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When the charges are in motion, the interaction them in no longer purely
electric. An additional force called magnetic force comes into effect. The
magnetic force between two charges q1 and q2, moving with velocities v1 and
v2, is equal to
F mag =
µ o q1 q 2
4π r 2
(
v 1 × v 2 × rˆ ) …. …. …. …. (1)
where µo is called the permeability constant which is equal to 4 π x 10-7 W/A-
m and r is the distance between the two charges (see Figure 1.1). The ratio
R of the magnetic force and the electric force is equal to
….. ….
(2)
Substituting the numerical values of ε0 and µo into
eq.(2), the ratio R can be rewritten as
The tangent to the lines of B at any point gives the direction of B at that point.
The number of induction lines per unit area is proportional to the magnitude
of the magnetic vector B.
2
The flux ΦB for a magnetic field is given by the surface integral ΦB = ∫ B•d
A …. ….. (3)
A magnetic field B can be associated with the magnetic force. The magnetic
field at some point can be determined by placing a test charge at that point
and moving it with some velocity v. The test charge will experience a
magnetic force FB.The magnetic field B is related to the magnetic force FB via
X v
Hall Effect
Edwin Hall studied the deflection of conduction electron in a copper wire in
1879. This phenomenon of deflection of charge carrier in conductors by
magnetic field is called Hall effect and is used to determine the type of charge
carrier and their density.
3
Figure below shows a copper strip of width d, carrying a current i from the top
of the figure to the bottom. The charge carriers are electrons and they drift
from bottom to top. At the instant an external magnetic field pointing into the
plane of the figure is just turned on, a magnetic deflecting force FB acts on
each drifting electron pushing is toward the right edge of the strip.
As time goes on electrons moving to the right mostly piling up on the right of
the strip leaves uncompensated positive charge on the left edge. This
separation of positive and negative charge creates an electric field within the
strip pointing from left to right. This electric field exerts a force FE on each
electron tending to push it to the left.
An equilibrium quickly develops in which the electric force FE on each
electron just balances the magnetic force FB (figure b). Then the drifting
electrons move along the strip toward the top without further deflection
toward the right edge and thus no further increase of the electric field E
occurs.
i i i
× × × × × × +
× E -
× × × ×
-
×+ ×
× × × × × × × × × × × E × ×
-
×B × × × × B × +
× -
× × ×B × ×+ ×
× × × × × × + × - × × × ×
- ×+ ×
+ vd - FE FB
× ×vd × × × × × × × × ×
- ×+ ×
× × × × × × + × - × × × × × ×
FB FE FB - vd +
× × × × × × + × - × × × × × ×
-
× × × × × × +
× -
× × × × ×+ ×
× × × × × × × × × × ×
- ×+ ×
The hall potential difference associated with the strip across the strip of width
d is
VH = Ed …… ….. ……..……..(7)
A voltmeter can measure this potential difference. Moreover a voltmeter can
tell which edge is a higher potential. For electron the left edge is a higher
potential.
When the electric force and magnetic forces are in balance we can write
eE = e vd B ……. ……. ……. ……. (8)
J i
The drift speed vd is related to current as vd = ne = n e A ……. ……. (9)
Where A is the area of cross section of the copper strip.
4
Combining equation (1) , (2) and (3) we get
iBd
VH = vd Bd = …… ……..……… ……. (10)
neA
iBd
or , n = V eA
H
iB
or , n= ….. ……..……..………. …… (11)
VH t e
In which t (=A/d) is the thickness of the strip.
d O’
F1 F3
i
α f
c
b sin α
F4 F2
e
O
6
Circulating Charge
7. An electron is accelerated from rest by a potential difference of 350 V. it
then enters a magnetic field of magnitude 200 mT with its velocity
8
perpendicular to the field. (i) Calculate the speed of the electron and (ii)
the radius of the path in the magnetic field.
8. What uniform magnetic field, applied perpendicular to a beam of electrons
moving at a speed of 1.3 x 106 m/s, is required to make the electrons
travel in a circular arc of radius 0.35m?
9. An electron with kinetic energy 1.2 keV circles in a plane perpendicular
the a uniform magnetic field. The orbit radius is 25.0 cm. Find (a) the
speed of the electron, (b) the magnetic field , (c) the frequency of circling,
and (d) the period of rotation.