Control Valve Sizing: deltaP increases/ decreases w/ increasing load?

Dec 25, 2001 9:51 am, by William Subject : Process Control from the Automation List dept. Text : 1) It is my understanding that if a control valve is installed downstream of a centrifugal pump, then the following will occur for minimum flow: namely, the ACTUAL inlet pressure will be maximum and the ACTUAL pressure drop across the control valve will be maximum. Similarily, the following would be true at maximum flow: namely, the ACTUAL inlet pressure will be minimum and the ACTUAL pressure drop across the control valve will be minimum. In other words, for increasing load (flow), the ACTUAL pressure drop across the valve is decreasing. Question A: Are the statements in (1) above correct? Question B: Will someone please explain to me why, in some situations, the pressure drop across a control valve would INCREASE with INCREASING load?What are these situations? Question C: When a process engineer fills in my valve spec sheet with the MAX deltaP occurring at MAX flow and the MIN deltaP occurring at MIN flow, how do I determine if this is the actual case or if indeed this is not correct and in actual fact the MAX deltaP occurs at MIN flow and the MIN deltaP occurring at MAX flow ???? Will some expert please please enlighten me. Thanking you profusely in anticipation.

Reply
: Control Valve Sizing: deltaP increases/ decreases w/ increasing load? Dec 27, 2001 10:58 am, by Peter Nachtwey > Question A: > Are the statements in (1) above correct? Yes. Although the valve DeltaP occurs when there is no flow. Think of this as a voltage source with internal resistance, a resistive pot and a load resistor. > Question B: > Will someone please explain to me why, in some situations, the pressure drop across a control valve would INCREASE with INCREASING load?? What are these situations? This may happen when the load resistor becomes small relative to the resistive pot. In hydraulic terms it takes very little DeltaP across the piston to move the mechanical load. In electrical terms, then resistive load is shorted out or close to it. > Question C: > When a process engineer fills in my valve spec sheet with the MAX deltaP occurring at MAX flow and the MIN deltaP occurring at MIN flow, how do I determine if this is the actual case or if indeed this is not correct and in actual fact the MAX deltaP occurs at MIN flow and the MIN deltaP occurring at MAX flow ???? Yes the pressure drop across a valve increases with flow. This is true when the load is determining how much fluid going through the valve but this is not usually the case. Usually the valve is reducing its DeltaP so that more of the DeltaP is across the piston causing it to accelerate.

Reply Re: Control Valve Sizing: deltaP increases/ decreases w/ increasing load? Dec 27, 2001 11:06 am, by Ajay Kasliwal Purpose of valve is what ??, How valve is piped ??, Is it in the Spill back ???. I can try to clerify you if you can provide more picture ?? Reply Re: Control Valve Sizing: deltaP increases/ decreases w/ increasing load? Dec 28, 2001 1:14 pm, by Ken Irving > From: William <liamcorbett@hotmail.com> > > 1) It is my understanding that if a control valve is installed downstream of a centrifugal pump, then the following will occur for minimum flow: namely, the ACTUAL inlet pressure will be maximum and the ACTUAL pressure drop across the control valve will be maximum. Similarily, the following would be true at maximum flow: namely, the ACTUAL inlet pressure will be minimum and the ACTUAL pressure drop across the control valve will be minimum. In other words, for increasing load (flow), the ACTUAL pressure drop across the valve is decreasing. > Question A: > Are the statements in (1) above correct? I think the answer is yes, but your statements seem a bit confusing to me. If the load consists of fixed, non-changing elements, e.g., lengths of pipe, and the pump is running at a fixed speed, then the only thing causing any change is the valve itself. Simplistically, to reduce the flow rate the valve must increase its resistance to flow, i.e., it must increase its pressure drop. I think this is consistent with your description. > Question B: > Will someone please explain to me why, in some situations, the pressure drop across a control valve would INCREASE with INCREASING load?? What are these situations? Variable speed pump? Something changing in the load? From above I guess by increasing load you mean the load's flow rate is increasing; if the "control" valve position doesn't change but the load's resistance to flow decreases (somehow), then the valve would have a higher pressure drop. I don't see how the control valve itself could effect this change. > Question C: > When a process engineer fills in my valve spec sheet with the MAX deltaP occurring at MAX flow and the MIN deltaP occurring at MIN flow, > how do I determine if this is the actual case or if indeed this is not correct and in actual fact the MAX deltaP occurs at MIN flow and the MIN deltaP occurring at MAX flow ???? There's no magic happening, so try to go back to basics. The pump must be operating somewhere on its performance curve, and the system will have its performance curve. The pump manufacturer should provide the former, and you'll need to either analyze, measure, or assume the latter. Toss in the control valve (and any balance valves) and see what happens. --

Ken Irving <jkirving@mosquitonet.com> Reply Re: Control Valve Sizing: deltaP increases/ decreases w/ increasing load? Jan 17, 2002 10:22 am, by Jaime Renovell The pump supplies a constant power to the fluid so, the less flow the more pressure you get. If you want to control the pressure you must close the valve more for a higher inlet pressure in order to get a higher dP and reach the set point. The process eng. gives you lower dP to the minimum flow because he is thinking in a valve with the same % of opening to both flow rates (maximun and minimum). I hope this helps. Reply -----------------------------------------------------------

ON-LINE EXTRA APPLICATION UPDATE How to Identify and Troubleshoot Control Valve Problems 'On the Fly' The best time to determine control valve performance is on-line. Here are some simple techniques to determine control valve performance during normal operation. Keywords: Process and advanced control | Loop-tuning software | Process control valves | Valve actuators and positioners Stiction diagram Control valves with stiction problems often display a "sawtooth" pattern when the controller output is trended. George Buckbee, P.E., TopControl If instruments are the senses and controllers are the brains, then control valves are the muscles of the process industries. These workhorses are required to move quickly and precisely to desired positions, 24 hours a day, while requiring as little maintenance as possible. Since control valves are mechanical devices, their performance is less than ideal, and degrades over time. For a plant to perform optimally, control valve performance must be tracked and maintained. Typically, many valves are inspected or rebuilt during off-line outages. Off-line and benchtesting procedures can be infrequent, inadequate and costly. Testing the valves in-place, during normal operation, can reduce rebuild costs, improve process operation, and focus maintenance efforts. Types of control valve problems There are many ways for control valves to degrade process performance. Most common are stiction, hysteresis and backlash, and improper valve sizing. Stictionformed by combining the words stick and frictionrefers to the extra effort required to get a valve moving from a dead stopped position. Stiction is the result of the sum of all the static friction in the moving parts of the valve. Contributing factors include packing gland torque, viscosity of process fluids, and plug and seat characteristics. For more articles about control valves, loop tuning, and process analysis, visit Control Engineering Tutorials at www.controleng.com/tutorials Stiction is frequently observed in control loops operating in automatic mode as a continuous cycling "sawtooth" pattern of the controller output (CO) and a square wave pattern of the process variable (PV) that produce process upsets and unnecessary valve wear. (See Stiction diagram.) Hysteresis and backlash in manual mode diagram When trends of control valves with hysteresis and backlash problems are developed with the controller in manual mode, the quantity and magnitude of process variable changes isn't consistent with controller output changes. If CO is moving more than 0.5% each cycle, there is a problem. It should be noted that, to adequately decipher control valve trends and patterns, it may be necessary to adjust PV and CO scaling, or use special products, such as those available from ExperTune (Hubertus, Wis.) or Techmation (Scottsdale, Ariz.).

Fixing stiction problems requires: Ensuring the valve actuator and positioner are properly sized for the force required to move the valve; Verifying that the air supply to the valve meets the valve manufacturer's recommendation; and Checking the torque on the valve packing gland. If these measures do not work, visually inspect the valve internals for signs of scaling, scarring or excessive wear and replace valve trim as needed. If using a viscous or sticky process fluid contributes to the problem, evaluate the location of the valve, its orientation, and whether a valve is less susceptible to stiction, such as a high-performance butterfly valve, might be appropriate. Hysteresis refers to overall response and backlash refers to that portion of hysteresis caused by lost motion on valve and positioner mechanical parts. By far, the most common causes of hysteresis and backlash are loose or worn mechanical linkages between the positioner, actuator, and/or valve. Hysteresis and backlash in automatic mode diagram Trends of a control loop in automatic mode can provide evidence that hysteresis and backlash problems exist, but not the magnitude of the problem. Effects of hysteresis and backlash are seen in process cycling around the setpoint, slower controller response, and/or a PV behavior different on "up" movements of the controller output than on its "down" moves. Detecting hysteresis and backlash with the loop in manual (open-loop) mode requires introducing at least two small changes to the controller's output in each direction, and then observing the results. (See Hysteresis and Backlash in Manual diagram.) Hysteresis of 1% or less is normal in a well performing control valve; hysteresis greater than 3% should be corrected as soon as practical. Hysteresis and backlash will appear in control loops, with aggressive tuning and operating in automatic (closed-loop) mode, as an overshoot and cycling following setpoint changes and may display an ever-increasing cycling period. (See Hysteresis and Backlash in Automatic diagram.) It is not possible to determine the amount of hysteresis with the loop in automatic mode, though it is possible to observe its existence. Adding a positioner to a control valve can remove or minimize the impact of hysteresis. If a positioner exists, conduct a thorough physical inspection of sources of lost motion such as positioner-, actuator- and valve-linkages, and repair as needed. Valve sizing problems diagram Depending on the magnitude of valve sizing problems, trend results can vary from instability and imprecise control to a process variable not reaching its full range. Valve sizing problems exist when the overall process gain is less than 0.3 or greater than 3. Valves are often sized based on a future maximum process design plus a "safety factor." This leads to specifying, buying, and maintaining more valve than is needed, and results in imprecise control and instability. Undersized valves are often the result of inaccurate or "guesswork" process specifications. This results in control loops that don't work well in automatic, as well as process bottlenecks. Sizing problems can be detected by conducting a few output changes with the controller in manual mode, or by using setpoint changes in automatic mode. Make at least two process

changes in each direction, and the larger the change made, the better. (See Valve Sizing Problem diagram.) Using data from the last change, calculate the steady-state change of the PV. Steady-state change is simply the final value of the PV, minus the PV value before the bump. Convert this to percent of scale, using the engineering unit limits for the controller. Then divide the percent change in PV by the percent change in CO. If the number is greater than 3 %PV/ %CO or less than 0.3 %PV/%CO, then there is a valve sizing problem or a transmitterscaling problem. Depending on the type of valve, correcting the problem requires changing the entire valve or changing the valve trim. Over 30% of control valves have problems, many of which can be detected during normal operation using simple tests. Correcting valve problems can significantly improve bottomline results. --------------------------------------------------------

CONTROL VALVE PRIMER By Melissa Davy of Flowserve Australia INTRODUCTION This paper is designed to give an overview of control valves explaining the different styles and why they would be selected. It will touch on the various aspects of valve engineering:including sizing, actuators, ANSI ratings, seat leakage, positioners, valve accessories - and touch on severe service such as flashing, cavitation and noise. The aim is to give an understanding of valves as an engineered product. CONTROL VALVE SIZING Control valve flow capacity (Cv) is based upon the industry standard, ANSI/ISA S75.01. The following steps can be used as a guide when sizing and selecting a control valve to suit your given application. 1. Calculate required Cv 2. Select body material 3. Select body rating 4. Select shut-off Class required 5. Choose body style 6. Choose body size 7. Select trim size 8. Select trim material 1. Calculate required Cv Cv is used as a measure of the capacity of the body and trim of a control valve. One Cv is defined as one U.S gallon per minute of 60 degrees Fahrenheit water that flows through a valve with a one psi pressure drop. The general equation for Cv is: The following information is required for both liquid and gas sizing applications. Liquid Sizing Inlet Pressure, P1 (psia) Outlet Pressure, P2 (psia) Allowable Pressure drop, (P1 - P2)a Vapour pressure @ flowing temperature Flow rate, gpm Line size and schedule Viscosity, centistokes Critical Pressure, Pc (if known), psi)

where: Cv = Valve sizing coefficient Fp = Piping Geometry factor q = Flow rate, gpm

(P1 - P2)a = Allowable pressure drop, psi Gf = Specific Gravity @ flowing temperature Gas Sizing Inlet Pressure, P1 (psia) Outlet Pressure, P2 (psia) Flow rate, gpm Line size and schedule Molecular Weight @ flowing condition Inlet Temperature, T1 0R = (0F + 4600) Critical Pressure, Pc (if known) psia Critical Temperature, Tc (if known) 0R Because of compressibility, gases and vapours expand as the pressure drops at the vena contracta, decreasing their specific weight. To account for the change in specific weight, an expansion factor, Y, is introduced into the valve sizing formula. The form of the Equation used is one of the following, depending on the process variables available:

where: Cv = Valve sizing coefficient Fp = Piping Geometry factor w = Gas flow rate, lb/hr Y = Expansion factor x = Pressure drop ratio g1 = Specific weight at inlet, lb/ft3 Q = Gas flow in standard ft3/hr (SCFH) Gg = Specific Gravity of gas relative to air T1 = Absolute upstream temperature 0R = (0F + 4600) Z = Compressibility factor Mw = Molecular Weight P1 = Upstream absolute pressure, psia 2. Select Body Material Correct material selection is essential for reasonable valve life. Process fluid corrosion, high velocity, erosion, entrained particles, cavitation or other problems can combine to destroy or consume incorrect specified materials. Where carbon steel or stainless steel materials are unsuitable for corrosive process, special alloys should be selected based on material compatibility with the process fluid. Where erosion exists, harder or more durable materials can be specified to prolong the valve life.

3. Select Body Rating Once you have chosen the body material you can select the ANSI body rating required by checking the process temperature and maximum process pressure against the appropriate ANSI B16.34 table. 4. Select Shut-off Class Required Control valve seat leakage can be an important factor in the selection of a control valve. Leakage class per ANSI Standard B16.104 typically rates seat leakage. ANSI Class IV is standard for most metal seated control valves. Tighter shutoff can be achieved by using a soft seat (ANSI Class VI). ANSI Class V shutoff can be specified for applications requiring tight shutoff in applications where a soft seat cannot be used due to high temperature. ie. Steam. Leakage Classes: Class I A modification of any Class II, III or IV valve where design intent is the same as the basic class, but by agreement between user and supplier, no test is required. Class II This class establishes the maximum permissible leakage generally associated with commercial double-port, double-seat control valves or balanced single-port control valves with a piston ring seal and metal-to-metal seats. Class III This class establishes the maximum permissible leakage generally associated with Class II, but with a higher degree of seat and seal tightness. NOTE: Pressure-balanced valves typically meet Class II and Class III leakage when used with a metal seat and metal or resilient seals. Class IV This class establishes the maximum permissible leakage generally associated with commercial unbalanced single-port, single-seat control valves and balanced single-port control valves with extra tight piston rings or other sealing means and metal-to-metal seats. With globe or rotary valve, a bubble-tight Class IV leakage can be specified using an elastomeric insert configuration (commonly referred to as a soft seat). However, there are some soft seat limitations to remember, such as temperature and pressure. Class V This class is usually specified for critical applications where a closed control valve, without a blocking valve, may be required for long periods of time with high differential pressure across the seating surfaces. It requires special manufacturing assembly and testing techniques. This class is generally associated with metal seat, unbalanced single-port, single seat control valves or balanced single port designs with exceptional seat and seal tightness. NOTE: Pressure-balanced trim can achieve Class IV or Class V leakage when used with a soft seat and exceptionally tight resilient seals.

Class VI This class establishes the maximum permissible seat leakage generally associated with resilient seating control valves either unbalanced or balanced single port with O-rings or similar gapless seals. 5. Choose Body Style There is a wide range of control valves styles available on today's market. The following table lists just a few of them, together with some considerations for choosing a valve. VALVE STYLE APPLICATIONS/CONSIDERATIONS Globe Valve Shutoff (ANSI Class IV, V & VI) High Pressure Drops ANSI Pressure Ratings (typically 150# - 4500#) Severe Service Trim for: high velocity, noise, cavitation & erosion Range of Alloy Materials High Performance Butterfly Lightweight Valve High Cv Capacity Shutoff (ANSI Class IV & VI) ANSI Pressure Ratings (typically 150# - 600#) Cost (cheaper than other styles) Segmented Ball Valve Cv's higher than Butterfly or Globe Shutoff (ANSI Class IV & VI) ANSI Pressure Ratings (typically 150# - 600#) Good for Fibrous Fluids Eccentric Plug Valve High Capacity Low - Med Pressure drop capabilities Shutoff (ANSI Class IV & VI) Suitable for high velocities ANSI Pressure Ratings (typically 150# - 600#) 6. Choose Body Size The body size can be chosen by checking the calculated Cv value against the Manufacturers Cv Table for the body style selected. 7.. Select Trim Size Some valve styles have a number of trim sizes to choose from. You may consider the following when selecting a trim size: Valve % open at operating condition/s (generally 70 - 80% is recommended) Trim size for future conditions. Trim Characteristic - Equal percent, linear, quick open etc.

8. Select Trim Material Stainless steel is generally used as the standard plug and seat ring material in control valves. However, other materials may need to be considered for applications requiring the following characteristics: Hardness Corrosion resistance Erosion resistance Abrasion resistance High temperature suitability Hardened trim for severe service applications (see below) SEVERE SERVICE Severe service generally applies to applications showing any one or more of the following characteristics: high pressure drop high velocity extreme temperature high noise erosive cavitation flashing Severe service applications can be detrimental to your valve and surrounding equipment, and greatly reduce the valve service life, if they are not taken into account when sizing and selecting a valve. Cavitation Cavitation occurs in liquids when static pressure in the valve drops to or below the vapour pressure. Vaporisation occurs and if enough energy is imparted to the growing vapour bubble to overcome surface tension effects, it will reach a critical diameter and rapidly expand. As the vapour bubble moves to a location with pressures greater than the vapour pressure, the process is reversed. Sudden condensation of the vapour within the bubble causes it to collapse violently producing shock waves and liquid micro-jets which radiate for short distances from imploding cavities and erode nearby surfaces. The effects of cavitation (depending on its severity) may include the following: Pitting and erosion Noise & vibration Corrosion Valve failure A combination of the above Cavitation damage may be controlled by using hardened materials in valve construction or by using a cavitation reducing/eliminating trim in the valve. Flashing If the downstream pressure on the process fluid is equal to or less than its vapour pressure, the vapour bubbles created at the vena contracta do not collapse, resulting in a liquid-gas mixture downstream of the valve. This is commonly called flashing. The result is a twophase mixture (vapour and liquid) at the valve outlet and in the downstream piping. Velocity of this two-phase flow is usually very high and results in the possibility of erosion of the valve and piping components. Flashing produces choked flow in all but a few, special cases. Flashing damage may be controlled through use of the following techniques:

Control velocities Valve design ie. expanded outlet Use hardened materials in valve construction Noise It is commonly thought it is the control valve which radiates noise to the atmosphere. In fact, this is not the case: Control valve noise is generated by turbulence created in the valve and radiated to the surroundings by the downstream piping system. Major sources of control valve noise are mechanical vibration of the valve components, and hydrodynamic and aerodynamic fluid noise. Mechanical noise can result from vibrations caused by the random pressure fluctuations within the valve body and fluid impingement upon the valve plug. Vibration can also be produced by valve components resonating at their natural frequency. Resonant vibration produces high levels of stress that may produce fatigue failure of the valves components. Noise produced by mechanical vibration is usually well below 100 dBA and is described as a mechanical rattling. Mechanical noise is usually secondary to the damage that may result to the vibrating part/s. Noise is also produced by the implosion of vapour bubbles returning to the liquid state in the cavitation process. Cavitation noise may be described as a rattling sound, as if gravel were being carried in the fluid stream. Usually, cavitation noise is highly localised to the region immediately downstream of the vena contracta. Reduction or elimination of cavitation is usually necessary to reduce physical damage to valve components and the piping system, and to reduce the SPL (sound pressure level). Flashing noise occurs when a portion of the fluid vaporises without the subsequent bubble collapse that occurs in cavitation. Noise results from the deceleration and expansion of the two-phase flow stream. Generally, flashing noise is significantly lower than cavitation noise, but erosion is often a serious problem Hydrodynamic noise is caused by turbulent liquid flow velocity fluctuations that result from the rapid deceleration of the fluid as the flow area increases downstream of the vena contracta. Liquid flow noise is generally low and is usually not a noise problem. Aerodynamic noise is the major source of valve noise for gaseous service. The noise level is generally a function of flow stream velocity and mass flow rate. As the gas flow through a control valves accelerates as it approaches the vena contracta, high noise levels can be generated even though the outlet velocity may be as low as Mach 0.4. Aerodynamic noise levels can be above 100 dBA and reach as high as 150 dBA in certain services. Noise and cavitation can be reduced or eliminated by staging the pressure drop through the valve.(see below) ACTUATORS The purpose of an actuator is to provide a force to allow the valve to open and close as required. Electrohydraulic, Electromechanical and Pneumatic actuators (spring diaphragm and spring cylinder) are typical of the different types of actuator available. The one you select may depend on the application requirements and/or the type of plant which it is to be supplied to. Some features you may consider when selecting the type of actuator are as follows: Throttling stiffness Stroking speed Performance

- Linearity - Hysteresis - Frequency response - Sensitivity Fail seatload Failure action 100 - 0% Dynamic requirement Size and weight POSITIONERS A positioner is a device, pneumatic, electro-pneumatic or digital, which, by using a control signal precisely positions the moving parts of a control valve in accordance with the signal value. Positioners may be used for the following reasons: Permit greater accuracy & process control Maintain position regardless of changing forces Handle high air pressures Increase speed of operation Permit faster speed of response Change characteristics Provide simple adjustments including split ranging ACCESSORIES The following are just a few of the many accessories available for use with control valves: Air Filters Air filters are used upstream of the positioner to remove oil, moisture and foreign material from the process air entering the positioner. Limit Switches Limit switches are available in many configurations, makes, models and voltages and are used to indicate a valve open or closed position. Solenoid Valves Solenoid valves are used in as the control mechanism to open or close the valve in on/off applications where a positioner is not required. Handwheels Handwheels allow the valve to be switched from automatic to manual control.

Valve Sizing and Selection

Sizing flow valves is a science with many rules of thumb that few people agree on. In this article I'll try to define a more standard procedure for sizing a valve as well as helping to select the appropriate type of valve. **Please note that the correlation within this article are for turbulent flow STEP #1: Define the system: The system is pumping water from one tank to another through a piping system with a total pressure drop of 150 psi. The fluid is water at 70 0F. Design (maximum) flowrate of 150 gpm, operating flowrate of 110 gpm, and a minimum flowrate of 25 gpm. The pipe diameter is 3 inches. At 70 0F, water has a specific gravity of 1.0. Key Variables: Total pressure drop, design flow, operating flow, minimum flow, pipe diameter, specific gravity STEP #2: Define a maximum allowable pressure drop for the valve: When defining the allowable pressure drop across the valve, you should first investigate the pump. What is its maximum available head? Remember that the system pressure drop is limited by the pump. Essentially the Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) minus the Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR) is the maximum available pressure drop for the valve to use and this must not be exceeded or another pump will be needed. It's important to remember the trade off, larger pressure drops increase the pumping cost (operating) and smaller pressure drops increase the valve cost because a larger valve is required (capital cost). The usual rule of thumb is that a valve should be designed to use 10-15% of the total pressure drop or 10 psi, whichever is greater. For our system, 10% of the total pressure drop is 15 psi which is what we'll use as our allowable pressure drop when the valve is wide open (the pump is our system is easily capable of the additional pressure drop). STEP #3: Calculate the valve characteristic

For our system,

At this point, some people would be tempted to go to the valve charts or characteristic curves and select a valve. Don't make this mistake, instead, proceed to Step #4! STEP #4: Preliminary valve selection Don't make the mistake of trying to match a valve with your calculated Cv value. The Cv value should be used as a guide in the valve selection, not a hard and fast rule. Some other considerations are: a. Never use a valve that is less than half the pipe size

b. Avoid using the lower 10% and upper 20% of the valve stroke. The valve is much easier to control in the 10-80% stroke range. Before a valve can be selected, you have to decide what type of valve will be used (See the list of valve types later in this article). For our case, we'll assume we're using an equal percentage, globe valve (equal percentage will be explained later). The valve chart for this type of valve is shown below. This is a typical chart that will be supplied by the manufacturer (as a matter of fact, it was!)

For our case, it appears the 2 inch valve will work well for our Cv value at about 80-85% of the stroke range. Notice that we're not trying to squeeze our Cv into the 1 1/2 valve which would need to be at 100% stroke to handle our maximum flow. If this valve were used, two consequences would be experienced: the pressure drop would be a little higher than 15 psi at our design (max) flow and the valve would be difficult to control at maximum flow. Also, there would be no room for error with this valve, but the valve we've chosen will allow for flow surges beyond the 150 gpm range with severe headaches! So we've selected a valve...but are we ready to order? Not yet, there are still some characteristics to consider. STEP #5: Check the Cv and stroke percentage at the minimum flow If the stroke percentage falls below 10% at our minimum flow, a smaller valve may have to be used in some cases. Judgements plays role in many cases. For example, is your system more likely to operate closer to the maximum flowrates more often than the minimum flowrates? Or is it more likely to operate near the minimum flowrate for extended periods of time. It's difficult to find the perfect valve, but you should find one that operates well most of the time. Let's check the valve we've selected for our system:

Referring back to our valve chart, we see that a Cv of 6.5 would correspond to a stroke

percentage of around 35-40% which is certainly acceptable. Notice that we used the maximum pressure drop of 15 psi once again in our calculation. Although the pressure drop across the valve will be lower at smaller flowrates, using the maximum value gives us a "worst case" scenario. If our Cv at the minimum flow would have been around 1.5, there would not really be a problem because the valve has a Cv of 1.66 at 10% stroke and since we use the maximum pressure drop, our estimate is conservative. Essentially, at lower pressure drops, Cv would only increase which in this case would be advantageous. STEP #6: Check the gain across applicable flowrates Gain is defined as: Now, at our three flowrates: Qmin = 25 gpm Qop = 110 gpm Qdes = 150 gpm we have corresponding Cv values of 6.5, 28, and 39. The corresponding stroke percentages are 35%, 73%, and 85% respectively. Now we construct the following table: Change in flow Flow (gpm) Stroke (%) Change in Stroke (%) (gpm) 25 35 110-25 = 85 73-35 = 38 110 73 150 85 150-110 = 40 85-73 = 12 Gain #1 = 85/38 = 2.2 Gain #2 = 40-12 = 3.3 The difference between these values should be less than 50% of the higher value. 0.5 (3.3) = 1.65 and 3.3 - 1.65 = 1.65. Since 2.2 is closer than 50%, there should be problem with controlling the valve. Also note that the gain should never be less than 0.50. So for our case, I believe our selected valve will do nicely! OTHER NOTES: Another valve characteristic that can be examined is called the choked flow. The relation uses the FL value found on the valve chart. I recommend checking the choked flow for vastly different maximum and minimum flowrates. For example if the difference between the maximum and minimum flows is above 90% of the maximum flow, you may want to check the choked flow. Usually, the rule of thumb for determining the maximum pressure drop across the valve also helps to avoid choking flow. SELECTING A VALVE TYPE When speaking of valves, it's easy to get lost in the terminology. Valve types are used to describe the mechanical characteristics and geometry (Ex/ gate, ball, globe valves). We'll use valve control to refer to how the valve travel or stroke (openness) relates to the flow: 1. Equal Percentage: equal increments of valve travel produce an equal percentage in flow change

2. Linear: valve travel is directly proportional to the valve stoke 3. Quick opening: large increase in flow with a small change in valve stroke So how do you decide which valve control to use? Here are some rules of thumb for each one: 1. Equal Percentage (most commonly used valve control) a. Used in processes where large changes in pressure drop are expected b. Used in processes where a small percentage of the total pressure drop is permitted by the valve c. Used in temperature and pressure control loops 2. Linear a. Used in liquid level or flow loops b. Used in systems where the pressure drop across the valve is expected to remain fairly constant (ie. steady state systems) 3. Quick Opening a. Used for frequent on-off service b. Used for processes where "instantly" large flow is needed (ie. safety systems or cooling water systems) Now that we've covered the various types of valve control, we'll take a look at the most common valve types. Gate Valves Best Suited Control: Quick Opening Recommended Uses: 1. Fully open/closed, non-throttling 2. Infrequent operation 3. Minimal fluid trapping in line Applications: Oil, gas, air, slurries, heavy liquids, steam, noncondensing gases, and corrosive liquids Advantages: 1. High capacity 2. Tight shutoff 3. Low cost 4. Little resistance to flow Disadvantages: 1. Poor control 2. Cavitate at low pressure drops 3. Cannot be used for throttling

Globe Valves Best Suited Control: Linear and Equal percentage Recommended Uses: 1. Throttling service/flow regulation 2. Frequent operation Applications: Liquids, vapors, gases, corrosive substances, slurries

Advantages: Disadvantages: 1. Efficient throttling 1. High pressure drop 2. Accurate flow control 2. More expensive than other valves 3. Available in multiple ports Ball Valves Best Suited Control: Quick opening, linear Recommended Uses: 1. Fully open/closed, limited-throttling 2. Higher temperature fluids Applications: Most liquids, high temperatures, slurries Advantages: Disadvantages: 1. Low cost 1. Poor throttling characteristics 2. High capacity 2. Prone to cavitation 3. Low leakage and maint. 4. Tight sealing with low torque Butterfly Valves Best Suited Control: Linear, Equal percentage Recommended Uses: 1. Fully open/closed or throttling services 2. Frequent operation 3. Minimal fluid trapping in line Applications: Liquids, gases, slurries, liquids with suspended solids Advantages: 1. Low cost and maint. 2. High capacity 3. Good flow control 4. Low pressure drop Disadvantages: 1. High torque required for control 2. Prone to cavitation at lower flows

Other Valves Another type of valve commonly used in conjunction with other valves is called a check valve. Check valves are designed to restrict the flow to one direction. If the flow reverses direction, the check valve closes. Relief valves are used to regulate the operating pressure of incompressible flow. Safety valves are used to release excess pressure in gases or compressible fluids.

Basics of Control Valve Sizing

A complete and rigorous review of the fundamentals for liquid flow systems
By Richard Carranza, Contributing Editor January 01, 2000 JANUARY 2000

Basics of Control Valve Sizing

A complete and rigorous review of the fundamentals for liquid flow systems
By Richard Carranza, Contributing Editor You can't size a control valve if you don't understand the fundamentals.

So here's a complete and rigorous review of the basics for sizing liquid control valves, including a step-by-step derivation. The design equations used in control valve sizing are developed from beginning to end and are carefully explained along the way. All control valves are basically flowmeters that can vary their size and, therefore, their flow. The major differences in sizing a control valve and a flowmeter are the thermodynamic assumptions made when mathematically modeling their behavior (i.e., how the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics are applied). An important notethe entire discussion is limited to liquid flow systems. Sizing control valves for gas flow systems is more complicated and should be considered separately (check out CP's November issue for more on this subject). Reversible vs. irreversible

Fig. 1. Comparison of reversible vs. irreversible processes

When a liquid flows through a control valve, the liquid is essentially altered from one thermodynamic state to anotherfrom the flowing temperature and pressure upstream of the valve to the flowing tempera-ture and pressure downstream from the valve. The way a fluid system travels from one state to another is of critical importance in control valve

applications. The processes are divided into two typesreversible and irreversible. Reversible processes occur slowly. Take, for example, the expansion of an ideal gas from State 1 to State 2 (Fig. 1). The gas is not only defined at State 1 and State 2 but at every point in between. Because the expansion occurred slowly, the system is never out of equilibrium. Therefore, its exact pressure and volume is known at every instant throughout the process. That type of process is known as an adiabatic reversible process. Adiabatic means there's no heat transfer. An adiabatic reversible process is also known as an isentropic process or a process at constant entropy. This is expressed in Eq. 1: DS = 0 where S is defined as entropy. An isentropic process is extremely important. Consider the example of the expanding gas in Fig. 1, where the gas is pushing a piston and doing work. Because the gas expands slowly, the gas molecules do not increase in disorder (i.e., no swirling occurs). When swirling takes place, the energy that would have been imparted to the piston is wasted by the circular motion of the molecule. In general, turbulence, eddies and swirling result only in wasted energy that could have been used to do work. An irreversible process, on the other hand, occurs quickly (see Fig. 1). The process jumps from State 1 to State 2 instantaneously (similar to a balloon popping). The air jumps from one state to the other quickly; thus, the state of the gas is not known or defined throughout the whole process.
A process is called irreversible because the energy given to the swirling of the molecules cannot be used or recovered. Energy that could have been used to move the piston and do work is now lost in the kinetic energy of the molecule.

Irreversible processes come in a variety of types, one of which is uncontrolled expansion. Other types include free falling objects, heat transfer and friction. A process which is both adiabatic and irreversible has a special name. In the case of an expanding fluid where friction and kinetic effects are negligible, this type of process is called an isenthalpic process or a constant enthalpy process. It is expressed in Eq. 2: DH = 0 where H is defined as enthalpy. Venturi nozzle As mentioned earlier, the control valve is modeled on the principle of the flowmeter. One type of flowmeter is the Venturi nozzle. The Venturi nozzle is an instrument that can be approximated as an isentropic process (see Fig. 2). In a Venturi nozzle, the flow is slowly contracted and then slowly expanded. The slightly sloping walls of the nozzle create a system where the process never deviates from equilibrium, swirling and friction are negligible, and the overall pressure loss across the system is nearly zero. Referring to Fig. 2, one can see that three quantities are varied simultaneously as the process enters the Venturi: cross-sectional area, pressure and velocity. At the inlet, the cross-sectional area of flow is reduced. Because the liquid is incompressible, the velocity of the flow is increased and a corresponding drop in pressure occurs. Essentially, the pressure-related energy (potential energy) is being converted to velocity-related energy (kinetic energy). The cross-sectional area reaches a minimum at the throat. The velocity, therefore, is at a maximum, and the pressure is at a minimum. As the liquid proceeds toward the exit of the nozzle, the cross-sectional area begins to increase. The velocity, in turn, decreases while the pressure increaseskinetic energy is converted back to potential energy. Finally, at the nozzle outlet, the cross-sectional area, the velocity and the pressure have resumed to their inlet values. As the process is reversible, the total energy of the system is a constant. That is, no energy is lost to irreversible processes such as friction and turbulence. Thus, the state of the liquid at the inlet of the Venturi is nearly the same as the state at the exit.

Mathematically, the process is described using the First Law of Thermodynamics (sometimes referred to as Bernoulli's Equation):

where: U = internal energy; P = static pressure; V = fluid velocity; z = ground elevation; g = gravitational constant; r = density.

Fig. 2. Venturi nozzles have almost no friction or pressure losses

Keep in mind that the system is fully described when both Eq. 1 and Eq. 3 are taken into account: the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics. Orifice plate An orifice plate (see Fig. 3) operates in much like a Venturi nozzle. In each case, the fluid converts potential energy to kinetic energy and vice versa. The main difference is that the orifice plate operates as an isenthalpic process. That's also known as an adiabatic flash. Note that the orifice plate more closely resembles a control valve than the Venturi nozzle, because the fluid is instantaneously taken from one state to another.

The sudden contraction and expansion of the fluid creates an irreversible process. Though no heat transfer or work is experienced by the fluid, the nature of the flash itself causes the irreversible loss of flow energy. The loss is usually manifested in the form of turbulence. Thus, not all of the pressure is recovered, as with a Venturi nozzle; rather, the system recovers with a significant pressure loss because of irreversible effects. Eq. 3 can now be applied to the orifice plate. Assuming that velocity, friction and elevation effects are negligible, the following relationship is derived:

Note that H = U + P/r. Thus, Eq. 4 is actually equivalent to Eq. 2. Control valve A control valve resembles an orifice plate. The difference is that the control valve can vary the bore diameter through its valve stem and plug. Taking that fact into account and adding frictional losses, the control valve is described using Eq. 4:

In the case of the control valve, a new term is introduced, hf, which is defined as:

Note that K is a dimensionless term that takes into account irreversible losses. Substituting Eq. 6 into Eq. 5, the following result is derived:

In its present form, Eq. 7 is not too useful for sizing control valves. For the special case of control valves, a new equation is derived. Noting that Q = V A, where Q is the volumetric flowrate and A the cross-sectional pipe area, Eq. 7 is rearranged to become:

Note that g is the specific gravity of the fluid--the ratio of the fluid density and the density of water, rw. Eq. 8 presents one of the most frequently used equations in control valve sizing, for liquid flowing systems: Q = Cv (DP/g)1/2.

Fig. 3. Orifice plates have significant friction and pressure losses

Control valve sizing Every control valve, depending on its design (globe, ball, butterfly or another style) has a different relationship between pressure drop and flow. Therefore, as each valve varies in style and pipe diameter, the manufacturer of the valve publishes a range of Cv values the valve is capable of handling. To size a valve, rearrange Eq. 8:

The Cv in Eq. 9 should be calculated using the values for flow and pressure drop required of the valve at normal

operating conditions. The Cv calculated in Eq. 9 should then be compared to the range of Cv values published by the manufacturer. The Cv calculated in Eq. 9 should fall between 70% to 90% of the valve's maximum Cv capability.

For free catalogs from Lab Warehouse and Industrial AdvantageCole-Parmer Instrument Co., Vernon Hills, IL. For information on control valve publicationsRichard Carranza, editor and consultant, Lisle, IL.

3.4 Valve Sizing

Control valve sizing involves determining the correct valve to install from the many valves commercially available. The procedure is based on information provided by valve manufacturers, who specify the capacity of their valves using the valve coefficient, Cv. The valve coefficient is defined as the flow of water that will pass through the valve when fully open with a pressure drop of 1 psi. In these tables, the units of Cv are gallons of water per minute per psi1/2. The engineer must calculate the desired Cv for the process fluid and conditions by applying appropriate correction factors and select the valve using tables of Cv versus valve stem position and line size provided by the manufacturers The required flow and pressure drop information used to size a valve is based on the process operations and equipment, and ISA Form S20.50 (ISA, 1992) provides a helpful method for recording the data. The size of the valve depends on the pressure drop across the valve. A general guideline for pumped systems is that the valve pressure drop should be 25-33% of the total pressure drop from supply to the end of the pipe (Moore, 1970). To provide appropriate rangeability, the Cv (flow rate) should be determined for the extremes of expected operation. Typically, a valve should be selected that has the maximum Cv value at about 90% of the stem position; this guideline allows for some extra capacity. The valve should have the minimum Cv at no less than 10-15% stem position, which will give a reasonable rangeability, especially since the accuracy of the characteristic is poor below 10% stem position..

For liquids in turbulent flow, the defining equation is the equation for flow through an orifice, which can be rearranged and supplemented with correction factors.
(9)

with

Cv Fliq FP FR

Gliq P

= flow coefficient in gallons per minute per psi1/2 = the flow in gallons per minute = dimensionless factor accounting for difference in piping due to fittings for piping changes at inlet and outlet; values are from 0.80 to 0.98 and are usually about 0.95; see Driskell (1983) for details. = dimensionless factor accounting for viscosity effects for liquids. The value is 1.0 for Reynolds numbers greater than about 4x104, see Hutchison (1976) for the calculation of the valve Reynolds number and FR. = specific gravity of process fluid at 60 F (15 C) = pressure drop across the value in psi

When the process conditions, including the valve (Cv), are known equation (9) can be used to calculate the flow. When designing the process, the desired flow is known but the valve is not; equation (9) can be rearranged to calculate the valve coefficient required for the specified conditions. The pressure decreases as the liquid flows through the valve. The possibility exists for the liquid to partially vaporize due the pressure drop, and this vaporization can have serious consequences for the control valve. Two situations can occur: cavitation where the vapor forms

and is condensed due to the pressure recovery and flashing where vapor remains after the pressure recovery. The effect of vaporization on the flow is shown in Figure 9. Importantly, cavitation involves the collapsing of bubbles that can generate significant forces that will damage the valve components, so that cavitation should be avoided when designing a flow system. This can be achieved by raising the pressure (e.g., higher supply pressure), lowering the stream temperature (e.g., locating upstream of a heater) or using a valve with little pressure recovery. Flashing occurs when vapor remains downstream of the valve after the pressure recovery. This situation will not result in damage to the valve and is an acceptable design. Special flow models are required for valve sizing when vaporization occurs and can be found is standard references, e.g., Driskell (1983). For gases and vapors with subsonic flow, the development of the equation is similar but must consider the change in density with an expansion factor and the lack of ideal behavior with the compressibility. (10)

with Fg Gg N P1 T1 Y z = the gas flow in standard cubic feet per hour = specific gravity of the process fluid relative to air at standard conditions = units conversion, equals 1380 for English units = upstream pressure in psia = upstream temperature in R = dimensionless expansion factor which depends on P1/P2 and the specific heat ratio and has values from 0.67 to 1.0; see Driskell (1983) = compressibility factor

Figure 9. Typical effect of vaporization on flow rate.

Figure 10. The effect of sonic velocity on flow.

When the pressure drop across the valve is large, sonic flow can occur which will require special calculations for valve sizing (Hutchison, 1976). The general behavior of flow versus pressure drop is shown in Figure 10. When choked flow occurs, the downstream pressure does not influence the flow rate. A rough guideline is that sonic flow does not occur when the pressure drop is less than 42% of the supply pressure. Sonic flow through valves occurs often and does not represent difficulties when the proper valve trim design and materials are used.

Special models are available for unique situations like sonic flow, mixed phase flow, slurries, excessive vibration and noise, and condensation in the valve. See Hutchison (1976) and Driskell (1983) for details.

3.5 Additional Control Valve Equiqment

Additional equipment is required for good control valve performance, and a few of the more important items are described in this section. Actuator: The actuator provides the power that is used to move the valve stem and plug. The power source used in the process industries for the vast majority of the actuators is air because it is safe and reliable. Many actuators are described as diaphragm because the pneumatic signal pressure is transmitted to the actuator volume that is sealed with a flexible diaphragm. As shown in Figure 16, the valve stem is connected to the diaphragm, as is a spring that forces the valve to be either fully opened or fully closed when the opposing air pressure in the diaphragm is atmospheric. The diaphragm pressure is equal to the pneumatic control signal, usually 3-15 psig representing 0100% of the signal, which forces the diaphragm to distort and moves the valve stem to the position specified by the control signal.

For a picture of a valve actuator, select this button to be directed to a site on the WWW.

Booster: The flow rate of air in the pneumatic line is not large and significant time may be required to transfer sufficient air into the actuator so that the actuator pressure equals the line pressure. This time slows the dynamic response of the closed-loop system and can degrade control performance. When the delay is significant in comparison with the other elements in the control loop, a booster can be located in the pneumatic line near the valve which increases the volumetric flow rate of air and greatly speeds the dynamic response of the actuator. Failure position: Major failures of control equipment, such as the break of a pneumatic line or air compressor, lead to a low (atmospheric) pressure for the signal to the actuator. In such situations, where control has been lost, the valve should be designed to attain the safest possible position, which is usually fully opened or closed. The proper failure position must be determined through a careful analysis of the specific process; usually, the pressure and temperature near atmospheric are the safest. The failure position is achieved by selecting the design in which the actuator valve places the valve stem in its safest position. The design is usually described as fail open or fail closed. Other failure modes can be achieved in response to unusual circumstances, for example, fail to a fixed position and fail slowly to the safe position. Positioner: The valve is a mechanical device that must overcome friction and inertia to move the stem and plug to the desired position. Typically, the valve does not achieve exactly the position specified by the control signal. This imperfection may not be significant because feedback controllers have an integral mode to reduce offset to zero at steady state. However, the difference might degrade control performance, especially in a slow control loop. A positioner is a simple, proportional-only controller that regulates the measured stem position close to the value specified by the control signal to the valve. For further discussion on positioners, see Hutchison (1976).

Hand wheel: Some control valves must occasionally be set to specified positions by personnel located at the process equipment. A manual hand wheel provides the ability for local personnel to override the control signal to the valve.

3.6 Steps in Selecting a Control Valve

The basic steps in control valve selection are presented below. 1. The first step in control valve selection involves collecting all relevant data and completing the ISA Form S20.50. The piping size must be set prior to valve sizing, and determining the supply pressure may require specifying a pump. The novice might have to iterate on the needed piping, pump pressure and pressure drop through the piping network. 2. Next, the size of the valve is required; select the smallest valve C v that satisfies the maximum Cv requirement at 90% opening. While performing these calculations, checks should be made regarding flashing, cavitation, sonic flow and Reynolds number to ensure that the proper equation and correction factors are used. As many difficulties occur due to oversized valves as to undersized valves. Adding lots of safety factors will result in a valve that is nearly closed during normal operation and has poor rangeability. The trim characteristic is selected to provide good performance; goals are usually linear control loop behavior along with acceptable rangeability. The valve body can be selected based on the features in Table 5 and the typical availability in Table 6. Note that the valve size is either equal to the pipe size or slightly less, for example, a 3-inch pipe with a 2-inch globe valve body. When the valve size is smaller than the process piping, an inlet reducer and outlet expander are required to make connections to the process piping. The actuator is now selected to provide sufficient force to position the stem and plug. Finally, auxiliaries can be added to enhance performance. A booster can be increase the volume of the pneumatic signal for long pneumatic lines and large actuators. A positioner can be applied for slow feedback loops with large valves or valves with high actuator force or friction. A hand wheel is needed if manual operation of the valve is expected.

3. 4.

5. 6.

Table 6. Information on Standard Commercial Control Valves (3) Body Type Size (in) Maximum Pressure, Temperature (F ) psia (1) 50,000 cryogenic to (1200 F) Ball Butterfly 1/2 to 36 3/4 to 200 2500 2500 to 1400 F cryogenic to 2200 F Diaphragm 1/4 to 20 100 -30 to 2200 F 22 30 20 Capacity (2) Cd = Cv/d2 10

Globe

1/4 to 16

(1) Higher pressures for smaller sizes and moderate temperatures (2) d is the valve connection diameter in inches (3) Compiled from Andrew and Williams (1980) and Driskell (1983)

3.7 Valve Installation

Many important factors must be considered when designing the physical installation of the control valve. Perhaps the most important is the design of piping for manual bypass. A control valve may require periodic maintenance to correct leaks, noise, vibration, increasing deadband, and so forth. Since a plant shutdown usually involves a large economic penalty, an incentive exists to maintain plant operation while the control valve is being repaired in many, but not all, situations. The bypass system shown in Figure 11 provides the ability to block out the control valve while the process flow passes through the manual bypass valve. The performance is best when the design includes 10-20 diameters of straight run piping in the inlet and 3-5 diameters in the outlet. An operator must close the block valves and manipulate the bypass valve to achieve some desired operating condition, such as flow rate or temperature. For a typical globe valve, the valve should be installed so that the stem moves vertically with the actuator above the valve. In addition, the valve should be located with enough clearance from other equipment so that maintenance can be performed on the valve.

Figure 11. Typical control valve installation

CONTROL VALVE SELECTION - (STEP - 1)

1. Select a valve type: A. Try single seated valve 0.9 CF to determine CV required B. Flow Direction: Always try flow-to open first, then try flow-to-close for actuator process. Flow direction has to be decided before step 'A' selecting

CF for desired type can be made. 2. Calculate CV required A. Sizing on normal condition unless customer stipulates "Sizing Condition" B. If only one condition is given and if it is labeled maximum, sizing should based on that condition. 3. Select valve type A. Use CV selection of 85% of maximum rated CV. B. Select alternate valve type by using correct CF for style selected. Select flow direction, failure position and air action. A. If fail - close is required, valve is usually Flow-to-close with Air-to-open action. B. If fail - open is required, valve is usually Flow-to-open with Air-to-close action. C. If failure position is non critical, flow and air action can usually be in either direction however Flow-to-open with Air-to-close action is preferred because it generally results higher Delta P Capacity, higher Cf factor and higher plug stability at low flows. It is to be noted that larger number of valves are designed for Flow-to-open operation. Note: Some valves are designed for flow in one direction only CONTROL VALVE SELECTION - (STEP - 2)

1. Select Valve Size 2. Select Trim Size 3. Select Trim Characteristic. 1.SELECT VALVE SIZE, TRIM SIZE AND TRIM CHARACTERISTIC. Use CV calculated in Step One, of product bulletin for valve type selected in Step One and the following Rule of Thumb for Step Two selections. . Minimum Flow - Valve at least 10% open. . Normal Flow - Valve approximately 25 - 75% open. . Maximum Flow - Valve not more than 90% open. 2.VALVE AND TRIM SIZE A. Full size valve with full area trim: Most economical selection and most common (especially if maximum flow conditions are accurately known) B. Oversized valve with reduced area trim: Less economical selection but frequently used especially in small valve sizes and when future flow requirements may be higher.

Note: If reduced area trim is selected the Cf factor may be changed requiring a recalculation of Cv. Repeat part III above using reduced area Cf factor. 3.TRIM CHARACTERISTIC Use the rule of Thumb, the following descriptions in selecting the characteristic. A. LINEAR: Flow is linearly proportioned to valve lift (distance plug is pulled away from seat ring) Should be used when a large portion of the system pressure drop can be taken across the valve. Most low flow trims (Cv less than 1.0) are linear due to close tolerances precluding nonlinear characterization. B. EQUAL PERCENTAGE: "Non-Linear characterization in which a unit change in valve lift produces a flow change proportional to the quantity flowing before the change was made." When flow is small, change in flow is small, when flow is large, change in flow is large for equal changes in lift. Equal percentage trim is further open than linear would be at a given flow condition. This is particularly effective in low flow ranges where, for example the valve in 10% open at only 3.7% of its full capacity. This can alleviate plug slamming at low flows. Should be used when over sizing is necessitated by limited flow data, when only a small portion of the system drop can be taken across the valve, or when the valve pressure drop is high at low flows or viceversa. C. MODIFIED PERCENTAGE: Compromise characteristic falls between linear equal percentage. Usable in most applications. D. SEMI THROTTLE (QUICK OPENING) : First quarter of lift results in linear change in flow, balance of lift produces maximum flow. Used in on-off (non-throttle) service where initial linear characteristic reduces hammer and shock effects. E. LO-DB : A trim construction (rather than characterization) which is designed alleviate noise problems in gas flows and often has the dual ability to alleviate cavitation problems in liquids as well. This is generally accomplished by a multi-ported cage of multi-stepped plug design. LODB trim characteristic is usually linear and has a low flow coefficient, Cv, than standard trim of the same nominal size. Back CONTROL VALVE SELECTION - (STEP - 4)

SELECT SEAT LEAKAGE 1. ANSI B16 104 (FCI STD 70-2) A. CLASS I B. CLASS II C. CLASS III D. CLASS IV

E. CLASS V F. CLASS V SELECT SEAT LEAKAGE (FCI STD 70-2) I. CLASS I A. Leakage Rate - Comparable to class II, III or IV B. Valve Type - Same as class II, III or IV. II. CLASS II (DOUBLE SEAT LEAKAGE) A. Leakage Rate - 0.5 of rated valve capacity. B. Valve Type - Double seated globe, some balanced single seat globe, some metal lined butterfly. III. CLASS III A. Leakage Rate - 0.1% of rated valve capacity. B. Valve Types - High quality double seated globe, balanced single seated globe with metal seals. IV. CLASS IV. (SINGLE SEAT LEAKAGE OR TIGHT SHUT OFF) A. Leakage Rate - 0.01% of rated valve capacity. B. Valve Types - Single seated globe, balanced single seated globe with elastomer seals, rotary eccentric plug, rotary ball with metal seat. V. CLASS V. (EXTRA TIGHT SHUT OFF) A. Leakage Rate - 5 x 10 exp (-4) cc/Min. per inch of orifice diameter per psi differential pressure. B. Valve Types - Class IV globe valves with increased actuator seating force. VI CLASS VI (BUBBLE TIGHT OR DROP TIGHT) LEAKAGE RATE Bubbles/min CC/Min Inches Centimeters 1 0.15 1

2.5 2 0.30 1 3.8 3 0.45 2 5.1 4 0.60 2 6.4 6 0.90 3 7.6 11 1.70 4 10.2 27 4.00 6 15.2 45 6.75

8 20.3 B. Valve types - Globe and rotary eccentric plug with soft seat, elastomer line butterfly, rotary ball with resilient seat. Note: Lack of visible air bubbles using soap solution indicates leakage less to 1x10exp (-3) to 1x10exp(-4) cc/sec. Zero leakage less than 1x10 exp (-8) cc/sec. Back LEAKAGE SPECIFICATIONS The test classifications listed below are for factory acceptance tests under the conditions shown. Because of the complex interaction of many physical properties, extrapolation of very low leakage rates to other than test conditions can be extremely misleading. Consult the appropriate product bulletin for individual valve body leak classifications. ANSI B16.1041976 MAXIMUM LEAKAGE TEST MEDIUM PRESSURE &TEMPERATURE Class II 0.5% valve capacity at full travel Air Service P or 50 psid (3.4 bar differential), whichever is lower, at 50 to 125 F (10 to 52 C) Class III 0.1% valve capacity at full travel Air Service P or 50 psid (3.4 bar differential), whichever is lower, at 50 to 125 F (10 to 52 C) Class IV 0.01% valve capacity at full travel Air Service P or 50 psid (3.4 bar differential), whichever is lower, at 50 to 125 F (10 to 52 C) Class V 5 x 10-4 m L/min/psid/in.port dia. (5 x 10-12 m3/sec/bar differential/mm port dia) Water

Service P at 50 to 125F (10 to 52C)

Class VI Normal port Diameter Bubbles Per Minute

Ml/minute

Air

Service P or 50 paid (3.4 bar differential), whichever is lower, at 50 to 125 F (10 to 52 C)

In mm

1 25 1 0.15

1-1/2 38 2 0.30

2 51 3 0.45

2-1/2 64 4 0.60

3 76 6 0.90

4 102 11 1.70

6 152 27 4.00

8 203 45 6.75

CONTROL VALVES AND ACCESSORIES - SIZING & SELECTION This discussion will focus on proper sizing and selection of Control Valves with accessories for incompressible and compressible fluids. Today there is little excuse for poor specification and selection of Control Valve as most valves manufacturers provide computer programmers for selection and sizing. The days of selecting Control Valves based on pipe line sizes are gone for ever as adequate details are today available to gain an understanding on its theory, supportive experimentation and control requirements. To get a basic understanding on the theory and Calculations, reference can be made to Masoneilan Control Valve sizing. In the following pages, an attempt has been made to explain the procedure (Step-by Step) to be followed to select the right valves. Subsequently, additional details are given on special design considerations, viz., critical flow, critical flow factor, cavitations, flashing, valve noise etc CONTROL VALVE SPECIFICATION CHECKLIST

REQUIRED FLOW PARAMETERS LIQ GAS STEAM P1 Bar a X X X P2 Bar a X X X Flow (Min. Nor and/or Max) X X X Gf (at flowing temp.) X G (at 60 Degree F) X T (Degree C) X Pv bar a X

P Shut off kg/cm2 X X X Downstream Pipe size (mm) X X X Downstream Pipe Schedule X X X

P1 - Inlet Pressure P2 - Outlet Pressure G - Specific Gravity T - Temperature Pv - Vapour Pressure Gf - Specific Gravity at flowing temp.

VALVE APPLICATION DATA NO VALVE TYPE APPLICATION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES A.

Globe Single Seated a) Top Guided Universal (traditional Design) General Purpose Better Shut off Simple Construction 1) Unbalanced Trim 2) Small Guiding 3) Lower Cv and delta P shut off than double port B. Globe-Double Seat a) Top & Bottom Guided High Delta P with high seat leakage Higher Delta P and Cv than single seated Higher seat leakage than single seated. C. Split Body Corrosive Chemicals alloy options Maintainability, Body bolting and gasketing D. Cage High Delta P, anti noise/cavitation High Delta P & Cv; alleviates noise /cavitation. More complicated construction. E. Angle Slurries; erosive/choking fluids; high Delta P. Self Draining Streamlined Requires angled piping

F. Three Way Combining/diverting service Three way capability Limited to Three way services G. Y-Body Cryogenics, molten metal high flow. Self draining; high Cv Angled topworks; low Cf

Rotary Shaft Type General (More recent) Design Shaft rotates in packing; low weight Lower Delta P than reciprocating

1. Butterfly High flow with low Delta P Lowest weight/cost High Cv High seat leakage; low Delta P and Cf.

2. Ball Slurries; high flow and rangeability Streamlined; high Cv Low Delta P and Cf

3. Eccentric Plug General purpose; slurries High Cv and rangeability Low Cf

CONTROL VALVE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS LIQUID LEVEL SYSTEM CONTROL VALVE PRESSURE DROP BEST INHERENT CHARACTERISTIC Constant D P Linear Decreasing D P with Increasing Load, D P at Maximum Load > 20% of Minimum Load D P Linear Decreasing D P with Increasing Load. D P at Maximum Load < 20% of Minimum Load D P Equal Percentage Increasing D P with Increasing Load. D P at Maximum Load < 200% of Minimum Load D P Linear Increasing D P with Increasing Load. D P at Maximum Load > 200% of Minimum Load D P Quick Opening PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEMS APPLICATION BEST INHERENT CHARACTERISTIC Liquid Process Equal Percentage Gas Process, Small Volume, Less Than 10 ft. of Pipe Between Control Valve and Load Valve. Equal Percentage Gas Process, Large Volume (Process has a Receiver, Distribution System or Transmission Line Exceeding 100 ft. of Nominal Pipe Volume) Decreasing D P

with Increasing Load. D P at Maximum Load > 20% of Minimum Load D P Linear Gas Process, Large Volume, Decreasing D P with Increasing Load. D P at Maximum Load < 20% of Minimum Load D P Equal-Percentage FLOW CONTROL PROCESS FLOW MEASUREMENT SIGNAL TO CONTROLLER LOCATION OF CONTROL VALVE IN RELATION TO MEASURING ELEMENT BEST INHERENT CHARACTERISTICS

Wide range of flow Set point Small range of flow but Large delta p change at valve with increasing load Proportional To Flow In Series Linear Equal-Percentage

In Bypass Linear Equal-Percentage Proportional To Flow Squared In Series Linear Equal-Percentage

In Bypass Equal-Percentage Equal-Percentage

When control valve closes, flow rate increases in measuring element