.t.,ii'i:l.

r;
'r"-.::
ìi¡l

PBACTICE

l;1.

eâgxanoa c tv4ørt
i,:ë'qíi , cr/ø0lo-altat-c',ñtcf$ìoatorr¡ih.oritst
' *td iloù Ot¡û, Øûl ¡e tmil otL, o,
..¡t cùo,t4 qN:rF;¡4p¡t ita ,.tti.i.1,. /")
. 9p'[lÙlo, èú lhalrCl¡csgsroa t
. I .'e¡r&dt tt! ÊfÈna ottua"edtcta: i.1!1.,:.
":. Opgurf¡
 'l'h<r
i r t t l ) t ( ) \ ' ( : r u u ìitr r c t t ¡ r t l l uc f ì i c i c r r t : yr r s i r r gl l r c t l i v i t l c t l b l l s t d r r s i g nc o u l d
b c o w i u g t c ¡ t h c f a c t t h a t t h c a i r a t l n l i l . t c t !t o t l r e u p p c r r o w o f t u y c r c s b u r n s
the carbon uronoxicleto carbon dioxide, thus releasing most of the potential
heat in the char¡¡edcoke by forming an,extarded or double melting zone.
.'
l \ 4 r r r t ivt ( l r t i { ì r n t r l t i c 'ri' n n f . Ì c ;l r l t i ¡ i l r c r ' u li ¡r r r r t l ' r ' r l ¡ t l l r c r r i t l i n ¡ r . I ' r r r n n e c r
r v i t l ¡ ¡ r t t tl l r ! c l t l : ;t i l r :, cl o s t t ) l ' b r r y i r r gl < l t li t i r r l ¡ i r lp l l t r r t . - ' l r ' c l r r : ¡ rwpi t y ' o f . i r r r c ' , r ' c i t s i n g '
p r o d u c t , i v i t y . i t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f : c o n v e r t i n g t h e e x i s t i n g c u p o l a st o d i v i d e d -
blast operation is small .conrpared to the .savings ,in ,coke, The small coke
c h a r g e r ì t L - a n tsh a t l l r e n t e t a l p i c k s r r p l c s s s r r l p h r r r f r o n l t h e c o k e d u r i n g
t t t c l l i t t ¡ Ìu,t t ( lt l r ( : I c i r r t l u ¡ t l r c t r i r v i r t ¡ rr r rt l c : r r r l ¡ r l r r r r i s l rrl rr runl tr c l ' i ¡ lrlúsc h r l u
c a l c i u ¡ uc u r b i d e .

T\\¡IN-BLÅ.ST CUPOLA: The n:ost important nen, practic, io

"upolu
oper¡,iiôn,'' Iioivever, ís trr;in-t¡last;i1f i¡. l-S¡ or't¡ciut,lc'ro*; tuy.r. oitiràtiqn,
vrjlhwhii¡rcoke:'savingscair'bôsuch',tfíat
thc cuqotai¡ nullre'rl.,to
thç,1írnii,
c:apability
of its excellent as a heattransferdevice.
 short
I fitted at the top of wind belt and fire into
iow tuyeres ttre uurnersare l0 degreedown
at aî approximat"
conbustion chamìrers inclined "l-tlj: two metres
places the burners approximately
into; the cupola;. This they
in a conventionalcupola modilicationand
abovethe rormal air tuyeres
a r e e q u i s p a c e d a ¡ o u r t d t l r c c i r c u n r f e r c n c e o f ttÍtl
l r c c u p o l tlescentlirtg'
a.The¡roductsof
fìrc dircclly i¡ttrr thu ltle c:haIgcs
cotnbustio¡ìfro't tht:scbttttters iltlo¡rletl
gÍ¡sliring oi' thc cu¡rolasIllr_srtot bccrt
thc coke bcd. suppr**",.,tary rllain benelìt
and it would appearthat the
on a widcsprr",J,rommercialbasis carbon
clcvelopmentis a reductiorrin
which can be obtained from this cu¡ltilll
ils. t:tlnt¡rlrctl ltr cil¡trjctrtirl:llrl
ctlìis\i()¡t
¡tt0rtrlxi.lc ¡t¡ìtt .stìì()h(1
(ìl)ct'iltloll'
:
4 . S . 4 , C u p o l l l t r i t l r o x ¡ g c r t el t r i t ' l t ¡ r l c l ¡ l
the nretalindustry itt tttrttt¡'rricltirrg
F o r d e c a d e s ,t h e c u p o l a h a s s e r v e d still
mineral wool' and coPper industries 11he
applications. T'oOuy iroì, lead' I r l
way to cotnbust air and f u e l m e l r i r r g '
f i n c lt h c c u ¡ r o l a t h e m o s t c . l ì c i e n t tr.'ttt|clit-
i,lr
, gc o n l r o l h p s h c c n l i l r r i t c dt Q u t l ju s t u r i l r l si r t l l t c ;t.1,
p " r r , :a u p o i * o p c L i'Áft i r r".ontbustion ril:
a ir anr.lchargc rrrnke-r"r '' l oclir¡" l'ouudr ics l4
, ture and flow ,ut" c a r rs i g n i - itl
, t ¡ r o u g l r o u t t i r o v ¡ o l ' l c l¿ r r ef i n d i ' g t h a t o x y g c n c : r r r i c h n r c t rt lc c l r r t i t l t r c s 1t
':ä;"*ï;;;p,]ou".t'"ef1ìcierrcyandopcratin$curìtrolo|'tl¡cct¡rt:ltr. 1l
It
,,9
.il
HI
ü
ìl

Liquid
o i y g cn
ton¡c''

ã ¡ r i u t " t( t ¡ i * . i >

' t : , i

I
:"'
' l ¡

r . i ';:
,,',¡),1
i, ii
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l ; - ; rl : 49
: .:,::'ì',
'i;
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jt.i'.
i
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a : , . : ; ) . . , ' . 1: . ,
'.T:lj;
 -,,ii

'
The basic prrcess of oxygenenrÍchmenr is simpre (Fig. i
4¡6). A measurrdt:,
amount of high-purity oxygelris introducedinto rt"
air btast increasins
"'üi
the oxvgenconteirt fromzt/o (no enricliment) to zso/o "upotã r* ,
@yo ,**l.."il-.
raising thc oxygencontenf of tlre combustion air (which ,',r,
is 79o/o
inert, heat- ,
absorbingnitrogen), tbe diluting effectof nitrogen is .
reduced. ffir*"tr;î
higher combustion temperatures, improved heat
transfer," ,h;;l;rgo';;
less heat loss up the stack. rhe net resurt of
using o*yg.n .nr¡r¡r-,nrni'i,
inrprovement in the overaü efficiencyof the cupo!a.-
Får- each per cent of
ox)!crr enrichrnelrtin tl: e blasr, the adiabatic
flame temperature
-- of the coke
bed is raisedby about 20oC. . ,r+..
'i i:

Ox¡,gcncnrichruent l;iÌ
can be applicdin threebasicvrays:
l.Corrtiuuouslytooptimizerawmaterialsavings.
z. Continuc,uslyto iucreaseproduction.
3' Intermi*entryfor quick start-upsand greater
cuporacontror.
The foundry man maximizesthe benefitswith each
practiceby controlling
three variabJes; rvind rate, oxygen content of
the wind and the perlod of
enrichment(continuousor interrnittentuse).

Benefits of O xygen Enrichment

i) Raw Mstcriatssavings: oxygen enrichment
can ma¡kedryreducethe
consumptionof coke, pig-iron and catciumcarbictc,
wl¡jrenraintaining product
quality. Ër:richmentreducescokeconsunrption increasing
by both the reaction
temperatureand rhermarefrciencyof the cupora.:cupora
;Ë;;;j;;,;ä#
ing coke savingsof so/oto l5olowith oxygen. Foundrirr:;";-;;;."äìJ¡J;
carbide to increasemert rate and metal temperature
can reduce ,and or.ten
.eliminatethesechargeadditionswith the oxygenenrichmentpractice.

carbon pick-up is enhanceddue to the higher metal temperatures

achieved
rvith oxygegenrict¡ment. Many cupora operatorstake advantage
of the il;;o;
ed carbo¡rpick-up by substituting,tower grade materiats,
suchas iron scrap,
for a portio¡r of the pig'iron charge.,Further, silicon recovery
is incre;rsed.20
to 40/" less refractory consumption is cffected.

ii) Faster strrt-up : oxygen enrichmentprovides rapid :

temperaturepick
up. Cupola opetators can usuatly balve the time rèquired
to reachcastioe,.. ,
temperature,reducing casting rejectscausedby cotd metal,
some fouudrier'"
, ','-,-'-1
\le,vi.rtuallyelininated..pigging"ócld-iron..- , ,'--;:t:l;,,r,
. : i , . ì , , . '
'iii) BetterTr:,mperatur"uog.:Cheo,iriry,tootrol
- ¡' someurrr, .ooriir;..ii!;i,,, l.:,i;iìj,
bettertempera.tur:and cbemisfrV,co1lrgtlXtrgrded
by oxygenas a prigaúi,,.1,.r":,,.
50' ,
t . :t' :ij,, ..... : -- r r ' , . , . í ' , r r , : jI r-,,:j..,i
l
 ' and cltemistty ceUsedby
É be'nefrt. Unacceptablefluctuations in temperature
quickly conttolled bv a simple
¡ft. ;;;;;; incha,.gematerials and melt ratc can be
;il;;;;"iii"i*vg"oenrichmcntlcvel.Stackemissionsarcreduced.
,l ;
iv) ProdtrctionIncreast:
\ùÙhen oxygeDis addedto tbe air.without chang.
This resultsin a higher mclt'
ing the cupola wind, combustioDratc increases.
.i' ¡(l
ii¡qr
Ê r rate. production increases approximatelyTlrforeverypercentofoxygcnadded'
esof 2}/ocan be expected,
?:iy
1::T Exnerienceshriwsthat continuous productiln increas
intermittcirt incrc¡ses or 25/oor ¡nore after the addìtion of oxvgen i :
il;;;;*ie
to the air.
.
v)Low(Japitatlnvestnent:LittlecapitalisrcquiredtoputanoxygeD
inveçtmef¡tis a concrçte i
cnricbment system iuto operation. A foundry's only :
the storage vesselto tlre'cupola'
pad for the oxygenstoragcvessel,piping from
is small conrparedto the
årrd oxyg.o regulating equipment. This investment
coóts'
ulr"rouiii.t f<,rincreasingproduction or reducingoperating
'
4.8.5. Ilot-blast cuPola
type, which is
Tbereis a modificationof the cupola, called the hot-blast
in that the hot stat-kgases
also used. This type uiffers fronr thc ordinary cupola
cloor,nn<1. c'rntbtlstionof
arc removcclfronr the cupol:tjust bctowtltc cltarSing

xot Gålaa
ai' id Coñbu¡lion
PrdccÉ! ai ¡t l5'C
P'c(ssÉ /':r ¡t 416'C
Prdq¡l a', õr !¡OoC

Cr,lo /¡r EvÞôrr

--l
Cugdr
elohiñS¡ fan
[l
Llt
\ /
fr.
lI r

Corrbusl;on lút cs þ¡rcû ;n

¿h fi'olðl combr st¡Onchõñb'
wilh onty hot ç3sc5
f nlúr{,Ít húal c'ch0ngcr.

Cqñbut¡ioâ Air Fdñ

.,THERMO" BT,ASTHEATER
fired hot blast éuPola.
fig. 4-7. Diagrammatic'view oí an indepêndently
LTD-Ensland)
INCANDESCENT
ìcourturyWELLMAN
51
them is com,rleted in a furnace
through a prr,heaterin this furnace and subsequently.into the wihd box of the
cupolaat a tc'mperaturcnround 300oC, This preheatingof thc air blast resr¡lts
in sevcralarJrnntages.

4.8.6, Independently-fircd hot-btastsysfem

Ill llris ¡t:etho<l llre nir is ¡rlclrcrrltrtl irr tr sc¡lrrrirlc
cxfcrn¡rll't¡r¡mce¡¡rtl tlrrr:s
rtr.rt:rllcnr¡rl t,r ¡cclair¡rany hcat I'ronrthc cupola operation. The useof these \
blast prehcatc:r5 É ,
ç3¡ be very advantageousfor the conversionof existing cold-
t q
blast cupolasto hot-blast operation. Thc sanrcnrctallurgical acl..,antages in ¡
opcrationof rhe cupola are obtained as rvith thc fully recuperal.ivc systems, !:,.
$""
but a disaclvantage is thc extra fucr cost involvecl. (lìig. 4-?) shorysllre ¡I
i n r l c r p t i ¡ r tllyc.n
f ìrl c t l l r ot - b l l r sst y s l cl r r . I
t
The advanta.-ees
of independentfiring are : . i l¡ '
L t t r r , c : r p i t ca ol s t . .
2. N c g l i g i b l e¡ n a i n t é n a n c e .
3. skillsd supervision , is unnecessary and adequate jnstrumentation
. ensutesa consistent hot blasttemperature.
4. Thcn:is no dust to accumulate within thc blasthcater.
5. The :iast te.mperature is quite independentof cupolaoperatingcondi-
tions and is not affectedby altèrationsin t'iast råtg ot ïelting
conditions.
6. !'lc¡tblastat tcmperatures up to 500'C is availablewithin 40minutes
frorn cold.
 'I¡|ÈEóI*-,.L-

14' with uniform tlast

¡lrc-ltcatflnd nlorecvcr clistribr¡tionol' thc blnst
t l t r o u g hc l c i l r rr r r y c l c st,r ¡ c r ci s c r o s c r( ì o r ì t r o r
o [ t r r c s p o u t m e t Í ¡ ra r r a r y s i s ,
resultingin fewer castingrejects,
better machinabirity,ano for mateabteiron,
greaterannealabil ity.
'ì-llcsc
arlv¡rrìtafi,cs irìcrcrrsc rvith r)r.sttcnrr)cr-¡rtr¡rc f.ro¡'200to 6-50"c.
4 . 8 . 7 . S c a l c d - t o ¡ ,c u p o l a
F i g ' 4 - t í i l l t l s t : r ' ¡ t l ct sl t c :i l i ¡ ¡ ¡ 1 ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ r r r ¡ r f
i t : r ' i c r v. r ' t l r c s c i r r c c l - r ou¡ul ¡ r r r l r t . . r . l r c
r)r¡rpose i n t h i s c c s i - e ni s t o c o r t r o r
t h e a r ì ì r r c ngt a s c s ' , r " " r ' r i . , , o r i g i n
c o l < c :b r ' d r ¡ l ¡ t i l t l r c c l c ¿ t l r c t l in trrc
r r í r s c sí r ' t : < l i r i t ' l r i r r ' ¡ Ìic' fr<l l : r f r , ( ) s r ) r ¡ ( , r ( :Â.
r c t ¡u i t c n t c t t t i s t o ¡ i r < l v i d ca ¡ l r c t l r o r l fì¡sr
' l - h i s I ' t l Ic t > r l r l ' t L l l i Dp rgc - l r c r r t c bc ll a s r a I a n c v c n
Ienìl)c¡'ature' i s t t c c o n t p l i s h c ' b<yl c o r ¡ t r ' l l i n . l
t h c a ¡ n o u n to f - h c i r t r r k c '
f r o n l t l l e e x h a u s tg a s e s o f t ' c c u ¡ l o l a .
r r r t c o n v c n t i o n a l ,o p e n - c u p o r o - d o o r
c h a r g i n gs y s t c ¡ ì trh c v a r i a b r ca r l o u ' t . f '
. x y g c ' b c i n g a v a i l a b r et o a n d
ätì mixing with the exhaust gases, thereby
c í l , s c s , ¡ r v r r r í a b r ci i : r o u n t o f
i.1 av;rilablc f0r pre-hcating purposes. 'r'rrc h c a t r v hich is
;.1 c r c s i g no f : r s c ¡ r r c csry s t e r np r . o h i t r i t s
i Ì';:, t l r i s i v a l y i n g c o n d i t i o ¡ ra n c l
P r r ' r r ' i t sc r ( ) ' t r ö l o v c r t l r c , , , , . r n u n io f o x y g c n
lÈ d u c e c lt o t h e c x h a u s t g a s c s . ¡ 1 n i'tro-
;iH e v e n t c nrl p c r a t u r ef o r h e a t i n g t h e p r i n r a r y
t$. is providc.. air
'X
t,[t
. :'r

ì flut¿Î gxcHÁN9Eß
Éi h CLEAIIED
.Jr ar¡ lc
ltot 8tÀsl LtNE
iii TO çUPOLÀ ATrM'åSpHEnE
jrtl¡'
rii'
i{lÀ

fi 'ðl
È
:È
l ; l
a ¿ sEÂt€0
.t,r TOP
tt ¡ t¿ ?
I

i..i:
rli I
!
ì'É -"i-rr

,if )
tqi L
i¡ì
l¡ .ï
t\ r:
CUPOLA EIHÂU5T
FAN

r :',

. 1 . . ;: . :

i.1i1. l
i i 1

Flg. 4-8. Diagromnrotic view of

a sealed tgp cupola
. ( O o u r t e s yM O D E R NE O U | P M E NC
TOMPANY.U,S.A.)

53

;'.i',i:i':i ;,r.
 . . .. :.. , ,o
' .' I. . . ' . i. , l , : . , .,, ,,.- lf
.1. .' . ;r
A r19o9 rctuillmen
gases' Efrciencies of most
creaning systemsare depcnäent
volu¡nc of the exrraustedgases anrl upon coostsng
ih" requirc¿ rhat ,rrcininu¡.r
amount of gas be sandred. sjnce
the¡eis ""onoo,ics
more heat a'airabr;;;;,;l,.ä;;
to satisfythe pre-heatrequircments
¿he controlling of the oxygenis
the cconomicdesignof thc clcaning an aid f.
,Vrr",n.
,
FIow of gas and air
Movement of gas through the
seared-top cupo!a andrecupcrati'ehot blast
systemis traced in the diagram.
A pritary bio,*,er,pu.h.*,th. Írir
one-passheat exchanger. The fresh rl¡,:c,ugh a
purr*, through the jnsideof
exchangertubesand the_exhaust "i, the heat
gaspassesover Íhe outside
this point the blast has been pr"t.uåa or.tbe rubes. F.t
to the desired temperarureaud
introduced through the tuycies is nc,rr,
to the coke bec. The gases
thrcughthe stock and are drarvn risc Vertic¡rllv
fronr thc t'p ot' thr:stock into
c h n ' l l l c r ' I n t h c c o ¡ n b t r s r i oc¡tl t u m b c r corììl)rstir)rr
e x h ¡ r u s. t, x y g c ni s i r r {r . r r r r . c ,i r r: , ¡ l r t r . l -
led arnounts ûnd fired to thc required
tempcralurebcforc ()\,c¡.rhc
outsicleof the tubes of thc-heat .rrt,,;sir¡g
exchanger. The exhaustgasis ,crEiv¡r
througha ducr and into the creaning trren
init ruhrr. ¡t;, *riir,r and creanei!.
through
thscxhausf
rìrnrhc ,.:rcilrctr
;ffîri:ïl¿rssins sn.,i; rri¡crri¡rrccr
i.rt, ii,
'¡'
lhis systern!s c,peratr:d,,\,jth
f.heprimaryblower
systë¡rì
a¡rdthecxhaust.btou'crcrrilrvirg l.ushingllic air irrtol!:c
.ut trrc gases.
-*,¡ilì,
M;i";;rlri;g |il;:
overti:et*o browersjs a pressure
cãi¡tror¿o*î., rocate<J
rßuct
r','ork;rndrrrereby
maintaÍns in iì:c
* noinfc,fequiribriun, *uo* ¡lc stockhci¡rrt

'\,
"í
 Chapfer 4

T'I{E C.UPOLA

4"1. Iatroduction:

F'orse'eraldec&''t.s,th'¡ basic riesign-

of f he cupolauncleril,cntno r¿dicol
cbaugec. 'Fhcreh¡s bc-cn
n steadygr"rii¡ in its,rru
for a l¡ettel'uncrerstanding*f desire
t¡re m-anner in which it"iO-o"-increosing
*rorks.
the developrnent Trris has red trr
of irnproveddevi¡-'esancJrcfrnemc.rrts
¿nd,;TrÇ'¡rsrJ¡enteni to peimit closenco.ntrol
of the fecfors ¿lrnt,¡"trjr"ri".
ir, U*i^;.ü
Thesec!+ver*prncnfs lrrvç e¡rrnr.rìf'or fhe cupora an
*¡elti'rs¡rrlecïiu:;r. Ëverywhere c¡ninent posítionas a
in rtrrouì iÌ:r,ndrjcs firc cr:i:ora
cnnsísfr¡:f iri g,r.rcr,i-¡1¡o¿¡¡ccr is acccpte6as,¿r
or'Ìrightest-ur¡:rer c¡f,'nifornrryiìs¡ qq*,¡r)í.
tlr.rtstalcì!ngl-eatuies¡rre
its iirîr_s¡alcÍi;cicn;:j.,low inifial
ûjrefí-ìf
.irq û*i't rìi'¿J¡ cli¡-r, lc,w
ab¿x,eaii. ;¡5 Ancìeasciir.oÞr:artio¡r, opcrating
in cor-'juirci:iíirÌ !'
",r:ï.iÍliii¡-f
rx'ithmech¡.¡li';hi
r,i.l;lr¿i,:rs,'ai¡¡o¡i.
rjarvlriair]ijriicaa brqrselteclÍn an'srir, sir*pe, ur qu*rity oi
lhe,o¡ri,i i:rr(l¡rÌ tli¿ lc¡,çlcsi
possibieccst.
4.i1. ïih.r üuÞc¡la.?.{
.l.iô11¡:l,or:iucedjn the bläst fu¡:¡l.rcr...
ís not $uitel)lefol caritiiguu¡.j]
.¿sttile
lreerrl.eÍj,rt:<.j fr¡r¡her. Thi";;;;;;
it has
i:¡
c&rrieqJ
out in a cu¡,614furiraçe.
4,3. Ce¿sÍluctfr¡¡ra!F.eaturas:

o::*ib:i. asa smarrer

versiûn ui.rLerrrasr
3"i;::Ii","î:i_i:
Ï'he-con..'entiiirial cupola furnace.
.Fig.4-l ) rs'a
\j'jg'*-I) i verïìcar srraft type fiir',afÆ, corrsisrirrg
a cf iíndric:t s.feetôUeltl::n¿¿ of
witfu refroi'iory
refrer,to"v *or^.;.,Ì.
materi¿ris ^...r _._._._
rv¡i¡ ¿ a;rCequip¡reC
;';iÍl ï,.,
;:l',
:,Ï;'::
i:i .rl
3i'r
"'1
" r;"
;i ;;1
"J ä;* r',
; ffJ.riiï
''ffil
i',,iJ'i:;
;ï*: jli1;;l:::1.:1,,io'od
ior' u.,i",, il;;iiå-l,ïfl ï:
bottoilIarel:oìes.rn<lspouf:ifor
rcnr:rvnl "*,ilï
;;;;;ff;äir;ä'#:
one c'j'thc c¡utstanrjilg'l'eatures
of such a vcriic.a!shaiï fuinace
ascendi'.g g¿isËsüo,ime is that ihe
into inti¡¡¡ate.contact rvith
.lirida dirccr the desrendin,g rirerting stock,
ar¡defficieurexchan¡se orir.* i;;;ì',il;,';;i:i
sicck Ial:rrs1;la';c' The descendirlg íc rhe i'e!;in¡1
fu,:l rcPlirccstliui burrrrJ l,¡rùfi1
rlrÇ.
collebc,l rrn.lrrr¿:intains origin:rl
the tr,:ighlcf lhis I,ed.
38

'
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B
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 :ts' chárged, load should bc

blgrters[o maintain a delive¡jof

 heatis rçcovr:red
by direct heatexchangebctweenupvrardflowing gosesand
downwardfl,fwingchargesnnd fucl.
_
'\_/ - / REDUcrroN zoNE: The portion of- the coke bed abovethe combustion
zoneis knownas thç .,.reduction
zone". In this zone,the priucipat,reaction¡s
the combination of cgrbg¡ dioxido w¡th.thofuel to form carUðn,non¿ri¿b.
Most ofthe ìryater
vaporpresentin the blastair atsoreactq,.iu
this zoneto-yictd
Co and Hz. It is a protcctivezoneto prevent oxidationof thc *.tut ,íárgç
above. and .whiledropping,through it; tho down.coming'molten ¡netala¡id
the slag aresupsrbeatcd,.,
Thus,thc mctaldroÞs more,rapidlythroughtho
combtrstioll
zone'withoutexcessive lossesdue to oxidation. In tt¡elow,jr
portionof thiszonethç rgactionrateiqcontroiledby,mass transport.,, :l
. . - : t " '

oxl¡iATlcN rJr coMBUsTloNT.ONB ¡ In tl¡is zone thc principal rcsction is

the c<¡mbusti,¡n '.
of oxygenwith the fu'cl..,,; ,'i: ', ì', ';-,'
'
1,7. Operotlonof the cupola
In prepa.ring the cupoia for operat¡oo tbe bottom doors arc propped
up a.r¡da ¡ueasuredqu¡Ìutity of saud is durnped into the cupota tbrough
tbe charging door. . Thc bottorr¡ is then ra¡nrned riown and sloped. Á
taphole is formed st this level in liue rvith. the tapping spc,ut. upou this
sand bottom, the correct anount of coke is charged. Firit,:large siied coke is
ptacedto I depth of 150or 200 mm, and theu pile-run is clrargedto briug thc
'
,.oepth up to.about,250.nrri'irbovctuyere!. 'piecÈiceé,,vary.w-idã!y,with relsarå
to :he teclini,lue:.,of:chritging,,'tut 'm'ost' operdtor'Slighi'tbè coke bed þçfore
'rhe
¡rlacingthe remaining charge. bed !s allowed to burn 30 to 40 n:inutes
beforetltc sta:'titg burner is removedand the breastl¡ole and tap fuoleare made
up.,,.rüheuthe initial cokc is burniug well, more coke is adrJed.¡: As the cokç
. :!.,.:.
becopes hot,, rtrore is added until the desiredheight is reached. Tbe coke
'tuyeres,'¡gs
bed de{iued.as 'tb¿r'height of tbé cokèäbovethe gleatínûuence
oirproperconrbusti-on",during
melting.A go.r.,'clcokeqlti'nôish,t
fs¡cC'Ëssary
'*iiàl
at theoutsetof ther/heat
in orderto cause.combustion 't¡at
tó'òòcùr"r¡
will be.meltedand heatedto the desiredtemperature.Hencethe bedsbould
becarefqlly'PutiI].,c1gimçasuredforcoireçtheigt¡¡;.,.
' . . , . .
, t , '
cHARcrNc: lTle ûrst charge of iron is placedon top of the coke betl.
chargingthecupola,conbists in addingweigbed batcbes of metal,coke,and
propsr tin¡a tho,alr blo-1vnre
flux,:'alternativelyl'änd'at'thc '
sie'stíitôd. Tho
iron:bokiratio will be aboutl0 to I by massi.e. the m¡¡ssof themetalcharge
. may'befrom eightto ten timesthe mais of the coke charge,dependingon tñe

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.1
 fi diesand punchesof tho X12 gradesteeland similar steels.Toolsmade
of these steels, being subjected to a special.,:heat-treatment
so-calle.dlzørd,enin
(the
g without tleI ormation), hardly changetheir original
1) temp.etilq3t-180.Cfor a period of 1.5 to 2 hours.
.uorroolsot hrEh-chromium
X12o (noa-standard)
steersof gr-ades
dimensio;;;;iil
x12M (standard)and
krpr ;;;;l;ìã"üvï."n. or
.ormenstons the so-calted.'Ííìiish
izeat-treatiigopüoito", liroposãÀ-¡vï. n. n"u-

ff
Now le[ us considerthe essentialsof the processof hardening ,eþ a,ndE; Liþerman-Esséntiatio'i tnis môtnod':ãré, i""trrì'rrrucrure
rvithout deformation. of a'hardened'-sreer rhereis a q.uftehrsh p;;ñrì;; ;i rä."iãuutu,rr-
It is knorvnthat the martensitepresentin,the.structureof hard- tenite, which |eadsto a reductionoiäu dimensionsof the
enedsteelincreases the volume of a tool, whereasthe presenoe mediately after. quenching.The subsõquen_t toor im-
of resi- short-time--iempering
dual austenitedecreases this volume. It is obviousthit at somedefi- operationsare intendedtó producegrddual tru".io"-utiän

ftl nite ratio of the martensiteand residualaustenitepresentin the steel residualausrenireinro marrônsite,wirh ï;il;Ë;;;;iriårnu.u of the
.structureneither a decreasenor an increasein the volume and lin- the dimensions io
of-the article.
ear dimensionsof a tool will occur, i. e., the dimensionsof the tool The finish heat-treatment consistsof the ---
followinE operations:
after quenching ancltempering lvill be exactly the sameas they were 1) heatingrhe r.neral "'
ro 10b0.to IOOO;-õ;
before har:dening. the arriclero anorherfunüco hearedup ro 450"C;
A.P. Guly-acvlecommendsthe following procedurofor hardening ?ì ecJualrsrng
tl, l:=:l=ing the temperatlre
. of the article and
-- ----'.---Þ
holdinä ^'it at thai
tools of the Xl' grade steel without deformation: quenchingfrom temperaturefo¡ period of 40 to 50 minutes.
1 ií
a temperature of 890"C in a saltpeterbath heatedup to a tempera- 4) cocling it in air; !r
ture of 200"C;holding therefor 30 minutesand then coòIingvery slow. 5) repeatedhioh temperingat a temperatureof b20.c for period tl
a ii

ffi
ly (in a cooling dolvn temperingoil bath, or in sand, ashes,etc.). of 40 to 50 minutõs rurrr-ii-ui. irinr"äin r.;prrdg;L-oï"i^onrion.
The purposeof increasingthe hardeningtemperatureis plain from of the articte are measured.The remperingGËì;pñd;;;;,,
as.di-
what has been ¡:reviously stated. Broken hardening removes the mensionsmeasuredarefound to be eqüaltitne initiäiì"rr.'" ii
internal stresses.and strains that may causechangein the dimensions
of articlesas a re$ult of their warping. But the slow coolingfrom tho
temperature of 200"Ccombin.esthe last stage of the hardening opera-
Uion(the formation of martensite)with tempering. At thesetemper- whensreer
arricr:Jl;,Tu,j."",,-:iïi..,, maybecaused
in
atures tho first transformationin tempering takes place, i. e., tho of wavs.
tetragonal martensite is transformed into tempering martensite. 31ym,!er .The princip{l ones are: t),o*ìrù;io;;,ìå au.n.-
þurrsation;l{ quenching:tTS; 3) distortion ánd warpag.e; 4) change
Instead of slorvcoolingfrom a temperatureof 200" C,,the metal may in dimejrsio$; 5)^megLanicar píoperties obtained riot-ïoíror-ifij
be cooledmore rapidlÍ (n.g., in sfitl air) ivith subsequenttemper- to specifications;6) soft spots.
ing at between 180 to 200'C. - oxidation and decarburisationrvere deart with in detair in

#
Another methoclof guenchingwithout deformationis that of sub- c.hapter_vof this boor<.causesof the deveropmenfif ..Å.Ë, cìistor-
jecting the steelto a preliminary heat-treatingbeforethe final quench- tion and changein dimensionsof artictes ïaìr-airl.oav'îårn
,li._
ing. Thi.s consistsin quenching,with subsequentdrawing (temper- cussed.i' paragraphs40 to 42 of this chapter.To rvhathäsiãensai¿
ing at a high temperature).As a result the line-l¡4,dispersed structure a.boutthe causesof distortion, the followìng slrould be addect.
Dis_
called sorbite is formed, and thereforein heating for the linal hard- tôrtion is often found ro be causednor by rfe ;;hngãriJiìion.
¡ut
ening thc austenitebecomesmors uniform and rnorehighly alloyed. by the conditions of he-ating.If the botiom of a neîtinE-ilna"c;;;
This increasesits stability, and consequentlya greate¡ amount of uneven' then lonE, slenderaiticles (e. g., bladestor guiltoiine
shears)
residualausteniteis retainedih the steelstructureafter final quench- placed on this bõttom benclunder ihuir'oo,n weight on
heating ancl,
ing. As a result of sucha treatmentchangesof dïme¡rsionwill te less. of 'course, remain distorted after harclening.ofien i¡ev- c""not
'fo ensureconstant straightenedafter hardening.Thereforesuch"partsÀna-io.irr-.rrould ¡,
dimensionsof tools macleof the XBf grade
be
of steel, tlie following heat-treating operation may be used:-
*il.ln aI :l i _!:1f,.evgnbott op orp,eferaïiy ;;rrñi
!!lq furnace.[Springs, ü îr"ri. p.n
a_ tl

1) preliminary quenching,ir1'. oil from a temperature gf 860"C; eo plt-type heating horvever,shouldnot be heat_ ii
'¡e l:,
2) drawing at a temperature,of650"Cfor 1.5 to 2 hours; ed vertically, or they- will ineviia¡tï, compressedor extencletl,
3) final quenchingin oil from,a temperatureof betwéen830 and with their pitch, changingirs value. Theretoresp-ri;g. ;;;
B4O"C: là"rreate¿
horizontally, placed on the even bottom .¡';-ñ;ì;; "lo.nrru.

¡l5F\
 ol Híghly Al,loycd.Stecls

Most hardenedarticles and tools are checketlby testing th-eirhard- uirl, with an uneven cooling resulting. With insufficiently ïigor- l
lna-.ãme machine parts are tested-^todetermine whether their ous- or _irregular (Fig. 101) agitating of the tool in the guenching ,l
mochanical prorerties conform to speoifications.cheoking articles
"u..,
ü rc;i',;inärdness and mechanical
pro-pertiesis usually do_noonly þath, the tendencSr to formation of a vapour coating on certain sur--
ju..q, may increaSe,Ieadingto an:abruptdrop in the coolingrate. I
ãít* tu* p"'ing,but often the,caHi:"iiffiåTiJå
i,".'i"ffii iiå-i $mall soft spots:canbe preventedby adãing,a small amouni 12 to
!

:l
3 per cent) of soda.ashto the water. When the water evaporateson
ffi i!tt:i"ï:
ffilîiî""i",Tiî il:::i:'u';åi: thé surfaceof the todl srnall socla crystals are depositing; these
instantlyflyoff it,breakingup the vapour coating'.When quenching I
þ"o"."irs" :.ffi.o2" "."".*.'":.:.1is too low a hartlness;thib kinal of spoil:
age is hnown to be'i oaused bY the
following fac]orsl "
is performed by spraying with .water sof[ spots are cômplc[ely
eliminateil.
Causespreventingthe mechanicalpropertiesobtained from con-
I
ì
i

.,formingto speoifrcations
ing (seeChapterVIII). ,
will be discussedin the chapteron temper- I
t + 6
il,Ð -'-A \L
To conclude'thisshort survey of defectsin hardeningspecialåt-
tention shouldbe calledto the fact that in analysingcausesof a spoil-
age thè initial material must be carefully checlied.Casesof slroil-
ji
li
i
¿

+
@)
Fis. 100.Slructureof V8 gratle Fie. 101. Sketchesillustrating the correcü/
ste'el which has beenfhelil anil wrongB methoils .of -ther¡qgvingpaús to
age may be reported where it is explaineâ simpli by the fact that
a _part-ortool has beenfabricatedfrom steel of the wrong grade, $
for an insufticienü perioil of be bardenäl in the quenchin-gliquÍtl (atigivên
time aü lhe hardeningtemPe- bY Y. R. Rauzi¡).,:- :....
and defects may ,qlso be caused by faults in the initial malerial.
#
{l
raLuro.Martensite anã globu' 44. Peculiar'Fðätures of the Hardening of Ilighly Alloyed $l
l a r p e a r l i t e ,5 0 0 X . Steels of the AustenÍte an¿ Cãr'bi¿eCl"asses 1l
Many steels of the austenite class in as-annealed
,,'1
1) Insufficientlyrapiclcooling, e. g.,-because the quenchingliquid condition con- ,¿f{
oi polluted; alsb because of too hasty transfer sist of grains of austeniteand carbides(Fig. 102).Carbidesaffeotthe
is eiíher overheatðd physicalpropertiesof austeniticsteels. ìt
irom wafer into the oil 6ath (when quenching.through water to oil).,
Firstly, they may decrease their plasti-
2) Short holcling at the hardeniñg temperatur-e,which is insuf- 't:
city and impaot strengthand their pres-
ficieit for the globular pearlite to transform complotely into austen-
ence in the steel structure is therefore
ite. In this caõethe haidenedsteel oonsistsof martensiteand glob-
ular pearlite (Fig. 100).
3)^Low hardeningtemperature,which may be tho consequence not
undesirallle. But this is not the main
point. They are chiefly undesirable ti
1i
only'of a too low or non-uriforrn tempe-raturein the-heating furnaoe
becausepart of the ailoying elements
remain in them, thus depleting the
,I
where the tool has been heated,but of a considerablódrop in the 1i
austeniteof theseelementsand making
temperature of the tool during its transÍerencefrom the furnace into
1

it lessresistant to scaling, acids and

ine que"ct ing tank, possibly caused,b-V an unduly .Iong distanoe
wear. From the point of view of acid
betwôen the lwo (such casescan still be met with in praotice in ''ì
and corrosionresistancein gerreral,car-
small heat-treatingworkshopswhere the equipment layout has not .ii

been rationally planned).

bidesare undesirablein the steelstruc- lr
4) Decarburisation of the tool surface. ture also for the followinE reason. I'

s'ometimescasesof spoilage becauseof non=uniform hardnesson As is known froin'elementaiy theory Fis. 102. Hísh-mansanese iÌ'
¡ì.
sleel
on the corro$ion of metals, the best of -gradef13'iHadfiötdsreet)in
the tool surfacs are r.poit"d.-Such t'ools are found io have hard'and 1i
'' corrosion resistance is found (under asjcas¿
condibion,300 X.
.òft utru., the latter biing catlecl sgft-spot¡' : .. T!!Þ' +3y be caused
!!
li¡ r
or by.t-he otherwise equal conditions) in alloys
either ly ihe presenceof portions with decarburisgtl-,purface !i
with a uriiform structure. The presencein the structure of two
tools noi having beenthóroughlymovedabout in'the quenchingliq- li
or several phases gives rise to the formation of numerousmicro-
ll:
íit
ti{
i i i¿
Ìi l
i ' ;
ti
i , l
 ìg
ïì
l!l
lll
ical, Charactertstics ol Heat-Treøt ¡lii
ììfi
pressure.,The protectiye gasatmosphereis most easily oreatedin muf- lti
Il'
28. Technological Characteristics
ile and electriofurnaces.In practlcesuch an atmospherecannot be
createdin the rsverberatotyforo"rãr.-- f of Heat'Tleating Furnaces
t,, ,. itfi
The articlesheatedin a furnacewith a protective
-heating gas atmosphere \ Forrr".es uied in heat-treating practiqe differ wiâely accordingto *t
rfi
retain a completely bright surface after (io-caile¿l ïright
heating) or.are oaly slightly tarnished (so-called"cteànneàttng
I their purposes,designs,methbdsof hea.tinþand.qhglging.
t-/ Heãt-treating furnaceÈmay be classifiedon th,gbasisof the follo'w- f$
r The main typ-esof industrial protective atm,ospheres ing main technological characteristics:
: t'reatmentof steel are: dissociatedammonia;'iniristrialusedil heat-
gases(natu-
ral, cokeove', lighl,ing,etc-); p.ãa** gas obtainedfroil- charcoal;
1) acoording to usdi' t
{i
2) accordinþ t9 type of work';'-" 1i
gases_produced throughpyrolysis(decomposition in heatine)or crack_ 3) áccordihg to source of heat; '- {i
ing (decomposition in h.eatinglldgr higË preslirre)of somËlas (e. g., 4) aoc.oidingto working environment.-- Íi
naturaLgas), or-som..liqyÊ rich in hy-drócarbo¡rs lkerosenð,tùt öiÍ Ás to use,.heat-treating furnacesare.dividedinto annealing,hard- ri
or naphtha residue,oil). Theseatmospheres cãise àn increaseof the ening, tempering, carburising furnaces, etc. Some furnaces are of ili:

r carbon content of the steel and are usedfor carburisingsteel pu"tr. a unlversalkind, i. e., they are suitablefor many typesof heat-treat-, 1
They .are also employed as pr-otectiveatmospheresiä the bright
annealing of high-carbon steels.
ing operations,if not all. .-Lo.f .q+"pple, batch-type furnaces,also
calledin-and-orrtfurnaces,which ars extensivelyusedin heat-treating
fi
'$Í
under otherwiseequal oonditionsthe lieating of the metal in salt shops,arè'èqualli'fit for-annealing,high temperingand pách carbu- F
baths is_acclmpaniedby its decarburisingtd a considerablyless rising, as well as for heatifiþ-meta1for its normalising and hardening. E
'
$egre.g. Jhls {apt constitutes one of the greãt advantagesof höating ,4s to the type ol wo¡þ, heat-treating furnaces are divided into .,:l

in salt baths. But some degroeof decarÉurisingmay äccot even in r batch-typefurnâcesand ðçntinuoustypefurnaces.'fhebatch;typefur- ii
these conditions. The þ+rium chloride
þath¡ e-mproyedin heating naoesoperateas lollo'trs//a barch'ol parts rs chargedrnfo tne rurnace' t'
tools of high:Êpeedsteelsfor hardening(at 1250tõ tåOO.),possesses
especiallymarked decarburisingpowei. in thesebaths a graaual ac-
heatetl to somegiven téínþerature,held for som-eperi.odof time and
subjectedto sômeheattre+ting operation (annealing,þeating for nor-
I
oumulationof the iron oxidesiakes place and.Òauses
sation of ths metal.
thjdecarburi- malising or hardening);and then the who\e.batch ol parts is rvith-
drawnfiom the furnace.Subsequently the pext'batchof partsis charged
i:
The surfaceof úoolsto be heatedin a bariur'4chloridebath should into the fur¡ace, unclergoes thô heat-treatment,etc' One batch of i'
be coveredrvith a borax in order to prevent the decarburisätiondf parts (one charge)tliffers from another in weighf, size, grade of steel ti
the steel..Thib,isdonoas follows: the tìol is heatedup to 800 to gb0" ãnd type
-eãchof heat:treatingrequired. Consequently, lho batchesdiffer
fi
anrl then sprinkledwith borax, which melts and covérsthe tool sur- : from other both in -heating temperàture and in tbe time for
.Ë
H
fa-cewith a lliin layer.A simpler procedureis to preparea hot saturat- which they arekept in the furnace.This is exactly the pattern of oper-
ed borax solution and to immersethe cold or (lettei) slightly warmed ation of the batch-type heat-ïreatingfurnaces,which arg[he most ty- I
tool in it. whsn the rvaterhas beenovaporatedthe Éurfãceof the tool
is coversdwiüh a thin uniform depositof borax. when heatedin the
pical for single piece anil small lot types of pioduCtior¡¿fßatch-type
furnacesare usuãlly installedin hôat-treating,tool-makiÏ-gand main-
it
i
bath it rvill melt and cover the tool rvith a thirüqy_ef.- tenanceshops of maohine-buildingplants with rvide ¡omeltclature ti
It is still better to remoyethe causeof the bath deãarburisingac- but a relativety limited amount of parts and tools to be heat-treated. iìI
tion' This is achievedby periodic deoxidationof the bath. cairiod But, it shouldbe noted'that the great variety of heat-treatingopera-
ou[ onceor twice a shift. For this purposea small amount bt nor1, tions performedin batch-type furnacesadverselyafÏectsthe efficien- :l
crushedferrosilicon(1 to L5 per ceni by weigllt to the total amountof cy of their work, i. e.i the protluctiv'ityis loweredand the consump-
- tion of fuel or electricfower is increased.Therefore,if thereis a num-
t
!gltjl the bath) is addedto the inrensivelyhearedbartr (preferably $
lþr 1s per cent ferrosilicor¡), and the fusedÀalt in it is then agitaterl. ber of batch-typefurnácesin the sn'optheir work should be specialised I
The-heatingof tools in the batl beginsafter it has been allõrvedto as far as possible,so that .oneset of furnacesis used for annealing,
settle for half an hour. V. D.,Sadovsky'smethod,describedin the another'for normalisingor hardpn'ing,still":anotherfor high temper- å
il

previoussection,may be usedto verify"whetherth'ebarium ãhloride

bath exertsajdecarburisingactiôn upón tho mäial. For thiô purpose
ing, eto.
'On
the'othór hand,[-wheñthe,chargesare:small (or the
'. amountpf work is limitèd) it is-advisableto operateonly'oneor trvo
r
only samplesrvithout a decarburisedlayer must be selected^. furaaces'witÌi vaÌi'ous héat-treatinþ operatións grouped'in timêJ
{
i
¡
iI
I
]
u
-,f

''f furnacesare s-uitable

sheetsteril anil oastings:ofmalleable-iron' These
Box-tvpe furnaceswith side loading antl unloadingare employed sealing of their heating
for creating a protectÍie"F;;il;phere;.rhe
fb-rlicat-trôatmentof small parts (Fig. 59). Chargingin sribhfurnaces ;;"il;fi;iï,ã ooåirv with sand seals'
cflscteil"
is usually mado manually. 1o load ãnd unload bigger-a'rticles (e' g'' " fr¡rnac-e-lalwavs
lll TC;;;;"iozrs'heat-ireating
dies,carúurisingpots)us-eis made of the simplestmechànicalmeans' tHt operate at permanent temferature contlitions'
.. g., single-giider overlead travef,ling ctanes, monorail carriers \J/
l'
i
- telpherswith electric hoists, etc.i
or
gã-*-i'pe furnaceswith a movablé-tottom (with the hearth.mount-
i
ç
R'. åilit"¿L-.:*;ffir:"J:i:"1T,å"î,ioi%
I
i o" *nääls to permit it to be removed for ioading and unloading) L
I "¿ I
s
I ' |l
ti
l'i
¡' t.!
llt l
$
tl
$,,:,gitii,' tì
v:. t'':. 6t
fi :' o
ft i
I fie. 62. RotarY-hearthfurnace'
|lr
l;i
i
Fig. 61. Pit.tYPe
-
-.Iurnace. a

only to-annealing' t9
llli
t{t
i
to the sameheat-treating "öil;;-i*är.r; g',ãr"
operations,]e'
rtti"tly specíalised'-
o, to te-ii;irã
hard.ening,
illli
íà rurnace. uT"r?"îå:illrlbåîi"'å"r,1åtf.#ouuot" ,It
Fig. 5e. Box-rype
R*i
!l'
Continuouçrurnaces ätåtîii."l pldñ working on a massproduc-
tion scaleÁncootioüäiS"fir*..r'tfto parts to bc heat-treated
"t are
f,ÈË il
!rfi are used for heat-treatment of large parts (FiS' 60)' Befo-re
tho bottom is removedlrom the furäace and ihðpart, to be
loading
heat-treat-
ìi,
t-..

t.
.l
an overheadtravelling crane; the ì

ffi
;ä-;";ffid ;;tt bï-;;;;
úätiãtñ-ir inel tept*Ëea ln the"ffurnaoe. Tho unloading of the parts
1""- iU" n¿ãtth
-f heat-treatmentis effectedin tle samemanner. : €)
rrã"ir"n oi lons"tirrp"ti.-oïi"tg" ti" is best carried out in pit fur- I
for rhe heating oTsuch qarts in r
irõrtir"tip"ïrion, i lurnace'
63r' Pusher-iYpe'
"h#ï;;iù;;ã""d
a horizontal^positionbrings ãbout warpinr' caused'by th'elr own -r*.
1
fíl). pit furnaces may also be-loadeal with sniall parts
;rdhtiFig. li chargedatone end of the furnaceautl tlischargu-q,ltlltjl*::,l#
-p¿ds-¡ae-novcdlh-rough
in special charging baskets. - " ' by,.q gcnanr9¿rl
the f urnace'- as å---rui-e-'
pit furnaggt ï' The
Large parts in Yilh -r^lmovable I ääffi M6h"rt*tiòn of tñe movement of pàrts thrnugh the.rvork-
covers. This type ol iu-to".t incluttes, in particular,; soaking-pit
"tu "iìîîóãt-treaìed .irg-15h-amber may be effectedin various manners..'lhe contlnuous
furnacesintended for heating ingots) fuinacesmost commonlyusedare as follows:

ffi
fup- ----lì-i{"r"ru-fr.urtn
In caseswhere the shop iloor spacers insufficient to inqtall furïr"ãr(Èig.62)wiih a ring-like.bottom slowlv
prove.to be suit-
,rr.ã, *itn a movablebãtfo*, elevator-typefumacqs rotiing.;;;ilJ th; vertical'ax"is;tirey do not-require much floor
able, the heating chambersof which are suspendetlat a.þeigh!-o^t::-Y:Ï ."^ò.. îor ilo they require boxes made of non-scaling st-eels'
al metres,whiiõ the hearths with parts load-edqPotl tl9* are-ralseo "":äk-;rh", rr"îi", iÉig. oe),in which the work_ispushedrhrougb
inio the furnace ctta-¡ots by meäns of hydraulio hoists.' Elevator- rh;-i";üil;;úilù; Èy åea"! ot a pusherw¡h trydra'lic or mechan-
;11" il;; Ë;;"Ä';r--.",i|;tã¿ ín iarticutar Ïor annealing rransformer

ü,
Hii:
 Tichnolàgtcal Ckaracter.isttct Urn-f"¿n| F*"t*
"t
i

pcrigtl-i-qallv
p"eÞet-l!h.-e:qqrls olaceilat right anglesto the furnace axis and forming a contin-
of ribsttnir;ii:tÌq-"t(t...#
ical drive; the pusler is designeil.t-q ü;* Rotary furnaces are used for
;il;"ch if," ioUáðà ouãr a äertaií-ñredetéimineil dislance; Iarge
small oneson trays; heatindsmail pårrts'for "oo.otyot).
hartleningand tempering,as well as lor gas
l"a¿e¿'¿itectly on the ¡eaith, antl
;ilr;;; ;;Ñ;-i*ti"g. ffoi gases are madã to circulate. around lJry articles
pusherfurnacesutt uttlio" annealingantl tempering,as well as for -. be heatld th¡ough continuous rotation of the turnacer,l
to
hardeningand normalising. Aì;îl;ã*-tn.äotinuous furnaces_ofthe rypes jusr'descrihed,
therãïre also roller-hearth furnaces,walking beam furnaces,vibrat-
i;gï";;;h ñ;"u*;; .iã. (*nirn are employeõconsiderablylessoften).

t-g!gJ!g

îig',64' ConveYorfurnace'
4

8f Con uyoi furnace(Fig' 64), in which the belt conveyor c( rorhe

according
-^^ /Err^ Al\ i- rrrlrin} fntin-
the links of the belt conve-yor are cLs""tãã-åt"Ë;;;-?
Heat_treatin-,l;Ï ;.,ll.Ï,,i,,"*,,
-oue, at a very sloï r¡i-e¡ through
"ouriy p"tltìo:¡'t treated are directlv placeil on the i ;tterberatorv futnades-,wh-ich are he.ated fuel
äJ;iLgjttlling.t*Ï such as"soti¿ fuel (coke or coal), Iiquid
äil;r;i.;-ãi'ti"l,
(ËJ;;ii;;utqo". fúel (natural gas, producer sas' etc') and 2) elec'
úric furnacos.\
"'"-I"-*"Aeîln
) f heat-treatingshops,cokeor coal-firedf.rnai-:esare now
Aarclly ever used. They differ from oil-fired and gas-ltredlurnacesln
furnaces
;h;i, cànsiderably *or. complicated design. In these
"
the temperature conditions can be achieved
il;ìJ;;;;i-;l introduced
Fig' 65' Tunnel furnace' only with great ditiit"fty. Automation cannot be
'./'
at all.
--
Olt'-Breafurnaces are better in the.following-respects: their design
bolt;assoonastheyhavereachedthgotherendofthefurnace,they . is siÁpier; there tto ashesromaining after tne c,olnr5ti,on of fuel
;;;"Ñräi;;ò bt*;. ;,: droppedinto the quenchingt""kr 991::{T "tã is effectedwitligreat aocuracy'I-Iowever'thc
most frequently employetlfor hardeningor temperrng' oil: temperaturecontrol
furnaces
^-^ are preparation plañt in the shop -p¡esentsfairlv
be heated ;il#irñi;;ãil.,ál-ãii
¿j-1'onnol fornace'lFig."65),^in- ivhich the stock to ,. g., tlie fuet oit should be storedin a separate
or pilesoi õtc')
sh"eets, is placedu'ol a numler of cars' ilifro|il;;;bi.-r,
fr,"ri., .i"ålï throPgh the b;îilüñãiã¿, áru iuie, outsirler.hestrop. building;in winter-time,
,\}hj;h' ;;;-;h"r perioãicarty pushétl ci pulled slowly
of a mov- thicÉens,'so-túat the oil pipe ii¡es havè to be specially
ffiffiil; ãirtun.u.qual.ioihe lengthóf a car.bymeans ;h;-frrl-"il
i;';¿;;. " r"n"ér fuinaces¡re usually usedfor annealing.' warmed uP bY steam.
'^'*#Ä;äJfr;.o*;(Ëie. Of atl reverberatory fott".tt t'hegas-f'red'ones are.the bes!..an$
OOIstowlyroiatingaroundthe horizontal
parts to be freated-aremovedb.y means I .ori-uããrro*icaf. Èei"g of simple desfun,'theyare easily controlletl,
o*irí ttirooghwhich the
I
i
I

,/¡
 I Characteristici' of IIeøt-Treating Ilurnaces

is the stefan-BoltzmanLaw the transmissionof heat by radiation is

so thaü they do not presentsubstantial difficulties io fY""lng:Gasgas-. to tne rlifterence of the absolute teq¡perature fourth
thö furnaceithrough the gas mains from the central plant- ;;;p";ii;J
ið¿ i"to
producer
EeneratinEstation or irom"outsidäsourcesof gas' The use of
ilr"i_treating f-urnaces is more app.{.op.r¡gr-s from rhe
ffil;;"üÏ;gìIð being
i..rtïî"iïl"inilãf-ti.* than ä direct combustion 61 sqlid:fuel,
uãni.uble from the economio viewpoint than
at the sametirne
of fuel"totä
oit. C".-tit.d furnaces are highly,Pe.rfqqted, being
ãå-¡r.tf* . '. i '
inferior only to electric furnaces' "j
Heating furnaceswitb electríc current ís the most ptlf,e9{S:u¡s'o{
ro*ut ìr..'Eiectric hãai-treatiqgfurnacesare very simþle'in design;'
iñ;ñil nritiãt-rã*úustion ãhamber,gas. ilucts,',nor stack flues'
In
ffrã t.-pr.ature in-"1ä"itiã io*aces is"cãntrolled very ieadily. -
and relatively
addition, the temperaiure control may- be wholly
;;;it;ff.rr.a ny ti,éànsof _automation.-Inelectric furnacesthe heal'
utilisation factor ir [ftã niÁn.st becauset]ere are no heat losseswith
;ü;;: lfré efficiäncyãf ¡"ttn-type electrio furnacesintentled for
;;;oiff;hc u"a narãá"íng rangesfiöm 65 to 75 per cent' while that
;ï;r*;ü'"tory furnaãi.-ir ttõo t5 to 2_0per:.ent. The.efficiencies
and 14 to
ãi ãónii"oous heat-trðãiing lutou"es are 70-to 80 per cent
Cãnditions.of work in running electric
25 per cent, respeoii*fvl
torri".ru ur"'"onrid.rabty more hygienic than those of reverberatory
furnaces.ì
'-^
it;#;t almost all heat-treatingTurnaces, from_thesmallestto the
I"rgãJ,'."" ú. UeateAtUrou_gh ga]firing, electric heating can be usetl
iod-avónly for oomparativeiy small furnaces'Gradually, however' as
ihäif*iiïtr"tiolåt tUe U.S.S.n. progresses,electric heat-treating
inrnu.tu
-- will increasinglyreplace all other types' .
per-
fir. ,r'king med,iøin"whiän the heating of articles may be
.formed"--ãiä-ãS-fbllCws: . ' , : ,.,
air (in most heat-treating furnaces); : '
protòctivegasatmosPheres;
åpéri"t gus"at^oìfnã*r (úr"¿ in gaç chemical-heatifreatment); ': i l
fùsed salts (salt baths); .û.
" i..tisi.
mineral oils'(oil baths for tempering); :a,':o.'.'.;oo'.:P ;

powdered matter.s (pack carburising,- calorising'. 1t",]..-

Fig. 67. Electrically-heatedpib-iype furnace for gas carburising'
Tn reverberatoryfuriäces, where protéctive or specialatmospheres ;r"J",*oålå*83í':';'
el 3 - valve;
are not used,heat fu ttans-iited froñr the hot gasesto the articlesby i : 3î11,,'î1,."ïS%"i,:tbåå33,"ì.liqÏ;3
i - öüiriäipó'ïü;"nrt cliamber; ,t --';'åi'i8;
säõõJtroni''ilið'rurnace motor ror
radiation and directly through convection,i' e', throughgas currents 4H"1..-""1î'.""¿,*1,î,,tÌî'f33'*uã;rt"1.í,.t.'låhb*tå".1'it"*-
tu --erecLLtçat.Ircdüvr's'
electrlcal heaters;. tr¡ - iår"tåi
retort;
-i"
washing the articles' I furnace:
'*-'-lb
iä -
9 - ireat-tnCulating
e, s-- heat-lnsulatlng
¡as'net- iõi
¡as'net
poivtler;
powoer; ro
toaõtirg smáII
iõi toaõtirg smáII parts the pit
lnto the
parts lnto pit furnace'
fur

òiectricfurnaceswith metallic resistanceheatingelementsheat I

tranr-is.ion is etreciedonly throughradiation. From this two conclu- powersfor the heater and the body to be heated.Thereforein such
;iñ;;y be drawni first, electri_c_ furnacesheat somewhat slower ï ioro"r"r the hot gasesshouldbe madeto circulatearou¡d the articles
it uo furnaces;secondly,at relatively low temperatures' t
"ro.i¡eratory in electric furnaces progresses io be heaterlin orier to intensifythe heat transmissionby convection.
;. t., in high tämpering,-heating- io.t.rtti""lty heateclannealingfurnàcesa fan is provide,Jin the roof
;i";l; n-on-uuiiärmli.'It should be noted here that acoordingto
"nd

I
 I'
of each furnaco, producing the forced circulation of hot gasesfor.
this purpose.
Muffle furnacesare usedfor bright heating of articles in protective
atmospheresor for such heat-treating operationsas carburising, ni-
Techno.IogícalCharacterístics oÍ Heat-Treatíng ïurnaces

with the material to be treated loadedon it. The sealingis obtained

through the use of sand seals.
Tho weak point of mrrf{lefurnacesis the short service life of the
muffle. thereloro *¿þ'as-fired
furnaces with radiant tubes have been
lLì.

triding and cyaniding (the so-called
chemical-heat tïeatment). There are
two main typps of batch-iype muffle
furnaceswhich-differfrom eachother
in design. In pit-type furnaces
(Fig. 67) themuffle has the form of a
cylindlical retorümadoof non-scaling
steel, which is placed in a ver-
tical position i¡rsiclethe furnace.The
ilti
developed,the'application of which is now increasing.In thesefur-
nacesthe.h,eating¡. ¿æemplishedby the burning o-fgas admitted.
to'1theradiantrtubeb, i. e., the llame is forced thiough-the heating
iJ
il:j
.li-¡l
or mufflê ttrbës.rThere is thus no necessityfor a muÏfle.
Salt baths are usedfor heatingsmall paits (Fig..6g). In thesefur- iii{
nacesthd wgrking medium consislsof fusedsalt irisideã steelor cast- iiil
iron pot. This pot is heatedand maintainedat a proper tempera- i',
ture either by combustionof a fuel (fuel oil or gas) or-by electricalr ,lil
resistance.Apart from salt bathswith external,or indirect, heating,. li'l

Casint et
articlesto be treatedare loaded into
thisretolt, its'covet is hermetically
sealedand somepropergas(protective
'gas
there are others with internal heating,the so-calleddirect heate"dl
q{t bir-ths,the heating of which is accomplishedthrough electrodes
(Fig.70). In .,thesebath furnacesa fused salt is at thã same time
iijiJ
ór gas intendedfor the chemical- a working medium and the heating element, for it serves as a

ilff
heat treatment)is let in. Heating is. oonductororresistorin which heat is developed.
Fie. - 68. Mufïle bell furnacefor elfectedby hot furnace gases,which Electrode qalt baths have a higher heâting efficiency,so that ?
bright annealing.
. l - c o v e r ; 2 - b a s e i S- p a r t s t o b e
are made to circulate through the higher tempèiatures can be achieved in them. Therefore-electroderj
treated; 4 - bell; 5 - sand seal; ring-like space.between the interior salt baths are always used to heat tocls of high-speêdsteel for
d - electrical heaters. .
furnacewall and the exterior muffle hardening.
wall. In electrically heated muffle The compositionof salt mixtures to be usedin salt bathsis shown
furnaces tho heating elements are placed in the same ring-like in Table 10.. ifl
space. Such are the pit-üypo furnaces designed for bright annealing,

-saltsandt"tt *Täj"ðåir$iìL,o*n"enily
Table 10 ll
be
ed
used
il
M a t n p u r p o s eo f t h e
salt bath
---salts
atrd salt mixtures T e m p e r a t u r e ,o C

ii
ìi
Name of salt

1
Sal[petrous
bath for tem- Sodium saltpeter
' pel¡ng springs and Potassinmsaltpeter
t\ectrbdes arItcles
Fig. 69. SaIt bath. Fie. 70. ElectricalIv-
"heated sall bath. - Sodium salbpeter
Potassium saltpeter
ifi
bright normalising,gas carburisingand nitriding. Gas carburising
of small parts is carrÍed out in muffle furnàceswith a cylindrical Sodiumsaltpeier
f]
il
retort revolving around the horizontal axis.
In muffle bell furnaces(Fig. 68) the muffle chamberhas the form
of a removable bell, which ii liited and moved from base to base
Potassium salbpefer
l'*
ff
tfi
'a,
,f
r