepted.
As in the preceding case, our team must ensure the quality of the lists provided. (See Section IV, Ensure the
quality of the registration.) It is also advisable to have several sources of information for crosschecking purposes.
This is also the easiest solution to implement the distribution and the one most respectful of the population and its
social structures. The community or its representatives are in charge of establishing the lists that must then be
verified by our team. Unfortunately, this is not always possible, and it is sometimes necessary to realize this
registration ourselves.
III Realizing the registration process
Usually, registration is realized by Action Contre la Faim when the distribution will be direct to the beneficiaries
(individually or by family) and there is no other way to obtain reliable lists. Two conditions are thus possible to
access the population and register the future beneficiaries of the program:
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Visit and register the people at their homes.
Summon them to a predetermined site. (The conditions of a direct registration where the beneficiaries or
the whole population are summoned to a given site are presented below.)
In practice, registration in the homes is rarely used due to time constraints.
Table 18: Advantages and disadvantages of the types of registration
Type of registration Advantages Disadvantages
Registration at
home
Does not create movements of
parts of the population
Does not create concentrations
of people which could
degenerate
Results in a clear count of the
number of homes and
households
Requires an enormous amount of
time
Difficult to physically verify the
number of people per family
because the members go about
their regular business
Registration at a
common site
Very quick to carry out
Physical presence of the whole
population
Difficult to clearly control the
limits of the registered zone
because of the mobility of the
populations
Creates movements and
concentrations of people which
could degenerate
In both cases, to avoid cheating and to ensure the reliability of the information gathered, it is important to realize
the registration rapidlyideally in one dayand if necessary simultaneously in the different sites because people
may go to more than one site in order to be registered several times. Even in the case of direct registration, the
involvement of beneficiary committees or community representatives should be encouraged at different levels:
- In order to define the conditions of registration, taking advantage of their knowledge of the context and of
the population
- To inform the beneficiaries and the whole population of the conditions and the criteria which will be used
- To summon the beneficiaries to the site
- To help channel and control the crowds during registration
Depending on the context and the criteria used, more active participation could be useful to verify that the people
do respond to the predefined criteria: for example, for a criterion of displacement, a committee could validate the
status of the displaced person or the resident of a family present in his village. Registration is an integral part of the
program; it requires human and material resources, preparation and time. It also has a price that must be anticipated
and integrated into the operating budget.
III.1 Preparing registration at the common site
Organization:
Ideally, a work group composed of the beneficiary representatives and of the operations authorities and partners, if
they exist, should be created so as to organize the entire registration operation and to plan the different phases. In
certain cases, involving the community or its representatives would not be ideal when there is risk of discrimination
(religious, ethnic, political) or when the chances of fraud are significant.
The information campaign
The beneficiaries should be informed of the registration conditions and goals so that they may receive the necessary
instructions, helping the registration process run smoothly. (For example, they may need to know that they should
be present at a certain location at a certain time, with an identity card, or that the head of family must be present
with or without the other family members.) In the case of targeting, the criteria must be explained so as to prevent
frustration, jealousy, and trouble that the targeting might cause during the operation. The information campaign can
be relayed by the local representatives, the media (printed or radio, postings), or announcements over a
loudspeaker.
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Finally, it is necessary to inform the local authorities (if they are not already involved in the operation) and the
security forces about the registration and its conditions.
Setting up the logistics
The following materials must be supplied for the registration:
- Registration/register forms (see the example in Appendix 19)
- Cards
- Various practical materials (tables, chairs, ACF stamps, writing materials, megaphones)
Some methods may also require the following items (see Section III.3 below):
- Bracelets
- Food coupons (or tokens)
- Semi-permanent ink markers or gentian violet and paintbrushes
As much for issues of security as for efficiency, crowd channeling and control requires setting up lightweight
infrastructures such as aisles or areas sectioned off by posts and ropes, indicated by signs, etc. It is important to
ensure the security of the materials used: registration cards and forms, bracelets and food coupons, should be kept
under the permanent control of Action Contre la Faim to prevent their fraudulent acquisition and use.
III.2 Registration in two steps
The two methods presented are used mostly in situations of large-scale emergencies, where numerous, socially
destructured populations must receive emergency assistance. The logic is to realize the registration in two steps:
first to realize an exhaustive and rapid identification of the beneficiaries, and second, to proceed with filling out the
registration forms and handing out the cards.
Distribution of bracelets
Census centers are set up. The people are summoned, and a verification is made to determine whether they may be
beneficiaries of the program, in the same way as with direct registration. A team then attaches a plastic bracelet to
their wrists. (One person can place about 1000 bracelets per day.) These bracelets should be neither too loose nor
too tight. It should be impossible to take them off and put them back on again. The head of family should come
with his or her whole family so that each person may have a bracelet put on. It is a good idea to choose a
reference arm. (Whether right or left, the choice should be consistent.) Once the entire population has gone
through this process, the total number of distributed bracelets will indicate the number of individuals who have
been pre-registered.
All the beneficiaries should then appear at the time and place indicated in the instructions given to proceed in the
final registration, fill out the forms, and receive the card. At this moment, each bracelet should be cut off by a
registration team member and kept in a special receptacle reserved for this purpose. The head of the family should
stay on to respond to the questions of the registration agent. Once the form has been filled out, the card is given to
the head of the family. The number of the registration card must be written on the registration form.
Distribution of food coupons (or tokens)
As an alternative to the preceding method, the distribution of coupons or tokens is usually faster. It works as in the
preceding case with setting up the census centers. A team of two people should:
- Apply a mark on the peoples skin (with either a marker or water-diluted gentian violet, leaving a mark
which will disappear after a few days)
- Hand out the coupon
This team should be able to receive up to 2000 people per day.
The mark with Gentian violet or the semi-permanent ink marker is a way of preventing people from coming back
through again because they are physically (but temporarily) marked. Of course, it is necessary to ensure that this
marking is understood and accepted by the population. It is also necessary to ensure that it cannot be wiped off
(area of the body where it would be difficult to remove it) and that the mark can be later verified for each person
appearing for registration. The ink used should not be hazardous to the health (irritation). It is not recommended to
use permanent markers.
The distributed coupons should be difficult to duplicate and numbered to prevent fraud. It is recommended to use
cardstock paper of different colors for each registration site and/or the type of population (women, men, children).
Later, the head of the family should appear with all the coupons of his or her family members. The coupons should
be collected and placed in a receptacle reserved for that purpose. The head of the household should respond to the
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questions of the registration agent. Once the form has been filled out, a registration card will be attributed to the
head of the family. The number of the registration card should be written on the registration form.
The use of the bracelet and the Gentian violet may be seen as going against human dignity and could thus be
considered a shocking practice. However, in emergency situations it is sometimes the only way to handle
registration efficiently, allowing the planned assistance to be provided effectively.
IV Ensuring the quality of the registration
Quality of the registration means ensuring that:
The registered beneficiaries correspond to the defined criteria
All the people responding to the criteria have been registered with minimal errors of inclusion and
exclusion
The information entered in the lists is accurate
IV.1 Registration problems and errors
Errors and cheating are unfortunately inevitable and can originate at three different levels:
The beneficiaries or their representatives:
- Multiple registrations (in different sites, under different names...)
- Fictional registration
- Writing or data entry errors
- Number of members of the family is exaggerated
- Erroneous information given to be able to correspond to criteria
- Reselling or falsification of the cards
- Fee-based registration
The representatives of the beneficiaries, local authorities
- Corruption
- Favoritism and/or discrimination
- Sale of cards
The personnel
- Fictional registration
- Sale of cards
- Corruption
- Writing or data entry errors
- Fee-based registration
These problems can be prevented by setting up the most appropriate system for the intervention context, which
goes back to the preceding research and the understanding it provides. A poor definition of the registration (or
targeting) criteria may also cause problems when they prevent proper identification of the beneficiaries or when
they are poorly understood or poorly accepted by our personnel or the population.
It is worth noting that the source of such problems is also often internal, especially linked to our organization or our
personnel (see Chapter 8). Refer to Chapter 9, Section I, for the verification methods for the registration lists.
IV.2 Actions to take in the case of inaccurate or fraudulent registration
Acquire a good understanding of the problem: has pressure been placed on the people in charge of
registration? By whom, and how? Are the problems general or linked only to one site or team in particular?
Have the system and its procedures been fully understood and followed?
Review of the system: what are the possibilities of fraud or misappropriation in the current system (for
example, creation of fake cards)? Could a better method be used?
Training or increasing awareness of the people involved: administration, committees, or Action Contre la
Faim personnel
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Place pressure on the beneficiaries or their representatives: a simple but firm dialogue should be taken up
with the beneficiaries. Those who cheat compromise the well being of everyone. Place responsibility on the
heads of communities. Where applicable, ask the establishment for new lists, delay or stop distribution, or
threaten to do so.
Exclude the lists of people who tried to commit fraud and make the action public to the population
Generally speaking, it is necessary to show significant strictness when dealing with problems regarding
registration, in order to prevent loss of control of the situation and to maintain the attention of each actor on the
importance of an equitable distribution. In the case of mobile populations, or when numerous cases of absences are
identified during the verification of the lists at peoples homes, it may not always be possible to have a good quality
list prior to distribution. So it is instead during distribution that the presence and absences of the beneficiaries must
be rigorously monitored. This monitoring of attendance during distribution may also be used to update the lists: a
certain fixed number of consecutive absences, for example, can result in removal from the registration list.
IV.3 Updating the lists
Depending on the context, we may be working with either a stable or mobile population, the latter being frequent in
cases of population displacement:
- People usually do not all arrive at the same time but rather in successive groups or waves over a period of
several days or weeks
- The mobile populations may only be in transit towards another destination when we meet them, and they
may leave shortly thereafter
- The displaced persons may wish to return to their places of origin if the reasons for their displacement are
lessened or have disappeared completely
- The families may divide up, such as the men going back from time to time to their places of origin to take
care of the fields and the family remaining in the displaced location
These phenomena create difficulties for maintaining accurate registration of the people, which would be much
easier in the case of a stabilized population. Such a population could be organized in a closed area (camps), with
well-managed reception for the new arrivals. In an open environment, updating registration often requires starting
the registration exercise over entirely. Monitoring and context analysis in the displacement zone as in the zone of
origin should help detect the possible movements and thus highlight the updating actions to be implemented: Is the
population, or are certain segments of the population, returning to their places of origin? Is that return definitive?
Or, by contrast, is the population in a process of long-term reinstallation in its relocation environment? What is the
evolution of the initial causes of displacement? This type of question should play a role in our displacement
analysis and permit us to maintain good quality lists while defining the future steps of our programs.
The conditions of updating the lists must therefore be defined according to the situation:
Establish a permanent registration system: the people arriving in the zone should come register as
displaced/beneficiary people at the office we have set up (ideally in a zone leading to the entrance to the
village).
Regularly repeat the registration operations allowing complete updating of the lists.
Remove people from the lists who have been absent x consecutive times from the distribution.
Example 13: Updating registration lists
Indonesia, Maluku Archipelago, 2000
Action Contre la Faim wass in charge of distributing foodstuffs and hygiene products to people displaced by the
conflict. The initial selection criteria targeted the entire displaced population (IDP). Following their displacement,
upon their arrival, the displaced people were registered with the community and camp leaders, under the
supervision of Action Contre la Faim. These community and camp leaders provided the beneficiaries with official
displaced persons cards.
Some people continued to live indefinitely in the displacement camp, whereas others eventually left the camp to
return to their zones of origin or set up more permanent homes elsewhere. Most of the IDPs lived with a resident
within the residential population, in an urban environment.
The lists were regularly updated under the control of Action Contre la Faim in order to exclude the people who left
the site and to include the people who recently arrived. The original eligibility criteria of IDP status evoked serious
problems later because it was too vague and difficult to implement on a large scale, especially because most of the
displaced persons were integrated within the residential population, in an urban environment. Furthermore,
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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movements of families or small groups of people were frequent and difficult to take into account. Thus, the
registration of new arrivals is relatively easy when dealing with a camp situation, but more difficult in the city.
Contrary to the camps, the community leaders can, in these cases, not know the population that they are supposed
to be representing. When new people arrive, their integration into the program and the updating of the lists and
their verification are very laborious activities and are impossible to carry out effectively.
IV.4 Registration lists and cards
Establishing lists and cards for the beneficiaries should be decided from the beginning of the program so as to be
appropriate for the given distribution and monitoring system.
IV.4.1 Collected information
The following, minimum amount of information should be collected during registration:
Surname of the head of the family
First name of the head of the family
Age
Sex
Number of people in the home
In a broader scope, the following additional information could be useful:
Registration number
Number of identity card or passport
Address
Arrival date, place of origin, nationality
Names, sexes, and ages of the other family members
Admission criteria for targeted distribution
IV.4.2 Beneficiary lists
The use of nominative lists of individuals or heads of households is indispensable, regardless of the distribution
method chosen. The lists can have two important uses:
Distribution:
This list presents the persons name and the number of beneficiaries in the household as well as all the information
necessary for the distribution or verification of the identity of the person during distribution. This list is used during
distribution for calling up the beneficiaries and verifying their identify and their eligibility. It is also used to give
proof of the distribution itself. For this purpose, there is a line where the beneficiary may place his or her signature
to acknowledge reception of the food.
Research / analysis:
This broader-scope nominative information list presents all the collected information, which may be used during
distribution but may also serve as a basis for research about the beneficiaries (creating a typology of the population,
collection of demographic data, etc.).
The different lists obtained should be compiled in a database, and then depending on the organization method of
the distribution, specific lists per distribution site or type of beneficiary will be created:
List based on the geographic unity
For example, if we distribute to several villages, we can use a list created by each village leader; if we distribute to
a displacement camp, we can have one single list for the camp or several lists based on a geographic division of the
camp.
List based on individual criteria
For example, place of origin, affiliation category (displacedresident), etc.
The beneficiaries may be divided into several categories if several lists are used, which facilitates the verification
process and management.
IV.4.3 Beneficiary cards
The beneficiary cards are complementary to the lists. The objective of of such cards is to provide people with proof
of their registration as beneficiaries of the assistance program. This card can also be used to keep track of the
distributions already carried out, by stamping or punching the card at each distribution. An example of a
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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distribution card for the beneficiaries is presented in Appendix 20. The use of the beneficiary cards is not always
useful or opportune. Indeed, the cards may be counterfeited, sold, lost, or stolen. Additionally, in a certain number
of situations, the cards may be superfluous: for example, whenever only one or two occasional distributions are
carried out, or whenever other cards (such as UNHCR refugee cards) or pre-existing documents (passports, identity
cards) may be used.
V Summary
The quality of the registration determines the efficacy of the distribution.
Involving local structures should be encouraged so as to facilitate the eligible populations access to
registration and to simplify the work of Action Contre la Faim.
Registration is accompanied by a generalized awareness campaign to ensure the respect of the criteria and
the rules.
Verification and monitoring of the registration lists is an ongoing activity, before, during, and after
distribution.
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CHAPTER 6 : DISTRIBUTION CONDITIONS
A distribution system entails the conditions by which the programs beneficiaries will physically receive the food
or cash. The choice of the system is a determining element in the success of the intervention. It should be
researched beginning with the initial assessment but may be reconsidered if necessary during the course of the
program. In any case, the distribution system selected should result in maximum cover of the targeted (eligible)
people.
For presentation reasons, we address here the system of distribution and the registration conditions separately. But
in practice, these two sections of the program are inseparable and should be considered simultaneously.
I Choosing a food distribution program
Two principle systems are possible:
Indirect distribution through a local relay center: the foodstuffs are given to a representative or local relay
center (social institution) that will redistribute the items to the beneficiaries.
Direct distribution to the beneficiaries: the foodstuffs are distributed directly to the beneficiaries,
individually, or by household.
As we have already seen, using a local relay center is to be encouraged whenever the social structures are in place
and sufficiently reliable. It may also be the only possible solution when there is neither the time nor the means to
register the beneficiaries or when access to the beneficiaries is difficult for physical or security reasons. Especially
for the distributions of cooked rations in canteens, it is recommended to use local distribution centers that can
potentially take over the activities themselves at the end of the program.
Direct distribution is used rather in the situations of social destructuring or lack of reliability or equity in the social
structures. Direct distribution is in fact usually carried out through the heads of households, who collect the
foodstuffs for the entire household. In many culture, the women take care of the food in the households, and it is
recommended to distribute directly to them when that is feasible. (This is not always culturally acceptable.)
The comparative table below presents the advantages and disadvantages of each system, making it easier to make
the most appropriate choice.
Table 19: Advantages and disadvantages of distribution systems
System Advantages Disadvantages
Through
local
institutions
Fast and efficient when the
local infrastructures are sufficient
Reinforces local capacities
Capacities of institutions are limited in
crisis contexts
Expensive if the local infrastructures
must be reinforced (restored)
Risk of political manipulation of the
distribution
More complex exit strategy
Through
traditional
leaders
Respects the social and cultural
values of the populations
Facilitates communication with
the populations in the early stages of
emergency situations or in the
context of dispersed populations
Fast and inexpensive
Lightens the workload for
population registration
Knowledge of social structures and
power games required
Functional only in the small
communities which have not experienced
internal tension
Risk of abuse if the social structures are
in crisis or replaced by an authoritative
power
Difficult to monitor and control
Minimizes the risks created by
abusive power games and the risks of
political manipulation
Favors the comprehension and
Availability of (volunteer) members
may be insufficient
Appropriate only in stabilizing
situations
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Through the
creation of
committees
consideration of the local society
Allows real community
participation and especially the
involvement of women
Shares the responsibility of
how well the program is run and of
conflict resolution
Inexpensive
The committee should be elected if it is
to be truly representative of the communities
Resentment of the traditional or
government leaders who are not involved in
the process
Often difficult to harmonize the
committee functions
Directly to
households
Effective for large and socially
destructured populations
At least initial control over the
number of beneficiaries
Minimizes the manipulation
and misappropriation risks
Favors the equity of distributed
rations
Easy to monitor and check
Expensive (human resources, time,
material)
Poor involvement of the beneficiaries in
the process
Requires a significant volume of work
and takes up a great part of the operational
capacities
II System of cash distribution
The particularity, and one of the advantages, of cash distribution is that it requires little logistical support
in terms of supply, storage, and transportation. The cost, the location of the sites, and the frequency of the
distribution are no longer significant constraints. However, the misappropriation and security risks to the
beneficiaries as well as to the teams are increased due to the heightened attractiveness of the cash
compared to foodstuffs. The choice of the distribution system should thus in priority minimize these two
risks.
The first step is to identify the existence of a banking system, its functionality (transfers, deposits, credit, etc.) and
the populations access to its services because, when possible, it is obviously the best way to ensure safe cash
payments directly to each beneficiary identified on the bank account. In practice, it is rare that such a system exists
in the intervention zones: most often the bank systems are unofficial and are limited to credit and exchange
functions.
However, the possibility of using traditional systems (such as the hawala in Somalia and the Moslem
countries in general) should not be overlooked. These are effective systems of cash transfer in the
intervention zones without having to transport the cash from the capital, thus eliminating the risks related
to cash convoys. Thus, in order to reduce these distribution risks, it is recommended that the chosen
system have:
Direct access to beneficiaries:
Distribution to each beneficiary (head of household) individually makes the process long and highly visible. It is
better, whenever possible, to find a way to either carry out partial distributions by groups of people (depending on
their places of living) or identify reliable representatives, with the help of the beneficiaries, who will relay the
distribution. This is easily applicable in cash for work programs with the help of the team leaders accompanied by
several workers who act as witnesses to the received sums as satisfying the due payment. Good communication and
awareness help with the transparency and acceptability of this system.
Frequent distributions:
To reduce the attractivity, meaning the amount of cash distributed, it is recommended to distribute the cash every
ten to fifteen days at the most to prevent having to distribute large amounts which would put the beneficiaries in
danger of predation (looting).
Distribution days and rotating payment managers:
Again, so as to prevent the routine, the distribution system should allow flexibility of the distribution dates: if, for
example, it has been agreed that the workers will be paid their salaries at ten-day intervals, the pre-established
agreement should clearly state that the payments will be made between the 5
th
and 15
th
day.
Similarly, the distribution manager can delegate the transfer of the cash as often as possible to other team members
who may be going to the intervention zones, so as to not be identified as the sole cash carrier for the project.
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III Site selection and number of distribution points
The distribution points are the places where the beneficiaries will go to receive their foodstuffs.
III.1 Site selection
Accessibility
- Access to the merchandise: the distribution point should be accessible by road or boat. The vehicles should
be able to freely move around and unload, regardless of the weather conditions. In cases of extreme
emergency, the use of air transport should be considered (helicopters, airplanes).
- Access of the beneficiaries to the site: the distribution points should be accessible to the beneficiaries. For
example, check points, unsafe roads, or a conflict between the population at the distribution site and the
beneficiaries coming from another location could dissuade the beneficiaries from coming to the selected site.
Discriminatory politics reinforce this phenomenon.
- Distance: physical weakness may be a limiting factor when the distance the beneficiaries must travel is too
great. It is also important to keep in mind that the time required for the beneficiaries to come to the site, wait
in line, and receive their food prevents them from leading other activities during that time.
- Accessibility and traveling distance may therefore dissuade the beneficiaries from coming to take assistance.
They may also be taxed when going through check points, or they may resell the merchandise because it is
too heavy to carry over such a great distance, or to help finance the transportation back to the home.
Capacity
- The distribution points should be able to contain the merchandise (including sometimes several days worth
of stock and even semi-permanent stock for the canteens), the distribution circuit (see Chapter 7,
Distribution Circuit), and the beneficiaries themselves. Extra space should be planned knowing that the
number of persons present at the distribution point will probably be significantly higher than the number of
beneficiaries expected.
- The ideal distribution point should be able to offer the beneficiaries access to water and toilets. This
condition is a necessity when setting up a canteen.
- Shelter from the sun (shading) and/or from rain is essential for the beneficiaries as well as for the personnel
and the distribution circuit. A drainage system should be dug to evacuate the rainwater where necessary.
Security
- The site should be such that regrouping and channeling the crowds is possible, even if this means setting up
fences or ropes to adequately section off the different stations (waiting areas, verification areas, distribution
circuit, exit, toilets, etc.)
- It should be located sufficiently far away from points of population concentration such as the markets,
stadiums, religious centers, etc.
- It should be located sufficiently far away from unstable zones (borders, front lines) to minimize the risk of
looting.
III.2 Defining the number of distribution points
Depending on the context and the geographic dispersion of the beneficiaries, it is often necessary to set up several
distribution points. Multiplying the number of points results in greater access to assistance for a dispersed
population. It also means preventing population concentrations, often a factor for confusion and even safety
considerations. However, this usually requires significantly more human and logistical resources and could reduce
our capacity for supervision. It is therefore necessary to balance out the number of points according to the pros and
cons for Action Contre la Faim and for the beneficiaries.
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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Table 20: Advantages and disadvantages concerning the number of distribution points
Advantages Disadvantages
Fewer
distribution
points
Fewer personnel necessary
More presence and supervision
Fewer infrastructures necessary
(buildings, roads, and distribution
structures)
Less transportation
Reduced costs
Greater distance for collecting food
baskets
Reduced access for the weaker
people
Great concentrations of people and
rioting risks
Intervention less visible to the
population
More
distribution
points
Lowered risk of rioting
28
.
Improved access for the population,
especially the most vulnerable
Distribution centers easier to manage
Facilitated information and contact
with the populations
Prevents conflicts in cases of
opposition among different ethnic,
religious, or political groups
Need for more qualified staff
members (supervision)
More complex management and
monitoring of the program
Need for more transportation and
storage structures (distribution
sites)
Note:
In a context of dispersed homes with low population density per village but accessible by land, a mobile
distribution point should be considered. This consists of simply driving the vehicle loaded with the distributions to
each selected village. Due to the small size of each village served, a smaller supervisory team traveling with the
vehicle is sufficient to monitor the distribution. This system can also work as a complement to another system that
may not reach all the beneficiaries.
IV Awareness
Prior to any activity, the local authorities (government or rebel) should be clearly informed of the objectives and
the conditions of the intervention. A pre-established agreement should be required to guarantee the respect of the
intervention principles. As for the registration, an advance awareness campaign is necessary in order to be able to
transmit information, which makes the program run smoothly and lets the population and the beneficiaries know
what assistance they will receive and when.
Objectives of the information
- Prevent problems or tension during distribution
- Facilitate running of the distribution
- Prevent misappropriation or discrimination by the local relay centers or the personnel during distribution by the
pressure that may be placed on them by the beneficiaries.
Contents of the information to be transmitted
- Presentation of Action Contre la Faim and the program, plus any partners that may also be involved
- Explanation of the objectives of the program and the distribution conditions
- Transmission of the necessary instructions so that the program runs smoothly: place and date of the summons, the
people (heads of households) who must be present, the identity papers to present, what containers or transportation
methods to provide
- Contents of the food basket that the beneficiaries should receive
- Quality of the food basket (fortified in micronutrients, halal for the Moslem populations)
- Reminder of the targeting criteria
28
The risk of rioting depends on the number of people present at the same place at the same time: the number of distribution points is not sufficient in itself to
reduce this risk. A calendar and well-planned summons times at the distribution points help prevent having too great a concentration of people.
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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This information may be given to the local relay centers which can then spread the information and
explain it within their communities but other means are also necessary: media campaigns (newspapers
and radios), postings (written in the local language and accompanied by illustrations so that the
information is available to everyone), and/or announcements over a loud-speaker. It is necessary to verify
the understanding of the messages received.
V Adjust the conditions in the case of absent beneficiaries
If the beneficiaries are not present the day of distribution, certain information must be verified:
Was the information or the summons for distribution correctly transmitted and received?
The local relay center that should have given this information is not reliable or not representative of the
population that we wish to reach.
The information vectors used are not appropriate.
Are the beneficiaries still there?
The people have moved: displaced persons have returned home definitively or temporarily, migrations.
The people have died.
Was the selected distribution day a good choice?
A market or other event occurs the same day.
The security or transportation conditions on this day would not permit the people to go all the way to the
distribution point.
Have the lists been correctly drawn up?
The information on the lists is no longer accurate.
Has the program been well defined?
The quality of the foodstuffs is not appropriate for the beneficiaries.
The quantity provided is insufficient compared to the lost day of work required for the people who must come
on site to receive their assistance.
Another assistance program is being carried out at the same time in another location.
Distribution is taking place at a time of increased activity for the concerned population (plowing, sowing, etc.).
The site is too far away from the beneficiaries.
Example 14: Investigation into the absence of beneficiaries
Sakhalin Island, Russia - 2001
Nearly 50,000 beneficiaries of Russian social institutions should have received an aid of approximately
50 kg of food. The administration provided the lists of the people registered in the different social centers
concerned by the program. Action Contre la Faim received the lists from the center managers and verified
them by eliminating the redundant registrations and by confirming the peoples presence through home
visits. Once the lists were validated, Action Contre la Faim provided support to the distribution system
that was implemented by the administrative personnel. The social centers received the food, stored it, and
distributed it over several weeks, during the monthly visit of the beneficiaries to the center. The support
provided consisted of setting up tools (distribution tools and stock management) and personnel training
for the use of such tools. ACF monitors were present from time to time at the different distribution sites
during the two months of the operation. They ensured that the established procedures were correctly
followed, that the stock was correctly managed and maintained, and that finally the food was distributed
to the correct people. At the end of the distribution period, the social centers provided ACF with
distribution reports, stock reports, and signed lists of beneficiaries.
Operating within the heart of an old and complex social system, ACF in this case should take into account this
system, to understand it in detail so as to be able to effectively integrate into that system. It became apparent at the
end of the program that sending the lists to Action Contre la Faim for verification was extremely laborious and
finally found to be inefficient. Instead, support provided directly to the centers for updating the lists would have
been more effective.
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VI Summary
Distribution conditions consist of establishing the best compromise for the most accessibility to the
distribution sites for the beneficiaries according to the time and resource constraints so as to offer quality
service at each site.
Cash distribution allows for much more flexible conditions because there are fewer resource constraints.
However, the attractivity of the cash requires less transparency to prevent having a routine system that
would be more vulnerable to the risks of theft and/or looting.
Awareness is indispensable and makes the distribution process run more smoothly.
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CHAPTER 7 : FOOD DISTRIBUTION CIRCUIT
A distribution circuit must be set up, allowing the beneficiaries to enter through in order to receive assistance.
Regardless of the distribution system chosen, the different steps of this circuit will be the same: waiting outside the
distribution point, calling at the entrance station, identity/eligibility verification and signatures, collecting the food
basket, and verification at the exit.
I Stations prior to actual distribution of the foodstuffs
I.1 The waiting area
It is necessary to set up a primary waiting area outside the actual circuit itself. The beneficiary lists as well as any
information considered useful in making the operation run smoothly (such as explanations of the criteria used and
information on the food baskets provided) will be posted so as to provide that information to the public.
The people will go through a primary screening process, in which their possession of a registration card will be
verified, before moving on to a second waiting area where they may wait their turn to receive aid. This area should
be large and spacious enough so that the people will not be too concentrated. The crowds must be carefully
channeled, but the infrastructures must be watched (fences, dry stone half-walls, stakes, etc), as they could become
dangerous weapons in the event of crowd movements or riots.
It should not be forgotten that the beneficiaries are often people who have suffered serious trauma or who are in
very precarious situations. Assistance is sometimes a question of survival for these people and their families.
Impatience, worry over whether they will really receive aid (will there be enough for everyone?) could thus cause
anxiety and pressure. One or several workers should stay constantly in these areas to communicate with the
population, the beneficiaries and their representatives, in order to provide information or instructions about how the
operation will run. This information, which should also be posted or announced over loudspeakers, should be clear
and understandable concerning how the operation works and what the distribution will contain.
Also, this waiting period, while the targeted population is regrouped, is an opportune moment to organize
awareness presentations: this takes advantage of the beneficiaries waiting time in useful way, especially on the
themes of nutrition education (micronutrients, what different kinds of food provide which nutrients and how much,
cooking recipes, menu ideas, etc.). Operationally speaking, this helps lighten the organization work by grouping the
activities into time and space. If necessary, it is also a good opportunity to carry out a campaign for detecting acute
malnutrition by measuring and weighing people, especially the children.
I.2 Calling
The beneficiaries are called into the distribution circuit. Depending on the defined distribution system, there are
different possibilities for carrying out this operation. In any case, good communication is necessary between the
teams at the calling station and at the distribution station to regulate the flow and call a number of people consistent
with the capacity to serve them (optimization of the flow).
It is sometimes useful to break the call down into several steps: for example, a first call may be made to regroup the
beneficiaries according to a predetermined category (for example, town of origin or current place of residence or
size of family), and then, once this primary screening has taken place, specific names may be called out, following
the lists created for each category.
I.3 Verifying identity and acquiring signatures
After the beneficiaries have been called, their identities must be verified and/or their presence on the lists must be
checked with the predefined proof of registration (registration cards or identity papers). It is at this same place
that the proof of reception of the aid is given by the beneficiaries, through his or her signature on the register (with
fingerprints if the person cannot write) and the mark (punch, stamp) on the registration card or identity paper. The
signature is crucial for confirming that the aid was actually received.
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The way that the lists have been created influences the speed and efficiency of this phase: grouped by places of
origin, alphabetical order, size of family, number of the beneficiary, etc. The beneficiaries may be asked to read the
number corresponding to their names on the list posted outside in order to find them more easily on the list when
they come to the verification station. It is at this moment that the validity of the registration may be verified. (See
Chapter 9, Section I.)
II Actual distribution of the foodstuffs
This station is to be organized according to the number of articles to be distributed and their packaging. Three
systems are possible: packet (kit) distribution, product distribution by weight (scoop), and grouped distribution.
II.1 Repackaged packet (kit) distribution
The packaging of the foodstuffs is of major importance in the organization and duration of the distribution: a pre-
packaged individual food basket will be delivered much faster and more easily than several articles which must be
given one after the other.
II.2 Product distribution by weight or scoop
This type of distribution is often implemented where there are time issues (no time to repackage) or cost issues
(repackaging is expensive in labor and material).
Compartments are set up and filled with the various loose foodstuffs. The distributors measure out the rations from
these compartments and give them to the beneficiaries. The quantities are measured by using scoops, which have
been calibrated for that particular food to represent the weight of the determined ration. (One completely filled
scoop corresponds to the desired weight.) The distributors fill the scoop and pour the food into the container
provided by the beneficiary.
It is necessary to ensure that the beneficiaries can take the foodstuffs home in the proper conditions, hence the need
to inform them in advance of the necessity of bringing their own containers. Even so, the team should plan to have
a reserve stock of sacks (or reuse the sacks which have been emptied during the course of the operation) to prevent
causing a traffic jam. The team should also ensure a quality distribution chain. This quality extends to several
different levels:
Precision of the rations given
The distributors should be properly trained and supervised to be sure that the given amount is neither greater nor
smaller than the defined ration (scoop not completely filled or overfilled). The scoops should correspond exactly to
the intended weight. Generally, a bucket or plastic bowl is cut so that the completely filled volume corresponds
exactly to the desired weight.
Hygiene
The holding containers, the scoops, and the distributors themselves should reflect the best hygiene conditions
because they are in direct contact with the food.
Good flow and speed of the chain
Considering the multiple manipulation of foodstuffs, the system must flow well, without traffic jams, whether at
the level of supplying and filling the holding containers or that of the ability of the beneficiaries to receive the
foodstuffs into their own containers. Whenever the quantities are too heavy or too great to carry, a system for
evacuating the food baskets (accompanied by the beneficiary) with a wheelbarrow should be set up.
Monitoring the food baskets at the exit (Food Basket Monitoring: FBM)
This system requires monitoring the actual weight for each type of food: the quantitative monitoring process is
detailed in Chapter 9, Section II.
II.3 Grouped distribution
The principle of grouping is distributing a common food basket to several households at the same time without
having to break the original packaging of the foodstuffs. Later, the grouped households share the food basket
fairly among themselves. The goal is to simplify the sharing method by grouping same-size families who can
divide up the food basket into equal quantities. The great advantage of this is being able to distribute food baskets
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
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as quickly as with the kit system (the original packaging of the foodstuffs is kept) without the disadvantages of the
supplemental preparation time and costs.
Awareness is crucial to ensure the proper understanding and desired participation of the beneficiaries. Before and
during distribution, in addition to the rules and information already mentioned (see Chapter 6, Section IV),
awareness should ensure that each beneficiary has knowledge about:
- The quantity to receive per type of food (depending on the size of the family)
- The sharing method for the group food basket
Organization of the beneficiaries at the distribution sites should be well prepared. With their registration cards, the
households should be gathered according to their size in the waiting area and then called by small groups in order
to collect their common food basket. The food basket will have already been prepared to be brought outside of the
distribution site by the group of households, where the groups members will finish dividing up the food basket.
ACFIN team members will be present to advise and facilitate this distribution without being held responsible for it.
The determination of the number of individual rations to be grouped depends essentially on the packaging of each
food; this ration is then called a group food basket and will be prepared identically for each group of families of
the same size. A few adjustments will be necessary, by taking out or adding one or two individual rations by weight
for certain sizes of family. The methodology is given through the following simple example:
Example 15: Calculation for grouped distribution
Depending on the defined ration, first the number of rations contained in each package of foodstuffs is determined:
Foodstuff Ration/pers/month Packaging (sack,
bottle, etc.)
Number of rations per package
Wheat flour 12 Kg 30 Kg 30 / 12 = 2,5 rations per sack
Oil 1.5 Kg 5 Kg 5 / 1.5 = 3.3 rations per bottle
Lentils 4 Kg 20 Kg 20 / 4 = 5 rations per sack
Then, through trial and error, the smallest common number of rations is determined per package unit for each
foodstuff:
Foodstuff
Nb rations in 1
package
Nb rations in 2
packages
Nb rations in 3
packages
Nb rations in 4
packages
Nb rations in 5
packages
Nb rations in 6
packages
Etc.
Flour 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15
Oil 3.3 6.6 9.9 13.2 16.5 19.8
Lentils 5 10 15 20 25 30
We determine that 10 is the common number of individual rations for a whole number of each package of
foodstuffs. Now the group food basket must be determined, which will thus be a multiple of 10 and which will
allow us to define the size of the groups according to the family sizes which hypothetically varies between 1 and
10. For each family size, the group should finally contain a total number of individuals, which is a multiple of 10.
By trial and error, we note that a group food basket of 30 individual rations would easily serve a group of families
by size (1 to 10) as the table below indicates:
Size of household 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of
households per
group
30 15 10 8 6 5 4 4 1 1
Group food basket
= 30 individual
rations
1 1 1 1
-2 rations
individ.
1
1 1
+2 rations
individ.
1
-2 rations
individ.
1
-1 ration
individ.
1
It is still necessary to take out or add one or two individual rations by weight (scoop) for certain sizes of household
(4, 7, 8, and 9). With these adjustments, it becomes possible to distribute to the beneficiaries in groups of 30.
To increase distribution speed, which is in the interest of the system, it is always possible to organize even larger
groups. Through experience, with the above example, it is feasible to have a group food basket of 60 individual
rations. The distribution would be carried out twice as fast. The disadvantage is that the larger the groups, the more
complicated the sharing becomes. The best compromise must be found, considering that the constitution of too
small a group ends up being a complex kind of distribution to organize and would not be any faster than a weight-
based system.
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
80
At the exit of the distribution point, the team in charge of facilitating the sharing process can carry out FBM (see
Chapter 9, Section I) to verify the weight of each foodstuff allocated to each household after dividing up the food
baskets. However, this may not be possible whenever the groups prefer to transport the common food basket to the
village and divide it up at home.
II.4 Distribution by village
This system consists of serving the entire population of a village with one food basket that will be shared among all
the heads of families within this village. The food basket is thus prepared in advance for each village according to
the number of registered beneficiaries. The total number of packages for each foodstuff is calculated and placed in
a pile, and then an adjustment for greater or smaller quantities is made by weight (scoop) to obtain the most
accurate ration. It is the same idea as for the group food baskets, except that each group food basket is specifically
calculated for each village (and its number of individuals).
This system yields:
- Rapid distribution of the foodstuffs,
- Respect of the social structure of the village, which is involved and held responsible in the distribution
process. Cooperation among the aid recipients who ensure transportation of the food basket from the
distribution point to the village.
- Mobilization of some of the heads of families, allowing the others to continue their regular activities
However, the social structure should obviously be functional and the size of the village (number of families) should
be reasonable so that the sharing process may be quickly, efficiently, and transparently (visible to all the family
leaders) performed. Experience has shown that villages with up to 100 families may be served in this way.
The risk of unfair sharing is however, significant (see Table 19), and the application of the following measures to
reduce such risks are imperative:
- Inform the entire population about the quantities and quality of the foodstuffs, per person and per family,
they are about to receive;
- Ensure that the village food basket is collected by several (between 5 and 10) heads of families, who will
witness the total quantities received for the village;
- Validate the system with the population itself (rapid investigation with randomly-selected households), with
post-distribution monitoring to specifically evaluate how fair and reliable the system has been.
III Examples of distribution circuits
The two examples presented in Figures 5 and 6 follow the same organization principles. The multiple circuit is in
fact made up of four simple circuits. It is a way to have an even greater number of people pass through the same
site and is thus valid when rapid distribution is indicated and the beneficiary population is great. It is only possible
if the beneficiaries may enter a given circuit for a given list because obviously the lists cannot be divided among
several control stations.
For the group food basket system, the circuit is the same except that it should include a design for the preparation
of group food baskets in advance and a system (wheelbarrows, porters) to evacuate the food baskets from the site or
to a space set up specifically for the sharing process of the food baskets among the families. However, space can
often be a limiting factor because it is generally recommended to have on average the size of about half a football
field.
A well-organized, simple distribution system based on weight can serve up to 500 people per day, which represents
up to 2500 beneficiaries when the food baskets are distributed to heads of families (with an average of five people
per family). If the food baskets are pre-packaged in kits, the process is twice as fast, and at least 1000 people may
be served in one day. For group food baskets, depending on the size of the group food basket, 2000 to 3000 people
may be served in the distribution chain. In practice, each situation is different, and the number of beneficiaries that
can go through the circuit in a given amount of time depends on several factors:
The organization and flow of the circuit:
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
81
Traffic jams at the stations slow down the flow and should be prevented. Encouraging rapid distribution is not
always desirable and could cause disadvantages, especially compacting the crowd and putting pressure on the
population and the personnel.
The personnel involved:
The organization, number, motivation, and skills of the personnel are determining factors in how well the
distribution will be carried out. For each distribution station, there should be two distributors per foodstuff plus two
porters in charge of helping the beneficiaries evacuate the larger food baskets.
The presence and flow of beneficiaries:
A continuous flow of beneficiaries at the entrance of the circuit is important to prevent inactive time inside the
circuit. The information given to the beneficiaries (appointment time) as well as the information provided about the
way the distribution will be carried out should prevent dead time.
The type of verification system at the circuit entrance:
The speed at which the beneficiaries enter the circuit will vary depending on the way the verification system is
managed (looking up a name on the list, etc.).
(See Appendix 21 for a list of material and equipment necessary for setting up a distribution site.)
Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid
82
Figure 5: Example of a simple circuit
{
Foodstuff 3
Storage area
Call
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
Security
perimeter
Site exit
and FBM
Site entrance
ID check
Signature
Lists and
information
posting
mmmm
mmmm
mmmm
mmmm
Foodstuff 1
Food
stuff 2
83
Figure 6: Example of a multiple circuit
Storage area
foodstuffs foodstuffs
foodstuffs foodstuffs
{
{
Key
{ Call --> Path of the beneficiary
ID check and signature FBM
Security Perimeter
{
{
{
mmm mmm
mmm mmm
84
IV Canteen circuit
The principles and methodology presented in the preceding sections are also valid for the canteen program.
However, the particularity of this type of distribution requires supplemental activities.
IV.1 Stations and organization particular to the canteen
The organization of a canteen site should be rigorously designed to ensure the regularity of the mealtime.
Depending on the room available to receive the beneficiaries, two services may be planned at the same site.
The identification of the beneficiaries should reveal whether the beneficiaries should participate in the first or
second service; for example, according to the color of their registration cards.
Education
By definition, the site receives beneficiaries every day and for a large part of the day. It is therefore
recommended that educational activities be carried out which could help take up a good part of the time
spent at the site. This offers an excellent opportunity to lead awareness campaigns on the subjects of
nutrition (micronutrients, the supply of nutrients in various foodstuffs, cooking recipes, menu planning, food
conservation, etc) and/or hygiene whenever this responds to a demand and a need of the beneficiaries.
Cooking demonstrations may also be presented, using the various foodstuffs distributed: this kind of
education is actually essential when the meals include new products, such as condiments concentrated in
micronutrients.
The educational activities should also target the children through play (puppets, clowns, games).
Hygiene
The canteen should provide exemplary hygiene service (consistent with the messages given in the awareness
campaign). There should be personnel specifically designated to overseeing the inherent hygiene activities,
ensuring that the site is neat and clean, that the dishes and cooking materials are well washed, and that the
beneficiaries have washed their hands.
Rest rooms
Rest room facilities should be set up on site to ensure access and availability to a water point for hand
washing and collecting drinking water during the meal. The installation of toilets should also be planned.
The kitchen
By definition, the canteen should be equipped with a kitchen that transforms the ration between the food
stock and the collection point. The organization of meal preparation should be rigorously planned to ensure
good distribution flow without having the meals served either too hot or too cold. The preparation method
should be clear and simple to ensure homogeneity of the rations served. It is recommended that a
measurement of each foodstuff and water per pot be determined so as to give a fixed number of hot meals.
(See the example of preparation in Appendix 11.)
When there are many sites relatively close in location, so as to not require too great a transportation capacity
(in an urban context, for example), it may be a good idea to establish one central kitchen that will prepare the
meals for all the sites. This centralization may facilitate site management and reduce operational costs.
Distribution
The food is distributed by weight (scoop) and should take the volume of water added during preparation into
account to respect the composition and the quantities of each foodstuff initially determined. If necessary, one
scoop could be provided for each type of meal: child and guardian. In order to monitor the flow of
foodstuffs, each pot should contain a fixed number of rations and should obviously be empty before being
replaced by another pot.
When distribution is finished, as the leftovers cannot be stored, they are distributed in priority to the
indigents who are not eligible for the program (in cases where the program targets only children under 5
years old, for example) who often remain along the outskirts of the site. The leftovers should be quantified,
and the number of rations served outside the beneficiaries of the program should also be presented in the
monitoring / distribution report and not be treated as a loss.
The dining hall
Ideally the dining hall will permit the beneficiaries to consume their distributed meals at the site. This
guarantees the results in terms of the prevention of malnutrition of the targeted populations by minimizing
the risk of sharing the ration within the household. In this case, the consumption is monitored and followed
by the monitors/educators present in the dining hall. They will also lead interviews with the beneficiaries to
obtain their opinions about the distribution process and the quality of the meals.
85
Because of a lack of space, it is often difficult to be able to set up a dining hall that can receive all the
beneficiaries every day. The first alternative is to organize several distribution services in the same day.
Otherwise, it is acceptable to let the beneficiaries take the meals home to consume them there. In the latter
case, FBM should be carried out (see Chapter 9, Section II) at the canteen exit.
Compared to a classic distribution site, the team mobilized to keep a canteen is larger (between 15 and 30
people depending on the size of the site and the establishment of a dining hall) and includes educators,
cooks, and hygienists. Because of the daily movement of food, the purchasers job is vitally important for the
quantitative monitoring of foodstuffs. (See Appendix 22 for an example of the organization (composition of
a team, job descriptions) of daily service and the way that service is carried out.)
IV.2 Distribution circuit
Ideally a canteen should permit the beneficiaries to consume the meal on site, as presented, for example, in
Figure 8 below, with the presence of a dining hall. Depending on the intervention strategy and the
operational constraints, this possibility may not be offered to the beneficiaries. (See Appendix 23 for an
example of cooking materials kit that would serve approximately 1250 hot meals per day prepared in 50-liter
pots.)
IV.3 Fuel
In theory, any kind of fuel may be used depending on the availability in the intervention zone (wood,
charcoal, gas, electricity) and the local customs. However, given the great consumption of energy necessary
for a canteen program, the most appropriate fuel must be determined which does not induce negative effects
on the local market prices (inflation) and especially does not contribute to the degradation of the
environment, which is often already in danger in the intervention zones. In principle, the use of wood or
charcoal in zones affected by deforestations is to be avoided. In this case, the question of cost should not be a
constraint, and an environmentally friendly energy product should be imported.
Additionally, reservations about the use of gas, for example, due to being little known in certain
intervention zones, may be easily overcome by providing basic information, awareness, and training
on its use. The table below provides a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of using gas
and charcoal:
Table 21: Advantages and disadvantages of gas versus charcoal
Fuel Advantages Disadvantages
Gas
Immediate heat after lighting
(no preparation time)
Faster and better controlled
cooking
Cleaner to use for everyone
(transportation, storage,
cooking)
Easy storage (to be stored in a
well ventilated area)
Clean energy (does not
contribute to deforestation)
Weight of containers
Reservations of the cooks because of
unfamiliarity with/fear of product
Requires more detailed maintenance
materials (valves, flexible pipes, etc)
Difficult to estimate the remaining quantity in
the container and to plan for optimum refills
Charcoal
Easy to find on the local
markets
Income generating activity for
the producers
The people are used to using it
Difficult to buy in large quantities and causes
inflation on the local markets
Causes increased supply, risking increased
deforestation
Makes the canteens dirtier
Difficult to store properly
Difficult and long to light
Difficult to control/modulate during cooking
86
Note:
Regardless of the energy solution, consumption should be controlled and minimized as much as possible: use
of modern stoves, boiling quantities of water little by little depending on the needs, centralizing meal
preparation, etc.
V Summary
The distribution circuit should provide rapid service to minimize the collection time for the
beneficiaries and maximize the number of beneficiaries served by the same distribution team.
The organization of a distribution site implicates one-way traffic of people from the entrance to the
exit. Each station along the way should be organized to prevent traffic jams.
The distribution method determines the speed of the flow of the beneficiaries in the distribution site:
the faster systems (distribution by group, by village) require increased beneficiary participation in
order to ensure the fairness of the system.
The distribution site can be seen as an opportunity to gather a large population together, and
awareness campaigns or educational classes may be provided to them.
The choice of fuel for a canteen should respect the principle of environmental protection.
87
Figure 7: Example of a canteen circuit, with dining hall
{
1
Storage area
Kitchens
m
m
m
m
m
m
Security
perimeter
Site entrance
Eligibility verification
and signature
Posting of
lists and
info
2 3
4
Water
reserve
Wash
area
Rest rooms
Call
Drinking water
Hand washing
Distribution
of the
hot meal