Mini Year Book 2011

Title
Mini Year Book 2011

First Edition : 2011
Publisher & Chief Editor

Chitra Singh Rajput
Executive editor
D.S. Rajput
Advertise manager
P.S. Rajput
Distribution Manager
S.S. Rajput
Price : 250
Published by
DEVELOP INDIA
English weekly newspaper
D-55, West Vinod Nagar, Delhi-92 email: developindia2011@gmail.com Website : developindiagroup.com
Mini Year Book 2011
DEVELOP INDIA
Newspaper Series
MINI
YEAR BOOK 2011
Published by
DEVELOP INDIA
english weekly newspaper
D-55, Gali No.1, West Vinod Nagar, Delhi -92 email: developindia2011@gmail.com
2 Mini Year Book 2011
Preface
Mini Year Book is a different concept of thinking for related higher education and society views. The first time when mini year book is publishing. The included chapters are in this book like that Views of Indians leaders/politician, scientists, renowned personalities, industrialists, sports and film personalities etc. Besides in its include the articles of famous indian english writers. Exeptes in its in this book include such as brief knowledge of India and the World and General awareness and GK Bank for different competitive exams. If you are interested for writing in this book, then you should write an article and send on given email addres. Price of Mini Year Book : 250/For online subscription: 250/- send in this ICICI bank account 003701546808 and send details on this email: developindia2011@gmail.com Publisher & Chief Editor
(D.S. Rajput)
Mini Year Book 2011
Content List
1. 2. Preface ............................................................................................................................. 5 Articles.......................................................................................................................7-48 a. Amartya Sen..........................................................................................................7 b. Dr. C. Rangarajan.................................................................................................9 c. G. Madhavan Nair................................................................................................11 d. Dr. D. Subbarao..................................................................................................13 e. Lakshmi Niwas Mittal...................................................................................... 15 f. Lata Mangeshkar...............................................................................................17 g. Prof. M.S. Swaminathan....................................................................................19 h. Dr. Manmohan Singh.........................................................................................21 i. j. l. Manna Dey...........................................................................................................23 Sri Sri Ravi Shankar.........................................................................................25 Mukesh Ambani..................................................................................................29
k. Vijay Mallya........................................................................................................26 m. Sunil B. Mital......................................................................................................31 n. Mrs. Rajshree Birla...........................................................................................35 o. Amitabh Bachchan.............................................................................................39 p. Kiran Desai ........................................................................................................41 q. Ratan Tata...........................................................................................................43 r. Sachin Tendulkar...............................................................................................45 s. Venkatraman Ramakrishnan...........................................................................47 3. India at a Glance..........................................................................................................49-76 4. Indias Conflicts........................................................................................................77-179 5. India in the 21st Century.......................................................................................180-189 6. Indias maritime challenges in the 21st century...............................................190-192 7. The World Economy in the 21st Century............................................................193-195 8. Opps and Challenges for World Nuclear Industry in 21st Century...............196-201 9. Trivia Around the World........................................................................................202-237 10. World : An Introduction.......................................................................................238-250 11. Knowledge Bank...................................................................................................251-274
Mini Year Book 2011
Politics is a very gutsy affair

Amartya Sen
(An eminent Indian economist, Professor, philosopher and Nobel Laureate. He has been called "the Conscience and the Mother Teresa of Economics" for his work on famine, human development theory, welfare economics, the underlying mechanisms of poverty, gender inequality, and political liberalism. )
Amartya Sen
It is not so much about delivering justice to a particular person. Thats a legal matter. That language would be legal language. But how do you ensure that we enhance justice rather than reduce it in context of dealing with terrorism. You know, obviously in so far as terrorism gives some reasonable grounds for restrictions on free speech that would be very serious conflict one has to look at. In so far as according to some, it gives reason to torture and other ways for extraction of information, those are some other kinds of issues. The position that I have argued for is that there is no case for torture in any circumstances, even in those of terrorism. That is partly because it is a very bad way of pursuing information; secondly you also do not get much information that way. It is ineffective. Studies of torture across the world over the centuries have shown that people under torture would give any answer that they thought would be pleasing to the interrogator. So you do not get very much information. I know that there have been things like of water-boarding and other issues that have come up in public discussions. The ideologues are few in number but they rely on a huge infrastructure of a number of other people. The chap who goes and shoots is one guy but the chap who gives shelter to the one person and says okay, I wont mention to anyone, but you go past here, I can understand your calls etc. For every X number of terrorists there is a probably a 100 X number of people who provide some kind of quiet acceptance of it. The very dedicated naxalite and the very dedicated terrorists, you might not be able to have any impact on them through discussion. Dedicated terrorists survive on the basis of very large numMini Year Book 2011 5
ber of people who are compliant in some sense. The person is going around waving a gun in his pocket; it may be a risk to your security. But I have not met any naxalite in my life and therefore to say that they will not listen to any amount of reasoning is not right either. If you take a broad kind of them, they have been through terrible torture in the past. The question to ask what Gandhiji and Mandela had asked. Is if this is the right way of dealing with it, the most effective way? After you have decapitated a couple of landlords would it would that provide the extra income, extra jobs that these people would need, and the dignity and the lack of humiliation? That is what politics is all about. By using reasonableness you are making it a very saintly affair. Politics is a very gutsy affair. Public reasoning is a gutsy affair too. In the Gujarat thing, the main issue is that secularism is a dialogue that can help deal with communalism in a way. I loved that breadth, and also the fact that in interpreting Indian civilization itself, its cultural diversity was much emphasized. By pointing to the extensive heterogeneity in India's cultural background and richly diverse history, Tagore argued that the "idea of India" itself militated against a culturally separatist view, "against the intense consciousness of the separateness of one's own people from others." My own interests gradually shifted from the pure theory of social choice to more "practical" problems. But I could not have taken them on without having some confidence that the practical exercises to be undertaken were also foundationally secure (rather than implicitly harbouring incongruities and impossibilities that could be exposed on deeper analytical probing). The progress of the pure theory of social choice with an expanded informational base was, in this sense, quite crucial for my applied work as well.
Mini Year Book 2011
We need to take economic reforms forward

Dr. C. Rangarajan
(Dr. C. Rangarajan an renowned economist and a distinguished former Member of Parliament and Former Governor of the Reserve Bank of India. Currently, he is the Chairman of the Prime Minister's Economic Advisory Council.)
Dr. C. Rangarajan
Economic reforms in India now need a major push forward to log a higher and inclusive growth of over 10 percent in a bid to end stark poverty and achieve overall development. We need to take economic reforms forward. This is necessary for achieving a higher growth rate and also to end stark poverty and overall development of the country. I firmly believe the momentum of implementing economic reforms programme and liberalisation has to be maintained. I will push it as a Rajya Sabha member. Ill also try to push economic reforms in the national interest. I was optimistic of India achieving a double digit growth in the near future, even though his forecast for the current fiscal was much lower than the governments own estimate. If we cross the 9 percent growth mark next fiscal then I am certain we can even dream of 10 percent growth or more in the subsequent years. In the medium term, I remain quite optimistic on the performance of the Indian economy. There was also a need to create more job opportunities, especially because India was a country of young people, and also to fight the menace of poverty. Poverty eradication, employment generation and economic reforms are some of the issues we need to focus on. These are the issues I will try to raise in the august house. Referring to some specific issues of liberalisation, Rangarajan said the opening up of the Indian economy to more foreign direct investment was desirable and added that efforts should be made to convince people on its merits. Increasing the cap on foreign investment in sectors like insurance, as also a further liberalisation of Indias financial sector as a whole was the need of the hour. Earlier in the day, before stepping down as the chairman of Prime Ministers Economic Advisory
Mini Year Book 2011 7
Council, he projected a slight dip in Indias growth at 7.7 percent for the current fiscal. The downside risk to our growth expectations in 2008-09 is primarily from a further deterioration in global conditions with attendant impact on India - be it in the sphere of oil prices or capital markets, the panels report said. Dr. Chakravarthi Rangarajan is born in 1932. He is an Indian economist. He served for over a decade as a Deputy Governor of the Reserve Bank of India, after which he served as the Governor of the Reserve Bank of India between December 22, 1992 and December 21, 1997. He also served as the Governor of Andhra Pradesh from 24 November 1997 to 3 January 2003. After demitting that office, he took charge as the Chairman of the Twelfth Finance Commission. From 2005 onwards, he was the Chairman of the Prime Minister's Economic Advisory Council. In August 2008, he resigned as the Chairman of the Prime Minister's Economic Advisory Council and was nominated as a member of the Rajya Sabha. He is succeeded by Prof. Suresh D. Tendulkar. While serving as the governor of Andhra Pradesh, he also received additional charges as governor of Orissa from 1998 to 1999 and as governor of Tamil Nadu from 2001 to 2002. He was the deputy governor of the Reserve Bank of India from 1982 to 1991. He obtained his Ph.D. in economics from the University of Pennsylvania in 1964. He has teaching experience at institutions such as the University of Pennsylvania ,the Indian School of Business and the IIM-A. He was awarded the title of Honorary Fellow of IIM-A in 1997. In 2002, the Government of India awarded him the Padma Vibhushan, India's second highest civilian award. Presently, he is a member of the Rajya Sabha and Chairman of the Madras School of Economics, Chennai.
Mini Year Book 2011
Compared to China we are better off in many areas

G. Madhavan Nair
(The former Chairman of Indian Space Research Organisation and Secretary to the Department of Space, Government of India. Also the Chairman, Space Commission and acts as the Chairman of Governing Body of the Antrix Corporation)
We have established ourselves in both atomic energy and space. Today we are treated in par by the developed nations in these areas. It is time to give a major thrust to the future developments in this area and maintain a leadership position. Our economic growth and vibrancy is going to help us in this. We are spending hardly 0.5 per cent of our national budget on our scientific programmes, if this could be increased it will help us emerge as world leaders in many other areas of science and technology too. The overall national income is also going up and this will definitely help us in many ways. At all times, all governments have been very supportive of the space programme for chiefly two reasons: Firstly because it is a hi-tech area. Secondly, we are able to provide a wide range of services to the country. Take for instance agriculture resource management or water resource management or for that matter natural resource management in general the quality of inputs that has been coming from our space programme has tremendously increased the productivity and income of large sections of our people. Again, the communication and connectivity that we are providing through our satellites across the length and breadth of the country meets the national needs. Successive governments have been supportive of our work and the fact that in the last few years we have been getting roughly a 20-25 per cent increase in our annual budget is indicative of that support. Most of our budget goes towards meeting national priority needs. We work in a very democratic fashion. Our projects go through an elaborate process of consultation with various government departments and scientists. We have also learnt to deliver our services on time and in a
cost effective manner. The fact that more or less the successive prime ministers of India have held the space portfolio has helped us in removing procedural hurdles. Compared to China we are better off in many areas. For example our communication satellites are world class. Chinese still depend on some foreign companies to supply some components. On launchers, we have very advanced capability. As far as mannedmission is concerned we are lagging behind, but that was a conscious decision on our part. Since it involves a lot of funds, in the initial phase of the moon programme we have not given thrust to that area. But given the funds and necessary approvals we can easily catch up with our neighbour in this area. Young, bright scientists can be attracted only by technology challenges. Money is a factor that counts but more than that it is technology challenges that are important. We have full clarity about what ISRO should be doing for the next 20 years. There are a lot of fascinating things that we intent to pursue. Our vision plan will put forward a big bouquet of technology challenges and these challenges I hope will attract young talent. It is very difficult to get young talent, but the fact that attrition rate at ISRO is less than 10 per cent shows that money is not the only factor for people who have joined us and are wanting to join us. In IT industries where they pay hefty packets, they talk of an attrition rate of 25 to 30 per cent. I dont mean to say that scientists need not be remunerated well. We have taken up these issues with the government and we are very positive about getting a better package. To train young scientists we have also started the Indian Institute of Space Technology, which is a unique institution in the world. We take in youngsters at plus two level and after four years of education they are guaranteed a job in ISRO. This specialised education will bring the best talent to work with us in the future.
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Mini Year Book 2011
Globalisation is a double edged sword

Dr. D. Subbarao
(Dr. D. Subbarao is 22nd Governor of the Reserve Bank of India. He has earlier been Secretary to the Prime Minister's Economic Advisory Council (2005-2007), lead economist in the World Bank (1999-2004), Finance Secretary to the Government of A.P. (1993-98) and Joint Secretary in the DoEA, Ministry of Finance (1988-1993).
Dr. D. Subbarao
As a career civil servant for 30 years, I have worked at the district level, the state level and the national level. I also worked at the World Bank, and now towards the end of my career it is a privilege to come to the Reserve Bank of India. Ive also been fortunate to work for a long period in the area of public finance. The Reserve Bank is different from what I did before as a civil servant in terms of work content and accountability mechanisms. Work content is of course the quintessential central bank work which is a much narrower canvas than many of my assignments as a civil servant. The responsibility is of course much larger, and accountability as the Governor is at an individual level as opposed to accountability at an aggregate level in civil service jobs. In a typical ministry, a civil servant would be responsible to the minister and the ministry itself would be accountable to the government. As the Governor, I am responsible at an individual level and I am hoping that my experience in the real sector would be an advantage in my current position as Governor. India is concerned, our consumption at 57 per cent of GDP is relatively high for an economy of our per capita income level. So the important thing for India is to increase investment, especially in infrastructure, and not so much consumption. I admit that private consumption has to go up as indicator of poverty reduction, but what is more important is that investment increases. Several international fora are appropriate. There is the IMF, the BISs bimonthly meetings and the very effective G20. Important topics such as this must be discussed at all these fora. And I believe that they are likely to be discussed for much longer than we think before we reach an agreed view on a minimum acceptable
programme. Globalisation is a double edged sword. Although it has often helped India, the impact on the real and financial sector is mainly due to globalisation. India is much more integrated today than ten years ago, at the time of the Asian financial crisis. There is a view that bank credit is decelerating. But non-food credit has expanded faster (23.9%) than the same period last year (22%). So this view is not all that correct, but one must not exaggerate this piece of information. However, there has been a reduction in non-bank resources to commercial sector. Urban consumption is likely to fall from hereon, but rural consumption will hold up because there is no wealth effect here. Born on August 11, 1949, Dr. Subbarao holds a B.Sc (Hons) in Physics from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur and M.Sc in Physics from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur. Dr. Subbarao also holds an MS degree in Economics from Ohio State University. He was a Humphrey fellow at MIT during 198283. He has a Ph.D. in Economics with thesis on fiscal reforms at the sub-national level. Dr. Subbarao was a topper in the All India Civil Service examination for entry into Indian Administrative Services and Indian Foreign Services in 1972. He was one of the first IITians to join the civil service.
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Mini Year Book 2011
We need is speedy execution

Lakshmi Niwas Mittal
(Steel tycoon Lakshmi Niwas Mittal is currently the Chairman and chief executive officer of ArcelorMittal. In the last few years Mittal Steel has made a number of acquisitions, buying up a network of steel producers in many countries. )
Worlds largest steel maker and the third richest man in the world. Lakshmi Mittal has become something of a cult figure in the global steel industry. His company Mittal Steel is the largest steel maker in the world. After the recent merger between Mittal Steel and Arcelor which raged a big debate throughout the Europe, Lakshmi Mittal current controls 10% of the total steel production and the combined entity that has come into force post-merger is three times the size of its nearest competitors. Lakshmi Niwas Mittal was born on June 15, 1950 at Sadulpur, in Churu district of Rajasthan, in a poor family. The extended family of 20 lived on bare concrete floors, slept on rope beds and cooked on an open fire in the brickyard in a house built by his grandfather. Laxmi Mittal belongs to Marwari Aggarwal caste and his grandfather worked for the Tarachand Ghanshyam Das firm, one of the leading Marwari industrial firms of pre-independence India. The family later on moved to Kolkata where his father Mohan Mittal became a partner in a steel company. Lakshmi Mittal graduated from St. Xaviers in Kolkata with a commerce degree in 1969. Lakshmi Mittal began his career working in the familys steelmaking business in India and in 1976, Lakshmi Mittal founded Mittal Steel Company. Lakshmi Mittal split from his father and two younger brothers in 1994 and took the international arm, with interests in Indonesia and Trinidad and Tobago, while the rest of the family kept the domestic Indian business. In the last few years Mittal Steel has made a number of acquisitions, buying up a network of steel producers in former communist countries including Kazakhstan, Romania and Ukraine, and pushing into the U.S. in 2004 with the $4.5 billion purchase of InternaMini Year Book 2011 13
tional Steel Group. Today, Mittal Steel is the only truly global steel producer in the world with operations on 14 countries, spanning 4 continents. There is already a lot of confidence in the emerging markets, especially India. India is a great country for foreign investors. I can see that a lot of foreign investors are very interested in investing in India. They see the market, the population; they see the people. There is an interest. What we need is speedy execution. People should not get stuck in approvals and bureaucracy. It is a great reform if we can implement all the initiatives. Government can speedily approve the projects. It should start educating states that these investments are good for them. For example, Jharkhand & Orissa, where we are keen to invest in the steel industry. We read everyday that there is a protest or violence. We need to avoid this, and educate the people that it is not a land-grabbing scheme. Its is a scheme for the future, for the next generation. And this kind of education is really important.
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Mini Year Book 2011
Marathi movie Kiti Hasaal

Lata Mangeshkar
(Indian famous playback singer Lata Mangeshkar singing career started with Bombay Talkies film. She sing a thousands of hindi, marathi, and other languages songs in her 80 plus years of life. Her father was Dinanath Mangeshkar.)
Born as Hema Hardikar, Lata, now 80 plus, has been the unbroken string spanning several decades of Bollywood music and continues to lend her voice to actresses young enough to be her great-granddaughters.Even as children, our interest was never much in film music. We were more into classical and folk music. My playback singing career started with Bombay Talkies. There used to be a studio called Bombay Talkies, whos owners were Ashok Kumar and Watcha. Before that, it was originally owned by Devika Rani. After she left, Ashok Kumar started running it. I acted in films but I never enjoyed it as I was very young. I used to hate putting on make up and having to laugh and cry in front of the camera. I used to love singing. I was always attracted to it since childhood. Then in 1947, Master Vinayak passed away and our company, Praful Pictures was shut down. I started playback singing after that. I went to Filmistan and after hearing me sing, Haiderji said that he wanted me to sing for a film. But the owner of Filmistan, Mukherjee Sahib said that my voice will not suit the films actress as it was too thin. By the time I started out, Noor Jehan had already left for Pakistan. Surayia was still there but she was not a playback singer. She was an actress who used to sing her own songs. Her voice was good, but after a while her film releases decreased. After that it was just me, Geeta Dutt and after a while Asha (Asha Bhonsle). My family was already into moviemaking. So film singing became a natural and obvious choice for a career. Indeed, the phenomenon of Lata Mangeshkar is purely happy fate. Destiny may have led this nightingale elsewhere if her father Dinanath Mangeshkar had not died when she was just 13, or if she was not
the eldest in the family, who took it upon herself to earn the daily bread. Interestingly, according to Lata, her father forbade the listening to or singing of film songs, except those of K.L. Saigal. Latas voice first created a stir when she won the Khazanchi Trophy in 1941 in Pune for singing composer Ghulam Haiders songs originally sung by Noorjehan. In those days, Saigal sahabs voice used to turn our knees to jelly, Lata reminisced. Of course, there were so many other artistes, including great ones like K.C. Dey (uncle of legendary singer Manna Dey), Zohrabai and Noorjehan. Badi Maa (1945) saw Lata and her sister Asha Bhosle acting alongside Noorjehan, with Lata singing for both - herself and Asha - in it. Her first film song was for the Marathi movie Kiti Hasaal (1942). In Hindi it was for Aap Ki Seva Mein (1947) in which she sang compositions by Datta Davjekar. However, her first impact came with Majboor (1948) in which she sang her first duet with Mukesh - Ab darne ki kya baat, which had a faint resemblance to Tu cheez badi hai mast mast (Mohra, 1994). Legend has it that Ghulam Haider locked horns with his employer Filmistan after a song recorded in Latas voice for Shaheed (1948) was deleted and worked with a vengeance on Majboor for Bombay Talkies. However, Lata made Bollywood music history by haunting Indian audiences with her Ayega anewala composed by Khemchand Prakash for Kamal Amrohis Mahal (1949). I think that the present situation of Mumbai is really very bad. You cant even recognise it. It has become difficult to recognise the place where I used to stay, where some friends used to stay. Every thing has changed. We used to have an acquaintance called Dr Kapoor who was well-known in the film fraternity. He used to think of me as his sister and I used to visit his place in Versova very often. But now-a-days when I go that side, I cant even recognise where Dr Sahib used to stay. I have to ask. And all the shops on the roads etc. I dont like it at all. Earlier Bombay was very nice.
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Mini Year Book 2011
GM is an excellent technology, but need for more tests

Prof. M.S. Swaminathan
(Indian agriculture scientist, His stated vision is to rid the world of hunger and poverty, especially using environmentally sustainable agriculture, sustainable food security and the preservation of biodiversity, which he calls an "evergreen revolution")
I was chairman of the steering committee for agriculture when we set up the target of 4% growth rate. I had written that if you want to achieve 4% growth rate in agriculture, you should have 8% growth in animal husbandry and fisheries and 8% in horticulture. To some extent, we have achieved 8% growth in animal husbandry. In poultry, we have made spectacular advances. Horticulture is not bad. But the agricultural portion, the crop portion cereals, millets, oil seeds they have all fallen behind. There has been stagnation in wheat and rice production largely because the strategy recommended in the 10th Plan has not been followed. The first is to give greater attention to soil healthcare. We had recommended that all farmers should be given a soil heath card. This has not been done. The government only gives subsidies for nitrogenous fertilisers. With the result, farmers do not apply balanced fertilisers. And there was more of Nitrogen and not P (Phosphorus) and K (Potassium). Also, practically there were no micro nutrients. At the National Commission on Farmers, we again re-emphasised the importance of strengthening soil testing laboratories, mobile soil testing vans, issue of soil health card to every farmer but nothing has been done. Some states like Gujarat have done good work, so the agricultural growth rate in Gujarat is over 9%. That shows it can be achieved. The second thing we emphasised in the 10th Plan was the harvesting of rain water, storing it and using it very efficiently. The third is, credit and insurance reforms, credit linked to insurance, which also has not happened. Hardly 4% of 15 million farmers have taken crop insurance. The fourth is technology and inputs. Seeds must be available in an affordable manner. Implements hold the key for improving rain-fed farming. Finally, a remunerative market. Without a remunerative market, why should a farmer grow more?
Genentic Modification is an excellent technology. Somehow, Monsanto developed only Bt. The technology is useful in so many ways starting from ensuring drought varieties of cereals, crops to developing plant with great salt tolerance if sea level increases. The more powerful a technology greater care should be used to benefit fro it. India should not be left behind the world. From the past revolution of nuclear technology we saw how it could destruct and at the same time were useful for medical science. On Bt Brinjal Swaminathan say there is need for more tests. Tests have largely been done by the company. There has been no independent verification. In many countries there is a need for independent verification of data. Biotech is a very powerful tool. We should not deny ourselves the benefits of it. But then, when it comes to food crops, risks and benefits have to be weighed in a way that public has confidence that risks have been considered. US, for example, has three independent mechanisms for verification. The Environmental Protection Agency studies the environmental aspect. Federal Drug Administration studies all aspects of human health, short term, long term and so on. The US system is also such that if something goes wrong, if someone can prove that you get cancer by eating this product, the punishment is very high there $20 billion to $30 billion. Its fair and swift. So, companies are also very careful in the US. There should have been much more public education. In Switzerland, some years ago, there was the referendum on GM research. The result was an overwhelming no to GM. Then what scientists did was, they went to the streets, they did a massive education programme. Next referendum was in favour of GM research. Scientists realised, in a democratic society you cant take people for granted. In Switzerland, there is a referendum for a lot of things. But then, Switzerland is a small country. India is too big. Agriculture is the backbone of the livelihood security system of nearly 700 million people in the country and we need to build our food security on the foundation of home grown food. We hardly need to realise that India is the home of the largest number of malnourished children, women and men in the world, majority of who themselves are landless labour. Distribution is again a big crisis in the country.
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Mini Year Book 2011
Capitalism with a human face

Dr. Manmohan Singh
(The 14th and current Prime Minister of India. He is the first Indian Prime Minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to return to power after completing a full five-year term)
A new India which realizes its destiny in the framework of an open society, in the framework of an open economy, respecting all fundamental human freedoms great respect for pluralistic, inclusive value system. I think thats what unites India and the United India and the United States. And I do hope that working together; our two countries can write a new chapter in the history of our relationship. India has, of course, aspirations of getting out of its poverty, ignorance, and disease which still afflict millions of people. But I do believe that we have something to offer to the rest of the world, including the United States. Nowhere else you will find a country of Indias diversity, of Indias complexity, one billion people trying to seek their social and economic salvation in the framework of democracy, in the framework of an open economy. I sincerely believe what happens in India has I think lessons, morals for a future evolution of humankind in the 21st centuries. I do believe that the future of civilization belongs to those who (UNINTEL) emphasis on working together instead of talking about clash of civilization. We what we need is a dialogue among civilizations. And we need multiculturalism, respect for diversity, tolerance, respect for diverse faiths. And thats what we are doing in our country. And if we succeed, and if we succeed in doing all this in the framework of a democratic policy, I believe large part of humanity will draw appropriate lessons from what is the wave of the future in the 21st century. I believe whether it is the United States or Europe, they will all end up as multicultural societies. So Indias this great experiment of a billion people of such great diverse persuasion, working together, seeking their salvation in the framework of a democracy. I
believe it will have some lessons for all the multicultural societies. And I believe all societies; all thriving societies of the future are going to be multiculturals. We all believe that we must remain engaged with China. We have differences with China with regard to the border issue. We are making a sincere effort to resolve resolve those differences. And the president told me thats precisely what we should do I think. He says the United States also wants to remain engaged with China. But I also believe that without looking at each other as rivals or as competitors, in a democratic India operating in the framework of an open economy, an open society, has I think some significance for developed developing countries not only in Asia but outside Asia. I have always regarded non alignment and foreign policy will be guided by what I describe as enlightened national interest. That means we will make judgments on an independent basis with the sole concern being what enlightened Indias national interest is. In that sense, non alignment remains as relevant today as it was in the 1950s. If Pakistan honors an electorate and the commitment in 2004, the Pakistan territory will not be used for promoting terrorist acts against India. The sky is the limit of cooperation between our two countries. This basically we are the same people. There are ties of religion, there are ties of language, and there are ties of culture. We are a nuclear weapon state but we are a responsible nuclear power. We have an impeccable record of not having contributed to unauthorised proliferation of these weapons of mass destruction so I think India does require greater consideration of the global community. India needs to industrialise, India needs to operate on the frontiers of modern science and technology and therefore restrictions on dual use technologies affect our growth. Capitalism with a human face. We are a mixed economy. We will remain a mixed economy. The public and private sector will continue to play a very important role. The private sector in our country has very ample scope and I am confident that Indias entrepreneurs have the capacity, and the will to rise to the occasion.
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Mini Year Book 2011
Film music is losing its purity

Manna Dey
(Legendary playback singer Manna Dey last song was for the film Prahaar.)
Ever since the great maestros faded away from the film music scene there has been no one who makes quality music, laments legendary playback singer Manna Dey. Film music is losing its purity and its foundation in Indian heritage. Now all it consists of is heavy rhythm, glossy picturisation and bone breaking dance, 84year-old Dey, whose last song was for the film Prahaar (1991). After working with great maestros like Anil Biswas, Roshan and others I cannot digest current day music. But then I have to move on and accept the change, said Dey, ruing the lack of depth and soul in current day film music. Dey, who was this year awarded the Padma Bhushan, one of Indias highest civilian awards, for his contribution to music, was in Delhi for a concert Golden Era Revisited, organised in aid of tsunami victims by the Prayas Institute of Juvenile Justice. Dey was of the opinion that artificial sounds and synthetic instruments had deteriorated the quality of music. Where is the involvement of the musicians? Nowadays, the male and female singers hardly meet for duet recordings, thanks to computer-generated track recordings and readymade tunes, Dey said. He should know. His song Ritu aye ritu jaye, which he sang with Lata Mangeshkar, under music director Anil Biswas, reportedly took close to three weeks of rehearsals. Born as Prabhodhchandra Dey, he was named Manna by uncle and legendary musician K.C. Dey of Kolkatas New Theatres. Dey began his singing career with Tyag Mayi Gayi Tu Sita (Ram Rajya, 1941) at the age of 22. His big break came with the smash hit Upar Gagan Vishaal (Mashaal, 1950). He sang classics like Kaun aya mere man ke dware in Dekh Kabira Roya (1957) and Aayo kahan se ghanshyam in Buddha Mil Gaya (1971).
Although he is associated with a range of evergreen songs qawwalis such as Ae meri zohra zabin (Waqt, 1965), romantic numbers such as Yeh raat bheegi bheegi (Chori Chori, 1956) and the comic but irreplaceable Ek chatur naar (Padosan, 1968) - many say he was typecast as a singer of religious hymns. Recognition was hard to come by, for his voice was rarely considered suitable for the conventional Bollywood hero. I used to feel sad initially. But I am very content now after having been a contemporary of singers like Mohammad Rafi, Lata Mangeshkar and Talat Mehmood on one side and several great music directors on the other, Dey said. I have sung for heroes, villains, comedians and side role characters. Not everybody gets that opportunity, he said. For Dey, there have never been other singers like Mohammad Rafi and Lata Mangeshkar. People may disagree with me, but I know for a fact that Rafi was not that well versed with classical music. Few know that he has worked under me as a chorus singer when I was an assistant director, Dey said. But that was his greatness. His voice was gods gift, which not everybody gets. Even filmmakers were of a different quality then. Kapoor Saab (Raj Kapoor) used to sit with us during the rehearsals and understand the songs. That showed in the filming too. Incidentally, Dey won his first Filmfare Award in 1971 - 25 years into his career - for the Raj Kapoor song Aye bhai zara dekh ke chalo composed by Shankar Jaikishen for the film Mera Naam Joker. Awards no more interest me. If I get them I will only ask why not? All I can do is sing. I will sing till the last breath of my life, Dey said, condensing in his wish the spirit of that immortal line he sang Sur Ke Bina Jeevan Soona (Life is empty without music).
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Mini Year Book 2011
Lack of trust in human values

Sri Sri Ravi Shankar
(Spiritual, Religious and humanitarian leader Sri Sri Ravi Shankar is the He is the founder of the international Art of Living Foundation.)
In Art of Living we work on the level of satisfaction, not on the level of want or ambition. There are two ways to work. One, you have an ambition, a wish, and work towards it and get satisfied when you have that. But that is not the principle here. We are satisfied and we want an expression of our joy. The overwhelming problem in the world today, everyone knows, is terrorism, where people in the name of religion kill each other; kill others just to go to heaven and thinking only they will go to heaven. This sort of thought, the indoctrination of such a mentality is a challenge. The second challenge is a lack of trust in human values. When people lose faith in the natural goodness of the human character, the lack of trust in spiritual goodness that is one reason why corruption has become so widespread today. He is a spiritual and humanitarian leader, Sri Sri Ravi Shankar is born on May 13, 1956. He is the founder of the international Art of Living Foundation that aims to relieve stress at an individual level, and to relieve disease and violence at a societal level. A disciple of Transcendental Meditation founder Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Sri Sri Ravi Shankar is also a driving force behind charitable organizations such as the International Association for Human Values. He has given the world one of the most precious spiritual gift known as Sudarshan Kriya Yoga which is a unique rhythmic breathing technique.
Mini Year Book 2011
23
King of Good Times

Vijay Mallya
(Indian english liquer tycoon Vijay Mallya is currently chairman od United Breweries company.)
The billionaire tycoon casts a long shadow in India with highprofile launches and lavish parties. Vijay Mallya inherited an empire of different businesses at the tender age of 27, streamlining the operation and founding the Kingfisher brand. Today, his holding company United Breweries is worth $5 billion. The UB Group is one of India?s largest conglomerates with annual revenue in excess of US$2bn, and with diverse interests in brewing, distilling, real estates, engineering, fertilizers, biotechnology, information technology and aviation. Internationally, hes best known for his beer and spirits companies, recently buying whiskey makers Whyte & Mackay, but is expanding his aviation business fast. He launched the airline in 2005 and is already looking to move into long-haul with an order of four A380 super jumbos. We meet soon after he acquired Air Deccan, Indias first budget carrier. Our journey begins aboard his private jet as he shuffles between meetings. When we launched Kingfisher, we had certain very clear-cut parameters, brand-new planes, commonality, fuel bases between fuel efficiency and controlled costs, and then of course we did a huge market research on the name, the brand, the consumer expectations. Airline in India is profitable because you know, in any industry where the floodgates are suddenly open, a lot of players dive in, and there is a period where theres a bloodbath, but then consolidation inevitably takes place, good sense prevails, and then everybody becomes profitable. And in a country like India where aviation growth is almost 40% every year, I mean, its probably one of the most attractive sectors. We acquired Air Deccan, Indias largest low-cost carrier, and
with it weve became Indias largest airline. So UB group has the proud pleasure of being Indias largest airline, within just two years and two months of launch. Going overseas is natural, theres huge growth. And while everybody else wants to emulate the established carriers of Europe and the Far East and the Middle East, I decided that the future was in non-stop ultra-long-haul travel. Were going to fly from Bangalore to San Francisco non-stop, Bangalore to New York John F. Kennedy non-stop, and of course BombayLondon is a given. I bought the A380 because I believe in the A380. I know theyve had delivery problems, but thats not uncommon from, for any new aircraft thats so different and so revolutionary in terms of technology. So while theres a delay on one hand, I have to say the A380 to me still demands an extremely compelling, profitable proposition. When I was straight out of high school, and I went to do my graduation, I was actually working as well. Thats when, while going through the archives of United Breweries, which was a British company my father bought in 1947, I stumbled across this label of Kingfisher Beer that had been launched in the 1850s, but was no longer in production and sale. And something excited me about Kingfisher, you know, the bird. I saw color, I saw vibrancy, I saw movement, I saw a bit of cheekiness, you know, the kingfisher sort of fishing. And so I went to my father and asked him, I said, you know, I want to relaunch this brand and I want a million rupees for it. And a million rupees, I mean, he threw me out of the office. Finally, with a great deal of persuasion, I got a small budget. So I went to various colleges and interviewed youngsters, 17, 18, 19 years old. Asked them if they drank beer, what kind of beer they drank. And I found out very quickly that the youngsters in India had a whole lot of aspiration. They wanted to live a more free, more western-oriented life. Because India, since independence has been a very controlled, sort of socialist economy. So I decided that Kingfisher would be a lifestyle brand, positioned on a lifestyle platform. So we started sponsoring music events, we started sponsoring sporting events, we started putting Kingfisher into yachting, and fashion. So Kingfisher over the last 30 years has grown into a sort of generic name for lifestyle in India. I mean, if you talk to anyone
on the street and ask them about Kingfisher, the first thing that will come to mind is the good life or the good times. I remember in 1977 when Morarji Desai was prime minister of India, he advocated prohibition for all of India, and obviously the values of all liquor companies and breweries collapsed. My father actually went out and acquired these companies at pretty cheap values, which propelled UB into being a significant player in the industry. So he bucked the trend and had the guts and the foresight to buck the trend. I remember having asked him why he was doing it, and he said government revenue depends too much upon this industry, particularly at the state level, and we are very large contributors. So prohibition has never succeeded anywhere in the world, not even in the United States. Its not going to succeed in India, and so Im going to decide to grab the opportunity when I can. So I guess a bit of the sort of confidence that I have to take businesses stems from his example. I may have done a few things differently in my life, but otherwise Im happy and content the way I am, actually. Just before my father died I had worked for three-and-a-half years in the United States. And I learned a lot during my experience there. So you know, I was termed a playboy, I was termed flamboyant, and yes, everybody thought that Id fritter away what I had inherited. But I was determined to prove people wrong. You know, I also have some self-esteem. But more importantly, the biggest single moment of joy in my mind was when I bought the worldwide Berger Paints group in 1988, then I sold it in 1996 after successfully floating it on the London, Singapore stock markets. And when I sold it, I made, I think a profit of 66 million dollars. So I went to my mother and I said, I earned this money, I did not inherit it. Now if I buy a yacht, a plane or a car, nobodys gonna question me about it.
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Mini Year Book 2011
We can do everything
Mukesh Ambani
(Mukesh Ambaniis a elder son od late Dhirubhai Ambani. He is currently chairman od RIL.)
Mukesh Ambanis dream evolves around a whole new consumption boom that is likely to be kicked off in rural India. He has stepped into the politically-sensitive SEZ sector as well, and is in the process of setting up two mega industrial townships - one near Mumbai, another one in Haryana. He has also forayed into the organised retail sector, yet to be fully opened up by Indian government for foreign direct investment (FDI), and is feverishly on an expansion mode. After taking up the mandate to run RIL, founded by his late father Dhirubhai Ambani, his fortunes have swelled. Oilrefining subsidiary Reliance Petroleum, in which Chevron has a five per cent stake, went public, and was listed in May 2006. Reliance Fresh, a chain of food stores, is today one of the fastest growing retail chains. His other mega plans include a $10 billion investment in SEZs. The man who tops the chart of Indian billionaires says India no longer raises the image of an old, sleeping elephant. The country of one billion has moved from zero to $20 billion in software exports, employing over one million people in just a decade. These people have changed the brand of India, consumption pattern and gave us the confidence that we can do everything, says Ambani. If we can do it in information technology, we can do it in agriculture, as well. Hence, the giant oil refiner stepped into the agriculture and retail sectors. According to him, organised retail would throw up millions of new jobs. It is the most employment-intensive industry in the world. India needs these jobs, adds Mukesh Ambani. Organised retail can absorb people in large numbers. According to him, Reliance has estimated about 1.5 million jobs could be created in this sector over the next three years. In the process, the cost to consumers will be
reduced by 20 per cent and the efficiency of farmers will increase thrice over, he adds. His dream evolves around a whole new consumption boom that is likely to be kicked off in rural India. According to Ambani, India produces over 150 million tonnes of fresh produce daily and the country can double it fairly quickly over a few crop cycles, if these can be moved quickly and efficiently through the system. The food market could be much bigger than the software services market. The money goes straight into the hands of millions of farmers, he says, adding that this would lead to more jobs and houses, among others, leading to a consumption boom. After suffering an initial set-back in the hypersensitive SEZ sector, Ambani has got government clearances to go ahead with them. They invariably face implementation risks. But Ambani has managed to get on with his projects without much delay. RIL is now looking to build the biggest greenfield fertiliser capacity in the country. The company has submitted a proposal to the fertiliser ministry for setting up a manufacturing plant of global scale - up to 4 million tonnes. It has proposed to use some of the Krishna- Godavari gas as feedstock bought at market prices. India had made moves to set up fertiliser capacities in gas-producing countries like Oman to take advantage of fuel availability there. Now, with abundant gas reserves in Indias Krishna-Godavari basin on the east coast, RIL would have an edge over others with large reserves at its disposal. RIL is also beefing up its own electricity generation capacity by almost 10,000 MWto reduce input costs. That is Ambanis contribution for Indias bright future - in terms of scale of economies and costcomp e t i - tiveness.
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Mini Year Book 2011
India is a cricketing nation

Sunil B. Mital
Indian bicycle tycoon Sunil Bharti Mital is currently chairman of Hero Cycle Group.
I was raised in Ludhiana, a very industrious town, where almost everybody is an entrepreneur of some kind. It is the bedrock of small-scale industry, the principal industries being cycles or cycle parts, hosiery, or yarn to make knitwear, and light engineering items. Coming out of college with a small amount of capital, one could only do what was allowed in the ecosystem there. I decided to manufacture bicycle parts, in particular crankshafts. It was a hot forging unit that I put up, and thats where I cut my teeth on business. I realized that one could probably make some modest success out of what I started to do in bicycle parts, but there was a limitation. At the end of the day, the manufacturers of bicycles decided how much at what price you could supply to them. And just making shafts wouldnt have made you a player of any size or scale. So, it was very clear that I had to get out of Ludhiana into a much bigger place, Delhi or Mumbai Bombay at that time. And I spent about two, three years in Bombay importing a variety of products steel, brass, zinc, zip fasteners, plastics and eventually bought Indias first portable generator. And that was the first turning point in my career. That venture was with Suzuki. Thats how I got in touch with the Japanese, spent two to three years with them, learning their techniques and practices. I internationalized my concepts, learned the art of diplomacy in international trade. I would say that was the period which gave me opportunities, on the one hand, to make some significantly higher amounts of money than I could have done in cycle trade. More importantly, it gave me independence and experience in marketing, brands, international trade. That held
me in good stead later on. I think, two or three things. I realized very early on that you need to tie up with some large entities much, much larger than yourself. From there on, we set up a string of partnerships, and they were all with very large companies, multi-billion dollar corporations: Suzuki, AT&T, Siemens, Lucky Gold Star (now LG). Suzuki Motor Company was there, of course. We also partnered with British Telecom and Telecom Italia. So, that is the course I followed: Tie up with large companies. Its easy to say, but large companies intuitively dont ally with small companies or entrepreneurs. So, one had to persuade these large companies, assure them that they needed to be in the Indian market. We also had to convince them that we had a high governance structure despite being a small company, and give them the comfort to join hands with us to exploit and come into the Indian market together. That, I would say, was happenstance. In fact, you could call it an accident, because the government banned the import of generators. One fine day, there was no business. All the business that I had developed was gone. My beat was Japan, Korea, Taiwan. I went back into those areas looking for a new product. And one of the theories that Id built around my entrepreneurship was to do things that have not been done before. Because if you are competing with the big boys in areas where they are strong, theres no chance for you to succeed. My quest to look for the next big breakthrough product which also didnt need too much capital was met in Taiwan at a trade fair when I saw push-button telephones. I brought Indias first telephone set replacing the rotary phone. That became a huge success, and my romance with telecom started thereafter. So, it went onto cordless phones, answering machines, fax machines, and then Indias first mobile phone. Tough, but as an entrepreneur you get trained on everything. You understand import policy, you know how customs work, you know excise laws. You practically learn to do everything yourself. You hit roadblocks, you have difficulties. I had to open my own LLC, take my own consignment, taking the material on trucks myself to the market. An entrepreneur gets a huge amount of experience. Then, you also know how to deal and move into the system.
And the good news is that my excellence in the entrepreneurial area truly started happening alongside the breaking down of these barriers. The more the barriers dropped, the more we surged. So, 1992, in that sense, was the turning point, when the Narasimha Rao government along with now Prime Minister Manmohan Singh then finance minister decided to open up, and about 10 to 20 of us young entrepreneurs really moved in. Each one of us has created a fantastic business out of that. Take the case of telephone manufacturing. The government completely regulated what you could import, what you could not import, how much you could manufacture. I got my first industry license to make cordless telephones; it had a limit of Rs. 2 crores of sales. I mean, its ridiculous when you go back half a million dollars today. You could not manufacture more than two crores of sales. Now, if you see that number, what does it mean? Sub-scale operations, [a] small, tiny factory, and you dont manufacture telecom products like that. Its not a small-scale factory that you can put up. Suddenly, one day, the government said, No licenses required. From controlling what you could do [snaps fingers] it was gone in one day. That, to my mind, was the first time the entrepreneurial energies were released into a more constructive arena of marketing, branding, doing the right things. I think, very clearly, we could have never claimed that we had more capital or better technologies, because everybody was buying the same technologies; GSM is a set standard. We couldnt claim that we had massive brand or distinguishing strength in the market. The only thing that we needed on our side was speed, and we used that to great effect. We were in the market ahead of competition. We brought new products on the market ahead of competition. We rolled out our networks. We begged, borrowed, stole, put things out. And while they were never near perfect, they were first. And that gave us, to my mind, a lot of advantage. Our theory was: If youre caught between speed and perfection, always choose speed, and perfection will follow. You never wait for perfect positioning, because in business you dont have the time; especially if youre small, you cant do it. And the large companies took their own time. They were months behind us, and that made us pick up a market niche for ourselves, which in turn made us big.
I think one thing was that we were very, very passionate about our business. This was the only business we were doing. Other competitors had other businesses and this was one of the new businesses they were starting. Speed, new products into the market, close to the customer, knowing what the customer wants I think we lived that whole space ourselves, day in and day out. And that made all the difference. We believe that while India is not done in so far as rolling out networks, the process is done. Well keep on adding two and half or three million customers a month until we get to a point where India has seven or eight million customers, management teams are in place, brand is very strong, distribution is in place, the company has no debt. So, India is done. Now, what does the senior management team do? You have to create new opportunities of growth. And they lie in other emerging markets therefore Africa, the Middle East. And we have today a business model which is the best business model in the world the lowest costs with the highest quality. And I think that model is ready to go out. So, we would like whenever we get an opportunity like MTN to seriously attempt to put some assets together. We wanted to do something more in India. As we grow telecom outside of India, I think there are opportunities in India. And one of them, we felt, was in the area of retail. Indias retail needs to get organized, and it will one day. It may take its own time, and everything in India does take time, but we will organize the retail to a point where $400 billion will come through organized retail stores. We had opportunities to tie up with Carrefour, Tesco and WalMart. And in fact, we were almost in the signing stages with Tesco when the Wal-Mart meetings started to happen and we liked the store model, we liked the same low-cost delivery mechanism, the values of Sam Walton. So, I would say that we are very, very pleased to venture into this area. It has its own issues. Like telecom, this has resistances built in. There are barriers, there are issues. And we enjoy properly dealing with these issues.
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Mini Year Book 2011
To change their lives for the better

Mrs. Rajashree Birla
(Chairperson of the Aditya Birla Centre For Community Initiatives and Rural Development)
This is an area I have been involved in, for over three decades now, as I worked along with my husband, Shri Adityaji. Both of us very strongly felt that we should be engaged in welfare-driven activities which benefit the weaker sections of society. I of course was deeply influenced by him and his ideas on social responsibility. My thinking bears the impress of his philosophy. Shri Adityaji passionately believed in the spirit of giving and caring for people, in helping restore their dignity and self-esteem. For him doling out money to the poor could never be a long-term solution. Instead, he said we should help people in a way that they are able to stand on their own feet and earn money continuously. In this way their livelihood is never at stake. He felt making people productively employed was vital. I vividly recall a discussion that he and I had on this subject. He used to say, If you give a hungry man fish one day, he will eat it and the next day he will be starving again. Instead, if you teach him to fish, he will never go hungry during his lifetime. He also strongly felt that a Social Vision should form a part of an Organisations business mission. My son, Kumar Mangalam is committed to this philosophy as well. Progressive Organisations are increasingly involved in welfaredriven initiatives that make a qualitative difference to the lives of the weaker sections. At the outset, we have to reckon with the fact that millions of people living in both the rich and poor countries suffer economic poverty and social deprivation. The Government cannot singlehandedly tackle this issue. In todays increasingly complex environment which has led to a changed and new social ethos, the onus of social responsibility which rested earlier with the Government is being moved to the private sector. Therefore more and more organisations have to
take on the mantle of Community Development, of social work and of projects that will impact peoples lives in a positive manner. It augurs well that many companies are taking cognizance of this fact. Progressive organisations are becoming proactive in their attitude as they acknowledge that business is not simply an end in itself, but that it must result also in the larger good of Society. Business cannot operate in isolation from Society. That a social vision is as much integral to a Corporation as a business vision. In fact - a social vision must form part of the business Vision. That profitability is of course of paramount importance and an entrepreneurial necessity. Only when an organization makes profit can it sustain and grow its business, reward its shareholders and fulfill its social engagements too. Organisations want to be known as good and responsible corporate citizens. Several Organisations in India and globally have accepted that to be a good corporate citizen, they have to be involved in social engagements that make a difference to the lives of the marginalized and weaker sections of society. Business houses who do social work no longer treat social responsibility as a fringe activity. Their commitment is genuine. And there are several reasons, compassion among them being the foremost. While compassion stems from the heart, there is a definite rationale behind the social work motive. Let me explain this a little in depth. To empower women through helping them become economically independent, Grasim hones their inherent learning skills through a number of training programmes. These are marginalized women and include the physically handicapped, divorcees, widows and those from the poorest of the poor families. These women have been trained in weaving carpets. They have now mastered the art and are full-fledged carpet weavers. What is most gratifying is that besides creating a meaningful employment opportunity for women that affords them good monetary return, their products have gained recognition. Carpets made by these women are showcased in the best of the showrooms at Jaipur and Udaipur and are today exported to the United States and other countries in the West. Our teams had to work on two different levels. First they had to convince the men-folk that empowering women was in the best interests of the family. So they should formulate the process. Let them move out of the confines of the household chores. We impressed upon the men how their subsistence levels would be en34 Mini Year Book 2011
hanced through these sustainable projects run by women. For example : the hand-pump project. Earlier women had to trek miles in search of water. Very often the water would not be safe to drink. Now they find it at their door-step. So the time that they used to take in getting water is invested in other gainful activities, such as making bamboo baskets. The men now seem quite happy. Convincing the women-fold to enlist in our welfare-oriented activities was also a formidable task. Every Project is unique and involvement varies from Project to Project. For instance the women mobile hand-pump mechanics. Traditionally these women were unused to leaving their villages without their men. Again initially the women themselves had some reservations. Handling tools and other mechanical equipment was for them inconceivable. That was the male domain. So they were very diffident. Through persuasive ways, we were able to enlist them in the hand-pumps mechanics training programme. Over a period, with grit and determination, and with the training imparted they have been able to master hand-pump repairs. Today we have more than 50 trained women mechanics. In essence then, we had to engage ourselves in changing mindsets on both these fronts. On the road ahead from this year onwards, in addition to our regular projects, our Group will enhance its focus on family planning in whatever ways it is possible. We have tremendous intellectual capital our people. We have among the worlds best brains. But because of our increasing population, as a country we are not able to move forward fast enough. So, even as a Corporate house, we are evolving a population control strategy for the areas surrounding our Units. We have worked out a holistic approach which includes education, women and their development, maternal and child health and also sensitizing the male population to the need for small families. We have already begun this population control approach with 10 of our Units such as Hindalco, Indo Gulf, Grasim, Vikram cement, Rajashree Cement, among others. In a uniquely collaborative venture with the State Innovations in Family Planning Services Project Agency 9SIFPSA) and the State Health & Family Welfare Department, we have embarked on an initiative that aims to stem the population explosion. Our collective goal is to popularize the small family through a focused attention on the mother and the child. Our project enMini Year Book 2011 35
compasses 25 village Panchayats in the Jamo Block, and an additional three Panchayats which cover the entire industrial area surrounding Jagdishpur. The scope of our work is varied. It includes providing easy access to the entire gamut of family planning services, distribution of contraceptives, prenatal and postnatal counseling, medicare, immunization and medical checkups. Rural clinics set up at Dakhinwara, Babupur, Gaura, Goriabad, Hargaon and Katari in Jagdishpur provide the requisite services. Alongside we carry out an ongoing awareness campaign. Creatively worked out dance and street plays, with a moral are a cultural medium we often use to reinforce the family planning message. Those in need of specialized gynaecological/surgical services and care are treated at the Indo Gulf Jan Seva Trust Hospital. This is a three-year project at an outlay of Rs.31.10 lacs, of which more than 80 percent comes from SIFPSA. 1998-99 has been the first year of this Project. More than 11,000 children in the age group of one month to five years have so far been immunized, and 700 new couples have opted for planned families. All of our projects give me a deep sense of satisfaction. They are value adding and they hopefully make a difference to the lives of the people. They are equally close to my heart. But of all of our projects, I think widow remarriages is truly path-breaking. In our country as you know, young girls are wedded early, particularly in the villages. Unfortunately, they become widows in the prime of their life. Barely in their late twenties, these girls give up on hope and lead a life of despair and submission. To change their lives for the better and to bring back the smile on their face, we initiated a revolutionary change process a widow re-marriage scheme. We have begun with Hindalco As a first step our teams went to the village Panchayats and other influentials and convinced them of the whole project. It was an uphill task given our traditional society norms. But with persistence, we succeeded in getting them to our side. They realised that if these young girls are not taken care off, they could be victims of exploitation. And the Village influentials now help us get these girls remarried. Together we have succeeded in bringing the smile back on the re-wedded girls. Up until now, we have been able to resettle more than 300 widows.
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Mini Year Book 2011
I have always experimented with my career

Amitabh Bachchan
(Big be is a super star of the India hindi film industry. His famous program KBC is very famous in Indians middle class families.)
I dont know anything about direction. I am still trying to learn acting. I dont think its just to categorize my films and label them as good, bad or best. It is not healthy for the career of an actor...it limits his creativity. I have done over 150 films so far and if you ask me all of them have been my best performance irrespective of box office results. Actually, I never thought of myself to be someone who deserved it. I can think of so many names who deserved it more than me. However, it is a great honour and I feel obliged to those who bestowed it upon me. In the beginning of KBC, I felt very nervous and shy as it was a totally new job for me. There is no prepared script, very few possibilities of retakes and it needs one to sustain a temperament and mood. But the industry looks down at television as inferior to the big screen, so how do you justify your entry into the small screen? I have always experimented with my career, always taken risks. As a newcomer, I did films like Ek Nazar and Reshma Aur Shera. Zanjeer gave me the so-called angry-young man image but I was also doing films with Hrishida and Yashsaab, which were in a different genre altogether. My company lent a corporate kind of set-up to making films. I have featured in a video album as well. I have tried my hand at different things and I wanted to try out television as well so I am here. I watched Refugee a little earlier before its release. I liked the film and the concept of the story. Mr Dutta is a brilliant director. As far as Abhishek is concerned, I think he was okay but has to learn a lot more. But he is improving with each and every picture. ExpeMini Year Book 2011 37
rience counts in this trade. He has improved a lot in Dhai Akshar Prem Ka. I liked the movie but the unfortunately the audiance thought otherwise. I am doing what the makers want me to do. There is not much choice in our set-up. I am trying to reinvent and innovate in whatever little possibilities are available in the kind of set-up we have. Sometimes you are not playing your age but the film does extremely well at the box-office. At others, even a taut script, character that suits your age and flawless performances cannot salvage a film. The whole business is very unpredictable. I enjoy acting that is why I am here.
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Mini Year Book 2011
Literature is located beyond flags and anthems

Kiran Desai
(She is the famous Indian english writer who won the Booker Prize. She is the daughter of Anita Desai.)
It isnt easy to be a young writer, you have to convince others, convince yourself. So much attention has been paid to this book after the Man Booker, and Im grateful for that, but the greatest impact on my life is feeling I might be more eccentric in my work in the future, that I should play more. I feel (I hope this continues when I actually begin working), less uptight and rigid about the process. I was quite stern and mean-spirited while writing Inheritance of Loss, fearful of the risk I was taking. I was there quite soon after. Indians have always followed the Booker an old link, I suppose, and the fact that the prize is often given to books particularly pertinent to us. On book tour, I was constantly reminded of how precious books are in India. I grew up with that being an absolute tenet. India was quieter then, with a closed door economic policy, the world arrived only through books, and they meant everything. I remember reading with an intensity that seems lost to me now. Rushdie writes of how we grew up kissing any book that fell on the floor as if they were sacred objects. Now, living in New York City with barely any space to put books, an overflowing desk, I sometimes put books in piles on the floor, and feel evil. Youngest female makes me feel like a biological specimen! Well, I dont think younger, quicker, fatter etc. really matters. A good book can come from the location of youth or of old age, dont you think? I know a writing career goes up, goes down to its own rhythm some are welcomed books, others despised books, but thats the public side. The important thing is the journey of thought, of experimentation. I feel very much at the beginning of that process. Being part of the Indian diaspora gives one a precise emotional location to work from, if not a precise geographical one. This book
was a return journey to the fact of being Indian, to realising the perspective was too important to give up. America might give me half a narrative, but I had to return to India for the other half of the story, for emotional depth, historical depth. I dont care about passports. Literature is located beyond flags and anthems, simple ideas of loyalty. The vocabulary of immigration, of exile, of translation, inevitably overlaps with a realization of the multiple options for reinvention, of myriad perspectives, shifting truths, telling of lies the great big wobbliness of it all. In a world obsessed with national boundaries and belonging, as a novelist working with a form also traditionally obsessed with place, it was a journey to come to this thought, that the less structured, the multiple, may be a possible location for fiction, perhaps a more valid ethical location in general. I think I was fighting to create a sense of place while also undoing anyones claim upon it as being sole, firm or integral. Working on this book I became aware of the novelistic moments that come from many stories overlapping, of realising that ones place in the world is incidental, it is just perspective, the location isnt really firm at all. Past, present, or future. There will be other books on the shelf. I think the next book will also be a mish-mash of locations for the sake of being able to explore the truth and lies that exist between places. Naipauls Bend in the River and Rushdies Midnights Children (which was named Booker of Bookers in 1993) together changed the way I wanted to write about being Indian in the world. They are often seen as coming from two opposing camps, but Ive learnt from both. My generation owes Rushdie that confidence, that attitude of saying we are not ashamed, that it is ok to write from our own centre, in our own English. We owe him his lushness and humour. The fusing of folktale and myth with history and politics. His insistence that history is always someones story. His creative stamina just when you think there couldnt be more rabbits out of the hat, there are more rabbits out of the hat. Naipaul I admire for that brutal honesty, the width of his perspective. Hes the first fiction writer I know of who wrote of the parallel experience of people from African, Latin American and Asian countries, their relationship with the West. For him no story is seen in isolation, the big wars pervert the smallest places.
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Mini Year Book 2011
Certainly challenges from multinationals Companies

Ratan Tata
(Tata Group chairman. He is the first industrialist in India who avail nano lakhtakian car for common man in one lac only.)
After a half century of protectionism, during which even the manufacture of safety pins was tightly regulated, India threw open its doors to both domestic and international competition in 1991. Since then the changes have been dramatic. While the Indian economy as a whole has grown at an average rate of more than 5 percent annually in this period, many larger companies have seen their fortunes decline precipitously (although weak bankruptcy laws and cumbersome liquidation procedures make going out of business virtually impossible). These days a far more telling indicator of the changing Indian economy can be found at the Bombay Stock Exchange, where trading is dominated by technology-oriented startups in industries like computer software and pharmaceuticals. These have replaced the likes of cement and steel stocks, highly favored sectors during the protectionist era of the License Raj (see box, End of License Raj). One of the few traditional Indian groups to survive the brutal consequences of the nine-year reform program is Tata Sons, the countrys largest business group and an industrial power for more than 100 years. The group is a conglomerate of 80 operating companies, with interests as diverse as steel, trucks, cars, cement, ball bearings, hotels, oil drilling, construction, telecommunications, fertilizer and earthmoving equipment. Ratan Tata, who took over as chairman of the group the year the reforms were introduced, has been credited with having successfully steered the company through a particularly traumatic period. Economic reform, with its new emphasis on competition, presented the unwieldy agglomeration of companies with what Tata calls the very daunting task of defining what our core business is. In his effort to remake the group in the face of this challenge, Tata reconstituted the board of the parent holding company to reflect the
younger team, initiated the process of selling off a number of businesses, ended several international partnerships and beat back some determined competition from the Japanese in the trucking industry. Tata also tried, unsuccessfully, to get three successive governments to agree to his plans to set up a domestic airline in partnership with Singapore Airlines. Likely to be unveiled in the new century is what could easily be the biggest foreign acquisition by an Indian company: a pending takeover of Tetley, the UK-based tea bag company, by Tata Tea, which is expected to cost about $400 million. Though the reforms have been painful, the 62-yearold Tata, who studied architecture at Cornell University, seems to have welcomed them. Reflecting on what the changes have meant to India, he told Outlook that Indian businesses cannot turn to the government for protection. I think there should be some soul-searching on how they should play in the new competitive environment. For his part, this means an ongoing pursuit of a leaner corporate structure, which he hopes to have in place early in 2000. I often ask myself, what happened in a country like Spain? It had its own industry. Now big brands operate there, but local brands found their own niches. They might not be big, but they are strong. One of the weaknesses of Indian industry is that in many areas like consumer goodsit is very fragmented. Individually, the companies might not be able to survive. What is needed is a consortium of like companies in one industry, presenting a strong front to the multinationals. The strategy is to acquire a brand with an international presence. Tetley has a strong position in tea bags, and we have a strong position in tea. So it enables us to promote our product through a brand that is known in the Western world. It would have taken much more effort and much more money to create the same level of awareness for the Tata Tea brand overseas. If you think globally, you have to look at global managers as well. It is conceivable that Tetley will be managed not by Indians but by managers in the country of operations, who know the market better. In general, as a group, we have been very inward-looking, seeing only India as our market. We have not focused adequately on growing overseas.
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Mini Year Book 2011
Ive always been competitive

Sachin Tendulkar
(Sachin Tendulkar is a best Indian Crickter and he completed 100 centuries in one day and test matches.)
I feel that time definitely flies. I remember on my first tour Kapil Dev challenged me, he said you play for ten years. It was a healthy bet which I won. When I completed ten years, Kapil Dev was the coach so I caught him and said Ive won our bet. Im glad today Im almost very close to doubling that. I remember things clearly, even though time has flown. I remember most of my dismissals and I dont think any cricketer forgets that...I remember the great shots too. When I was younger, there have been times where Ive gone out thinking of attacking just from ball one, that wherever the ball is Im going to attack, wherever the ball is Im going to hit a six, literally, that kind of thought process. But Im glad that doesnt happen today, that was different...you think differently in various stages in life and you react accordingly. So obviously I think differently at this stage and I dont feel like that, like I miss miss anything. I think to respect the game and to respect fellow cricketers. I was made to realize that very early on by a friend. In the early years of cricket, you have done everything possible thing under the sun to achieve your target. All of a sudden you have the India cap and India t-shirt and you start thinking that, oh Im somebody special. I remember just after I started to play for India, a very close friend of mine conveyed a message through another person. Around that time it was just tell him that Ive noticed that he is probably starting to think differently, the sooner he realises that the better it is. And I sat back and I realised that, yes it was true. I wouldnt want to say who the person was. But it happened and that really helped me. I normally tend to tell all the youngsters who just get in the team, I know that its good that you are here but learn to respect the cricketers who actually played with you before. That
would help you to stay on the ground more than anything else. Ive just gone out and played and played with a lot of passion and I spent a lot of time preparing myself. Not only physically but mentally I spent time preparing. There have been ups and downs in everybodys career but I would much rather when there are disappointments, I would much rather convert that negative energy into positive energy and use that somewhere else. In training harder or spending more time in the nets. The set-backs have actually motivated me. My thinking is simple. I want to convert those disappointments into positive energy and use it and get even more determined. That is what Ive done, nothing else. You discover a lot of new things and Ive been able to do that. If earlier obviously there were just a couple of ways to deal with a particular bowler, then today there would be four ways. You just know how to use what and when. Its about not accepting every little challenge thrown at you and going after that. Sometimes you hold back and when its needed you go for it. You just calculate better and it comes with age and experience. I remember in 1994 when Sidhu was not fit for an ODI game in New Zealand, I walked up to Azhar and Ajit Wadekar and told them give me one chance. I told them, I know I can hit the fast bowlers and if I fail, I will not come and ask you again. I could say that to Wadekar - if I fail I will not ask you again, give me just one chance. They agreed and I scored 82 runs of 48 balls. From there on things started looking different for me. Obviously it helped in a big way. Ive always been competitive. Its extremely important for a sportsman to be highly competitive, one should not be able to take defeat just like that. I mean I dont believe in, you know, oh, it is just another game. When Im out competing, I want to go all the way to the end. I would want to compete hard but compete hard in the right spirit. I dont think anyone should be compared to Sir Don either because what he has, thats a phenomenal record. And you cannot compare eras either. But today yes, one can say that 15, 000 Test runs would be something special. Playing the game in the right spirit is extremely important and then somebody who obviously gave his best for the team and was able to adapt to the situation. Adaptability is very important too.
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Mini Year Book 2011
It is a mistake to judge science by Nobel Prizes

Venkatraman Ramakrishnan
(Venkatraman Ramakrishnan won the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on the structure and function of the ribosome.)
I moved to Baroda in 1955 at the age of 3. I visited Tamil Nadu occasionally and until my mothers death two years ago, my family owned a flat in Madras, where my aunt used to live. I had an excellent math and physics teacher in high school named T.C. Patel, and in the university, I had truly dedicated professors in both physics and mathematics who gave me a sound foundation with which to pursue graduate studies. I was the recipient of a National Science Talent Scholarship which was specifically [meant] to encourage students to go into basic science (rather than medicine or engineering which usually grabbed all the best students). I hope such schemes still exist in India. I was more motivated by the fact that biology seemed a more open field with lots of possibilities for making significant contributions. I think it is a mistake to judge science by Nobel Prizes. In the last decade or more, funding for science has improved a lot in India, and there are now many excellent labs in my field in various parts of India. Instead of thinking about these prizes, what the government should do is concentrate on building a broad culture of respect for basic science and knowledge. I think its important to give young people the freedom to follow their ideas, and pursue their interests. Im very grateful to have had many brilliant students and post-docs who have worked with me. Potential is often hard to spot, but a key factor is whether they express a genuine interest in the problem, and how they have thought about it. Venkatraman Ramakrishnan won the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on the structure and function of the ribosome. In an interview with The Indian Express Editor-in-Chief
Shekhar Gupta on NDTV 24x7s Walk the Talk, Ramakrishnan speaks of his research, on the value of scientific interdisciplinarity, and of his ongoing attempt to learn Spanish My feeling is that even if you are not a scientist you really should have a certain minimum education in science because we live in a highly technical society. How do you know that the right decisions are being made by your government or people around you? We talk about pollution or global warming. How can you even judge if these things are meaningful or not? If you have a fundamental background in science even at the high school level, it does help you come to grips with the problem instead of taking someones word for it. I grew up in the Indian system and I unfortunately had to choose between humanities and science in high school. Im making up for it. Im learning Spanish Ive to take an exam in January. When I got this Nobel Prize, they had a student from the school where I study Spanish interview me for their paper. And they said, Hills Road 6 form student wins Nobel Prize. I originally thought I might go to medical school. And I got admitted to the Baroda Medical College , but I also appeared for the National Science Talent exam. That was at the encouragement of my mother. I made a deal with my father that if I got the scholarship, then you shouldnt force me to do anything. He wanted me to be a doctor. I got the scholarship, and while he was away, I transferred my admission from medical college to study physics. The clerk thought Id made a mistake, and I actually meant the other way round. One thing that motivated me was that a group of professors, some of whom had come back from the US, had completely modernised the curriculum. 30 years later, my son studied basically the same curriculum at Harvard. So that was a motivation for me to go into physics. Somewhere along the line I realised that I was not going to be a good physicist. I would just be doing some boring calculations and not have any real insight. I believe physics is on a difficult plane, because to make truly fundamental breakthroughs in physics is very hard now. At the same time, molecular biology was blossoming. It seemed every week there was an important discovery being made.
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Mini Year Book 2011
India at a Glance
FACTS ABOUT INDIA
The official Sanskrit name for India is Bharat. INDIA has been called Bharat even in Satya yuga ( Golden Age ) The name `India' is derived from the River Indus, the valleys around which were the home of the early settlers. The Aryan worshippers referred to the river Indus as the Sindhu. The Persian invaders converted it into Hindu. The name `Hindustan' combines Sindhu and Hindu and thus refers to the land of the Hindus. The number system was invented by India. Aryabhatta was the scientist who invented the digit zero. Sanskrit is considered as the mother of all higher languages. This is because it is the most precise, and therefore suitable language for computer software. ( a report in Forbes magazine, July 1987 ). Chess was invented in India. Algebra, Trigonometry and Calculus are studies which originated in India. The' place value system' and the 'decimal system' were developed in 100 BC in India. The first six Mogul Emperor's of India ruled in an unbroken succession from father to son for two hundred years, from 1526 to 1707. The World's First Granite Temple is the Brihadeswara temple at Tanjavur in Tamil Nadu. The shikhara is made from a single ' 80tonne ' piece of granite. Also, this magnificient temple was built in just five years, (between 1004 AD and 1009 AD) during the reign of Rajaraja Chola India is.......the Largest democracy in the world, the 6th largest country in the world AND one of the most ancient and living civilizations (at least 10, 000 years old).
The game of snakes & ladders was created by the 13th century poet saint Gyandev. It was originally called 'Mokshapat.' The ladders in the game represented virtues and the snakes indicated vices. The game was played with cowrie shells and dices. Later through time, the game underwent several modifications but the meaning is the same i.e good deeds take us to heaven and evil to a cycle of re-births. The world's highest cricket ground is in Chail, Himachal Pradesh. Built in 1893 after levelling a hilltop, this cricket pitch is 2444 meters above sea level. India has the most post offices in the world ! The largest employer in the world is the Indian railway system, employing over a million people !. The World's first university was established in Takshila in 700 BC. More than 10,500 students from all over the world studied more than 60 subjects. The University of Nalanda built in the 4th century was one of the greatest achievements of ancient India in the field of education. Ayurveda is the earliest school of medicine known to mankind. The father of medicine, Charaka, consolidated Ayurveda 2500 years ago. Although modern images & descriptions of India often show poverty, India was one of the richest countries till the time of British in the early 17th Century. Christopher Columbus was attracted by India's wealth and was looking for route to India when he discovered America by mistake. The art of Navigation & Navigating was born in the river Sindh 6000 over years ago. The very word 'Navigation' is derived from the Sanskrit word NAVGATIH. The word navy is also derived from the Sanskrit word 'Nou'. Bhaskaracharya rightly calculated the time taken by the earth to orbit the sun hundreds of years before the astronomer Smart. His calculations was - Time taken by earth to orbit the sun: ( 5th century ) 365.258756484 days. The value of "pi" was first calculated by the Indian Mathematician Budhayana, and he explained the concept of what is known as the Pythagorean Theorem. He discovered this in the 6th century, which was long before the European mathematicians.
n Algebra, trigonometry and calculus also orignated from India. Quadratic equations were used by Sridharacharya in the 11th century. The largest numbers the Greeks and the Romans used were 106 whereas Hindus used numbers as big as 10*53 ( i.e 10 to the power of 53 ) with specific names as early as 5000 B.C. during the Vedic period. Even today, the largest used number is Tera: 10*12( 10 to the power of 12 ). n Until 1896, India was the only source for diamonds to the world. ( Source . Gemological Institute of America ) n The Baily Bridge is the highest bridge in the world. It is located in the Ladakh valley between the Dras and Suru rivers in the Himalayan mountains. It was built by the Indian Army in August 1982. n Sushruta is regarded as the father of surgery. Over 2600 years ago Sushrata & his team conducted complicated surgeries like cataract, artificial limbs, cesareans, fractures, urinary stones and also plastic surgery and brain surgeries. n Usage of anesthesia was well known in ancient India medicine. Detailed knowledge of anatomy, embryology, digestion, metabolism, physiology, etiology, genetics and immunity is also found in many ancient Indian texts. n India also celebrates the birthday of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, former President and Vice-President and great statesman, as "Teachers' Day". n Born on September 5, 1888, at Tiruttani, 40 miles to the northeast of Madras, Radhakrishnan grew to become the most famous Indian teacher and philosopher of all times. In his honour, this day is celebrated as Teacher's Day. n He was also the Vice-President of India from 1952-1962. He held the office of the Chancellor, University of Delhi, before taking over as the President of India in May 1962.
BACKGROUND
According to its constitution, India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. Like the United States, India has a federal form of government. However, the central government in India has greater power in relation to its states, and its central government is patterned after the British parliamentary system. The government exercises its broad administrative powers in the name of the president, whose duties are largely ceremonial. The
president and vice president are elected indirectly for 5-year terms by a special electoral college. Their terms are staggered, and the vice president does not automatically become president following the death or removal from office of the president. Real national executive power is centered in the Council of Ministers (cabinet), led by the prime minister. The president appoints the prime minister, who is designated by legislators of the political party or coalition commanding a parliamentary majority. The president then appoints subordinate ministers on the advice of the prime minister. Indias bicameral parliament consists of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha. The legislatures of the states and union territories elect 233 members to the Rajya Sabha, and the president appoints another 12. The elected members of the Rajya Sabha serve 6-year terms, with one-third up for election every 2 years. The Lok Sabha consists of 545 members; 543 are directly elected to 5-year terms. The other two are appointed. Indias independent judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-Saxon countries. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and 25 other justices, all appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister. India has 25 states and 7 union territories. At the state level, some of the legislatures are bicameral, patterned after the two houses of the national parliament. The states chief ministers are responsible to the legislatures in the same way the prime minister is responsible to parliament. Each state also has a presidentially appointed governor who may assume certain broad powers when directed by the central government. The central government exerts greater control over the union territories than over the states, although some territories have gained more power to administer their own affairs. Local governments in India have less autonomy than their counterparts in the United States. Some states are trying to revitalize the traditional village councils, or panchayats, which aim to promote popular democratic participation at the village level, where much of the
population still lives. India is one of the oldest civilizations in the world with a kaleidoscopic variety and rich cultural heritage. It has achieved all-round socio-economic progress during the last 62 years of its Independence. India has become self-sufficient in agricultural production and is now one of the top industrialized countries in the world and one of the few nations to have gone into outer space to conquer nature for the benefit of the people. It covers an area of 32,87,263 sq. km, extending from the snow-covered Himalayan heights to the tropical rain forests of the south. As the 7th largest country in the world, India stands apart from the rest of Asia, marked off as it is by mountains and the sea, which give the country a distinct geographical entity. Bounded by the Great Himalayas in the north, it stretches southwards and at the Tropic of Cancer, tapers off into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west. Lying entirely in the northern hemisphere, the mainland extends between latitudes 8 4' and 37 6' north, longitudes 68 7' and 97 25' east and measures about 3,214 km from north to south between the extreme latitudes and about 2,933 km from east to west between the extreme longitudes. It has a land frontier of about 15,200 km. The total length of the coastline of the mainland, Lakshadweep Islands and Andaman & Nicobar Islands is 7,516.6 km.
GEOGRAPHY
The Union and its TerritoryIndia comprises 28 States and 7 Union Territories. They are: Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Union Territories are: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, National Capital Territory of Delhi, Lakshadweep and Puducherry. Districts of IndiaIndia is one of the oldest civilizations with a kaleidoscopic variety and rich heritage. There are 626 Districts in India administered by their respective State/UT Government. Districts of India is an endeavour of NIC to provide a onestop source for all the information about Districts of India at one
place on the web. Visit the portal, which provides all the information regarding the area, population and headquarters about any district.Here we are providing link to Village level mapping of demography and amenities (External website that opens in a new window) maps on the GIS based website. This enables dynamic generation of choropleth maps for rural India for more than 160 parameters of Primary Census Abstract 2001 and Amenities Data, provided by Registrar General of India. Moreover, we are linking to the website of Survey of India (External website that opens in a new window), which acts as adviser to the Government of India on all survey matters, viz Geodesy, Photogrammetry, Mapping and Map Reproduction. With the help of this link one can access the map of any state and districts of the country. Location: The Indian peninsula is separated from mainland Asia by the Himalayas. The Country is surrounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Indian Ocean to the south. Geographic Coordinates: Lying entirely in the Northern Hemisphere, the Country extends between 8 4' and 37 6' latitudes north of the Equator, and 68 7' and 97 25' longitudes east of it. Indian Standard Time: GMT + 05:30 Area: 3.3 Million sq. km Telephone Country Code: +91 Border Countries: Afghanistan and Pakistan to the north-west; China, Bhutan and Nepal to the north; Myanmar to the east; and Bangladesh to the east of West Bengal. Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea, formed by Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar. Coastline: 7,516.6 km encompassing the mainland, Lakshadweep Islands, and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Climate: The climate of India can broadly be classified as a tropical monsoon one. But, in spite of much of the northern part of India lying beyond the tropical zone, the entire country has a tropical climate marked by relatively high temperatures and dry winters. There are four seasons: i. winter (December-February) ii. summer (March-June) iii. south-west monsoon season (June-September)
iv. post monsoon season (October-November) Terrain: The mainland comprises of four regions, namely the great mountain zone, plains of the Ganga and the Indus, the desert region, and the southern peninsula. Natural Resources: Coal, iron ore, manganese ore, mica, bauxite, petroleum, titanium ore, chromite, natural gas, magnesite, limestone, arable land, dolomite, barytes, kaolin, gypsum, apatite, phosphorite, steatite, fluorite, etc. Natural Hazards: Monsoon floods, flash floods, earthquakes, droughts, and landslides. Environment - Current Issues: Air pollution control, energy conservation, solid waste management, oil and gas conservation, forest conservation, etc. Environment - International Agreements: Rio Declaration on environment and development, Cartagena Protocol on biosafety, Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on climatic change, World Trade Agreement, Helsinki Protocol to LRTAP on the reduction of sulphur emissions of nitrogen oxides or their transboundary fluxes (Nox Protocol), and Geneva Protocol to LRTAP concerning the control of emissions of volatile organic compounds or their transboundary fluxes (VOCs Protocol). Note India occupies a major portion of the south Asian subcontinent.
PEOPLE
Particulars Population
Description Indias population, as on 1 March 2001 stood at 1,028 million (532.1 million males and 496.4 mil lion females). Population Growth Rate The average annual exponential growth rate stands at 1.93 per cent during 19912001. Birth Rate The Crude Birth rate according to the 2001 census is 24.8 Death Rate The Crude Death rate according to the 2001 census is 8.9 Life Expectancy Rate 63.9 years (Males); 66.9 years (Females) (As of Sep 2005) Sex Ratio 933 according to the 2001 census Nationality Indian
Ethnic Groups
Religions
Languages
Literacy
All the five major racial types - Australoid, Mongoloid, Europoid, Caucasian, and Ne groid find representation among the people of India. According to the 2001 census, out of the to tal population of 1,028 million in the Country, Hin dus constituted the majority with 80.5%, Muslims came second at 13.4%, followed by Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, and others. There are 22 different languages that have been recognised by the Constitution of In dia, of which Hindi is an Official Language. Article 343(3) empowered Parliament to pro vide by law for continued use of English for official purposes. According to the provisional results of the 2001 census, the literacy rate in the Country stands at 64.84 per cent, 75.26% for males and 53.67% for females.
GOVERNMENT
Particulars Description Country Name Republic of India; Bharat Ganrajya Government Type Sovereign Socialist Democratic Republic with a Parliamentary system of Government. Capital New Delhi Administrative Divisions 28 States and 7 Union Territories. Independence 15th August 1947 (From the British Colonial Rule) Constitution The Constitution of India came into force on 26th January 1950. Legal System The Constitution of India is the fountain source of the legal system in the Country.
Executive Branch
The President of India is the Head of the State, while the Prime Minister is the Head of the Government, and runs office with the support of the Council of Ministers who form the Cabinet Ministry.
Legislative Branch
The Indian Legislature comprises of the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) forming both the Houses of the Parliament.
Judicial Branch
The Supreme Court of India is the apex body of the Indian legal system, followed by other High Courts and subordinate Courts. Flag DescriptionThe National Flag is a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (kesaria) at the top, white in the middle, and dark green at the bottom in equal proportion. At the centre of the white band is a navy blue wheel, which is a representation of the Ashoka Chakra at Sarnath.
National Days
26th January (Republic Day)15th August (Independence Day)2nd October (Gandhi Jayanti; Mahatma Gandhis Birthday)
National Symbols
This section introduces you to the National Identity Elements of India. These symbols are intrinsic to the Indian identity and heritage. Indians of all demographics backgrounds across the world are proud of these National Symbols as they infuse a sense of pride and patriotism in every Indians heart. National Flag National Bird National Flower National Tree National Anthem National River National Aquatic Animal State Emblem National Calendar National Animal National Song National Fruit National Game Currency Symbol
National Flag
The National Flag is a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (kesaria) at the top, white in the middle and dark green at the bottom in equal proportion. The ratio of width of the flag to its length is two to three. In the centre of the white band is a navy-blue wheel which represents the chakra. Its design is that of the wheel which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Its
diameter approximates to the width of the white band and it has 24 spokes. The design of the National Flag was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 22 July 1947. Apart from non-statutory instructions issued by the Government from time to time, display of the National Flag is governed by the provisions of the Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950 (No. 12 of 1950) and the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971 (No. 69 of 1971). The Flag Code of India, 2002 is an attempt to bring together all such laws, conventions, practices and instructions for the guidance and benefit of all concerned. The Flag Code of India, 2002, took effect from 26 January 2002 and superseded the Flag Code-Indias as it existed. As per the provisions of the Flag Code of India, 2002, there are no restriction on the display of the National Flag by members of general public, private organisations, educational institutions, etc., except to the extent provided in the Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950 and the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971 and any other law enacted on the subject.
National Bird
The Indian peacock, Pavo cristatus, the national bird of India, is a colourful, swan-sized bird, with a fan-shaped crest of feathers, a white patch under the eye and a long, slender neck. The male of the species is more colourful than the female, with a glistening blue breast and neck and a spectacular bronze-green tail of around 200 elongated feathers. The female is brownish, slightly smaller than the male and lacks the tail. The elaborate courtship dance of the male, fanning out the tail and preening its feathers is a gorgeous sight.
National Flower
Lotus (Nelumbo Nucipera Gaertn) is the National Flower of India. It is a sacred flower and occupies a unique position in the art and mythology of ancient India and has been an auspicious symbol of Indian culture since time immemorial. India is rich in flora. Currently available data place India in the tenth position in the world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. From about 70 per cent geographical area surveyed so far, 47,000
species of plants have been described by the Botanical Survey of India (BSI).
National Tree
Indian fig tree, Ficus bengalensis, whose branches root themselves like new trees over a large area. The roots then give rise to more trunks and branches. Because of this characteristic and its longevity, this tree is considered immortal and is an integral part of the myths and legends of India. Even today, the banyan tree is the focal point of village life and the village council meets under the shade of this tree.
National Anthem
The National Anthem of India is played or sung on various occasions. Instructions have been issued from time to time about the correct versions of the Anthem, the occasions on which these are to be played or sung, and about the need for paying respect to the anthem by observance of proper decorum on such occasions. The substance of these instructions has been embodied in this information sheet for general information and guidance. The National Anthem - Full & Short Versions The composition consisting of the words and music of the first stanza of the late poet Rabindra Nath Tagores song known as Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India. It reads as follows: Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka, jaya he Bharata-bhagya-vidhata. Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha Dravida-Utkala-Banga Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga Uchchala-Jaladhi-taranga. Tava shubha name jage, Tava shubha asisa mange, Gahe tava jaya gatha, Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he Bharata-bhagya-vidhata. Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he, Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he! The above is the full version of the Anthem and its playing time is
approximately 52 seconds. A short version consisting of the first and last lines of the National Anthem is also played on certain occasions. It reads as follows: Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka, jaya he Bharata-bhagya-vidhata. Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he, Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he! Playing time of the short version is about 20 seconds. The following is Tagores English rendering of the anthem: Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people, Dispenser of Indias destiny. Thy name rouses the hearts of Punjab, Sind, Gujarat and Maratha, Of the Dravida and Orissa and Bengal; It echoes in the hills of the Vindhyas and Himalayas, mingles in the music of Jamuna and Ganges and is chanted by the waves of the Indian Sea. They pray for thy blessings and sing thy praise. The saving of all people waits in thy hand, Thou dispenser of Indias destiny. Victory, victory, victory to thee. The occasions on which the full versions or the short version will be played have been indicated at the appropriate places in these instructions. Playing of the Anthem 1. The full version of the Anthem shall be played on the following occasions: 1. Civil and Military investitures; 2. When National Salute (which means the Command Rashtriya Salute Salami Shastr to the accompaniment of the National Anthem is given on ceremonial occasions to the President or to the Governor/Lieutenant Governor within their respective States/ Union Territories; 3. During parades irrespective of whether any of the dignitaries referred to in (ii) above is present or not; 4. On arrival of the President at formal State functions and other functions organized by the Government and mass functions and
on his departure from such functions; 5. Immediately before and after the President addresses the Nation over All India Radio; 6. On arrival of the Governor/Lieutenant Governor at formal State functions within his State/Union Territory and on his departure from such functions; 7. When the National Flag is brought on parade; 8. When the Regimental Colours are presented; 9. For hoisting of colours in the Navy. 2. The short version of the Anthem shall be played when drinking toasts in Messes. 3. The Anthem shall be played on any other occasion for which special orders have been issued by the Government of India. 4. Normally the Anthem shall not be played for the Prime Minister, though there may be special occasions when it may be played. 5. When the National Anthem is played by a band, the Anthem will be preceded by a roll of drums to assist the audience to know that the National Anthem is going to be played, unless there is some other specific indication that the National Anthem is about to be played, as for example, when fanfares are sounded before the National Anthem is played, or when toasts are drunk to the accompaniment of the National Anthem or when the National Anthem constitutes the National Salute given by a Guard of Honour. The duration of the roll, in terms of marching drill, will be 7 paces in slow march. The roll will start slowly, ascend to as loud a volume as possible and then gradually decreases to original softness, but remaining audible until the seventh beat. One beat rest will then be observed before commencing the National Anthem. Mass Singing of the Anthem 1. The full version of the Anthem shall be played accompanied by mass singing on the following occasions: 2. On the unfurling of the National Flag, on cultural occasions or ceremonial functions other than parades. (This could be arranged by having a choir or adequate size, suitably stationed, which would be trained to coordinate its singing with the band etc. There should be an adequate public audition system so that the gathering in various enclosures can sing in unison with the choir); 3. On arrival of the President at any Government or Public funcMini Year Book 2011 59
tion (but excluding formal State functions and mess functions) and also immediately before his departure from such functions. 4. On all occasions when the National Anthem is sung, the full version shall be recited accompanied by mass singing. 5. The Anthem may be sung on occasions which, although not strictly ceremonial, are nevertheless invested with significance because of the presence of Ministers etc. The singing of the Anthem on such occasions (with or without the accompaniment of an instruments) accompanied by mass singing is desirable. 6. It is not possible to give an exhaustive list of occasions on which the singing (as distinct from playing) of the Anthem can be permitted. But there is no objection to the singing of the Anthem accompanied by mass singing so long as it is done with due respect as a salutation to the motherland and proper decorum is maintained. 7. In all schools, the days work may begin with community singing of the anthem. School authorities should make adequate provision in their programmes for popularising the singing of the Anthem and promoting respect for the National Flag among students. General 1. Whenever the Anthem is sung or played, the audience shall stand to attention. However, when in the course of a newsreel or documentary the Anthem is played as a part of the film, it is not expected of the audience to stand as standing is bound to interrupt the exhibition of the film and would create disorder and confusion rather than add to the dignity of the Anthem. 2. As in the case of the flying of the National Flag, it has been left to the good sense of the people not to indulge in indiscriminate singing or playing of the Anthem.
National River
The Ganga or Ganges is the longest river of India flowing over 2,510 kms of mountains, valleys and plains. It originates in the snowfields of the Gangotri Glacier in the Himalayas as the Bhagirathi River. It is later joined by other rivers such as the Alaknanda, Yamuna, Son, Gumti, Kosi and Ghagra. The Ganga river basin (External website that opens in a new window) is one of the most fertile and densely populated areas of the world and covers an area of 1,000,000 sq. kms. There are two dams on the river - one at Haridwar and the other at Farakka. The Ganges River Dolphin is
an endangered animal that specifically habitats this river. The Ganga is revered by Hindus as the most sacred river on earth. Key religious ceremonies are held on the banks of the river at cities such as Varanasi, Haridwar and Allahabad. The Ganga widens out into the Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans swamp of Bangladesh, before it ends its journey by emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
National Aquatic Animal
River Dolphin is the National Aquatic Animal of India. This mammal is also said to represent the purity of the holy Ganga as it can only survive in pure and fresh water. Platanista gangetica has a long pointed snout and also have visible teeth in both the upper and lower jaws. Their eyes lack a lens and therefore function solely as a means of detecting the direction of light. Dolphins tend to swim with one fin trailing along the substrate while rooting around with their beak to catch shrimp and fish. Dolphins have a fairly thick body with light grey-brown skin often with a hue of pink. The fins are large and the dorsal fin is triangular and undeveloped. This mammal has a forehead that rises steeply and has very small eyes. River Dolphins are solitary creatures and females tend to be larger than males. They are locally known as susu, because of the noise it makes while breathing. This species inhabits parts of the Ganges, Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers in India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh, and the Karnaphuli River in Bangladesh. River dolphin is a critically endangered species in India and therefore, has been included in the Schedule I for the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. The main reasons for decline in population of the species are poaching and habitat degradation due to declining flow, heavy siltation, construction of barrages causing physical barrier for this migratory species.
State Emblem
The state emblem is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. In the original, there are four lions, standing back to back, mounted on an abacus with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated by intervening wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the Capital is crowned
by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra). In the state emblem, adopted by the Government of India on 26 January 1950, only three lions are visible, the fourth being hidden from view. The wheel appears in relief in the centre of the abacus with a bull on right and a horse on left and the outlines of other wheels on extreme right and left. The bell-shaped lotus has been omitted. The words Satyameva Jayate from Mundaka Upanishad, meaning Truth Alone Triumphs, are inscribed below the abacus in Devanagari script.
National Calendar
The national calendar based on the Saka Era, with Chaitra as its first month and a normal year of 365 days was adopted from 22 March 1957 along with the Gregorian calendar for the following official purposes: 1. Gazette of India. 2. News broadcast by All India Radio. 3. Calendars issued by the Government of India. 4. Government communications addressed to the members of the public. Dates of the national calendar have a permanent correspondence with dates of the Gregorian calendar, 1 Chaitra falling on 22 March normally and on 21 March in leap year.
National Animal
The magnificent tiger, Panthera tigris is a striped animal. It has a thick yellow coat of fur with dark stripes. The combination of grace, strength, agility and enormous power has earned the tiger its pride of place as the national animal of India. Out of eight races of the species known, the Indian race, the Royal Bengal Tiger, is found throughout the country except in the north-western region and also in the neighbouring countries, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. To check the dwindling population of tigers in India, Project Tiger was launched in April 1973. So far, 27 tiger reserves have been established in the country under this project, covering an area of 37,761 sq km.
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National Song
The song Vande Mataram, composed in Sanskrit by Bankimchandra Chatterji, was a source of inspiration to the people in their struggle for freedom. It has an equal status with Janagana-mana. The first political occasion when it was sung was the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress. The following is the text of its first stanza: Vande Mataram! Sujalam, suphalam, malayaja shitalam, Shasyashyamalam, Mataram! Vande Mataram! Shubhrajyotsna pulakitayaminim, Phullakusumita drumadala shobhinim, Suhasinim sumadhura bhashinim, Sukhadam varadam, Mataram! Vande Mataram, Vande Mataram! The English translation of the stanza rendered by Sri Aurobindo in prose 1 is: I bow to thee, Mother, richly-watered, richly-fruited, cool with the winds of the south, dark with the crops of the harvests, The Mother! Her nights rejoicing in the glory of the moonlight, her lands clothed beautifully with her trees in flowering bloom, sweet of laughter, sweet of speech, The Mother, giver of boons, giver of bliss.
National Fruit
A fleshy fruit, eaten ripe or used green for pickles etc., of the tree Mangifera indica, the mango is one of the most important and widely cultivated fruits of the tropical world. Its juicy fruit is a rich source of Vitamins A, C and D. In India there are over 100 varieties of mangoes, in different sizes, shapes and colours. Mangoes have been cultivated in India from time immemorial. The poet Kalidasa sang its praises. Alexander savoured its taste, as did the Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang. Mughal emperor Akbar planted 100,000 mango trees in Darbhanga, Bihar at a place now known as Lakhi Bagh.
National Game
India has conquered the podium when it comes to the game of Hockey. Our nation has an excellent record with eight Olympic gold medals. Indian hockeys golden period was from 1928-56, when the Indian hockey team won six successive Olympic gold medals. Team also won the 1975 World Cup besides two more medals (silver and a bronze). The Indian Hockey Federation (External website that opens in a new window) gained global affiliation in 1927 and joined the International Hockey Federation (FIH) (External website that opens in a new window). Thus began the history of Indian Hockey Federation as India entered the Olympics to begin its golden saga. The tour was a huge success with India winning 18 out of the 21 matches and the legendary Dhyan Chand was the cynosure of all the eyes scoring over 100 goals of the 192 Indian accounted for. The match began in Amsterdam in 1928 and India went on a winning spree in Los Angeles in 1932 and Berlin in 1936 and thus bagged a hat-trick of gold medals at the Olympics. Post Indian Independence; the Indian team achieved another hat-trick of gold medals at the 1948 London Olympics, 1952 Helsinki Games and the Melbourne Olympics. During the Golden Era, India played 24 Olympic matches, won all 24, scored 178 goals (at an average of 7.43 goals per match) and conceded only 7 goals. The two other gold medals for India came in the 1964 Tokyo Olympics and the 1980 Moscow Olympics.
Currency Symbol
The symbol of Indian Rupee typifies Indias international identity for money transactions and economic strength. The Indian Rupee sign is an allegory of Indian ethos. The symbol is an amalgam of Devanagari Ra and the Roman Capital R with two parallel horizontal stripes running at the top representing the national flag and also the equal to sign. The Indian Rupee sign was adopted by the Government of India on 15th July, 2010. The symbol, conceptualised and designed by Udaya Kumar, a post graduate in Design from Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, has been chosen from thousands of concept entries received by the Ministry
of Finance through an open competition among resident Indian nationals. The process of establishing and implementing this new identity is underway through various digital technology and computer applications.
Indian Currency
The Reserve Bank has the sole authority to issue banknotes in India. Reserve Bank, like other central banks the world over, changes the design of banknotes from time to time. The Reserve Bank has introduced banknotes in the Mahatma Gandhi Series since 1996 and has so far issued notes in the denominations of Rs.5, Rs.10, Rs.20, Rs.50, Rs.100, Rs.500 and Rs.1000 in this series. The Government of India has the sole right to mint coins. The responsibility for coinage vests with the Government of India in terms of the Coinage Act, 1906 as amended from time to time. The designing and minting of coins in various denominations is also the responsibility of the Government of India. Coins are minted at the four India Government Mints at Mumbai, Alipore(Kolkata), Saifabad(Hyderabad), Cherlapally (Hyderabad) and NOIDA (UP). The coins are issued for circulation only through the Reserve Bank in terms of the RBI Act. DenominationsCoins in India are presently being issued in denominations of 10 paise, 20 paise, 25 paise, 50 paise, one rupee, two rupees and five rupees. Coins upto 50 paise are called small coins and coins of Rupee one and above are called Rupee Coins. Coins can be issued up to the denomination of Rs.1000 as per the Coinage Act, 1906.DistributionCoins are received from the Mints and issued into circulation through its Regional Issue offices/suboffices of the Reserve Bank and a wide network of currency chests and coin depots maintained by banks and Government treasuries spread across the country. The RBI Issue Offices/sub-offices are located at Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Belapur (Navi Mumbai), Bhopal, Bhubaneshwar, Chandigarh, Chennai, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jammu, Jaipur, Kanpur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai, Nagpur, New Delhi, Patna and Thiruvananthapuram. These offices issue coins to the public directly through their counters and also send coin remittances to the currency chests and small coin depots. There are 4422 currency chest branches and 3784 small coin depots spread throughout the country. The currency chests and small
coin depots distribute coins to the public, customers and other bank branches in their area of operation. The members of the public can approach the RBI offices or the above agencies for requirement of coins.Measures to improve the supply of coins The various Mints in the country have been modernised and upgraded to enhance their production capacities. Government has in the recent past, imported coins to augment the indigenous production. Notes in denomination of Rs.5 have been reintroduced to supplement the supply of coins. New initiatives for distribution. Coin Dispensing Machines have been installed at select Regional Offices of the Reserve Bank on pilot basis. Dedicated Single-window counters have been opened in several of the Reserve Banks offices for issuing coins of different denominations packed in pouches. Mobile counters are being organised by the Reserve Bank in commercial and other important areas of the town where soiled notes can be exchanged for coins. Appeal to the PublicThe Bank, with active co-operation from various agencies, has been endeavouring to distribute the coins in an equitable manner to all parts of the country. The mission cannot be successful without unstinting support from the people at large and the various voluntary agencies. Members of public are requested to avoid holding on to coins and instead, use them freely for transactions to ensure that there is a smooth circulation of coins. Voluntary agencies are requested to educate the public about the various facilities available in their areas for distribution of coins, exchange of soiled notes and proper handling of notes. Money is an intrinsic component of the cultural heritage of a country mirroring its socio-economic history. India was one of the earliest issuers of coinage in the world and has been home to many-a-monetary experiment recorded in history. The RBI Monetary Museum aims at documenting and preserving this heritage. The Museum proposes to put in place permanent, temporary and itinerant exhibits of the representative coinage of India, paper currency, gold bars as well as financial instruments and curiosities down the ages. It also aims at stimulating research and study on the evolution of money around the Indian Ocean Rim and disseminating information to the Public anent currency & finance. The
matter appearing on this site is merely for information and may not be construed as data published by the Reserve Bank. Information, viewer contributions and correspondence may be addressed to museum@rbi.org.in.
Physical Background
Physical Features Geological Structure Rivers Climate Flora Fauna
Physical Features
The mainland comprises four regions, namely, the great mountain zone, plains of the Ganga and the Indus, the desert region and the southern peninsula. The Himalayas comprise three almost parallel ranges interspersed with large plateaus and valleys, some of which, like the Kashmir and Kullu valleys, are fertile, extensive and of great scenic beauty. Some of the highest peaks in the world are found in these ranges. The high altitudes admit travel only to a few passes, notably the Jelep La and Nathu La on the main Indo-Tibet trade route through the Chumbi Valley, north-east of Darjeeling and Shipki La in the Satluj valley, north-east of Kalpa (Kinnaur). The mountain wall extends over a distance of about 2,400 km with a varying depth of 240 to 320 km. In the east, between India and Myanmar and India and Bangladesh, hill ranges are much lower. Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and Naga Hills, running almost east-west, join the chain to Mizo and Rkhine Hills running north-south. The plains of the Ganga and the Indus, about 2,400 km long and 240 to 320 km broad, are formed by basins of three distinct river systems - the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. They are one of the worlds greatest stretches of flat alluvium and also one of the most densely populated areas on the earth. Between the Yamuna at Delhi and the Bay of Bengal, nearly 1,600 km away, there is a drop of only 200 metres in elevation. The desert region can be divided into two parts - the great desert and the little desert. The great desert extends from the edge of the
Rann of Kuchch beyond the Luni River northward. The whole of the Rajasthan-Sind frontier runs through this. The little desert extends from the Luni between Jaisalmer and Jodhpur up to the northern wastes. Between the great and the little deserts lies a zone of absolutely sterile country, consisting of rocky land cut up by limestone ridges. The Peninsular Plateau is marked off from the plains of the Ganga and the Indus by a mass of mountain and hill ranges varying from 460 to 1,220 metres in height. Prominent among these are the Aravalli, Vindhya, Satpura, Maikala and Ajanta. The Peninsula is flanked on the one side by the Eastern Ghats where average elevation is about 610 metres and on the other by the Western Ghats where it is generally from 915 to 1,220 metres, rising in places to over 2,440 metres. Between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea lies a narrow coastal strip, while between Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal there is a broader coastal area. The southern point of plateau is formed by the Nilgiri Hills where the Eastern and the Western Ghats meet. The Cardamom Hills lying beyond may be regarded as a continuation of the Western Ghats.
Geological Structure
The geological regions broadly follow the physical features, and may be grouped into three regions: the Himalayas and their associated group of mountains, the Indo-Ganga Plain, and the Peninsular Shield. The Himalayan mountain belt to the north and the Naga-Lushai mountain in the east, are the regions of mountain-building movement. Most of this area, now presenting some of the most magnificent mountain scenery in the world, was under marine conditions about 600 million years ago. In a series of mountain-building movements commencing about 70 million years ago, the sediments and the basement rocks rose to great heights. The weathering and erosive agencies worked on these to produce the relief seen today. The Indo-Ganga plains are a great alluvial tract that separates the Himalayas in the north from the Peninsula in the south. The Peninsula is a region of relative stability and occasional seismic disturbances. Highly metamorphosed rocks of the earliest periods, dating back as far as 380 crore years, occur in the area; the rest being covered by the coastal-bearing Gondwana forma68 Mini Year Book 2011
tions, lava flows belonging to the Deccan Trap formation and younger sediments.
Rivers
The rivers of India can be classified into four groups viz., Himalayan rivers, Deccan rivers, Coastal rivers, and Rivers of the inland drainage basin. The Himalayan Rivers are formed by melting snow and glaciers and therefore, continuously flow throughout the year. During the monsoon months, Himalayas receive very heavy rainfall and rivers swell, causing frequent floods. The Deccan Rivers on the other hand are rain fed and therefore fluctuate in volume. Many of these are non-perennial. The Coastal streams, especially on the west coast are short in length and have limited catchments areas. Most of them are non-perennial. The streams of inland drainage basin of western Rajasthan are few. Most of them are of an ephemeral character. The main Himalayan river systems are those of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system. The Indus, which is one of the great rivers of the world, rises near Mansarovar in Tibet and flows through India, and thereafter through Pakistan, and finally falls in the Arabian Sea near Karachi. Its important tributaries flowing in Indian Territory are the Sutlej (originating in Tibet), the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab, and the Jhelum. The Ganga-BrahmaputraMeghna is another important system of which the principal subbasins are those of Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda, which join at Dev Prayag to form the Ganga. It traverses through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. Below Rajmahal hills, the Bhagirathi, which used to be the main course in the past, takes off, while the Padma continues eastward and enters Bangladesh. The Yamuna, the Ramganga, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Kosi, the Mahananda and the Sone are the important tributaries of the Ganga. Rivers Chambal and Betwa are the important sub-tributaries, which join Yamuna before it meets the Ganga. The Padma and the Brahmaputra join inside Bangladesh, and continue to flow as the Padma or Ganga. The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet, where it is known as Tsangpo and runs a long distance till it crosses over into India in Arunachal Pradesh under the name of Dihang. Near Passighat, the Debang and Lohit join the river Brahmaputra and
the combined river runs all along the Assam in a narrow valley. It crosses into Bangladesh downstream of Dhubri. The principal tributaries of Brahmaputra in India are the Subansiri, Jia Bhareli, Dhansiri, Puthimari, Pagladiya and the Manas. The Brahmaputra in Bangladesh receives the flow of Tista, etc., and finally falls into Ganga. The Barak River, the Head stream of Meghna, rises in the hills in Manipur. The important tributaries of the river are Makku, Trang, Tuivai, Jiri, Sonai, Rukni, Katakhal, Dhaleswari, Langachini, Maduva and Jatinga. Barak continues in Bangladesh till the combined Ganga-Brahmaputra join it near Bhairab Bazar. In the Deccan region, most of the major river systems flowing generally in east direction fall into Bay of Bengal. The major east flowing rivers are Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Mahanadi, etc. Narmada and Tapti are major West flowing rivers. The Godavari in the southern Peninsula has the second largest river basin covering 10 per cent of the area of India. Next to it is the Krishna basin in the region, while the Mahanadi has the third largest basin. The basin of the Narmada in the uplands of the Deccan, flowing to the Arabian Sea, and of the Kaveri in the south, falling into the Bay of Bengal are about the same size, though with different character and shape. There are numerous coastal rivers, which are comparatively small. While only handful of such rivers drain into the sea near the delta of east cost, there are as many as 600 such rivers on the west coast. A few rivers in Rajasthan do not drain into the sea. They drain into salt lakes and get lost in sand with no outlet to sea. Besides these, there are the Desert Rivers which flow for some distance and are lost in the desert. These are Luni and others such as, Machhu, Rupen, Saraswati, Banas and Ghaggar.
Climate
The climate of India may be broadly described as tropical monsoon type. There are four seasons: 1. Winter (January-February), 2. Hot weather summer (March-May);
3. Rainy southwestern monsoon (June-September) and 4. Post-monsoon, also known as northeast monsoon in the southern Peninsula (October-December). Indias climate is affected by two seasonal winds - the northeast monsoon and the southwest monsoon. The north-east monsoon, commonly known as winter monsoon blows from land to sea, whereas south-west monsoon, known as summer monsoon blows from sea to land after crossing the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal. The south-west monsoon brings most of the rainfall during a year in the country.
Flora
With a wide range of climatic conditions from the torrid to the arctic, India has a rich and varied vegetation, which only a few countries of comparable size possess. India can be divided into eight distinct-floristic-regions, namely, the western Himalayas, the eastern Himalayas, Assam, the Indus plain, the Ganga plain, the Deccan, Malabar and the Andamans. The Western Himalayan region extends from Kashmir to Kumaon. Its temperate zone is rich in forests of chir, pine, other conifers and broad-leaved temperate trees. Higher up, forests of deodar, blue pine, spruce and silver fir occur. The alpine zone extends from the upper limit of the temperate zone of about 4,750 metres or even higher. The characteristic trees of this zone are high-level silver fir, silver birch and junipers. The eastern Himalayan region extends from Sikkim eastwards and embraces Darjeeling, Kurseong and the adjacent tract. The temperate zone has forests of oaks, laurels, maples, rhododendrons, alder and birch. Many conifers, junipers and dwarf willows also occur here. The Assam region comprises the Brahmaputra and the Surma valleys with evergreen forests, occasional thick clumps of bamboos and tall grasses. The Indus plain region comprises the plains of Punjab, western Rajasthan and northern Gujarat. It is dry and hot and supports natural vegetation. The Ganga plain region covers the area which is alluvial plain and is under cultivation for wheat, sugarcane and rice. Only small areas support forests of widely differing types. The Deccan region comprises the entire tableland of the Indian Peninsula and supports vegetation of various kinds from scrub jungles to mixed
deciduous forests. The Malabar region covers the excessively humid belt of mountain country parallel to the west coast of the Peninsula. Besides being rich in forest vegetation, this region produces important commercial crops, such as coconut, betel nut, pepper, coffee and tea, rubber and cashew nut. The Andaman region abounds in evergreen, mangrove, beach and diluvia forests. The Himalayan region extending from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh through Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Meghalaya and Nagaland and the Deccan Peninsula is rich in endemic flora, with a large number of plants which are not found elsewhere. India is rich in flora. Available data place India in the tenth position in the world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. From about 70 per cent geographical area surveyed so far, 47,000 species of plants have been described by the Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Kolkata. The vascular flora, which forms the conspicuous vegetation cover, comprises 15,000 species. Of these, more than 35 per cent is endemic and has so far not been reported anywhere in the world. The flora of the country is being studied by the BSI and its nine circle/field offices located throughout the country along with certain universities and research institutions. Ethno-botanical study deals with the utilisation of plants and plant products by ethnic races. A scientific study of such plants has been made by BSI. A number of detailed ethno-botanical explorations have been conducted in different tribal areas of the country. More than 800 plant species of ethno-botanical interest have been collected and identified at different centres. Owing to destruction of forests for agricultural, industrial and urban development, several Indian plants are facing extinction. About 1,336 plant species are considered vulnerable and endangered. About 20 species of higher plants are categorised as possibly extinct as these have not been sighted during the last 6-10 decades. BSI brings out an inventory of endangered plants in the form of a publication titled Red Data Book.
Fauna
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), with its headquarters in Kolkata and 16 regional stations is responsible for surveying the faunal resources of India. Possessing a tremendous diversity of climate and physical conditions, India has great variety of fauna,
numbering 89,451 species, which include protista, mollusca, anthropoda, amphibia, mammalia, reptilia, members of protochordata, pisces, aves and other invertebrates. The mammals include the majestic elephant, the gaur or Indian bison - the largest of existing bovines, the great Indian rhinoceros, the gigantic wild sheep of the Himalayas, the swamp deer, the thamin spotted deer, nilgai, the four-horned antelope, the Indian antelope or black-buck - the only representatives of these genera. Among the cats, the tiger and lion are the most magnificent of all; other splendid creatures such as the clouded leopard, the snow leopard, the marbled cat, etc., are also found. Many other species of mammals are remarkable for their beauty, colouring, grace and uniqueness. Several birds, like pheasants, geese, ducks, mynahs, parakeets, pigeons, cranes, hornbills and sun birds inhabit forests and wetlands. Rivers and lakes harbour crocodiles and gharials, the latter being the only representative of crocodilian order in the world. The salt-water crocodile is found along the eastern coast and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. A project for breeding crocodiles, started in 1974, has been instrumental in saving the crocodile from extinction. The great Himalayan range has a very interesting variety of fauna that includes the wild sheep and goats, markhor, ibex, shrew and tapir. The panda and the snow leopard are found in the upper reaches of the mountains. Depletion of vegetative cover due to expansion of agriculture, habitat destruction, over-exploitation, pollution, introduction of toxic imbalance in community structure, epidemics, floods, droughts and cyclones, contribute to the loss of flora and fauna. More than 39 species of mammals, 72 species of birds, 17 species of reptiles, three species of amphibians, two species of fish, and a large number of butterflies, moth, and beetles are considered vulnerable and endangered.
Demographic Background
Census Population Population Density Sex Ratio Literacy
Census
The Census of India 2001, is historic and epoch making, being the first census of the twenty-first century and the third millennium. It reveals benchmark data on the state of abundant human resources available in the country, their demography, culture and economic structure at a juncture, which marks a centennial and millennial transition. The population enumeration of 2001 census was undertaken during 9-28 February 2001, with a revisional round from 1-5 March 2001. The Census moment, the referral time at which the snapshot of the population is taken, was 00.00 hours of the 1 March 2001. Until the 1991 Census, the sunrise of 1 March was taken to be the census moment. The houseless population, as has been the usual practice, was enumerated on the night of 28 February 2001.
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Indias Conflicts
India-Pakistan Partition 1947
The Partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947 into two postcolonial states of India and Pakistan was a cataclysmic event, accompanied by unprecedented genocidal violence and one of the largest displacements of people in the twentieth century. The Partition was a climax within a pattern of recurrent violence in the name of Hindus and Muslims for several generations before 1947, a pattern that recurs at lower intensity continually. The sense of difference between the religiously defined social categories began in the medieval period though the Mughal period saw wideranging cooperative activity too. The colonial period saw a major change of phase, with heightened insecurities amidst large changes in polity, economy, and society, and the rise of influential institutions for religious revival on both sides. Some saw the War of Independence in 1857 as an open manifestation of the Muslim spirit of revolt against the domination of the British Government and its stooges in India. Frustration and lack of direction, however, pervaded the rank of Muslims after the unfortunate failure in the War. The decades following the Sepoy Rebellion were a period of growing political awareness, manifestation of Indian public opinion, and emergence of Indian leadership at national and provincial levels. At this critical moment Sir Syed Ahmed Khan came to the rescue of the Muslims and served as a beacon light for the Muslims in distress and disarray. He equated education with power and declared that the Muslims could improve their political, social and economic condition only through the medium of modern and scientific education. He cultivated the concept of a separate Muslim Nation on the basis of religion, culture and history. He inspired the Muslims of the sub-continent to demand a separate homeland where they could arrange their lives and affairs of the State according to the dictates of Holy Ouran and Sunnah.
Inspired by the suggestion made by A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in Bombay in 1885 and founded the Indian National Congress. By 1900, although the Congress had emerged as an all-India political organization, its achievement was undermined by its singular failure to attract Muslims, who had by then begun to realize their inadequate education and underrepresentation in government service. The All-India Muslim League was founded in 1906 to promote loyalty to the British and to advance Muslim political rights. Maulana Hasrat Mohani presented a plan to the Government for the country envisaging two separate states for the Hindus and Muslims. In August 1917, Edwin Montagu, the secretary of state for India, made the historic announcement in Parliament that the British policy for India was increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire. The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the Government of India Act of 1919, which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or dyarchy, in which both elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power. Sikhs played so important a role in the British Indian Army that many of their leaders hoped that the British would reward them at the wars end with special assistance in carving out their own nation from the rich heart of Punjabs fertile canal-colony lands, where, in the kingdom once ruled by Ranjit Singh (1780-1839), most Sikhs lived. Since World War I, Sikhs had been equally fierce in opposing the British raj, and, though never more than 2 percent of Indias population, they had as highly disproportionate a number of nationalist martyrs as of army officers. A Sikh Akali Dal (Party of Immortals), which was started in 1920, led militant marches to liberate gurdwaras (doorways to the Guru; the Sikh places of worship) from corrupt Hindu managers. Tara Singh (18851967), the most important leader of this vigorous Sikh political movement, first raised the demand for a separate Azad (Free) Punjab in 1942. By March 1946, Singh demanded a Sikh nationstate, alternately called Sikhistan or Khalistan (Land of the
Sikhs or Land of the Pure). The concept of a separate Muslim nation or people, qaum, is inherent in Islam, but this concept bears no resemblance to a territorial entity. At the 1928 session of the Indian Congress, Jinnah proposed the creation of three designated Islamic states - Sind, Baluchistan, and the Northwest Frontier Province - within a future independent Indian federation. The proposal for a Muslim state in India was first enunciated in 1930 by the poet-philosopher Muhammad Iqbal, who suggested that the four northwestern provinces (Sindh, Balochistan, Punjab, and the North-West Frontier Province) should be joined in such a state. Dr Sir Muhammad Iqbal proposed the two-nation theory for the first time in a meeting at Allahabad on 29 December 1930. He clearly said that the Punjab, NWFP, Sindh , Balochistan and kashmir should be amalgamated into a single state which will bring to India an internal balance of power. The creation of autonomous states is the only possible way to secure a stable constitutional structure for India, he had said. The idea proposed initially by Chaudhry Rehmat Ali, a Cambridge student, was published in a pamphlet in 1933. This pamphlet was published by Chaudhry Rehmat Ali as Founder of Pakistan National Movement and circulated from 3, Humberstone Road, Cambridge, England on January, 28, 1933 to the members of Round Table Conference. Choudhary Rahmat Ali coined the name Pakstan (later Pakistan), on behalf of those Muslims living in Punjab, Afghan (North-West Frontier Province), Kashmir, Sindh, and Balochistan. Alternatively the name was said to mean Land of the Pure. The text of the letter and pamphlet Now or Never was reproduced by Mr. G. Allana in his compilation titled Pakistan Movement: Historic Documents. In this document, a map of India has also been published showing the subcontinent split into different states, named as Pakistan, Guruistan, Usmanistan, Bangsamistan, Hindoostan comprising of Rajistan, Khathiwar, Maharashtra, Rajistan and Dravidia. By the time the Government of India Act of 1935 was enacted, the rift between the Congress and the Muslim League had become unbridgeable as each pointed the finger at the other acrimoniously. The Muslim League disputed the claim by the Congress to repreMini Year Book 2011 77
sent all people of India, while the Congress disputed the Muslim Leagues claim to voice the aspirations of all Muslims. Mohammad Ali Jinnah, a Western-educated Muslim lawyer, persuaded the participants at the annual Muslim League session in Lahore in 1940 to adopt what later came to be known as the Pakistan Resolution, demanding the division of India into two separate sovereign states, one Muslim, the other Hindu. Although the idea of Pakistan had been introduced as early as 1930 at Allahabad, very few had responded to it. However, the volatile political climate, the personal hostilities between the leaders, and the opportunism of Jinnah transformed the idea of Pakistan into a popular demand. On December 5, 1938, The Times of London carried an article entitled Federation in India in which Muslims were said to be again toying with the creation of a Pakistan in the Muslim-majority provinces. On 22 March 1940, one day before the Lahore Resolution was moved at the Muslim League session, and when the session had already begun its deliberations, the Supreme Council of the Pakistan National Movement assembled in Karachi. Rehmat Alis address to the Council was later published as a pamphlet by the movement, with the title of The Millat of Islam and the Menace of Indianism. The pamphlet bears no date, but the covering letter with which it was circulated has August 15, 1941. Bengal, with its hinterland of Assam, was to the Muslims the Bang-i-Islam. Like Pakistan, it, too, had a Muslim majority. Usmanistan (Hyderabad, Deccan) was a princely state, not a part of British India. Yet it was a part of our patrimony, and its future was inseparably bound up with that of the millat. Pakistan, a Muslim Bengal and a sovereign Hyderabad would form three independent Muslim nations in South Asia. Chaudhry Rahmat Ali would not only create the three independent states of Pakistan, Bangistan, and Usmanistan but would also have seven Muslim Nations settled in the Hindu region in their own territory which would be proportionate to their population and all these would constitute the Pak Commonwealth. Chaudhry Rehmat Ali called for the integration of Muslims into ten countries, Pakistan, Bangistan, Osmanistan, Siddiqistan, Faruqistan, Haideristan, Muistan, Maplistan, Saristan, Nasarastan and then to be coordinated into a Pak Commonwealth of Nations.
In August 1942, Gandhiji started the Quit India Movement and decided to launch a mass civil disobedience movement Do or Die call to force the British to leave India. The movement was followed, nonetheless, by large-scale violence directed at railway stations, telegraph offices, government buildings, and other emblems and institutions of colonial rule. There were widespread acts of sabotage, and the government held Gandhi responsible for these acts of violence, suggesting that they were a deliberate act of Congress policy. However, all the prominent leaders were arrested, the Congress was banned and the police and army were brought out to suppress the movement. Unlike the uncooperative and belligerent Congress, the Muslim League supported the British during World War II. While the British reaction to the Pakistan demand came in the form of the Cripps offer of April 1942, which conceded the principle of self-determination to provinces on a territorial basis, the Rajaji Formula (called after the eminent Congress leader C.Rajagopalacharia, which became the basis of prolonged Jinnah-Gandhi talks in September 1944), represented the Congress alternative to Pakistan. The Cripps offer was rejected because it did not concede the Muslim demand the whole way, while the Rajaji Formula was found unacceptable since it offered a moth-eaten, mutilated Pakistan and the too appended with a plethora of pre-conditions which made its emergence in any shape remote, if not altogether impossible. These belated but perhaps sincere British attempts to accommodate the demands of the two rival parties, while preserving the unitary state in India, seemed unacceptable to both as they alternately rejected whatever proposal was put forward during the war years. As a result, a three-way impasse settled in: the Congress and the Muslim League doubted British motives in handing over power to Indians, while the British struggled to retain some hold on India while offering to give greater autonomy. At the conclusion of the Second World War, the Labour Party, under Prime Minister Clement Richard Attlee, came to power in Britain. The British state, devastated by war, could not afford to hold on to its over-extended empire. The Labour Party was largely sympathetic towards Indian people for freedom. The most delicate as well as the most tortuous negotiations took place during 1946Mini Year Book 2011 79
47, after the elections which showed that India was sharply and somewhat evenly divided between two parties - the Congress and the League - and that the central issue in Indian politics was Pakistan. These negotiations began with the arrival, in March 1946, of a three-member British Cabinet Mission. Because the CongressLeague gulf could not be bridged, despite the Missions (and the Viceroys) prolonged efforts, the Mission had to make its own proposals in May 1946. Known as the Cabinet Mission Plan, these proposals stipulated a limited center, supreme only in foreign affairs, defense and communications and three autonomous Groups of provinces. Two of these groups were to have Muslim majorities in the north-west and the north-east of the subcontinent, while the third one, comprising the Indian mainland, was to have a Hindu majority.
Indo-Pakistani Conflict of 1947-48
The first war between India and Pakistan began in October 1947 and ended in December 1948. The origins of the first war between India and Pakistan can be traced to the final status of Kashmir following the establishment of an independent India and Pakistan on August 15, 1947. British policy held that the various princely states would have to accede to either Pakistan or India based on geographic location and on demographics. While the final status of many of the states was easily concluded, Kashmir and two other states presented special problems. Kashmir was strategically located between India and Pakistan and though it was led by a Hindu Maharaja, Muslims made up the majority of the population. Sikhs and Hindus made up the other major ethnicities though they were a minority compared to the Muslim population. Though required to choose between the India and Pakistan the Maharaja was unable to decide which state to join. Both states applied a significant degree of pressure to sway Kashmirs government. Pakistan felt that as it was the established state for Muslims in South Asia that Kashmir should accede to it rather than India. Unfortunatley, though Kashmir was majority Muslim, the majority of the population of Kashmir (inluding a majority within the Muslim population) did not support joining Pakistan and instead wished to join India or for independence
from the two states. Tensions betweem Pakistan and the government of Kashmir grew as the Maharajas indecision frustrated Pakistan and pro-Pakistani factions within Kashmir. Hostilities began in early October 1947 when a tribal rebellion broke out in Poonch in southwest Kashmir. By October 20th the Pakistani Army enterred the conflict in support of the tribal forces in a multi-pronged effort designed to capture Uri, Jhangar, Rajuara, and Naushera in the opening days of the campaign. Pakistans timetable was to capture the capital of Kashmir, Srinagar, within a week. On October 22, 1947, a Lashkar of tribals, some five thousands strong, led an incursion into the valley of Kashmir from Abbottabad. Tribal and Pakistani forces experienced significant successes in the opening days of the conflict as they were able to take Dommel on the first day and overpowered a Kashmiri government battalion at Muzaffarabad by October 23. On October 26, 1947, after four days, they were in the vicinity of Srinagar. The Dogra Army seemed to have been beaten. The Maharaja had already fled his capital, Srinagar, to seek the comparative safety of Jammu. Tribal and Pakistani forces met fierce resistance at Uri, where Kashmiri government forces, despite the desertion of many of its Muslim troops, were able to delay the Pakistani forces for two days until it was destroyed. Retreating Kashmiri forces were able to destroy a key bridge thus delaying Pakistani forces for an additional day. Pakistani efforts to the south in the Jammu region were less successful as Pakistani forces faced significant resistance and were prevented from gaining most of the towns and locations that Pakistan attempted to capture. Following the fall of Uri Pakistani and tribal forces took Baramula and began to march on Srinigar. The Pakistani-backed forces were able to damage an important power station, located in Mahura, that supplied electricity to Srinagar. In the following days the invading forces were able to get within a few miles of the airfield near Srinagar. Up to this point the Pakistani-backed forces had faced opposition only from the Kashmiri government forces. The Maharaja, facing overwhelming odds and near certain defeat, asked India
for military support. India agreed to help provided that Kashmir acceded to India and that the Prime Minister of Kashmir agreed to the accession. Both the Maharaja and the Prime Minister agreed to these terms and on October 26 the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession. At that moment when the Lashkar was preparing to enter the State Capital, Lord Mountbatten, the first Governor General of India and the Chairman of the provisional Defence Committee, reacted with exceeding speed on behalf of India, and air-lifted Indian troops for operations to halt the tribal incursion. On the Indian Armys intervention in the State of Jammu and Kashmir, the Quaid-e-Azam reacted swiftly and ordered General Gracy, (acting Commander-in-Chief of Pakistan Army) on 27/28 October 1947 to despatch troops to the scene. The British General however, failed to carry out the orders of the Governor General. It might be said that, in the circumstances, he blatantly defied the Quaid. Some people thought it was acase of high treason. At that time all the four provincial Governors, the Agent to the Governor General in Baluchistan and the three Services Chiefs of Pakistan were British. The General looked towards Field Marshal Auchinleck, the Supreme Commander of the Joint Command of India and Pakistan Armed Forces, stationed at New Delhi, rather than towards his own Lawful Command. Field Marshal Auchinleck reported the matter to the Chief of Army Staff in London who immediately passed the orders for stand down. The directive from London emboldened Auchinleck who then flew to Lahore and threatened the Quaid that an act of invasion over Kashmir would involve automatic and immediate withdrawal of all British Officers serving in the Pakistan Army. The ultimatum tended to deprive Pakistan Army of its Command structure, down to the lowest echelons of its fighting organisation. Most of the officers of Pakistan Army at that time were British and their withdrawal would have adversely affected the Armys fighting capabiiities. The Quaid had no option but to cancel the mobilisation orders to the Army. India had already gained ground in the Himalyan State of Kashmir. Mountbatten, a friend of the Nehrus, it would be seen, seldom lost an opportunity to help India to the detriment of Pakistan.
Indias 161st Infantry Brigade was deployed and thwarted the advance of the tribal forces. In early November 1947, the 161st using armored cars, counterattacked, surprising the Pakistani forces and successfully broke through the their defenses. The 161st was flown into the airfield at Srinigar and from there was able to repulse the Pakistani-backed forces. Initial successes allowed the Indians to secure the airfield and to return power to Srinigar. The momentum of the Indian counterattack forced the Pakistani forces into a full retreat allowing elements of the 161st to retake Baramula and Uri. Despite early successes, the Indian army suffered a setback in December 1947 because of logistical problems. Furthermore, many of the Indian soldiers were ill prepared for fighting in the mountainous region of Kashmir and Jammu, few were experienced at high altitude combat nor were they prepared for the cold. These setbacks were significant as the Pakistani-backed forces were able to capitalize on these problems and to push back Indian forces from the border area. In the spring of 1948, the Indian side mounted another offensive to retake some of the ground that it had lost. Pakistani regulars were introduced into the conflict later in the year, targetting the city of Jammu. The fighting from the spring through December 1948 was widespread as Pakistani forces conducted operations in both the north and the south. The intensity of the conflict and the inability to forsee a quick end to the conflict without involving considerable resources on the part of India to expel the Pakistani forces led Indian leaders to approach the United Nations who ultimately introduced Observers in June 1948. A UN brokered cease-fire went into effect on Jan. 1, 1949. In all, 1,500 soldiers died on each side during the war and Pakistan was able to acquire roughly two-fifths of Kashmir which it established as Azad Kashmir, meaning free Kashmir.
Kashmir Crisis
A United Nations resolution, adopted after the 1948 war between India and Pakistan over disputed Kashmir, allows the people of Kashmir to join either India or Pakistan. The United Nations had urged both countries to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir allowing people choose which country they wanted to join with, but the plebiscite
was never held. The Kashmir dispute embodies Indo-Pakistani antagonism. The positions are clear-cut: India insists on maintaining the status quo, while Pakistan refuses to accept Indian jurisdiction and control. New Delhi regards Kashmir as an integral part of India while Islamabad insists that the dispute should be settled according to the terms of the resolution. Both countries reject total independence for Kashmir. Initially, one could have described this dispute as a battle between Indian insistence on a secular approach and Pakistani guardianship of Muslim rights. However, Hindu-Muslim religious rivalry and the debates surrounding the original partition of India have ceased to be the focal point of this dispute. Over time, the ability of competing politicians in both countries to exploit this issue for political gain has eclipsed the secular-religious debate. The concept of partition is anathema to Indians. Kashmirs symbolism to India is as critical a consideration as any security significance associated with this fragment of ice and rock threaded by a beautiful valley. India is unwilling to lose even one additional hectare of this land. New Delhi is also concerned that Kashmiri autonomy would set a precedent for breakaway movements in other Indian states (e.g., Punjab or Assam). To Pakistan, Kashmir is symbolic of its national ethos and commitment to protect Muslim interests against Indian encroachment. It believes that the creation of a separate, strongly sectarian nation is incomplete without contiguous Kashmir. Kashmir, in brief, symbolizes the enmity that Hindus and Muslims harbor for one another. Ironically, the fact that India and Pakistan are de facto nuclear powers may help to dampen the fire underlying this issue because a fourth Indo-Pakistani war could entail a nuclear exchange. The most likely scenario for conflict between India and Pakistan would stem from the continuing unrest in Kashmir. It is difficult to imagine how India and Pakistan could settle this dispute in a mutually satisfactory manner. Indias position is clear and transcends political debate. Any arrangement that cedes portions of the state of Jammu and Kashmir (the only majority Muslim state in India) to Pakistan is not acceptable. Pakistan, on the other hand, insists on the right to protect Muslims living in Kashmir; consequently, its
support for Kashmiri militants continues. In 1952 the elected and overwhelmingly Muslim Constituent Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir, led by the popular Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah, voted in favor of confirming accession to India. Thereafter, India regarded this vote as an adequate expression of popular will and demurred on holding a plebiscite. After 1953 Jammu and Kashmir was identified as standing for the secular, pluralistic, and democratic principles of the Indian polity. Nehru refused to discuss the subject bilaterally until 1963, when India, under pressure from the United States and Britain, engaged in six rounds of secret talks with Pakistan on Kashmir and other related issues. These negotiations failed, as did the 1964 attempt at mediation made by Abdullah, who recently had been released from a long detention by the Indian government because of his objections to Indian control. Pakistan has continueed its quest for J&K, the only Muslim majority state in India. Since 1990, the Kashmir insurgency, concentrated in the Muslim-majority state of Jammu and Kashmir, has gained momentum. By the mid-1990s, it was not only the most serious flashpoint in the region but also among the most likely accelerants for a nuclear crisis anywhere on the globe. Thus, an internally driven crisis evolved into a regional security threat that also provides a political rallying point, particularly among nationalist groups who favor a more overt program of nuclear weapons acquisition. Although the origins of the crisis are quintessentially indigenous, there is widespread agreement among both Indian and foreign observers that the Inter-Services Intelligence Agency of Pakistan has actively aided and abetted some of the insurgent groups, most notably, the radical Islamic Hezb-ul-Mujahideen. It has been the ISIs practice to use and discard militant organizations in Kashmir. The Pak army first used Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) to start terrorist activities in Kashmir and then dropped it in favor of pro-Pakistan fundamentalist groups. Then many of these groups were discarded and more and more Pakistani and Afghan terrorists inducted. Kasmirs demographics illustrate the complexity of the issue. The territory can be divided into three regions Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, and Ladakh each of which is dominated by a
different ethnic group. Jammu is inhabited mainly by a Hindu majority, the Kashmir Valley is settled by a Muslim majority, and a Buddhist majority resides in Ladakh. While there is an identifiable Kashmiri ethnicity, the three groups are ethnically distinct, complicating any notion of Kashmiri nationalism. The implications of these divisions have to be acknowledged whenever the call arises for an independent Kashmir, determined by plebiscite and with its future tied to neither India nor Pakistan. The Kashmir crisis compelled both governments to expend enormous sums to support the deployment of forces in this region. The costs to both India and Pakistan of the Siachen Glacier deployment alone were estimated at more than $1 million a day, amounting to more than $5 billion since the sporadic fighting on the glacier began in 1984. As of 1997 more than 350,000 Indian soldiers were deployed throughout Kashmir, a portion of them occupying the Indian side of the Siachen Glacier in the far northeastern region of Kashmir in the eastern Karakoram Mountains. Their Pakistani counterparts were dug in seven miles away on the Baltoro Glacier. At nearly 18,000 feet above sea level, howitzer shells are lobbed back and forth, out of sight and hearing of the rest of the world. Popular interest in this decades-old stalemate seems as thin as the atmosphere, yet scores of deaths a week (most resulting from harsh conditions) are attributed to the continuing conflict. The counterinsurgency strategy that the Indian government adopted in Jammu and Kashmir was developed in the context of dealing with guerrilla movements in Indias northeast in the late 1970s. This strategy involves denying the guerrillas any sanctuaries, sealing the porous Indo-Pakistani border, and using both army and paramilitary forces to conduct house-to-house cordon-andsearch operations. Whether this strategy will lead eventually to the collapse of the insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir remains an open question; violence has continued to accelerate since 1993, with mounting casualties on both sides and the destruction of an ancient mosque and shrine in 1995. Jammu and Kashmir was a target of externally sponsored religion-based terrorism. The aim is to divide people on the basis of sectarian affiliation and undermine the secular fabric and territo86 Mini Year Book 2011
rial integrity of India. Kashmiri militant groups have committed serious abuses, including the deliberate targeting of Kashmir Hindus by fundamentalists, terrorist groups and foreign mercenaries. The persecution by Muslim extremists of the Hindu minority and the systematic religion-based extremism of terrorist elements has resulted in the exodus of 250,000 members of the Hindu and other minorities from the Kashmir Valley to other parts of India. Fundamentalists and terrorists have also targeted and assassinated Muslim intellectuals and liberal Muslim leaders in Jammu and Kashmir. As a consequence, as many as 50,000 Muslims have also been compelled to flee the Valley to seek safety in other parts of India. In addition to political killings and kidnapings of politicians and civilians, terrorists engaged in extortion and carried out acts of random terror that killed hundreds of Kashmiris. Terrorist acts by Kashmiri groups have also taken place outside Jammu and Kashmir. Many of the terrorists are not Indian citizens, but are of Afghan, Pakistani and other nationalities. Militants in Jammu and Kashmir continue to use kidnapings to sow terror, seek the release of detained comrades, and extort funds. In Jammu and Kashmir, the judicial system barely functions due to threats by militants against judges, witnesses, and their family members, because of judicial tolerance of the Governments heavyhanded antimilitant actions, and the frequent refusal by security forces to obey court orders. In April 2003 India and Pakistan began a series of steps to ease border tensions that had pushed them to the brink of another war over the mountain territory of Kashmir. In the following months, India and Pakistan restored full diplomatic relations and resumed road, rail and air links. The two rival nations observed a cease-fire in divided Kashmir. Pakistan and India observed a ceasefire along the working boundary, Line of Control and the Line of Actual Contact in Siachin Sector from the midnight November 25-26, 2003. In January 2004 the prime ministers of India and Pakistan have held a much-hoped-for bilateral meeting on the sidelines of a regional summit. Officials described the half-hour surprise meeting between Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Pakistans Zafarulaah Jamali as a courtesy call. The prime ministers exchanged views on recent steps their countries have taken to imMini Year Book 2011 87
prove usually tense relations. Violence declined in the region since peace talks began in 2004, and both sides have vowed to persevere with efforts to solve their dispute over the Himalayan territory. Despite relaxation of tension between India and Pakistan, both countries seem unmoved over their stand on the disputed issue of Kashmir. According to the NCTC, in 2004 there were a total of 284 attacks in Kashmir that met the statutory criteria for significant terrorist incidents. In early 2005 India and Pakistan launched a landmark bus service across the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir, allowing families divided by the Line to be reunited for the first time in nearly 60 years. October of 2005 brought increased tension and disaster to Kashmir. On 8 October, 2005 a massive earthquake rocked the region causing enormous devastation including the deaths of tens of thousands of Kashmiri residents and the displacement of even greater numbers of the populace. The humanitarian crisis that ensued provided both Pakistan and India reasons to soften their policies slightly in the region in order to allow displaced people greater movement through the line of control and the movement of aid personnel and equipment to remote areas. On 29 October, 2005 a coordinated bombing attack by suspected Pakistani based terrorist group fighting Indian rule of Kashmir threatened to derail peace efforts. It was believed the bombing was carried out by Lashkar-e-Toiba (LET) possibly in conjunction with the Students Islamic Movement of India (SIMI). While LET was banned by the Pakistani government, India has consistently accused Pakistan of turning a blind eye to their activities. The three bombings were conducted within 30 minutes of each other in Delhi, resulting in the deaths of more than 60 people and the wounding of 200 others. The attacks were meant to threaten peace attempts between Pakistani President Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister Singh, however, the overwhelming destruction and need to bring aid to the earthquake stricken region overshadowed tensions caused by the bombing. In June of 2006 President Musharraf of Pakistan announced a series of alternatives that could provide a solution to the Kashmir
issue. His idea revolved loosely around the concept of a self-governance system for Kashmir with the inclusion of a period of joint management of the region by Pakistan, India and the Kashmiris. This announcement by Musharraf was received by India with slight annoyance because it was purveyed through media covered interview sessions with the Pakistani president rather than closed door meetings with Indian officials. On July 11 th, 2006, a series of bombings aboard passenger trains during commuting hours in Mumbai, India, threatened to further destabilize peace efforts in Kashmir between Pakistan and India. The coordinated bombings which cost the lives of more than 200 Indian civilians and the wounding of another 700, again brought to he surface Pakistans inability to control terrorist groups within its own territory. It was believed the attack was jointly conducted by LET and the SIMI. On 5 December 2006, President Musharraf, in an interview with Indias NDTV, said that Pakistan would withdraw troops and guarantee self-governance for Kashmiris if India accepted his peace proposals. The Indian Foreign Ministry responded by saying that it could agree as long as the borders were rendered irrelevant. The response among was generally positive but cautious because India and Pakistan have been in negotiations on-and-off for years that have yet to come to a conclusion.
Junagadh (Junagarh) - 1947-1949
The euphoria of independence was short-lived as partition brought disastrous consequences for India in the wake of communal conflict. Partition unleashed untold misery and loss of lives and property as millions of Hindu and Muslim refugees fled either Pakistan or India. Both nations were also caught up in a number of conflicts involving the allocation of assets, demarcation of boundaries, equitable sharing of water resources, and control over Kashmir. At the same time, Indian leaders were faced with the stupendous task of national integration and economic development. When the British relinquished their claims to paramountcy, the 562 independent princely states were given the option to join either of the two nations. Before independence, Mountbatten had made it clear to the Indian princes that they would have to choose to join either India or Pakistan at partition. In all but three cases,
the princes, most of them ruling over very small territories, were able to work out an agreement with one country or another, generally a deal that preserved some measure of their status and a great deal of their revenue. A few princely states readily joined Pakistan, but the rest - except Hyderabad (the largest of the princely states with 132,000 square kilometers and a population of more than 14 million), Jammu and Kashmir (with 3 million inhabitants), and Junagadh (with a population of 545,000) - merged with India. The issue of Kashmir, Hyderabad, and the small and fragmented state of Junagadh (in present-day Gujarat), remained unsettled at independence, however. The Muslim ruler of Hindu-majority Junagadh agreed to join to Pakistan, but a movement by his people, followed by Indian military action and a plebiscite (peoples vote of self-determination), brought the state into India. Junagadh was a First class 15 gun salute State, situated in the western Indian State agency (Kathiawar) in the Indian province of Gujarat. The area of Junagadh State consisted upon 3,336 sq. miles of rich and fertile land, it lies on the south west portion of the Kathiawar peninsular. It was bounded on the south by the Arabian Sea. The State commanded a sea coast of 84 miles possessing delightful golden sandy beaches. It had 16 ports of which the principal was VeraVal. The total number of cities and towns numbered up to 999. The name Junagadh means Old Fort. Various famous rulers such as the Kshatrapas, Mauryans, Chudasamas, Guptas, Vilabhis, Gujarat Sultans and Babi Nawabs have reigned in this part of the world. The architecture and rich cultural heritage of Junagadh stands as the edifice of the political and religious influences of the various rulers who have ruled the region. Junagadh was the capital of Gujarat under the Kshatrapa rulers from the 2nd to 4th centuries. The Chadva Rajputs ruled from Junagadh from 875 AD. Eventually the city came under the rule of the Muslims. The capital of Junagadh State was a city also called Junagadh, which is situated on the slopes of the Girnar and Dathar hills and is one of the most picturesque in India; lying aproximagtely 70 miles from the coast line. The Uper Kot or the old Citadel contains interesting caves. The famous Ashoka inscriptions are carved out on a big bolster of black granite stone. At the foot of Girnar Hill range to
the South-East, lies the extensive forest of the Gir comprising of 494 sq. miles and 823 acres, unique as it is the strong hold of the Junagadh State wild life, particularly the Asiatic Lion. Where the climate is healthy, with the annual rainfall of State up to 30 to 35 inches. Junagadh was an important fortress in the time of Asoka, and later when the Gupta kings ruled over this part of the country. The walls of the ancient citadel on the east side of the city have been raised at different times, until now they stand from sixty to seventy feet in height. In 1748, as the Mughals grew weak, Sher Khan Babi cheerfully expelled his Mughal governor and went about seizing most of Saurastri-speaking India. The Babi signed on with the Hindu Marathas of Varoda, who were glad enough to protect the Muslim Babis. The Babis held on to Junagadh for centuries with the help of their Hindu overlords. Providing new noses was quite an art in the district of Kattywar in the Bombay Presidency. Cutting off an enemys nose was the favorite mode of vengeance throughout the state of Junagadh, where jealous husbands inflicted the same punishment on their wives. Sometimes the nose was bitten off and part of the lip will be taken also. By 1876 a Hindu doctor at the Junagadh Hospital has had so much practice in mending noses that he could restore the injured feature in a most wonderful manner leaving very little disfigurement. He had performed one hundred successful operations in rhini plasty. By the late 1880s there had been for some time back a controversy in progress between the representatives of the old village feudal functionaries who in former days formed the backbone of Junaghur, as of all the Kattiawar States, defending the villages from Mohomedan raiders on the one side and Mahratta invaders on the other, and in return held their lands from the state free of all or nearly all imposts. When Kattiawar, in the early part of the 19th Century, was secured by the establishment of British supremacy from the attacks of external enemies, and order was gradually evoved out of chaos by the tact and firmness of British Residents, the need for the military services of the girassias of course lessened by degrees, and finally faded away altogether. The girassias naturally sought to retain their lands on the old tenure of military
service, while the chiefs as naturally sought to either dispossess them, or at least tti make them pay the land tax like other holders. The dispute in Junaghur waxed warm, and a couple of years since the Bombay Government, on being referred to, decided that the Maiyas, the village police of the old time, must pay the state demand for the lands they held. By 1900 Junagadh was one of the most interesting spots in the W. of India, is an ancient city of 30,000 inhabitants, picturesquely situated under the GIRNAR and DATAR HILLS. To the S.E. is the Forest of Gir, famous as the home of the very few remaining Indian lions. His Highness the Nawab of Junagadh enjoyed the distinction of keeping the only preserve of lions left in Hindustan. Some specimens might be seen at that time in confinement in the SARDAR BAGH, S. of the town. N. of the city is the SAKAR BAGH, where there was a menagerie. Vistitors also saw the royal rhinoceroses wander as freely through the bazaars as elephants, though with their reptilian horned snouts they look utterly untamable; and, indeed, if of African race, would be so but all Asiatic beasts are of milder nature. The most interesting caves are in the UpsirKotj the ancient citadel, permission to visit which must be obtained. It is very ancient, the officers of Asoka, and later those of the Gupta kings, being stationed here. The inner gateway, though spo1lt by Mohammedan additions, is a fine specimen of Hindu architecture. Rising above Junagadh is the Girnar Mountain (3,666ft.), on which are some most ancient Jain temples, and which has been a place of pilgrimage for centuries before the Christian era. ZAFAR KHAN was able and most enterprising. His services were appreciated at the Imperial Court and the title of SAFDAR KHAN was bestowed upon him. When in 1705 A.D. The Marathas invaded Gujrat, Safdarkhan led an army to appose them. Safdarkhan Babi had nine sons. All his sons and grandsons were appointed to high offices during his life time. Among his sons, SHER KHAN was the bravest and the most enterprising. The Jagirdar of RANPUR, who was later under the Nawab Sahib of Junagadh State, was a descendant of his. Among the sons of Safdarkhan, SALABAT KHAN and JAWANMARD KHAN became very famous. The descendants of the former won the Kingdoms of JUNAGADH and WADASINOR, while those of the latter that of RADHANPUR.In 1715 A.D. when
disorder prevailed in GOHILWAD, a general of Salabatkhans caliber was ordered to restore peace and order. In 1728 A.D. the Foujdar of Junagadh died and Salabatkhans son BAHADUR KHAN was appointed Nawab at JUNAGADH STATE in his fathers place. In 1730 A.D. Salabatkhan died at PATODI on his way to Viramgam from Ahmedabad. His remains were taken to Ahmedabad and enterred in his family grave-yard. The 1st Nawab Muhammad Bahadur Khan - Known As SHERKHAN From 1748 A. D. to 1758 A. D. Just as Salabatkhan was the bravest and most capable of his brothers in the family of Safdarkhan so was BAHADURKHAN in that of Salabatkhan. The 9th Nawab (1920 A.D To 1959 A.D) His Highness Col Nawab Muhammad Mahabat Khanji III G.C.I.E, K.C.S.I , H.M Queens Elizabeth II Coronation Medal, N.Q.A, who is ninth in succession and seventh in decent from His Highness the Nawab sahib BahadurKhan 1. the founder of the Babi family of Junagadh in 1748 A.D. Nawab sahib was born in 2nd august 1900, and succeeded to the Gadi on 22nd January 1911 A .D. but His Highness being then a minor the state was placed under the British Administrator. His Highness the Nawab Sahib as the Ruler of the premier State in Kathiawar, ranks first in among the Princess and Chiefs of Kathiawar enjoying plenary powers and enjoys a personal salute of 15 guns, the permanent salute being 15 guns within, and 13 guns outside, Junagadh territory. The Muslim ruler of Junagarh, a state with Hindu majority population, announced his decision to join Pakistan. Mahabat Khan, Ruler of Junagadh State, in the exercise of sovereignty in and over the State executed an Instrument of Accession, and declared that he accede to the Dominion of Pakistan on 14 February 1949. Pakistans then prime minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, had argued then that a ruler had the absolute right to so accede without reference to the moral or ethnic aspects of accession. Junagadh State was a jigsaw puzzle of geography. Excepting the Arabian Sea in the south and southwest, it was surrounded by several small States of the Kathiawar region that had acceded to India. Junagadh had no contiguity with Pakistan by land. On October 27, 1947, the dewan of Junagadh wrote to Jinnah, describing the disastrous consequences following Junagadhs accession to Pakistan, when over
100,000 Hindus fled the State. India responded by aiding and abetting the establishment of a so-called Provisional Government of Junagarh on Indian territory, which attacked Junagarh with Indian connivance and support. Subsequently Indian forces also invaded Junagarh, despite protests from Pakistan, in order to restore law and order. In midSeptember 1947 Junagadh, as a part of Pakistan, sent troops into Babariawad (a group of 51 villages) and Mangrol (a teeny princely State) both entities located in the heart of Junagadh and both of which had already acceded to India. These two pockets inside Junagadh State, but outside its suzerainty, were reclaimed by India on November 1, 1947, with a civil administrator accompanied by a small force. Junagadhs nawab was an eccentric of rare vintage whose chief preoccupation in life was dogs, of which he owned hundreds. Towards the end of October 1947, before the last ignominious step, the nawab of Junagadh fled by air to Karachi with his bag, baggage and begums, the States entire cash balances as well as the treasurys shares and securities in tow. The nawab found himself in exile [which perhaps explains the sorry state of his former palace and fort] leaving his Deewan (Prime Minister) to manage the affairs. The Deewan of Junagadh did the best that he could have done to bring the situation to normalcy. Another version of the story has Shahnawaz leading a palace coup overthrowing, and declaring for Pakistan. A farcical plebiscite was organized under Indian auspices, and India annexed Junagarh. A referendum was polled on February 20, 1948, when, out of the 190,870 who exercised their franchise, 91 (sic) voted in favor of Pakistan. The Halar district which was constituted for the first time in the year 1949 after the merger of princely states into the state of Saurashtra, constituted of the former Indian states of Nawanagar and Dhrol, Dhrafa Thana and part of Jalia Dewani. After re-organization several territorial changes were effected in practically all the districts of Saurashtra. On June 19th 1959, the boundaries of the district got enlarged by the inclusion of the adjoining Okhamandal, when Halar district was renamed Jamnagar. This district became part of the newly born State of Gujarat on the
bifurcation of the composite State of Bombay on May 1st 1960.In the year 1961 the district consisted of 720 villages and 15 towns. The Deewan of Junagadh was Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, who followed the Nawab to Pakistan in 1947, where he lived in retirement until his death in November 1957. His son, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, grew up to be the Prime Minister of Pakistan (and was executed by Zia-hl-Haq in 1977). And his grand-daughter, Benazir Bhutto served as the Prime Minister of Pakistan twice in the late 1980s and the 1990s.
Hyderabad - 1947-1948
The euphoria of independence was short-lived as partition brought disastrous consequences for India in the wake of communal conflict. Partition unleashed untold misery and loss of lives and property as millions of Hindu and Muslim refugees fled either Pakistan or India. Both nations were also caught up in a number of conflicts involving the allocation of assets, demarcation of boundaries, equitable sharing of water resources, and control over Kashmir. At the same time, Indian leaders were faced with the stupendous task of national integration and economic development. When the British relinquished their claims to paramountcy, the 562 independent princely states were given the option to join either of the two nations. Before independence, Mountbatten had made it clear to the Indian princes that they would have to choose to join either India or Pakistan at partition. In all but three cases, the princes, most of them ruling over very small territories, were able to work out an agreement with one country or another, generally a deal that preserved some measure of their status and a great deal of their revenue. A few princely states readily joined Pakistan, but the rest - except Hyderabad (the largest of the princely states with 132,000 square kilometers and a population of more than 14 million), Jammu and Kashmir (with 3 million inhabitants), and Junagadh (with a population of 545,000) - merged with India. The issue of Kashmir, Hyderabad, and the small and fragmented state of Junagadh (in present-day Gujarat), remained unsettled at independence, however. The Muslim ruler of Hindu-majority Junagadh agreed to join to Pakistan, but a movement by his people, followed by Indian military action and a plebiscite (peoples vote of self-determination), brought
the state into India. The State of Hyderabad, Heart of the Indian Peninsula, occupied the centre of the continental lobe. Unusually fertile and desert free, it is dotted with artificial lakes and storage reservoirs, has no sea-coast a grave disadvantage but was well watered by a system of rivers on which floated many a quaint coracle. India had no native state so rich, potent and extensive as Hyderabad, which was about the size of the United Kingdom. Ever since Hyderabad had stood aloof from the great Indian Mutiny of 1857, its Royal Family had been accorded by British Royalty special honors and the Nizam had the official status of Faithful Ally. This gracefully implied that his exalted highness was not so much the inferior as the colleague of His Majesty the Emperor of India and, during the Great War, the Richest Man in the World contributed to Britain some $100,000,000 cash plus untold supplies and Hyderabad army units. During the troubled period of intrigue and assassination that followed on the death of Aurangzeb, Mohammedan foreigners rose to high positions as courtiers and generals, and succeeded in transmitting their power to their sons. The one was Chin Kulich Khan. His independence at Hyderabad in the Deccan dates from 1712. Chin Kulich Khan received the honorary title of Asof Jah, which, according to Muhammadan tradition, was the name of the minister of Solomon. But though he is often called Asof Jah he is best known by the title of Nizam-ul-mulk, or regulator of the state, given to him on the accession of Farrukh Siyar; and as his successors, the Nizams of Hyderabad, were named after this title. The relations of the British Government with the Nizam of the Dekhan, or Hyderabad territory, dated from the middle of the 18th century, and held a prominent place in the early history of the British empire in India. By the middle of the 18th Century the Nizam of Hyderabad ruled over a wealthy and extensive kingdom, and in recognition of his claim of suzerainty over the Garnatic had compelled the Madras Government in 1766 to sign a treaty acknowledging his authority, granting him a yearly tribute, and making an offensive and defensive alliance with him. Addressing himself first to the weakest of the three native Treaty powers, the Nizam of Hyderabad, in 1798 Wellesley won a diplo96 Mini Year Book 2011
matic success, which turned a possible rival into a subservient ally. The French battalions at Hyderabad were disbanded, and the Nizam bound himself by treaty not to take any European into his service without the consent of the British a clause since inserted in every leading engagement with native powers. By the treaty of 1801 the Nizam was bound to furnish a military contingent in time of war of 6,000 infantry and 9,000 horse. But the rabble Nizams soldiery which he supplied during the subsequent wars proved to be worse than useless in the field. Accordingly it was agreed by mutual consent that a permanent force should be maintained by the Nizam, reduced to half the number of native troops, but to be disciplined and commanded by British officers. This new body of troops was known as the Nizams Contingent, as distinguished from the Hyderabad Subsidiary Force. From a very early period the Nizam had failed to provide the necessary funds for the maintenance of the Contingent. From time to time large advances were made by the British government to meet the current expenditure, until a debt accumulated of half a million sterling. The Nizam might have escaped this obligation by disbanding the Contingent; but this he repeatedly and obstinately refused to do, and indeed the force was necessary for the maintenance of peace and order in his own territories. Again, he might have disbanded the hordes of foreign mercenaries, Arabs and Rohillas, which he kept up under the name of an army, and which were a burden upon his treasury, a terror to his subjects, and useless for all military purposes. But he was as obstinate upon this point as upon the other. At last, in 1843, he was told by Lord Ellenborough that unless the debt was liquidated and the necessary funds were provided regularly for the future, the British government would take over territory and revenue as security for the payment. By the treaty of 1800 the Subsidiary Force was to consist of eight battalions of infantry, two regiments of cavalry, and the usual proportion of artillery; and subsequently by the treaty of 1853 it was agreed that there should never be less than five regiments of infantry, with one of cavalry, and a due proportion of artillery stationed within the Nizams territory, unless with the express consent of His Highness. By the treaty of 1860 the Hyderabad Contingent
was not to consist of less than five thousand infantry, two thousand cavalry, and four field batteries of artillery. It will be sufficient to remark that the Nizam was in subsidiary alliance with the British Government, and could neither undertake wars, nor carry on negociations, excepting by the permission or through the mediation of the British Government. The Government of India, however, abstained from any interference in the internal administration of the Nizam, who exercised sovereign powers within his own territory; but a British Resident was stationed at Hyderabad, who afforded such friendly counsel as occasion may require for the maintenance of a good understanding between His Highnesss Government and the Government of India. A Subsidiary Force was maintained by the British Government at Secunderabad in the neighborhood of Hyderabad in accordance with the treaty of 1800. The Force, known as the Hyderabad Contingent, was also cantoned in different parts of the Dekhan, and maintained under the treaties of 1853 and 1860 by the revenues of the assigned districts known as the Berars. The largest of the armies of the Native States was that of the Nizam of Hyderabad, also a foreigner in the country belonging to him. It was so heterogeneous a body that it is difficult to state its numbers, but that part of it which may with some reason be called an army consisted of about 45,000 men by 1860. Many of these were foreign mercenaries from remote parts of India, and from the Afghan highlands beyond the northern frontier, who took service under the Nizam and his chiefs; they engaged in faction fights and raids within his territory, and had shown themselves ready to join any discontented men who may be willing to pay them for raiding into British districts. A considerable part of the Nizams army had been reorganised and improved. While they perform no useful service to the Nizam, it was necessary to watch and overawe them, and the necessity was imposed on the treasury of always keeping a large force of British and Native troops at Hyderabad. By 1910 the district of Hyderabad larger than the states of New York and Pennsylvania put together, and consisting of eleven and a half million inhabitants was known as the Nizams Dominions, under the control of the Nizam of Hyderabad, a Musselman
who, except the Sultan of Turkey, was the most powerful Moslem ruler in the world. Educated in England, the Nizam, although oriental in many ways, had broad, advanced ideas, and was loved and honored by the strange conglomeration of peoples that made up his subjects. Indian rulers such as the Nizam had only limited power in their kingdoms. Without the consent of the British Government they cannot declare war or peace nor enter into agreements with other states, although they retained a certain military force of their own. In the case of the Nizams Dominions, however, no European but the British Resident may reside in the state without special permission of the Nizam; and there is no British interference in the government except in case of excessive misrule. Not only did the Nizam of Hyderabad issue his own coinage and stamps, but also collected customs at the boundaries of his territory. At the time of Partition in 1947, the Seventh and the last Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawab Mir Osman Ali Khan, a Muslim ruler of a Hindu-majority populace, tried to maneuver to gain independence for his very large and populous state, which was, however, surrounded by India. After more than a year of fruitless negotiations, India sent its army in a police action in September 1948, and Hyderabad became part of India. India successfully annexed Hyderabad and Junagadh after police actions and promises of privileges to the rulers. The princely ruler of Hyderabad, the nizam, had attempted unsuccessfully to maintain Hyderabad as an independent state separate from India in 1947. His efforts were simultaneous with the largest agrarian armed rebellion in modern Indian history. Starting in July 1946, communist-led guerrilla squads began overthrowing local feudal village regimes and organizing land reform in Teluguspeaking areas of Hyderabad, collectively known as Telangana (an ancient name for the region dating from the Vijayanagar period). In time, about 3,000 villages and some 41,000 square kilometers of territory were involved in the revolt. Faced with the refusal of the nizam of Hyderabad to accede his territory to India and the violence of the communist-led rebellion, the central government sent in the army in September 1948. In Junagadh it was a simple brigade-level confidence-building
measure and the state acceded to the Union. Hyderabad dallied for one year attempting to declare independence outside the Indian Union. A situation of extreme tension prevailed byn June 1948. Jawaharlal Nehru conceded, It is impossible for an independent state to have foreign territory right in its heart. The nizam requested the president of the United States of America to intervene; the request was refused. In late August 1948, a Hyderabad State delegation presented its case to the United Nations Security Council. The Indian Army marched into Hyderabad on September 13, 1948. The State army surrendered four days later. A short 100hour engagement was forced on the Army (at that time heavily engaged in Kashmir). 1 Armoured Division, commanded by Major General IN Chaudhuri one of the few formations available, along with some infantry units attached to it, entered the state and settled matters with minimal force. The nizam gave in. He first released K M Munshi, Indias agentgeneral, from house arrest, then withdrew his case from the UN on September 23, 1948. On November 23, 1949, the nizam issued a firman (edict) accepting the Constitution of India, to be formed by the Constituent Assembly of India then in session, as the constitution of Hyderabad State. Hyderabad had been forced to accede to the Indian union, and, by October 1951, the violent phase of the Telangana movement had been suppressed. The effect of the 1946-51 rebellion and communist electoral victories in 1952 had led to the destruction of Hyderabad and set the scene for the establishment of a new state along linguistic lines. In 1953, based on the recommendation of the States Reorganisation Commission, Telugu-speaking areas were separated from the former Madras States to form Andhra, Indias first state established along linguistic lines. The commission also contemplated establishing Telangana as a separate state, but instead Telangana was merged with Andhra to form the new state of Andhra Pradesh in 1956. Indias Invasion of Goa Indian Prime Minister Jawaharal Nehru ordered the invasion of the Portuguese colony of Goa on December 17, 1961, meeting little resistance. There were moves to bring Goa into the fold of the Indian state, making the Konkani one of Indias official languages.
In 1987, Goa became Indias 25th state. Despite these moves, Goas role in India has been a source of considerable debate and tension. India-China Border Dispute The McMahon Line boundary dispute is at the heart of relations between China and India. China has land and sea boundary issues with 14 neighbors, mostly for historical reasons. The Chinese have two major claims on what India deems its own territory. One claim, in the western sector, is on Aksai Chin in the northeastern section of Ladakh District in Jammu and Kashmir. The other claim is in the eastern sector over a region included in the Britishdesignated North-East Frontier Agency, the disputed part of which India renamed Arunachal Pradesh and made a state. In the fight over these areas in 1962, the well-trained and well-armed troops of the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army overpowered the illequipped Indian troops, who had not been properly acclimatized to fighting at high altitudes. In the early 20th Century Britain sought to advance its line of control and establish buffer zones around its colony in South Asia. In 1913-1914 representatives of China, Tibet and Britain negotiated a treaty in India: the Simla Convention. Sir Henry McMahon, the foreign secretary of British India at the time, drew up the 550 mile (890 km) McMahon Line as the border between British India and Tibet during the Simla Conference. The so-called McMahon Line, drawn primarily on the highest watershed principle, demarcated what had previously been unclaimed or undefined borders between Britain and Tibet. The McMahon line moved British control substantially northwards. The Tibetan and British representatives at the conference agreed to the line, which ceded Tawang and other Tibetan areas to the imperial British Empire. However the Chinese representative refused to accept the line. Peking claimed territory in this far north down to the border of the plain of Assam. The land is mostly mountainous with Himalayan ranges along the northern borders criss-crossed with mountain ranges running north-south. These divide the state into five river valleys: the Kameng, the Subansiri, the Siang, the Lohit and the Tirap. High mountains and dense forests have prevented intercommunication
between tribes living in different river valleys. The geographical isolation thus imposed has led different tribes to elove their own dialects and grow with their distinct identities. Nature has endowed the Arunachal people with a deep sense of beauty which finds delightful expression in their songs, dances and crafts. A slow forward move towards the McMahon Line was begun on the ground, to establish a new de facto boundary. The McMahon Line was then forgotten until about 1935 when the British government decided to publish the documents in the 1937 edition of Aitchisons Collection of Treaties. The NEFA (North East Frontier Agency) was created in 1954. On 7 November 1959, Chou En-lai proposed that both sides should withdraw their troops twenty kilometres from the McMahon line. The issue was quiet during the decade of cordial Sino-Indian relations, but erupted again during the Sino-Indian War of 1962. During the 1962 war, the PRC captured most of the NEFA. However, China soon declared victory and voluntarily withdrew back to the McMahon Line. China is in occupation of approximately 38,000 sq. kms of Indian territory in Jammu and Kashmir. In addition, under the socalled China-Pakistan Boundary Agreement of 1963, Pakistan ceded 5,180 sq. kms. of Indian territory in Pakistan Occupied Kashmir to China. China claims approximately 90,000 sq. kms. of Indian territory in Arunachal Pradesh and about 2000 sq. kms. in the Middle Sector of the India-China boundary. Beijing has stated that it does not recognise Arunachal Pradesh. The border between China and India has never been officially delimited. Chinas position on the eastern part of the border between the two countries is consistent. Not a single Chinese government recognizes the illegal McMahon Line. For China, the McMahon Line, stands as a symbol of imperialist aggression on the country. The so-called Arunachal Pradesh dispute is Chinas most intractable border issue. Because the gap between the positions of China and India is wide, it is difficult for both nations to reach consensus. The area of this disputed region is three times that of Taiwan, six times that of Beijing and ten times that of the Malvenas islands, disputed by Britain and Argentina. It is flat and rich in water and forest resources. Arunachal Pradesh is the only issue which has a potential for
conflict between India and China. If ever, India and China go to war one day, it will be on this issue. India considers recurring Sino-Indian border clashes a potential threat to its security. Since the war, each side continued to improve its military and logistics capabilities in the disputed regions. China has continued its occupation of the Aksai Chin area, through which it built a strategic highway linking Xizang and Xinjiang autonomous regions. China had a vital military interest in maintaining control over this region, whereas Indias primary interest lay in Arunachal Pradesh, its state in the northeast bordering Xizang Autonomous Region. Barring an armed clash at Nathu La in eastern Sikkim in 1967, the border between India and China (Tibet) and specifically the ill-defined Line of Actual Control (LAC) in Ladakh/Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh - had remained free of any major incidents through the 1970s and the early 1980s. While relations between the two countries remained cool,, official statements from Beijing and New Delhi professed a desire to solve the border tangle peacefully through mutual consultations. Beginning in December 1981, officials from both countries held yearly talks on the border issue. With the improvement of logistics on the Indian side, the Indian Army sought to reinforce and strengthen forward areas in Arunachal Pradesh in the early 1980s. Patrols resumed in 1981 and by the summer of 1984 India had established an observation post on the bank of the Sumdorong Chu [referred to as Sangduoluo He in the Chinese media]. In July 1986 there were reports in the Indian media of Chinese incursions into the Sumdorong Chu [S-C] rivervalley in Arunachal Pradesh. By September-October, an brigade of the Indian Army 5 Mountain Division was airlifted to Zimithang, a helipad very close to the S-C valley. Referred to as Operation Falcon, this involved the occupation of ridges overlooking the S-C valley, including Langrola and the Hathung La ridge across the Namka Chu rivulet. This was followed by reports of large-scale troop movements on both sides of the border in early 1987, and grave concerns about a possible military clash over the border. In February 1987, India established the so-called Arunachal Pradesh in its [illegally occupied] Chinese-claimed territories south of the McMahon Line. The Chinese side made solemn statements on many occasions that
China never recognizes the illegal McMahon Line and the socalled Arunachal Pradesh. After these events, and Indias conversion of Arunachal Pradesh from union territory to state, tensions between China and India escalated. Both sides moved to reinforce their capabilities in the area, but neither ruled out further negotiations of their dispute. China, which had always maintained a large military presence in Tibet, was said to have moved in 20,000 troops from the53rd Army Corps in Chengdu and the 13th Army in Lanzhou by early 1987, along with heavy artillery and helicopters. By early April, it had moved 8 divisions to eastern Tibet as a prelude to possible belligerent action. Reinforcements on the Indian side began with Operation Falcon in late 1986, and continued through early 1987 under Exercise Chequerboard. This massive air-land exercise involved 10 Divisions of the Indian Army and several squadrons of the IAF. The Indian Army moved 3 divisions to positions around Wangdung, where they were supplied solely by air. These reinforcements were over and above the 50,000 troops already present across Arunachal Pradesh. Although India enjoyed air superiority in 1987, rough parity on the ground existed between the two military forces, which had a combined total of nearly 400,000 troops near the border. The Indian Army deployed eleven divisions in the region, backed up by paramilitary forces, whereas the PLA had fifteen divisions available for operations on the border. Most observers believe that the mountainous terrain, high-altitude climate, and concomitant logistic difficulties made it unlikely that a protracted or larges-cale conflict would erupt on the Sino-Indian border. That the Sino-Indian border has not suffered any major disruptions since 1986, as compared to the incessant firing incidents and infiltration on the Indo-Pak borders, made the Sino-Indian border an example of good neighbourly relations. In December 1988, Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi visited China. The Prime Ministers of the two countries agreed to settle the boundary questions through the guiding principle of Mutual Understanding and Accommodation and Mutual Adjustment. Agreement also reached that while seeking for the mutually acceptable solution to the boundary questions, the two countries should de104 Mini Year Book 2011
velop their relations in other fields and make efforts to create the atmosphere and conditions conducive to the settlement of the boundary questions. The two sides agreed to establish a Joint Working Group (JWG) on the boundary questions at the Vice-Foreign Ministerial level. An Agreement on the Maintenance of Peace and Tranquility along the Line of Actual Control in the India-China Border Areas was signed on 7 September 1993. After more than thirty years of border tension and stalemate, high-level bilateral talks were held in New Delhi starting in February 1994 to foster confidence-building measures between the defense forces of India and China, and a new period of better relations began. In November 1995, the two sides dismantled the guard posts in close proximity to each other along the borderline in Wangdong area, making the situation in the border areas more stable. During President Jiang Zemins visit to India at the end of November 1996, the Governments of China and India signed the Agreement on Confidence Building Measures in the Military Field along the Line of Actual Control in the China-India Border Areas, which is an important step for the building of mutual trust between the two countries. These Agreements provide an institutional framework for the maintenance of peace and tranquility in the border areas. Though lot had been done during the Sino-Indian official border talks, with number of border related CSBMs put in place, the border issue remains mired in various bilateral and domestic compulsions and contradictions on both sides. Border encounters between India and China are not rare and arise from the very real disagreements that exist between the two sides in demarcating the LCA on the ground. Such incidents have usually been handled, not in full media glare, but by the two sides discreetly withdrawing to their earlier positions. The two sides withdrew sentries along the eastern section that were considered to be too close to each other. During early 1990s, India unilaterally withdrew about 35,000 troops from its eastern sector. On the other hand, the PLA maintains a force between 180,000 and 300,000 soldiers and has directly ruled Tibet from 1950 to 1976, and indirectly thereafter. Tibet today is connected to other military regions through four-lane highways and strategic
roads. And Beijings capability to airlift troops from its other neighbouring military regions has advanced very far from its comparative inability to use air force in 1962. During the Indian Prime Ministers visit to China in June 2003 India and China signed a Memorandum on Expanding Border Trade, which adds Nathula as another pass on the India-China border for conducting border trade. The Indian side has agreed to designate Changgu of Sikkim state as the venue for border trade market, while the Chinese side has agreed to designate Renqinggang of the Tibet Autonomous Region as the venue for border trade market. During Chinese Premier Wen Jiabaos visit to India in April 2005, the two sides signed an agreement on political settlement of the boundary issue, setting guidelines and principles. In the agreement, China and India affirmed their readiness to seek a fair, reasonable and mutually acceptable solution to the boundary issue through equal and friendly negotiations. India after 1962 adopted a policy to not develop the border areas. The idea was that if India developed the border areas, the Chinese can easily use these facilities in the event of a war. This policy had changed by 2008. To redress the situation arising out of poor road connectivity which has hampered the operational capability of the Border Guarding Forces deployed along the India-China border, the Government has decided to undertake phasewise construction of 27 road links totaling 608 Km in the border areas along the India-China border in the States of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh at an estimated cost of Rs.912.00 crores. The work of construction of 2 roads in Arunachal Pradesh has started. The construction of these roads was expected to start during 2008-09. The two sides have differences in perception of the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in the India-China border areas. Both sides carry out patrolling activity in the India-China border areas. Transgressions of the LAC are taken up through diplomatic channels and at Border Personnel Meetings/Flag Meetings. India and China seek a fair, reasonable and mutually acceptable settlement of the boundary question through peaceful consultations. Indo-China War of 1962 The Chinese have two major claims on what India deems its own
territory. One claim, in the western sector, is on Aksai Chin in the northeastern section of Ladakh District in Jammu and Kashmir. The other claim is in the eastern sector over a region included in the British-designated North-East Frontier Agency, the disputed part of which India renamed Arunachal Pradesh and made a state. In the fight over these areas, the well-trained and well-armed troops of the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army overpowered the illequipped Indian troops, who had not been properly acclimatized to fighting at high altitudes. After its independence in 1947, India not only inherited Britains occupation of parts of Chinese territories, but also further encroached northward and pushed its borderline to the McMahon Line in 1953, as a result, invaded and occupied 90,000 square kms of Chinese territories. At western sector, in 1959, India voiced its claim to the Aksai Chin areas, counted 33,000 s.kms, of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China. In April 1960, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai went to New Delhi to hold talks with Indian Prime Minister Nehru, no agreements were reached due to Indias insistence on its unreasonable stand. The ensuing meetings between the officials of the two countries also produced no results. Unable to reach political accommodation on disputed territory along the 3,225-kilometer-long Himalayan border, the Chinese attacked India on October 20, 1962. At the time, nine divisions from the eastern and western commands were deployed along the Himalayan border with China. None of these divisions was up to its full troop strength, and all were short of artillery, tanks, equipment, and even adequate articles of clothing. Indian decisions taken at that time were not grounded in adequate, up-to-date, knowledge of what was transpiring within China or the motivations of Chinas then key decision-makers. Stated briefly, New Delhi failed to decipher the Chinese calculus of deterrence and India suffered disproportionately. In Ladakh the Chinese attacked south of the Karakoram Pass at the northwest end of the Aksai Chin Plateau and in the Pangong Lake area about 160 kilometers to the southeast. The defending Indian forces were easily ejected from their posts in the area of the Karakoram Pass and from most posts near Pangong Lake. However, they put up spirited resistance at the key posts of Daulat
Beg Oldi (near the entrance to the pass) and Chushul (located immediately south of Pangong Lake and at the head of the vital supply road to Leh, a major town and location of an air force base in Ladakh). Other Chinese forces attacked near Demchok (about 160 kilometers southeast of Chusul) and rapidly overran the Demchok and the Jara La posts. In the eastern sector, in Assam, the Chinese forces advanced easily despite Indian efforts at resistance. On the first day of the fighting, Indian forces stationed at the Tsang Le post on the northern side of the Namka Chu, the Khinzemane post, and near Dhola were overrun. On the western side of the North-East Frontier Agency, Tsang Dar fell on October 22, Bum La on October 23, and Tawang, the headquarters of the Seventh Infantry Brigade, on October 24. The Chinese made an offer to negotiate on October 24. The Indian government promptly rejected this offer. With a lull in the fighting, the Indian military desperately sought to regroup its forces. Specifically, the army attempted to strengthen its defensive positions in the North-East Frontier Agency and Ladakh and to prepare against possible Chinese attacks through Sikkim and Bhutan. Army units were moved from Calcutta, Bihar, Nagaland, and Punjab to guard the northern frontiers of West Bengal and Assam. Three brigades were hastily positioned in the western part of the North-East Frontier Agency, and two other brigades were moved into Sikkim and near the West Bengal border with Bhutan to face the Chinese. Light Stuart tanks were drawn from the Eastern Command headquarters at Calcutta to bolster these deployments. In the western sector, a divisional organization was established in Leh; several battalions of infantry, a battery of twenty-five-pounder guns, and two troops of AMX light tanks were airlifted into the Chushul area from Punjab. On November 4, the Indian military decided that the post at Daulat Beg Oldi was untenable, and its defenders were withdrawn over the 5,300-meter-high Sasar Brangsa Pass to a more defensible position. The reinforcements and redeployments in Ladakh proved sufficient to defend the Chushul perimeter despite repeated Chinese attacks. However, the more remote posts at Rezang La and Gurung Hill and the four posts at Spanggur Lake area fell to the Chinese.
In the North-East Frontier Agency, the situation proved to be quite different. Indian forces counterattacked on November 13 and captured a hill northwest of the town of Walong. Concerted Chinese attacks dislodged them from this hard-won position, and the nearby garrison had to retreat down the Lohit Valley. In another important section of the eastern sector, the Kameng Frontier Division, six Chinese brigades attacked across the Tawang Chu near Jang and advanced some sixteen kilometers to the southeast to attack Indian positions at Nurang, near Se La, on November 17. Despite the Indian attempt to regroup their forces at Se La, the Chinese continued their onslaught, wiping out virtually all Indian resistance in Kameng. By November 18, the Chinese had penetrated close to the outskirts of Tezpur, Assam, a major frontier town nearly fifty kilometers from the Assam-North-East Frontier Agency border. The Chinese did not advance farther and on November 21 declared a unilateral cease-fire. They had accomplished all of their territorial objectives, and any attempt to press farther into the plains of Assam would have stretched their logistical capabilities and their lines of communication to a breaking point. By the time the fighting stopped, each side had lost 500 troops. After administering a blistering defeat in 1962, the Chinese forces withdrew 20 km behind the McMahon Line, which China called the 1959 line of actual control in the Eastern Sector, and 20 km behind the line of its latest position in Ladakh, which was further identified with the 1959 line of actual control in the Western Sector. Rann of Kutch 1965 India and Pakistan became engaged in a short but sharp conflict into Pakistani claimed-area in the Rann of Kutch in April 1965. After partition, Pakistan contested the southern boundary of Sindh, and a succession of border incidents resulted. They were less dangerous and less widespread, however, than the conflict that erupted in Kashmir in the Indo-Pakistani War of August 1965. Both armies had fully mobilised. Pakistan eventually proposed a ceasefire, which India accepted; an agreement was signed, and the forces disengaged. The Award by the Arbitration Tribunal vindicated Pakistans position. India then shifted the center of gravity
of operations to the Northern Areas. Approximately 3,000 kilometers long, India and Pakistans border traverses the Karakoram Mountain Range, meanders southwest through the cultivated plains of the Punjab and Rajasthan, and thence through the desert region of Sind. Ultimately, the border dips into the vast mud flats and marshlands of the Rann of Kutch, and finally into the coastal swamps on the Indian Ocean. When the river Saraswati was flowing in the heart of Thar, the Rann of Kutch was a gulf of the Arabian Sea. The Saraswati, a great river rising from the Himalayan watershed, symbolically the most important during the Vedic period, is believed to have flowed south and west through present day Haryana-Punjab, Rajasthan, and southern Pakistan to exit through what is now the Rann of Kutch marshland. The Saraswati River has long since disappeared, probably due to geological changes. In mythology, Saraswati was a daughter of Brahma, the creator, and as a goddess is associated with speech, learning, wisdom, and the arts. Normally a salt clay desert covering some 10,800 square miles, the Rann of Kutch becomes a salt marsh during the annual rains. Nestled between the Gulf of Kutch in Indias northwestern state of Gujarat and the mouth of the Indus river in southern Pakistan, the region is home to Asias last herds of wild asses. Patches of high ground become a refuge for wildlife during the wet season. The mean annual rainfall is about 15 inches, most of which falls from late June to late September during the southwest monsoon. The area includes a central sandy upland ranging from about 100 to 250 feet above sea level ; a northern lowland of between about 50 to 125 feet altitude that slopes north to the Great Rann of Kutch; a belt of low buttes and discontinuous ridges ranging from about 200 to 275 feet above sea level; and southern lowland which slopes in a southerly to southeasterly direction from an altitude of about 125 feet to 25 feet or less near the Gulf of Kutch. Kandla Port and township lies on an estuary of the Gulf of Kutch in western India and in the eastern part of the State of Kutch. The Little Rann of Kutch and its larger counterpart, the Great Rann of Kutch, to the north-northwest consist of large low-relief plains on the southeastern flank of Pakistans Indus River delta. These plains are separated by hills of pre-Quaternary rocks. The
Great Rann of Kutch is on the Pakistan/India border just east of the India distributary mouths. The Little Rann of Kutch is located between the mainland of Kutch, forming the northern border for the Gulf of Kutch and Kathiawar to the south. The Ranns of Kutch are believed to have a structural origin that has controlled their location. Faults that influenced the alignment of the pre-Quaternary rock outcrops trend west- northwest. Another family of faults, of which the Gulf of Kutch may be an expression, trends north-northeast. The aforementioned outcrops are thought to be horst blocks cut into segments by the north-northeast faults, while the Ranns themselves probably represent grabens. These tectonic depressions were once shallow marine gulfs after the last postglacial rise in sea level. Changes in nearby river courses (Indus, Nara, and other rivers of the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain) caused the Ranns to become infilled with deltaic sediment, and they are now essentially broad salt-covered supratidal areas (sabkhas) that are inundated only part of the year. In lowland areas such as the Indus Delta to the west, the monsoonal cycle plays an important role in supplying water and sediment to the coastal plain. For the Ranns of Kutch, annual flooding by marine water and freshwater runoff from surrounding highlands occurs during the Southwest Monsoon, when marine water is forced up into the area by persistent strong winds. Including the Great Rann of Kutch, more than 30 000 km2 of lowlands are flooded annually. Most of this area is supratidal or above the normal high tide. However, when winds of the Southwest Monsoon, which blow from July to September, push marine water into the Gulf of Kutch and other estuary mouths along the coast under these conditions, salt water can be more than 2 m deep on the supratidal surface. During this same period, rainfall in the area is maximized when moisture from the Arabian Sea is transported inland. Annual rainfall over the Ranns of Kutch ranges between 20 and 38 cm/yr, most of which falls during the Southwest Monsoon months. The area in dispute, extending out from the old fort of Kanjarkot, lies on the northern edge of the Rann of Kutch, a desolate area in Western India on the Arabian Sea. It is alternately salt flats and tidal basin. The area was admitted by both sides to be in dispute at the time of the Indo-Pakistani border negotiations of 1960. It was
agreed at that time that further discussions would be held to explore the validity of the conflicting claims, and the two Governments agreed that pending further consideration of this dispute, neither side would disturb the status quo. In the spring of 1965, Pakistani tanks (received from the United States as part of its Military Assistance Program) entered the Rann of Kutch. The memoirs of senior Pakistani officers later revealed that the deployment of this American-supplied armor had two objectives. The first was to entice Indian armor away from northern India, where an attack on Kashmir was planned for later in the year. The second objective was to see how strongly the United States would protest Pakistans use of tanks it had provided, in clear violation of Pakistans commitment. The United States did protest, but it was ignored. The Indians became aware in January 1965 that Pakistani border police were patrolling below the Indian claim line. Pakistani patrolling south of Kanjarkot may have been going on for quite some time without the Indians knowing it. There was little doubt, however, that Pakistani occupation of Kanjarkot would have upset a long-standing status quo. When Indian patrols discovered that Pakistani posts had been established in area claimed by India, they accused Pakistan of aggression in the Rann of Kutch. After India lodged a protest, it increased its own patrolling activity. In mid-February 1965, Pakistani forces dug themselves in around Kanjarkot, which may have been previously unoccupied, although President Ayub of Pakistan claimed that Pakistan had long occupied it. India moved large forces into the disputed territory during the months of JanuaryApril 1965, established forward military posts therein and carried out full-scale land, sea and air manoeuvers in its vicinity, thus forcibly demolishing the status quo. Both sides built up the forces available to them in the area, manned strong points, and shifted defense responsibility from border units to the army. The Indian response of occupying other posts near the frontier and, reportedly, building an airstrip nearby brought the latent crisis to a head. During April 1965, a series of incidents has occurred with both sides blaming the other. The Pakistanis, enjoying a militarily superior position, moved forcefully against Indian outposts near the
border fort of Kanjarkot and most recently staged a preemptive attack at Biar Bet, deeper within the disputed area. The Indians were mainly on the defensive but, according to Pakistan, had established outposts within undisputed Pakistani territory. It was only on 08 April 1965 when the Indian forces attacked a Pakistan out-post at Ding in an endeavor to complete a military take over of the territory to present Pakistan with a fait accompli that the Pakistan forces went into action for the first time, and it was on 19 April 1965 after watching Indias actions in the Rann of Kutch for three and a half months that Pakistan forces went into the disputed territory for the first time. Both sides allege that the other employed armor. The Indians denied the charge and there was no immediate evidence to support it. Although firm proof was lacking, there were reports supporting the Indian claim that Pakistan has moved armor to the Kutch area and that it may be engaged in action. The unit concerned, according to the US Embassy in Karachi, was MAPequipped. Casualties were reported by both sides, shooting continued between patrols and strong points, and public opinion especially in India had been aroused sharply. On 19 April Pakistans troops in the Rann of Kutch held off from exploiting a favorable tactical situation, when after the capture of Biar Bet they were in a position to cut right through to the Indian forces on the 24th parallel and destroy from the rear the two Indian Brigades located in the disputed territory. Furthermore on April 30th Pakistan unilaterally ordered troops in the Rann of Kutch not to do anything that might aggravate the situation, which ultimately led to a de facto cease-fire. In an atmosphere colored by Indias military humiliation by the Chinese in 1962, strong public resentment over Pakistans developing relationship with Peiping and the hurt feelings over the postponement of Shastris visit, the already beleaguered Government of India cannot afford domestically to be gotten the better of by Pakistan in a military confrontation. The Indian Foreign Secretary told the US DCM that the country is in no mood to take any more pushing in the Rann of Kutch and the GOI may be constrained to retaliate elsewhere, where conditions are more favorable to Indian forces. The GOIs domestic political discomfort is increased by
aspects of the Kutch dispute which are analogous to the pre-1962 situation in Ladakh with China e.g. the belated discovery by Indian patrols of foreign military posts in a neglected area of Indian-claimed territory. Even before the activization of the Kutch dispute, the moderate Shastri government proved to be most vulnerable politically to charges of weakness and indecision. Pakistans apparent utilization of U.S.-supplied MAP equipment in the dispute further complicates the situation domestically for the GOI by providing additional grounds for criticism to extremists of both the left and right who can exploit traditional Indian resentments over U.S.-Pakistan security agreements of the 1950s and Indias acceptance in 1962 of more rigid constraints on the use of U.S. military equipment. The Kutch dispute, occurring in an area of Pak military superiority, provided Pakistan with several opportunities. Diplomatically, it provided Pakistan an opportunity to damage Indo-U.S. relations, through the use of Military Assistance Program [MAP] equipment in a situation where there is some ambiguity over the justification of its use. Additionally, the Kutch dispute provides Pakistan, in the weeks just before Bandung II, with an opportunity to brand India as an aggressor in Afro-Asian eyes. This objective would be further advanced if Pak actions in Kutch cause India to retaliate elsewhere, especially if India should move into an area generally recognized as Pak territory. Domestically, the Kutch confrontation enables the GOP to score over India, despite Indias overall military superiority, particularly in Kashmir and along the East Pak border. Finally, Pakistan undoubtedly calculated that Indias response to the Kutch situation will lend a plausibility to the basic Pak contention that India would use its military strength enhanced by US military assistance to intimidate Pakistan and stick to an intransigent policy on Kashmir, rather than in combatting Communist China. On June 30, 1965, India and Pakistan signed an agreement that ended the fighting in the Rann of Kutch. The agreement, which was facilitated through the good offices of the United Kingdom, was signed separately in Karachi and New Delhi. President AYUB of Pakistan issued a statement on June 30 welcoming not only the agreement relating to the Rann of Kutch, but also a second agree114 Mini Year Book 2011
ment signed by India and Pakistan which called for the withdrawal of troops from both sides of the entire border between India and Pakistan. President Johnson sent a personal message to British Prime Minister Wilson on June 30 congratulating him on his success in bringing the conflict to a peaceful solution. The agreement signed by India and Pakistan called for the dispute to be settled on the basis of binding arbitration, by an arbitral tribunal to be established with the cooperation of the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations. India subsequently appointed a Yugoslav arbitrator to the tribunal, Pakistan appointed an Iranian arbitrator, and UN Secretary-General U Thant chose a Swede as the chairman. The tribunsal did not reach agreement on a final award until February 1968. The award gave approximately 10 percent of the disputed territory to Pakistan, including much of the high ground where the heaviest fighting took place. The award was reluctantly accepted by Pakistan, but bitterly resented in India, where it was generally felt that India had a strong case for sovereignty over the entire Rann of Kutch. During the 1960s Pakistans relations with the United States and the West had grow stronger. Pakistan joined two formal military alliances the Baghdad Pact (later known as CENTO) which included Iran, Iraq, and Turkey to defend the Middle East and Persian Gulf against the Soviet Union. However, the United States adopted a policy of denying military aid to both India and Pakistan after the War of in 1965 over the Rann of Kutch. Since most Pak military equipment was MAP-supplied, while India was not dependent to any comparable extent on US sources, Pakistan was more heavily penalized by US withholding from both sides, and India could be emboldened if the Paks were relatively disadvantaged. Under the circumstances in Rann of Kutch, Pakistan would be forced to withdraw all its forces one sidedly, since they mainly MAP-supplied, while India was not thus handicapped. The Pakistani assessment was that India was demoralised after being defeated by China in 1962; after Nehrus death, the Indian political system was subject to great uncertainties; the people of Jammu and Kashmir had been alienated from India; international community would not oppose Pakistani military intervention, as India showed unwillingness to change its stand on Kashmir during
the 1962-63 talks; and Pakistans marginal success in the Rann of Kutch confirmed its assessment of Indian Armys vulnerability. When Pakistan launched Operation Gibraltar later in 1965, the expectations were that India would respond militarily only in areas where Pakistan had launched military operations. The 1965 war in purely operational and military terms was a draw with no decisive military victory for either side. It was in politico-strategic terms and policy objectives that Pakistan was defeated. These southern hostilities were ended by British mediation, and both sides agreed to refer the case to binding international arbitration in order to limit tensions and removea nuisance to relations. Consequently, the Rann of Kutch Tribunal Award was concluded. On February 19, 1968, the Indo-Pakistan Western Boundary case tribunal award bolstered Indias claim over 90 percent of the Rann while conceding remaining 10 percent area to Pakistan. Both sides accepted the award of the Indo-Pakistan Western Boundary Case Tribunal designated by the UN secretary general. The tribunal made its award on February 19, 1968, delimiting a line of 403 kilometers that was later demarcated by joint survey teams. Of its original claim of some 9,100 square kilometers, Pakistan was awarded only about 780 square kilometers. Beyond the western terminus of the tribunals award, the final stretch of Pakistans border with India is about 80 kilometers long, running west and southwest to an inlet of the Arabian Sea. In August 1999, a Pakistani surveillance aircraft was shot down by the Indian Air Force in the Rann of Katch. Unfortunately, there was no ruling on the demarcation of Sir Creek, a disputed area that remains a source of irritation. The Indo-Pak boundary finally runs through the low-lying, tabletop, salty waste lands called the Rann. A variety of creeks jut out like fingers from the body of the Indian Ocean into the marshy flatlands of the Rann. The alignment of the international border here is also disputed and is commonly referred to as the Sir Creek issue. The Sir Creek dispute involves defining the international boundary along the Sir Creek, a 100-km-long estuary in the saline wetlands of the Rann of Kutch between the state of Gujurat in India and the province of Sind in Pakistan. The dispute predates the creation of India and Pakistan and
stems from a dispute between the British Indian State of Bombay and the Princely State of Kutch in the first decade of the 20th century. The princely state of Kutch and Sindh had their first falling out about the creek back in 1910s. Though they reached an agreement, the devil lying in detail was hard at work even then. By 1925, the dispute was back again, this time in the form of a gap between the agreements text and its implementation on the ground. Like everything else that characterises their bilateral ties, in 1947 India and Pakistan inherited the dispute from the pre-partition days. Because of a rich delta, Gujarat has the best fishing, and the Gulf of Kutch has the best fish known in India. The waters of the Indus delta at the Arabian Sea are considered good for fish breeding. This lures the Indian fishermen to enter into Pakistans territorial water for a better catch. Sir Creek is the scene of numerous arrests of fishermen after they stumble into either the disputed areas or the territory on the side of the border other than their own. The woes of these fishermen, after they are caught, are very well known. The two countries dont treat them as they should in accordance with the international laws. They are kept in confinement with no charge and offered no legal assistance. Complications ensued when it was noticed that Sir Creek had started to shift its course northwards towards Pakistan. The shifting of the courses of shallow creeks is a normal geographical phenomenon. Sir Creek is one of eight major issues on the Pak-India composite dialogue agenda devised by the archrival South Asian nations for the peace process that they launched back in 2004. The UN Convention on Law of the Sea required that all maritime boundary conflicts should be resolved by 2009, failing which the UN may declare disputed areas as international waters. The talks on Sir Creek under the fifth round of Pakistan-India Composite Dialogue were scheduled to be held on 2-3 December 2008 in New Delhi. However, in the aftermath of Mumbai terrorist attacks, India put a pause on the Composite Dialogue. Indo-Pakistan War of 1965 The second Indo-Pakistani conflict (1965) was also fought over Kashmir and started without a formal declaration of war. The war began in August 5, 1965 and was ended Sept 22, 1965. The war was initiated by Pakistan who since the defeat of India
by China in 1962 had come to believe that Indian military would be unable or unwilling to defend against a quick military campaign in Kashmir, and because the Pakistani government was becoming increasingly alarmed by Indian efforts to integrate Kashmir within India. There was also a perception that there was widespread popular support within for Pakistani rule and that the Kashmiri people were disatisfied with Indian rule. After Pakistan was successful in the Rann of Kutch earlier in 1965, Ayub Khan (by nature a cautious person) was pressured by the hawks in his cabinet (led by Z.A. Bhutto) and the army to infiltrate the ceasefire line in Kashmir. The action was based on the incorrect premise that indigenous resistance could be ignited by a few saboteurs. Ayub resisted the idea as he foresaw India crossing the international frontier in retaliation at a point of its choosing. The Bhutto faction, which included some prominent generals, put out the canard that Ayubs cowardice stemmed from his desire to protect his newly acquired wealth. It was boasted at the time that one Pakistani soldier was equal to four Indian soldiers and so on. On August 5, 1965 between 26,000 and 33,000 Pakistani soldiers crossed the Line of Control dressed as Kashmiri locals headed for various areas within Kashmir. Indian forces, tipped off by the local populace, crossed the cease fire line on August 15. The initial battles between India and Pakistan were contained within Kashmir involving both infantry and armor units with each countrys air force playing major roles. It was not until early Sept. when Pakistani forces attacked Ackhnur that the Indians escalated the conflict by attacking targets within Pakistan itself, forcing the Pakistani forces to disengage from Ackhnur to counter Indian attacks. The largest engagement of the war occurred in the Sialkot region where some 400 to 600 tanks squared off. Unfortunately the battle was indecisive. By Sept 22 both sides had agreed to a UN mandated cease-fire ending the war that had by that point reached a stalemate. Overall, the war was militarily inconclusive; each side held prisoners and some territory belonging to the other. Losses were relatively heavyon the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks,
and 3,800 troops. Pakistans army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan. Most Pakistanis, schooled in the belief of their own martial prowess, refused to accept the possibility of their countrys military defeat by Hindu India and were, instead, quick to blame their failure to attain their military aims on what they considered to be the ineptitude of Ayub Khan and his government. Pakistan was rudely shocked by the reaction of the United States to the war. Judging the matter to be largely Pakistan s fault, the United States not only refused to come to Pakistan s aid under the terms of the Agreement of Cooperation, but issued a statement declaring its neutrality while also cutting off military supplies. The Pakistanis were embittered at what they considered a friends betrayal, and the experience taught them to avoid relying on any single source of support. For its part, the United States was disillusioned by a war in which both sides used United States-supplied equipment. The war brought other repercussions for the security relationship as well. The United States withdrew its military assistance advisory group in July 1967. In response to these events, Pakistan declined to renew the lease on the Peshawar military facility, which ended in 1969. Eventually, United States-Pakistan relations grew measurably weaker as the United States became more deeply involved in Vietnam and as its broader interest in the security of South Asia waned. Iran, Indonesia, and especially China gave political support to Pakistan during the war, thus suggesting new directions in Pakistan that might translate into support for its security concerns. Most striking was the attitude of the Soviet Union. Its postKhrushchev leadership, rather than rallying reflexively to Indias side, adopted a neutral position and ultimately provided the good offices at Tashkent, which led to the January 1966 Tashkent Declaration that restored the status quo ante. The aftermath of the 1965 war saw a dramatic shift in Pakistans security environment. Instead of a single alignment with the United States against China and the Soviet Union, Pakistan found itself cut off from United States military support, on increasingly warm terms with China, and treated equitably by the Soviet Union. UnMini Year Book 2011 119
changed was the enmity with which India and Pakistan regarded each other over Kashmir. The result was the elaboration of a new security approach, called by Ayub Khan the triangular tightrope a tricky endeavor to maintain good ties with the United States while cultivating China and the Soviet Union. Support from other developing nations was also welcome. None of the new relationships carried the weight of previous ties with the United States, but, taken together, they at least provided Pakistan with a political counterbalance to India. Bangladeshi War of Independence & Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 The third war between India and Pakistan took place between November 22 (when the Indians began providing active artillery support to the seperatists) and Dec 17, 1971. The origins of the third Indo-Pakistani conflict (1971) were different from the previous conflicts. The Pakistani failure to accommodate demands for autonomy in East Pakistan in 1970 led to secessionist demands in 1971. In March 1971, Pakistans armed forces launched a fierce campaign to suppress the resistance movement that had emerged but encountered unexpected mass defections among East Pakistani soldiers and police. The Pakistani forces regrouped and reasserted their authority over most of East Pakistan by May. As a result of these military actions, thousands of East Pakistanis died at the hands of the Pakistani army. Resistance fighters and nearly 10 million refugees fled to sanctuary in West Bengal, the adjacent Indian state. By midsummer, the Indian leadership, in the absence of a political solution to the East Pakistan crisis, had fashioned a strategy designed to assist the establishment of the independent nation of Bangladesh. As part of this strategy, in August 1971, India signed a twenty-year Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation with the Soviet Union. One of the treatys clauses implied that each nation was expected to come to the assistance of the other in the event of a threat to national security such as that occurring in the 1965 war with Pakistan. Simultaneously, India organized, trained, and provided sanctuary to the Mukti Bahini (meaning Liberation Force in Bengali), the East Pakistani armed resistance fighters.
Unable to deter Indias activities in the eastern sector, on December 3, 1971, Pakistan launched an air attack in the western sector on a number of Indian airfields, including Ambala in Haryana, Amritsar in Punjab, and Udhampur in Jammu and Kashmir. The attacks did not succeed in inflicting substantial damage. The Indian air force retaliated the next day and quickly achieved air superiority. On the ground, the strategy in the eastern sector marked a significant departure from previous Indian battle plans and tactics, which had emphasized set-piece battles and slow advances. The strategy adopted was a swift, three-pronged assault of nine infantry divisions with attached armored units and close air support that rapidly converged on Dhaka, the capital of East Pakistan. Lieutenant General Sagat Singh, who commanded the eighth, twenty-third, and fifty-seventh divisions, led the Indian thrust into East Pakistan. As these forces attacked Pakistani formations, the Indian air force rapidly destroyed the small air contingent in East Pakistan and put the Dhaka airfield out of commission. In the meantime, the Indian navy effectively blockaded East Pakistan. Dhaka fell to combined Indian and Mukti Bahini forces on December 16, bringing a quick end to the war. Action in the western sector was divided into four segments, from the cease-fire line in Jammu and Kashmir to the marshes of the Rann of Kutch in northwestern Gujarat. On the evening of December 3, the Pakistani army launched ground operations in Kashmir and Punjab. It also started an armored operation in Rajasthan. In Kashmir, the operations were concentrated on two key points, Punch and Chhamb. The Chhamb area witnessed a particularly intense battle where the Pakistanis forced the Indians to withdraw from their positions. In other parts of Kashmir, the Indians made some small gains along the cease-fire line. The major Indian counteroffensive came in the Sialkot-Shakargarh area south and west of Chhamb. There, two Pakistani tank regiments, equipped with United States-made Patton tanks, confronted the Indian First Armored Corps, which had British Centurion tanks. In what proved to be the largest tank battle of the war, both sides suffered considerable casualties. Within hours of outbreak of hostilities, the Indian Missile Boat Group was ordered to execute operation Trident, the code name
for the first attack on Karachi. The task group consisting of three OSA class missile boats, escorted by two Kamorta class anti-submarine patrol vessels, regrouped off Okha and charged towards Karachi. At 2150 hrs on December 4, the task group was 70 nautical miles south-west of Karachi. Soon thereafter, the task group detected patrolling Pakistani naval ships on their sensors. The deadly missiles were heading towards their targets which were soon hit. PNS Khyber, a destroyer and PNS Muhafiz, a minesweeper were sunk. Another Pakistani destroyer Shajehan was badly damaged. The fuel storage tanks at Karachi harbour were set ablaze, causing heavy loss. Operation Trident was a thundering success with no damage to any of the ships of the Indian Naval Task Group, which returned safely. Operation Trident had introduced to the war, the first ever ship launched missiles in the region. Enthused by the success of this attack, the Indian Navy planned another offensive operation, code named Python. The continued presence of the Indian Navys larger ships is the area gave enough indication to the Pakistani naval authorities that more offensive operations were in the offing. The Pak aerial surveillance was stepped up and their ships attempted to outsmart the Indian Navy by mingling with merchant shipping. Notwithstanding these measures by the Pakistanis, operation Python was launched on the night on December 8 and 9, 1971. Despite bad weather and rough seas, the task group consisting of missile boat Vinash and two multipurpose frigates, executed the attack with razor sharp precision. INS Vinash approached close to the Karachi coast and fired four missiles. The first missile struck the fuel tanks at the Keamari Oil Farm. The other three missiles hit the merchant tankers Harmattan, Gulf Star and the Pakistani naval tanker Dacca. More than 50 percent of the total fuel requirement of the Karachi zone was reported to have been blown up. Operation Python was another great success. Though the Indian conduct of the land war on the western front was somewhat timid, the role of the Indian air force was both extensive and daring. During the fourteen-day war, the air forces Western Command conducted some 4,000 sorties. There was little retaliation by Pakistans air force, partly because of the paucity of
non-Bengali technical personnel. Additionally, this lack of retaliation reflected the deliberate decision of the Pakistan Air Force headquarters to conserve its forces because of heavy losses incurred in the early days of the war. Sikhs in Punjab Sikhs in Punjab are the majority community. The problems that arose in Punjab were due to the religion-based elements who sought to widen the communal divide between the Sikhs and other communities for their political ends. In the course of time, as many Sikhs fell victims to the terrorist bullets and bombs as Hindus. This defeated the aim of the terrorists of communalizing the Punjab polity. The people of Punjab have rejected terrorist violence and have demonstrated their faith in the democratic process by electing representatives to the State and national legislatures in elections held during 1992. Sikhs form a religious and cultural community of some 16 million, less than 2% of the Indian population. Some 80% of Sikhs live in Punjab where they form the majority (about two thirds) of the inhabitants. The Sikh religion was founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1539), a high caste Hindu who denounced social and state oppression. He took monotheism from Islam, but rejected Ramadan, polygamy and pilgrimages to Mecca. He also rejected Hindu polytheism, the caste system and sati (sacrificing a widow on her husbands funeral pyre). Nine gurus succeeded Nanak. The Sikh commandments include certain prohibitions, notably against alcohol and tobacco. For men the Sikh religion requires observance of the 5 Ks: Kes (uncut hair and beard); Kacch (breeches); Kirpan (a double edged sword); Kangh (a steel comb); and Kara (an iron bangle). New religious ideologies early in the 20th century caused tensions in the Sikh religion. The Akali Dal (Army of the Immortals), a political-religious movement founded in 1920, preached a return to the roots of the Sikh religion. The Akali Dal became the political party which would articulate Sikh claims and lead the independence movement. Following the partition of India in 1947, the Sikhs were concentrated in India in east Punjab. Sikh leaders demanded a Punjabi language majority state which would have included most Sikhs.
Fearing that a Punjabi state might lead to a separatist Sikh movement, the Government opposed the demand. In 1966 a compromise was reached, when two new states of Punjab and Haryana were created. Punjabi became the official language of Punjab, and Chandigarh became the shared capital of the two states. However the agreement did not resolve the Sikh question. In 1977, Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, an obscure but charismatic religious leader, made his appearance. He preached strict fundamentalism and armed struggle for national liberation. His speeches inflamed both young students and small farmers dissatisfied with their economic lot. Tensions between Sikhs and New Delhi heightened during the 1980s, as the government did not respond to Sikh grievances. Gandhi remained active in the political arena, and by January 1980 had regained stewardship of the nation. Sensing that she had allowed too much freedom and authority at the state level in the past, she began a process of centralizing power and thereby came in direct conflict with some states that sought greater autonomy. The Punjab was one such state where the majority Sikhs felt threatened by an ongoing, gradual cultural assimilation into Hindu India. Mrs. Gandhi, committed to a unitary system of government, refused to deal with the issues raised by Akali Dal, the political party representing Sikhs, and jailed its leaders. This set the stage for the more militant Sikhs to express their demands in more violent fashion. Punjab was faced with escalating confrontations and increased terrorist incidents. Akali Dal only achieved limited concessions from the government and Sikh separatists prepared for battle. In the Golden Temple enclosure 10,000 Sikhs took an oath to lay down their lives if necessary in the struggle. Renewed confrontations in October 1983 resulted in Punjab being placed under central government authority. The violence continued and hundreds of Sikhs were detained in the first part of 1984. Followers of Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale established a terrorist stronghold inside the Golden Temple. The Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, then initiated Operation Blue Star which took place on 5-6 June 1984. The Golden Temple was shelled and besieged by the army to dislodge the terrorists. The fighting
continued for five days. Bhindranwale was killed and there was serious damage to sacred buildings. Official figures put the casualties at 493 civilians/ terrorists killed and 86 wounded, and 83 troops killed and 249 wounded. Later in the year official sources put the total number killed at about 1,000. Unofficial sources estimated that the civilian casualties alone were much higher. There were apparently more than 3,000 people in the temple when Operation Blue Star began, among them 950 pilgrims, 380 priests and other temple employees and their families, 1,700 Akali Dal supporters, 500 followers of Bhindranwale and 150 members of other armed groups. The intervention had disastrous consequences for the Sikh community and the whole country. Sikh-Hindu communalism was aggravated, Sikh extremism was reinforced, and political assassinations increased. On 31 October 1984 Indira Gandhi was assassinated in New Delhi by two Sikh bodyguards. In the days that followed, anti-Sikh rioting paralysed New Delhi, ultimately claiming at least 2,000 lives; unofficial estimates were higher. Sikhs were also attacked in other cities in northern India. A peace agreement was concluded between the Indian Government and moderate Akali Dal Sikhs led by Harchand Singh Longowal in July 1985, which granted many of the Sikh communitys longstanding demands. However the extremists regarded Longowal as a traitor to the Sikh cause and he was assassinated in August 1985. Moreover the promised reforms did not take place. In 1987 the state government was dismissed and Punjab was placed under Presidents Rule. Extremists spread terror throughout Punjab and the Indian government mounted a campaign of anti-terrorist measures designed to restore the situation in Punjab to normal. In May 1988 the Punjab police and Indian paramilitary forces launched Operation Black Thunder against armed extremists who had again created a fortified stronghold within the Golden Temple. At least 40 extremists and several police officers were killed during the battle. Presidents Rule was finally brought to an end following elections in February 1992, which were won by Congress (I). However the elections were boycotted by the leading factions of Akali
Dal and attracted an extremely low turnout (only about 22% of the electorate). Beant Singh of the Congress (I) was sworn in as Chief Minister, but his government lacked any real credibility. Despite the continuing violence between the separatists and the security forces, the large turnout in the municipal elections in September 1992, the first in 13 years, afforded some hope that normality was returning to Punjab. The local council elections in January 1993, the first for 10 years, also attracted a large turnout. On 31 August 1995 Beant Singh was killed by a car bomb which exploded close to his car outside the Punjab Secretariat in Chandigarh. 15 security men and aides were also killed. Babbar Khalsa claimed responsibility and three suspects were later arrested. Political representatives informed the UN Special Rapporteur on Religious Intolerance during his visit to India in December 1996 that Sikhs were the victims of a policy of intolerance and discrimination based on religion pursued by the authorities. This policy of religious repression reached a climax in June 1984 with the storming of the Golden Temple in Amritsar, and was followed by reprisals against Sikhs throughout India, but particularly in Delhi, after the murder of Indira Gandhi on 31 October 1984 by her Sikh bodyguards. It was alleged that Sikhs were being subjected to State terrorism which found expression in the desecration of holy places, murders, extra-judicial executions and forced disappearances of Sikhs. The individuals who expressed these views to the Special Rapporteur stated that this policy had become less violent but was still being pursued by indirect means, such as the continued presence of Indian security forces at the Golden Temple. The Special Rapporteur was informed by other sources, including nongovernmental and religious organisations, that the situation of conflict which existed in Punjab had no religious basis, rather it was purely political. The authorities were combating the development of a militant Sikh terrorist movement campaigning for a separate and autonomous Sikh state. The terrorists used religion to secure the support of Sikhs for a political cause. Certain Sikh political parties had exploited that situation for their own ends in the hope of obtaining advantages and concessions from the authorities and of increasing their influence among the Sikh population by creating
confusion between religious and political matters. According to these sources, the purpose of Operation Blue Star (the storming of the Golden Temple) undertaken in June 1984 had been to expel armed Sikh extremists from the sanctuary. There had been no intention of attacking the religious identity of Sikhs. The continued presence of security forces at the Golden Temple was necessary to remain vigilant against any attempt at destabilisation. Access to the place of worship had not been hindered. These sources concluded that there was no religious problem, Sikhs enjoyed all their constitutional rights in the field of religion, including freedom of belief, freedom to practice their religion and freedom to proselytise. The UN Special Rapporteurs own conclusions based on the information he had received, and as set out in his report of February 1997 was that the situation of Sikhs in the religious field is satisfactory. There were difficulties in the political field (foreign interference and terrorism) and economic field (in particular with regard to the sharing of water supplies). The Special Rapporteur noted information that there was discrimination in certain sectors of public administration, for example fewer Sikhs in the police force and no Sikhs in personal bodyguard units. Malfunctions in the administration of justice were described but they were connected with the anti-terrorist campaign rather than the Sikh beliefs of the accused. Virtually all of the militant groups in Punjab pursued their campaign for a separate state of Khalistan through acts of violence directed not only at members of the police and security forces but also specifically at Hindu and Sikh civilians. Most of the militant groups in Punjab traced their origins to Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale. After the storming of the Golden Temple the number of militant groups operating in Punjab grew. Some authorities claimed there were no more than 1,700 armed militants, while many journalists believed there may have been five times that number. The militants were organised in more than half a dozen major groups and all theoretically operated under the authority of one of the Panthic Committees which functioned as decision making bodies
and issued instructions. The main militant organisations included: the Khalistan Commando Force (Paramjit Singh Panjwar faction); Khalistan Commando Force (Zaffarwal); Khalistan Commando Force (Rajasthani group); Babbar Khalsa; Khalistan Liberation Force (Budhisingwala); Bhindranwale Tiger Force of Khalistan (Sangha); Bhindranwale Tiger Force (Manochahal); All India Sikh Student Federation (Mehta Chawla); and the Sikh Student Federation (Bittu). In addition to this there were perhaps dozens of other groups, some representing splinter factions, as well as loosely organised armed gangs. After they first emerged in the early 1980s the militants assassinated civil servants, politicians, journalists, businessmen, other prominent individuals and ordinary Hindu and Sikh civilians. There were also indiscriminate attacks apparently designed to cause extensive civilian casualties, in some cases firing automatic weapons into residential and commercial areas, derailing trains, and exploding bombs in markets, restaurants and other civilian areas. Some of these attacks occurred outside Punjab in neighbouring states and in New Delhi. Motives for the attacks varied. Moderate Sikh political leaders were assassinated for opposing the militants. Other leaders were killed as a result of militant group rivalries. A number of militant groups tried to impose a Sikh fundamentalist ideology, issuing directives that stipulated appropriate conduct for Sikhs and prohibiting the sale of tobacco and alcohol. Failure to obey these orders meant punishment, including death. In late 1990 and early 1991 militant groups issued codes of conduct for journalists which also carried a death penalty for those who dared to disobey. Sikhs belonging to minority sects, which advocated practices perceived as heretical by orthodox Sikhs, were also murdered. Attacks on civilians were claimed as acts of retaliation for government violence. Other killings appeared to represent executions of suspected collaborators or informers. Militants also kidnapped civilians for extortion, frequently murdering their victims when their demands were not met. Threats were made to the minority Hindu population in an effort to drive them out of Punjab. As a result
thousands of Hindus fled the state. North East State operations Assam Assam belongs to the Seven Sisters Region of Southeast Asia, which consists of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. A part of the rich north eastern legacy of India, the bountiful land of Assam consists of magnificent hills and valleys and mighty rivers like the Brahmaputra and Barak. It is well known for its picturesque beauty, its rich blend of crops and variety of minerals. Assam possibly has more folklore and tradition than any other place in India. There are archaeological ruins all over Assam but the ones around Sibsagar simply must be seen. The largest river island of the world, Manjuli, is a must too along with Kaziranga wildlife sanctuary. Crossing the magnificent Brahmaputra so deeply linked to life in Assam, one reaches Guwahati, the capital where the famous Kamakahya temple is located on a hilltop. Guwahati has evolved into a major business centre and most of the travel linkages pass through it. Consequent to the Yandaboo Treaty signed between Man (Burma now Myanmar) and British on 24 February 1826, Assam ultimately became a British colony. After that the peoples engaged in struggle against the British to restore the lost independence. At that time the liberation struggle of Assam was united with the Indian freedom struggle under the principle of line of united struggle. Assam should have established an independent state, just after the British left the South Asian continent, like the establishment of independent countries such as India, Pakistan and Myanmar. However, the British- created leadership of independent India turned Assam into a colony of India. The state of Assam has been badly affected by armed insurgency over the last one and a half decades with various insurgent groups like the ULFA, NDFB, DHD, UPDS, NSCN waging a low intensity war against the lawfully established Government. Ever since they were formed, the major insurgent groups ULFA and NDFB have committed scores of incidents of mindless violence like murders, bomb explosions, kidnapping for ransom etc. which have had a serious bearing on the law and order situation of the
state. The unrestricted trans-border movement of the cadres of such extremist groups facilitated by the extensive porous border with Bangladesh and Bhutan, safe hideouts in Bangladesh, Bhutan and Myanmar and the hilly terrain of neighboring states have all contributed to the deterioration of the law and order situation in the State. Despite efforts made by successive State Govts. to hammer out an amicable solution of this insurgency, it continues, causing law and order problems frequently. The S.S. C-in-C of ULFA, Paresh Baruah and S.S. C-in-C of NDFB, Ranjan Doimari and some of the top brass of these two outfits have been masterminding extremist operations from foreign countries like Bhutan, Bangladesh and Nepal all these years, rejecting the offers for a negotiated settlement of the problem made repeatedly by the Govts in the past. The present Govt., therefore, has taken a hardline approach to the problem of insurgency in order to bring about an improvement on the law and order front by coming down heavily on the extremist outfits. Counter insurgency operations launched under the Unified Command Structure consisting of the Civil Administration, Army, Central Paramilitary Forces and the State Police with effect from 21-01-97, have produced spectacular results. From May 15th, 1996 till November 30th, 2000, as many as 5860 militants of different groups have been captured and 842 hardcore terrorists have been killed. Apart from this, a huge quantity of arms and ammunitions as well as cash have been recovered from different militant groups. This is a remarkable achievement on the part of the State Govt. in its fight against terrorism against all odds. 367 security personnel laid down their lives in this fight against terrorism during this period. In 2000, considerable success was achieved by the Police, PMF and Army against extremist outfits like ULFA, NDFB, NSCN, DHD, UPDS and other smaller outfits (during encounters and raids) in which a number of ultras were killed and arrested in addition to recovery of a huge cache of arms and ammunitions from their possession. While there were numerous allegations of human rights violations directed against security forces, public attention has begun
to focus on the actions of insurgents of the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) and the Bodo Security Force in Assam. The kidnaping of NGO environmental activist Sanjay Ghosh in July 1997 and his death at the hands of his United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) captors led to wide public criticism. On August 6, the ULFA confirmed that Ghosh died in captivity; he had been arrested and tried by the ULFA on July 4. The Chief Minister of Assam and a High Court judge in Meghalaya survived attempts to kill them during the year. According to the Union Home Ministrys 1996-97 report, a total of 201 persons were killed in Assam between April 1996 and March 1997. The ULFA was responsible for 107 deaths, and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB) was responsible for 174 deaths during this period. However, Mass, a human rights organization in Assam with a credible record, claims that during the period January 1 through July 21, a total of 202 people were killed in the state (of which 68 died at the hands of security forces and 57 were killed by the ULFA). Compilation of reports of killings from the press suggests that the numbers may be even higher. There have been 532 incidents of extremist related violence in the State from 1-1-2000 to 30-11-2000 which resulted in the killing of 362 persons, including 74 Police/PMF/Army personnel and kidnapping of 73 persons for ransom. There were 235 encounters between Police/PMF and the extremists of ULFA, NDFB and BLT resulting in the death of 308 militants. During operations, Police and PMF recovered 319 Nos. of weapons of different types from the extremists in addition to cash amounting to Rs. 14,59,620/-. The security forces also apprehended 1375 militants during this period. During counter insurgency operations from 01-01-2000 to 3011-2000, Police/PMF have apprehended 918 ULFA, 222 NDFB, 9 BLT, 48 UPDS, 20 DHD activists and killed 168 ULFA, 90 NDFB, 5 BLT, 5 UPDS and 4 DHD activists and recovered 269 nos. of arms of different kinds from the three insurgents groups respectively. In the wake of reverses suffered by the outfits due to the counter insurgency operations, a very significant shift in the stance and the strategy of the extremists groups has been noticed. The constant reverses suffered by the outfits have brought about a sense
of frustration and desperation amongst the cadres of the militants outfits, who have started attacking soft and defenseless targets indiscriminately resulting in the increase in casualties of civilians. In as many as 13 incidents of gruesome violence perpetrated by ULFA in Tinsukia, Nalbari, Dibrugarh, Sivasagar and Bongaigaon districts and in one incident of equally gruesome violence perpetrated in Barpeta district by NDFB, 96 persons have been gunned down by these two terrorist outfits. Majority of these were Hindi speaking people and they were killed in isolated places under the cover of darkness over a period of 51 days from 22nd October to 11th December2000. Despite the emphatic denial made by its self styled C-in-C about the involvement of the outfit in the killings, Assam Police has plenty of evidence to show that all the four incidents of killings were perpetrated by ULFA only and none else. Despite some initial confusion created by the recovery of some leaflets at the site of killing in Nalbari town where the responsibility for the killing was claimed by Assam Tiger Force, the breakthrough made by Police in the cases after investigation confirmed that no extremist outfit called ASSAM TIGER FORCE exists in the State and hence was not involved in any of the killings in the above districts. The reasons for such indiscriminate killings are not far to seek. In the first place, by indulging in such indiscriminate killings, the outfits are making a determined effort to disgrace the State Govt, which has taken a hard line approach to the problem of insurgency. Secondly, plagued by the ideological differences cropping up between the middle and lower level cadres of the outfits with the top brass compelling some of middle and lower level functionaries to return to the mainstream by laying down arms, the outfits have suffered a great setback and are indulging in more and more indiscriminate killings in a desperate bid to prove their existence and to boost up the sagging morale of their remaining cadres. Thirdly, the top brass, including a section of hardcore cadres of the outfits, do not want the peace process initiated by the State Govt to succeed and they have perpetrated the gruesome violence to derail the ongoing peace process. Lastly, with the public of the state rising in revolt against the outfits, the frustration and desperation of the outfits seem to have reached the limit.
The problem of insurgency in the state acquired another important dimension when Assam Police gathered sufficient evidence of Pakistani intelligence agency - ISIs involvement in fomenting violence and terrorism in the State. Assam Police is in possession of evidence to prove the nexus of the top ULFA leadership with certain officials of the Pakistani High Commission in Dacca. According to the confessional statement of scores of arrested ULFA leaders, including their self-styled Vice Chairman Pradip Gogoi, presently lodged in jail, the Pakistani officials in their High Commission in Dacca arranged for their passports in various Muslim names and sent them to Karachi. During the Kargil Conflict, the ULFA issued a statement condemning the Indian Governments role in Kashmir. The language of the above statement was exactly the same as that issued by the Harkat ul Mujahideen, a Pakistan based terrorist outfit controlled by the ISI. The arrest of the four ISI operatives and agents by Guwahati Police in the middle of 1999 led to the startling revelation that a section of Muslim religious leaders and youths from Goalpara, Dhubri, Barpeta, Nalbari etc.districts have been making trans-border movement to Pakistan via Bangladesh for arms and explosive training organised by various Pakistani and Afganistani terrorist outfits like Harkat-Ul-Jehad, Harkat-Ul-Mujahideen and Laskar-EToiba, as per the plans of the ISI. The recent arrest of Nanu Mia alias Bilial, a Bangladeshi, an activist of HuM, led to a sensational revelation that Fakaruddin alias Akram Master of Barpeta, the Amir, HuM of Assam, based in Pakistan was to come to Assam along with 20 other HuM activists to attempt a jail break to free Quari Salim and other HuM activists presently lodged in jails of Assam. This indicates the extent of the involvement of Foreign powers in the State. In November 2003 a week-long wave of ethnic violence in the state claimed at least 33 lives. The violence targeted settlers from a nearby state whom many Assam natives blame for taking away their jobs. This is the second time in recent years that Hindi-speaking settlers have been targeted in Assam. In 2000, more than one hundred migrants were killed by suspected militants in a series of attacks. Suspected rebels killed at least eleven migrant workers and
wounded two others in a single attack. Men riding motorbikes and armed with automatic rifles gunned down a group of Hindi-speaking laborers from Assams neighboring state of Bihar. The attacks broke a brief lull in a wave of violence that swept Assam. Police say four women and two children - all members of a single family were hacked to death in Dibrugarh town. Earlier, four people were shot to death and several others wounded when suspected militants opened fire on a group of men watching a cricket match in Dhubri town. All the victims came from neighboring Bihar state. The violence erupted when rampaging mobs began looting homes, and assaulting people from Bihar, prompting thousands of Hindispeaking settlers to seek refuge in police stations. The state government blamed the killings on an outlawed militant group known as the United Liberation Front of Assam. It is a powerful insurgent group fighting for an independent nation for the Assamese people, who are ethnically distinct from Indias Hindu majority, and who speak a different language than the national language, Hindi. The militant group warned all Hindi-speaking settlers to leave the state or face retaliation. Since then, sporadic attacks targeted these settlers, claiming many lives and wounding dozens. Thousands of Bihari settlers have fled the state. Hundreds of others have taken shelter in relief camps established by the state government. Following the attacks, the government suspended senior officials responsible for law and order. Assams Chief Minister, Tarun Gogoi, has appealed for restraint and calm. He also urged the federal government to provide more security forces. The ethnic tensions in the state boiled over when Assamese youths attacked and prevented Bihari candidates from taking recruitment tests for jobs on the state-run railway. Groups in Bihar retaliated by attacking trains bound for Assam. Some two-thousand soldiers have been deployed in the state, but have failed to quell the violence. Assam has a history of resentment against outside settlers, whom local Assamese blame for taking away scarce employment opportunities. Assam is rich in resources, but is one of Indias most underdeveloped regions. The ethnic tensions in Assam have been echoed in the western state of Maharashtra, where a radical Hindu group, Shiv Sena, says it will not allow outsiders to take recruitment exams for jobs in the state.
A yearlong cease-fire pact between the Indian government and a tribal separatist group in the northeastern Assam state began 01 June 2005 amid hopes of ending nearly two decades of violent insurgency in the region. The cease-fire with the outlawed National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB) came into effect with the military calling off its operations against the group. The NDFB cadres will disarm and live in designated camps as per the truce pact. The Indian government and top NDFB leaders signed a ceasefire accord in New Delhi that was expected to bring the curtains down to a violent campaign for a homeland for the Bodo tribe in Assam that left thousands dead since 1986. New Delhi has invited the states other frontline rebel group, the outlawed United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), for peace talks although the outfit wants four of their jailed leaders to be released as a preconditions for the negotiations. The ULFA is a rebel group fighting for an independent Assamese homeland since 1979. More than 10,000 people have lost their lives to insurgency in Assam during the past two decades. In the 2004 State Department Country Reports on Terrorism added the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) to the Other Selected Terrorist Organizations (OSTO) List and recognized important changes in Indias counterterrorism legislation, particularly the repeal of the Prevention of Terrorism Act (POTA) and its replacement by a revamped Unlawful Activities Prevention Act (ULPA). In September of 2005, the ULFA resolved to pursue negotiations with the Indian government. The negotiations fell short of an agreement and, in 2006, fighting between the government and rebels continued. In the midst of this, the Indias state-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation pledged to begin a massive exploration project in Assam. Northeast / Nagaland Rebellion Inhabited by swarthy tribes, Nagaland has its own distinct culture and ethos. Happy and cheerful, the people have an innate sense of music and colour. All the land here is basically owned by villages and individuals and this is true of many areas of the NorthEast and, therefore, one rarely hears of land disputes and clashes. Gateways to villages and houses are really something to see. Nagaland grows a fair amount of oranges and pineapples. The allMini Year Book 2011 135
prevalent green continues and the scenic beauty of the state overwhelms. Christianity has had a profound influence on the region, and one sees well-maintained churches all over. On the border with Burma (Myanmar), south of Arunachal Pradesh and east of Assam, Nagaland is physically and conceptually at the very extremity of the subcontinent. Many of its hills and valleys, home to the fiercely independent Nagas, were uncharted until recently, and the eastern regions, remain far beyond the reach of the skeletal road system, despite the fact that the forested mountains rarely exceed 3000m in height. Today this remains the most politically sensitive of the so-called Northeastern hill states, and is all but closed to foreigners. Although the capital of Nagaland, Kohima, 74km east of Dimapur bordering the Assam Valley, was built by the British in the nineteenth century. It was never a hill station, and lacks Victorian promenades, villas and public gardens. It was founded here - alongside the large Angami village known as Kohima Village, or in the adopted Hindusthani as Bara Basti (the large village) - strictly for the purposes of administration, and continues in much the same vein under a new regime. A more intimate glimpse of traditional Naga life is offered by the walk up to Bara Basti, or the short trip to Khonoma, 20km beyond Kohima, the Nagas once impregnable stronghold, sacked by the British in 1879 and again by the Indian army in 1956. From villages perched high on the mountain ridges to either side of the valleys of Nagaland, Naga tribespeople survey their separate domains. Headhunters until not so long ago, the Nagas have long been feared and respected throughout the northeast, although in truth they are a warm and welcoming people. They seem originally to have lived in northeast Tibet, then moved through southwest China into Burma, Malaya and Indonesia, as well as eastern Assam. In Nagaland, they can be divided into sixteen main groups, including the Angamis around Kohima, the Konyaks, Ao, Lothas, Semas and Wanchus. Despite their fierce reputation, all are essentially farmers who cultivate terraced fields and tend cattle. Traditionally, Nagas differentiated between the soul, a celestial body, and the spirit, a supernatural being, believing that the human soul resided in the nape of the neck and could only be set
free by beheading, while the spiritual being, in the head, brought good fortune. Heads of enemies and fallen comrades were collected to add to those of the communitys own ancestors. Some tribes decorated their faces with tattoos of swirling horns to mark success in headhunting. Trophies were hoarded in each village in the mens meeting house, or morung, which also served as the boys dormitory. This large open hall was decorated with fantastic carvings of animals, elephant heads and tusks. Constructed of wood and bamboo, morungs were frequently destroyed by fire, along with the precious collection of heads; however, the benevolent spirits were retained by the re-creation of the lost collection in carved wood. In addition, the Naga still construct megalithic monuments, which line the approaches to villages, and come to personify those who erect them after death. Menhirs stand in pairs or in long double rows, to honour fame and generosity or enhance the fertility of a field. The Angamis were never ruled by chiefs; the closest equivalent is the Tevo, a descendant of the founder of the village and mediator between the community and the supernatural world. Each village is sub-divided into khel, which in the past often had independent inter-tribal policies, and who settled their own disputes by bloody fights. Relations between the sexes traditionally were conducted with great openness and equality. Few first marriages led to a permanent union, and in spite of the Christian influence divorce remains common. Although each tribe has its own dialect, a pidgin drawn from various Naga languages, Assamese and even Nepalese, has developed into the common Nagamese tongue. As the Nagas have been integrated into the modern world, their traditions are under threat. In an effort to realign society along so-called civilized lines, boys are encouraged to live at home with their parents, and morungs are discouraged and left to fall into ruin. The British administrators of Nagaland who arrived at a truce with the Nagas towards the end of the nineteenth century, agreed not to penetrate beyond certain boundaries, so their maps left numerous blank areas. Based in the Angami village of Kohima, the Deputy Commissioner occasionally toured the territories to collect taxes and administer justice and came to hold a certain authority among the various tribes. Some developed a loyalty to the British,
others saw them as intruders. In 1879 loyal Kohima Angamis who helped to smuggle a message through to British lines in the Assam Valley relieved the Khonoma Angami rebellion against Kohima through assistance. When the Indian flag replaced the Union flag in 1947, it was promptly removed by Nagas, who had come to accept the British presence(Crown Colony) but did not want to join India. For many years, the Naga National Council (NNC) under Angami Zapu Phizo, and with Chinese and the then undivided Pakistan support, fought a bitter war for Naga independence. In 1974, a section of it broke away and, as the United Democratic Front, won election to the state government, then signed the Shillong Accord and laid down their arms. But the rump of the NNC fought on, splitting in 1980 when Phizos lieutenant, Thuingaleng Muivah, Ishak Chishi Swu and SS Khaplang broke away to form the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN), again in 1988 they divided into two faction naming as NSCN(K) and NSCN(IM) . SS Khaplang faction is still fighting to this day but with one year ceasefire I-M group has now come to negotiation process with Indian govt.. In 1993, Nagaland experienced recrudescent violence as two ethnic groups, the Nagas and the Kukis, engaged in brutal conflict with each other. Adding to Indias internal unrest in this region were the links established between the Bodo insurgents in Assam and the National Socialist Council of Nagaland, which, in turn, had links to other active insurgent groups and, reportedly, operatives in Thailand. On August 1, 1997, a ceasefire between the Government and the ISAC-Muivah faction of the NSCN (NSCN-IM) went into effect and has been largely observed by the Government and all insurgent groups in the state. However, factional feuds among rival Naga insurgent groups claimed an estimated 120 lives during the first 3 months of the ceasefire. The Government extended the ceasefire for another 3 months on November 1, unilaterally including even those armed groups in Nagaland which had not been party to the original ceasefire. During the latter part of the year, the cease-fire was extended through July 31, 2000. In May 1999, underground Naga leaders Isak Chisi Swu and Thuingaleng Muivah, chairman and general
secretary respectively of the NSCM-IM, visited Nagaland for the first time in 33 years. The Government asked the NSCM-IM to define the geographical boundary of Nagalim to enable it to extend the cease-fire zone to these areas. On August 18, the NSCMIM killed Dally Mungro, general secretary of the Khaplang faction of the NSCN, along with two of his associates. The ceasefire was extended in January 2000 until July 31, 2001. In April another Naga insurgent group, the National Socialist Council of Nagaland-Khaplang (NSCN-K) the arch rival of NSCN (I-M) announced a formal ceasefire. Security forces were not operating against either of the two NSCN factions and both generally were observing the ceasefire with security forces. However, in April 2001 week-long fighting between the 2 NSCN factions left over 45 persons dead, and 4,500 persons were forced to flee 15 villages in Mon district. Negotiations to widen the area of application of the ceasefire were handicapped when NSCN(I-M) leader Thuingaleng Muivah was arrested in Thailand on January 19 for travelling on a forged South Korean passport. On August 25, a joint group of Thai and Indian citizens appealed to the central Government to secure the release of the NSCN(IM) leader in the interest of Naga peace talks. He was released on bail in September 2001. Between January and May 2001, there were 31 insurgencyrelated incidents in Nagaland in which 4 civilians and 17 militants were killed. The Governments negotiations with Naga separatists over a cease-fire caused significant unrest in Nagaland and in neighboring states. In one incident in June, police fired teargas shells into a crowd of more than 10,000 demonstrators who were protesting the extension of the Naga ceasefire beyond Nagalands borders at Nambol in Bishnupur distict of Manipur; police also attacked demonstrators with batons. At least 35 persons were injured. Mizoram Mizoram belongs to the Seven Sisters Region of Southeast Asia, which consists of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. With an area of 21,081 square kilometres Mizoram, once a district of Assam, was made into a Union Territory in 1972 and attained full statehood in February,
1987. Although its size is bigger than those of Manipur and Tripura, its population is smaller - 686,217 - according to the 1991 census. The Mizos are a sturdy people. Their traditional society and culture have been characterised by certain distinctive features: The term Mizo, which means highlander, refers to a composite group of allied tribes. These tribes started moving back into their present abode in India from the Chin hill tracts of Burma towards the beginning of the 18th century. The Lushais, the most dominant group among them, were the first to arrive. Other groups that followed the Lushai migration comprised the Hmars, the Pawis, the Raltes, the Paites, and the Thadous, etc. The Lakhers came somewhat later, and the Chakmas were the last to enter from the Chittagong tract. Initially each tribe or clan was eager to maintain its distinctive identity in respect of dialect, religious beliefs and social customs. But subsequently a process of integration and assimilation came into play, and there has now developed among them a common identity as Mizos. Although some of the major sub-tribes have retained their separate dialects within themselves, the minor one have given up theirs in favour of the Lushai dialect called Dulien. The Lushai hegemony has been accepted in other socio-cultural fronts as well. An inherent spirit of self-help was nurtured. Widespread acceptance of Christianity and a high percentage of literacy have caused the Mizo society to move pretty fast along the path of modernity. But there are many indications to show that they are also not in favour of fully giving up traditional ways. Mizoram, the Land of the Highlanders, the change is instantaneous - from green paddy fields and tea estates to forests and bamboo-covered hills. Despite the difficult terrain, Mizoram is a gentle pastoral land, and the Mizos a friendly and welcoming people. Whitewashed Christian churches dot the landscape, making the region feel more like Central America than a state squeezed between Burma (Myanmar)and the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. Mizorams two main species of bamboo flower every fifty years (one 18 years after the other), attracting hordes of rats and boosting their fertility rate fourfold. The rats devour crops in the fields, leaving famine in their wake. The first time this happened after
Independence, in 1959, unpreparedness and apparent callousness on the part of Delhi and Assam led Laldenga, a clerk on the District Council, to found the Mizo Famine Front (MFF). Set up at first simply to fight the famine, it gradually transformed into the Mizo National Front (MNF), a guerrilla group fighting for Independent Mizoram. The governments heavy-handed response in 1967, rounding up Mizos from their homes into guarded villages under curfew, not only boosted support for the MNF, but also wiped out the traditional Mizo way of life at a stroke. Bangladeshi independence was a bitter blow to the MNF, who relied on Pakistan support, and moderates on both sides eventually brought them to the negotiating table, where statehood was granted in 1986 in return for an end to the armed national liberation struggle. Laldenga became chief minister of the new state, but his administration proved rather a damp squib, and he lost to Congress in the following elections. The MNF have been in peaceful opposition ever since. A few diehards tried to continue the armed struggle, but without their leader, and with no popular support, they did not last for long. For the last few years, Mizoram has been at peace. It is the land where revolution was killed by India. Tripura Tripura is steeped in history with linkages established from the legendary Limar dynasty. Recorded history dates back to almost 3,000 years. Even Samudra Guptas pillars mention the existence of this state. This is yet another state like Manipur where Christian influence is negligible. It is the unique continuous history that has to be absorbed here. In geographical terms, Tripura is a small state and the second smallest state of India. The architecture of the temple of Lord Jagannath is interesting and worth studying. It rises from an octagonal base. The Ujjayant Palace, dating back to Bir Bikram, is equally interesting with its Indo-Saracenic architecture. Old buildings and ruins worth exploring are in plenty like the lake palace called Neer Mahal on Rudrasagar Lake in Udaipur, the ancient capital. Sipahijala is an interesting area to spend the day. There is a comfortable guesthouse in the complex surrounded by forests and overlooking a large lake where one can go boating.
The name Tripura has a halo of mystery around it. It signifies different things to different people. Analysing the name etymologically some researchers believe it to a combined form of two Kok Borok (indigenous language) words viz.tui (water) and pra(confluence), meaning confluence of water. Tripura is situated southeast of Bangladesh and is located between the parallels of 22056' and 24032" North latitudes and 91021" east longitudes. The present Tripura state covers an area of 10,477 sq. Km. Its total population is 3 million. The indigenous Tripuri people are of Mongoloid stock. Originally they migrated from near the upper courses of the Yangtsekiang and the Hwangho rivers in Western China. They had left China long before the Sui dynasty came to power. At the time of migration they were animists. So it may be reasonably assumed that they migrated before 65 AD, the year Budhism was introduced in China. The common reference to the Mongoloid people as Kiratas and Cinas in the early Sanskrit texts of India unmistakably indicates that they came down to the Assam valley long before the dawn of Christian era. Tripuris entered their present country through its north-eastern corner , settled there and gradually expanded their settlement and suzerainty over the whole of Tripura. They were able to expand their influence as far south as Chittagong, as far west as Comilla and Noakhali (known during the British period as plains Tipwrah) and as far north as Sylhet (all in present Bangladesh). Hardly their forefathers could imagine that their descendents were destined to build a strong monarchy and resist the advance of the Mughals. The ruling dynasty passed through several vicissitudes of history and ruled Tripura for several centuries till up to 14 October 1949, the day Trupura was annexed by India. The indigenous Tripuri people comprises of various hill tribal communities viz., Tipra, Reang Jamatia, Kapeng, Noatia, Koloi. Halam,,etc. who migrated to this land in successive waves in the ancient past. They grew in isolation and were sometimes subjugated by one another. Each community had its own elementary social and administrative organization starting from the village level and up to the chieftainship of the whole tribe. The tribes enjoy their traditional freedom based on the concept of self-determination.
The relation between the king and the subject tribes was as Maharaja (king) of Tripura-Missip or liaison officer Roy of Headman of the tribe -Sardar of chief of the village-the individual. The Tripuri people have a rich historical, social and cultural heritage which is totally distinct from that of the mainland Indians, their distinctive culture as reflected in their dance, music, festivals, management of community affairs, dress and food habit has a strong Mongoloid Base. Kok Borok, the linguafranca of the twelve largest linguistic groups of the indigenous Tripuris and other dialects spoken in Trpura are of the Tibeto-Burman group as distinct from those spoken in India. There is no influence whatsoever of from those spoken by other Mongoloid peoples in the North-eastern region. Tripuras basic problem, rather the indigenous Tripuri peoples problem, is the huge influx of foreigners, mainly Hindu Bengalis and the resultant alienation of indigenous land thereby causing the threat to the distinctive identity of the Tripuri people and their very existence. India has all along been encouraging this influx of coreligionists and co-ethnic population so as to induct a co-ethnic population base to serve her security interests. The huge influx of foreigners has completely upset the demographic composition of Tripura. The indigenous Tripuri people which constituted more than 85% of the total population at the time of annexation by India has now been reduced to an insignificant minority of less than 29% of the present total of 3 million. To the indigenous, the urban areas have already become a foreign land where their presence is hardly 5%. This population invasion has become the gravest threat to the very existence of the small indigenous Tripuri people as a distinct human groups. Being culturally more advanced, the settlers now control the economy of Tripura besides having grabbed all the fertile agricultural lands of the indigenous people. With the economy in their hands and political system favourable to them, the refugees have now captured political power in Tripura by the sheer strength of their numbers. Thus, the indigenous Tripuri people have been made foreigners in their own homeland. If the present phenomenon is not stopped, the world will have lost the identity of yet another small indigenous people, the Tripuris, in another forty years.
And now, with machineries of the state under their control, particularly the state police and para-military forces, the refugee settlers have unleashed a reign of terror against the indigenous Tripuri people. Tucked away in a corner of the so-call northeast, surrounded by Bangladesh on three sides, the wooded hills and lowlands of Tripura have long served as a meeting place for a huge assortment of peoples and races. Over the last few centuries, however, its closest ties have been with Bengal. This Tripura also was a separate independent kingdom before annexation by India in 1949. It is historical fact that Tripura was not a part of India. In a critical condition of the kings matter as Queen Regent of Tripura compelled to sign for merger agreement on 9 September 1949. After annexation with India the bonafied Tripuri people become microscopic minority because of the Hindu Bangali huge influx from the then East Pakistan (Present Bangladesh). Now theyre all the political, economical,cultural dominating by outsider. Therefore Tripura Peoples Democratic Front (TPDF) and National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT) start armed national liberation struggle against Indian colonialism. They also want to reestablish Tripura as an independent country. At present majority of its people of Tripura are Hindu Bengali. Siachen Glacier / Operation Meghdoot There has been no fighting on Siachen since late 2003, when a ceasefire came into effect between Indian and Pakistani troops. Since 1984, the snow-warriors of India and Pakistan had been locked in supremacy for the control of Siachen glacier. Its inhospitable terrain has taken heavy toll of men and resources on both sides. The worlds highest battlefield, for two decades India and Pakistan fought at altitudes of over 20,000 feet in minus 60C temperatures. The Siachen Glacier has no significant strategic value. The Siachen glacier is the great Himalayan watershed that demarcates central Asia from the Indian sub-continent, and that separates Pakistan from China in this region. Siachen is the worlds second longest non-polar glacier, and thus is sometimes referred to as the third pole. It is 70 km long and flows from an altitude of 5750 meters to 3620 meters above sea level.
Tajikistans Fedchenko Glacier is 77 km long. After Siachen (70), the second longest in the Karakoram Mountains is the Biafo Glacier at 63 km. Measurements are from recent imagery, supplemented with Russian 1:200,000 scale topographic mapping as well as the 1990 Orographic Sketch Map: Karakoram: Sheet 2, Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research, Zurich. Glacier length is measured from the top of the longest arm or tributary of the glacier to the snout. The 70 km long Siachen glacier lies in the eastern Karakoram Range, just east of the Saltoro ridge line. The Saltoro Ridge originates from the Sia Kangri in the Karakoram Ridge and the altitudes range from 5450 to 7720 meters (17,880 to 25,300 feet.) The major passes on this ridge are Sia La at 5589 meters (18,336 feet) and Bilafond La at 5450 meters (17,880 feet), and Gyong La at 5689 meters (18,665 feet.) The roots of the conflict over Siachen (the place of roses) lie in the non-demarcations on the map northward to the China boundary beyond NJ9842, which is the lines dead end in the IndiaPakistan line of control agreement. The 1949 Karachi agreement and the 1972 Simla agreement presumed that it was not feasible for human habitation to survive north of NJ9842. Prior to 1984 neither India nor Pakistan had any permanent presence in the area. In the 1970s and early 1980s Pakistan permitted several mountaineering expeditions to climb high peaks on this glacier. This was to reinforce their claim on the area as these expeditions arrived on the glacier with a permit obtained from the Government of Pakistan. Operation Meghdoot [named after the divine cloud messenger in a Sanskrit play] was launched on 13 April 1984 when the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force went into the Glacier. Pakistan quickly responded with troop deployments. The Indian Army controls the heights, holding on to the tactical advantage of high ground. The Pakistanis cannot get up to the glacier, while the Indians cannot come down. Presently India holds all of the glacier and commands the top of all three passes. Pakistan formerly controled Gyong La at 35-10-29N 77-04-15E that overlooks the Gyong (tributary of the Shyok) and Nubra River Vallies and Indias access to Leh District. However, the Pakistanis
control the glacial valley just five kilometers southwest of Gyong La and thus access to the Leh District. The battle zone comprised an inverted triangle resting on NJ 9842 with Sia Kangri / Indira Col and the Karakoram Pass as the other two extremities. Estimates of the troop deployments vary. One estimate suggested that both sides deploy about 3,000 soldiers, while another reports that a total of some 10,000 troops are deployed on each side of the Line of Actual Control. According to a third estimate Pakistan maintains three battalions on the glacier, while India has seven battalions defending Siachen. The Pakistanis can resupply most of their posts by road and pack mule. At their forward positions, some as high as 21,000 feet, the Indians must rely on helicopters. At one time, one Pakistani soldier was killed every fourth day, while one Indian soldier was killed every other day. Over 1,300 Pakistani soldiers died on Siachen between 1984 and 1999. According to Indian estimates, this operation had cost India over Rs. 50 billion and almost 2,000 personnel casualties till 1997. Almost all of the casualties on both sides have been due to extreme weather conditions. India said that it would respond positively to the unilateral ceasefire announcement made by the Pakistan. The Government of India had also proposed a ceasefire along the Actual Ground Position Line in Siachen. A senior External Affairs Ministry official said that once the Pakistani ceasefire came into effect, India too would do the same. If they stop shelling our positions on the LoC, we will do the same. The truce, which has held, is part of a thaw in the hostility between the two countries. The truce decision was wrapped up on 23 Novembe 2003 by the Director-General of military operations of India Lt. General. B S Takhar and his Pakistani counterpart Maj. General. Mohd. Yousuf on the hotline bewteen the two countries. On June 12, 2005, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh became the first Indian Prime Minister to visit the glacier calling for a peaceful resolution of the problem. In the previous year, the President of India, Abdul Kalam became the first head of state to visit the area. Siachen has accounted for only a few deaths since the truce due to harsh climate and glaciated terrain.
Brass Tacks The Brass Tacks crisis between India and Pakistan took place between November 1986 and March 1987. With the crisis peaking in January 1987, India had deployed 400,000 troops, or about half the Indian army, within 100 miles of Pakistan. It began when India had launched the largest ever military exercises in the subcontinent, called Operation Brass Tacks. The exercise would take place not in Indias far north, where the always tense state of Kashmir is located, but in the desert area of Rajastan, a few hundred miles from the Pakistani border, which, a the Pakistani government was sure to note, was and ideal location from which to launch a cross border operation into the Pakistani state of Sindh that could cut Pakistan in half. The exercises included bulk of Indian Army, and was comprised of the nine infantry, three mechanised, three armoured and one air assault divisions, and three armoured brigades under four corps HQ with all theparaphernalia for a real war, concentrated on Pakistans sensitive border areas. This was bigger than any NATO exercise - and the biggest since World War II. Also planned was an ambitious amphibious operation by the Indian Navy with one division, in Korangi area of Karachi. Another feature of the exercise was a decision by General Sundarji to integrate Indias special weapons, including tactical nuclear into day-to day field maneuvers of the troops. Pakistani military analysts saw Brass Tacks as a threatening exhibition of an overwhelming conventional force. Some even suspected that India wanted to launch swift surgical strikes at the Sikh terrorists training and planning sites inside Pakistan. Pakistan responded with maneuvers of its own that were located close to Indias state of Punjab. The crisis atmosphere was heightened when Pakistans premier nuclear scientist Abdul Qadir Khan revealed in a March 1987 interview that Pakistan had manufactured a nuclear bomb. Although Khan later retracted his statement, India stated that the disclosure was forcing us to review our option. As tensions increased the hot line between the two states was activated and officials from both sides tried to ease fears. Eventually, in February 1987, Pakistans President General Ziaul Haq
travelled to India, under the pretense of watching a cricket match, where he held talks with the Indian leadership to diffuse the crisis. These talks were followed up by additional talk in Islamabad between Feb 27 and Mar 2 at which point both sides agreed to a phased troop withdrawal to peacetime positions. Formal and impromptu talks between the leaders of the two countries finally resulted in a number of new CBMs between India and Pakistan. These were important and covered a number of areas. For example, the Agreement on the Prohibition of Attack against Nuclear Installations and Facilities was signed on December 31, 1988, in Islamabad by the two foreign secretaries and witnessed by the two prime ministers, Rajiv Gandhi and Benazir Bhutto, respectively. Earlier fears of impending attack on the facilities resulting in an all-out war fed the need for the agreement. President Muhammad Zia ul-Haq, who was also the army chief of staff viewed the Indian maneuvers as a direct threat and ordered his armored units to move to the front, where by mid-january, the two armies stood within firing range along an extended border area. At the height of the buildup, the Indian army leadership decided to provide full-scale briefings to the Indian media about the Brass-Tacks exercises in which General Sundarji declared that they were non-provacative. There had been no public discussion of the huge troop movements until then, and the crisis abated. 1990 Indo-Pakistan Crisis The two South Asian neighbors were at the brink of war in the spring of 1990 because of growing tensions over Kashmir because of Pakistani ISI support of militants fighting in Indian controlled Kashmir. India moved more troops into the region to prevent cross-border infiltration from Pakistan and to threaten hot pursuit or raids on training camps but not to launch concerted, major operations against Pakistan. In retrospect it was unlikely that Pakistan would have used nukes, but the success of the nuclear bluff reinforced leaderships belief in the value of nuclear weapons both as a deterrent and as a tool of diplomatic bargaining. Despite a civilian government being in power in Pakistan, the military continued to retain control over its nuclear programme, including the use of nuclear diplomacy. Under Zia, Pakistan had
adopted a strategy of undermining Indian security through a war by proxy in Jammu and Kashmir. By 1990, the Kashmir insurgency was at its peak as perceived by Pakistan, and India-Pakistan relations had deteriorated. On 13 March 1990, Benazir Bhutto travelled to Pakistan controlled Kashmir and promised a thousand-year war to support the militants. It was under these circumstances that Pakistan implicitly threatened to use nuclear weapons if India intervened militarily, across the Line of Control (LoC) and, therefore, persuaded the United States to act as an intermediary.8 The chronic conventional arms firing across the LoC in Kashmir increased manifold. In light of the growing risks of war between the two states and the likelihood that nuclear weapons might be used, the first Bush administration, under the Pressler amendment, imposed economic, military sanctions against Pakistan. 1999 Kargil Conflict The 1999 Kargil War took place between May 8, when Pakistani forces and Kashmiri militants were detected atop the Kargil ridges and July 14 when both sides had essentially ceased their military operations. It is believed that the planning for the operation, by Pakistan, may have occurred about as early as the autumn of 1998. The spring and summer incursion of Pakistan-backed armed forces into territory on the Indian side of the line of control around Kargil in the state of Jammu and Kashmir and the Indian military campaign to repel the intrusion left 524 Indian soldiers dead and 1,363 wounded, according to December 1 statistics by Defense Minister George Fernandes. Earlier Government figures stated that 696 Pakistani soldiers were killed. A senior Pakistani police official estimated that approximately 40 civilians were killed on the Pakistani side of the line of control. By 30 June 1999 Indian forces were prepared for a major highaltitude offensive against Pakistani posts along the border in the disputed Kashmir region. Over the previous six weeks India had moved five infantry divisions, five independent brigades and 44 battalions of paramilitary troops to Kashmir. The total Indian troop strength in the region had reached 730,000. The build-up included
the deployment of around 60 frontline aircraft. The Pakistani effort to take Kargil occurred after the February 1999 Lahore summit between then Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and the Indian Prime Minister Atal Bahari Vajpayee. This conference was believed to have de-escalated the tensions that had existed since May 1998. The major motive behind the operation was to help in internationalising the Kashmir issue, and for which global attention had been flagging for some time. The intrusion plan was the brainchild of Pakistans Chief of Army Staff, Gen Pervez Musharraf and Lt Gen Mohammed Aziz, the Chief of General Staff. They obtained only an in principle concurrence, without any specifics, from Nawaz Sharif, the Pakistani Prime Minister. Pakistans military aim for carrying out the intrusions was based on exploitation of the large gaps that exist in the defences in the sector both on Indian and Pak side of the Line of Control (LoC). The terrain is extremely rugged with very few tracks leading from the main roads towards the LoC. During winters the area gets very heavy snowfall making movement almost impossible. The only mountain pass connecting the Kargil area to the Kashmir Valley, Zoji La, normally opens by the end of May or beginning of June. Thus, moving of reinforcements by surface means from Srinagar would not have been possible till then. Pakistan Army calculated that even if the intrusions were discovered in early May, as they were, the Indian Armys reaction would be slow and limited, thereby allowing him to consolidate the intrusions more effectively. In the event, however, Zoji La was opened for the induction of troops in early May itself. The intrusions, if effective, would enable Pakistani troops to secure a number of dominating heights from where the Srinagar-Leh National Highway 1A could be interdicted at a number of places. The intrusions would also draw in and tie down Indian Army reserves. The intrusions would, further, give Pakistan control over substantial tracts of strategic land area across the LoC, thereby, enabling Islamabad to negotiate from a position of strength. The intrusions would irrevocably alter the status of the LoC. Apart from keeping the plan top secret, the Pakistan Army also undertook certain steps to maintain an element of surprise and
maximise deception. There was no induction of any new units or any fresh troops into the FCNA for the proposed operation. Any large-scale troop movement involving even two or three battalions would have drawn the attention of the Indian Army. The Pakistan Army artillery units, which were inducted into the FCNA during the heavy exchange of fire from July to September 1998, were not deinducted. Since the exchange of artillery fire continued thereafter, though at a lower scale, this was not considered extraordinary. There was no movement of reserve formations or units into FCNA until after the execution of the plan and operations had begun with the Indian Armys response. No new administrative bases for the intrusions were to be created, instead they were to be catered for from those already in the existing defences. The logistic lines of communication were to be along the ridgelines and the nullahs well away from the tracks and positions of the Indian Army troops already in position. After it was finalised, the plan was put into action towards the end of April. The main groups were broken into a number of smaller sub groups of 30 to 40 each for carrying out multiple intrusions along the ridgelines and occupy dominating heights. The terrain of the Kargil and surrounding regions of the LOC is inhospitable in the best of times. Some of the characteristics of the region are jagged heights of up to 18,000 feet and harsh gusts of wind and temperatures plunging to about -60 degrees Celsius in the winter. The battle terrain of Operation Vijay is dominated by high altitude peaks and ridgelines most of which are over 16000 ft. This region is part of the cold desert region of Ladakh. Dry, and at the same time very cold, the Kargil Mountains are a formidable constituent of the Greater Himalayas. Unlike other similar high altitude areas, the Kargil Mountains lose snow cover rapidly as the summer progresses. Below the peaks and the ridgelines are loose rocks, which make climbing extremely difficult. If it is not the snow cover, then it is the rocks, which cause extreme hardships on the troops. There had existed a sort of gentlemans agreement between India and Pakistan that the armies of either side will not occupy posts from the 15 September to 15th April of each year. This had been the case since 1977, but in 1999 this agreement was cast
aside by the Pakistani army in hopes of trying to gain the upper hand in Kashmir and plunging the Indian subcontinent in brief and limited war and raising the spectre of nuclear war. As events unfolded, Zoji La opened early on account of the unseasonal melting of snows and the Indian Armys reaction was far swifter than Pakistan had expected. Further, Pakistan also did not expect the reaction of the Indian Army to be as vigorous as has been demonstrated manifested. Indian Army Patrols detected intruders atop Kargil ridges during the period 8-15 May 1999. The pattern of infiltration clearly established the participation of trained Mujahideen and Pakistan Army regulars in these operations in areas east of Batalik and north of Dras. Pakistan resorted to artillery firing from across the border both in general areas of Kargil and Dras. Indian army launched operations which succeeded in cutting off the infiltrators in Dras sector. Infiltrators were also pushed back in Batalik sector. The Intruders on the heights were an amalgam of professional soldiers and mercenaries. They included the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 12th battalions of the Pakistan Armys Northern Light Infantry (NLI). Among them were many Mujaheddin and members of Pakistans the Special Services Group (SSG). It was initially estimated that there were about 500 to 1,000 intruders occupying the heights but later it is estimated that the actual strength of the intruders may have been about 5,000. The area of intrusion extended in an area of 160km. The Pakistani Army had set up a complex logistical network through which the intruders across the LOC would be well supplied from the bases in POK (Pakistan Occupied Kashmir). The intruders were also well armed with AK 47 and 56, mortars, artillery, anti aircraft guns, and Stinger missiles. Indian Army Operations The Indian Army detected the intrusions between May 3-12. From May 15 - 25, 1999, military operations were planned, troops moved to their attack locations, artillery and other equipment were moved in and the necessary equipment was purchased. Indian Armys offensive named Operation Vijay was launched on May 26, 1999. Indian troops moved towards Pakistani occupied positions with air cover provided by aircraft and helicopters. Operation Vijay in the Kargil district of Jammu and Kashmir
during the summer months of 1999 was a joint Infantry-Artillery endeavour to evict regular Pakistani soldiers of the Northern Light Infantry (NLI) who had intruded across the Line of Control (LoC) into Indian territory and had occupied un-held high-altitude mountain peaks and ridgelines. It soon became clear that only massive and sustained firepower could destroy the intruders sangars and systematically break their will to fight through a process of attrition and, in the process, enable the gallant infantrymen to close in with and evict the intruders. Thus began a unique saga in the history of the employment of Artillery firepower in battle. The first major ridgeline to fall was Tololing in the Drass subsector on June 13, 1999 which was captured after several weeks of bitter fighting. The attacks were preceded by sustained fire assaults from over one hundred Artillery guns, mortars and rocket launchers firing in concert. Thousands of shells, bombs and rocket warheads wrecked havoc and prevented the enemy from interfering with the assault. The 155 mm Bofors medium guns and 105 mm Indian field guns in the direct firing role destroyed all visible enemy sangars and forced the enemy to abandon several positions. The arcs of fire trailing behind the Bofors high explosive shells and the Grad rockets provided an awesome sight and instilled fear into the minds of Pakistani soldiers. The capture of the Tololing complex paved the way for successive assaults to be launched on the Tiger Hill complex from several directions. Tiger Hill was re-captured on July 5, 1999 and Point 4875, another dominating feature to the west of Tiger Hill and jutting into Mashkoh Valley, was re-captured on July 7, 1999. Point 4875 has since been re-named Gun Hill in honour of the stupendous performance of the Gunners in the Drass and Mashkoh subsectors. Over 1,200 rounds of high explosive rained down on Tiger Hill and caused large-scale death and devastation. Once again, the Gunners of the Indian Artillery fired their guns audaciously in the direct firing role, under the very nose of Pakistani artillery observation posts (OPs), without regard for personal safety. Even 122 mm Grad multi-barrel rocket launchers (MBRLs) were employed in the direct firing role. Hundreds of shells and rocket warheads impacted on the pinnacle of Tiger Hill in full view of TV cameras
and the nation watched in rapt attention the might of the Regiment of Artillery . While the nations attention was riveted on the fighting in the Drass sector, steady progress was being made in the Batalik sector despite heavy casualties. In the Batalik sector, the terrain was much tougher and the enemy was far more strongly entrenched. The containment battle itself took almost a month. Artillery OPs were established on dominating heights and sustained Artillery fire was brought down on the enemy continuously by day and night allowing him no rest. Point 5203 was re-captured on June 21, 1999 and Khalubar was re-captured on July 6, 1999. Within the next few days, further attacks were pressed home against the remaining Pakistani posts in the Batalik sub-sector and these fell quickly after being pulverised by Artillery fire. Once again, Artillery firepower played an important part in softening the defences and destroying the enemys battalion headquarters and logistics infrastructure. The Indian Artillery fired over 250,000 shells, bombs and rockets during the Kargil conflict. Approximately, 5,000 Artillery shells, mortar bombs and rockets were fired daily from 300 guns, mortars and MBRLs. Such high rates of fire over long periods had not been witnessed anywhere in the world since the second World War. Air Operations From May 11 to May 25, ground troops supported by the Air Force tried to contain the threat, assessed the enemy dispositions and carried out various preparatory actions. Entry of the Air Force into combat action on May 26 represented a paradigm shift in the nature and prognosis of the conflict. In operation Safed Sagar, the Air Force carried out nearly 5,000 sorties of all types over 50-odd days of operations. The Western Air Command conducted the three-week-long exercise Trishul three weeks before Kargil. During Trishul, the IAF flew 5,000 sorties with 300 aircraft using 35,000 personnel and engaged targets at high elevation in the Himalayas. The IAF claimed to have flown 550 sorties in Kargil, though just about 80 were on or close to the target. Soon after Kargil, both the commander-inchief and senior air staff officer of the Western Air Command
were mysteriously transferred to the Central and Eastern commands. Operations in this terrain required special training and tactics. It was soon realised that greater skills and training were needed to attack the very small/miniature targets extant, often not visible to the naked eye. The shoulder-fired missile threat was omnipresent and there were no doubts about this. An IAF Canberra recce aircraft was damaged by a Pakistani Stinger fired possibly from across the LoC. On the second and third day of the operations, still in the learning curve, the IAF lost one MiG-21 fighter and one Mi-17 helicopter to shoulder-fired missiles by the enemy. In addition, one MiG-27 was lost on the second day due to engine failure just after the pilot had carried out successful attacks on one of the enemys main supply dumps. These events only went to reinforce the tactics of the IAF in carrying out attacks from outside the Stinger SAM envelope and avoiding the use of helicopters for attack purposes. Attack helicopters have a certain utility in operations under relatively benign conditions but are extremely vulnerable in an intense battlefield. The fact that the enemy fired more than 100 shoulder fired SAMs against IAF aircraft indicates not only the great intensity of the enemy air defences in the area but also the success of IAF tactics, especially after the first three days of the war during which not a single aircraft received even a scratch. The terrain in the Kargil area is 16,000 to 18,000 feet above sea level. The aircraft are, therefore, required to fly at about 20,000 feet. At these heights, the air density is 30% less than at sea level. This causes a reduction in weight that can be carried and also reduces the ability to manoeuvre as the radius of a turn is more than what it is at lower levels. The larger radius of turn reduces manoeuverability in the restricted width of the valley. The engines performance also deteriorates as for the same forward speed there is a lesser mass of air going into the jet engine of the fighter or helicopter. The non-standard air density also affects the trajectory of weapons. The firing, hence, may not be accurate. In the mountains, the targets are relatively small, spread-out and difficult to spot visually, particularly by pilots in high speed jets. The Indian airfields nearest to Kargil were Srinagar and Avantipur.
Adampur near Jalandhar was also close enough to support air operations. Therefore, the IAF operated from these three bases. The planes used for ground attack were MiG-2ls, MiG- 23s, MiG27s, Jaguars and the Mirage- 2000. The Mig-2l was built mainly for air interception with a secondary role of ground attack. However, it is capable of operating in restricted spaces which was of importance in the Kargil terrain. The MiG-23s and 27s are optimised for attacking targets on the ground. They can carry a load of 4 tonnes each. This could be a mix of weapons including cannon, rocket pods, free- fall and retarded bombs and smart weapons. It has a computerised bomb sight which enables accurate weapon delivery. These planes were, therefore, ideal for use in the mountainous terrain of Kargil. However, on May 27, the MiG-27 flown by Flt Lt Nachiketa, while attacking a target in Batalik sector, developed an engine trouble and he had to bailout. Sqn Ldr Ajay Ahuja, in a MiG-2l, went out of the way to locate the downed pilot and in the process was hit by a Pakistani surface- to-air missile (SAM). He ejected safely but his body bearing gun- wounds was returned subsequently. The stateof-the-art Mirage-2000s were used for electronic warfare, reconnaissance and ground attack. This fighter delivers its weapons with pinpoint accuracy. In addition to carrying free-fall bombs, it also fires the laser-guided bomb with deadly effects. In fact, it was this weapon that caused considerable devastation to Pakistani bunkers on the ridges at Tiger Hill and Muntho Dhalo. In the Mirage attack on Muntho Dhalo, Pakistani troops suffered 180 casualties. Because of the need to engage Pakistani targets in the valleys and on ridges, the slower helicopter gunship became an important requirement. The load-carrying Mi-17 was modified to carry 4 rocket pods with air-to-ground rockets. This helicopter proved effective in engaging Pakistani bunkers and troops. On May 28, while attacking Point 5140 in Tololing sector, one helicopter and its crew were lost to a Stinger heat-seeking missile. Thereafter, because of the number of SAMs being fired, helicopters resorted to evasive tactics but persisted with the attacks. The operations restricted to Kargil area did not lend themselves to the use of air power. There was a constraint of not crossing the Line of Control (LoC) to the Pakistan side. The IAF was, therefore,
not at liberty to destroy the Pakistani supply lines and smash the logistic bases across the LoC. However, such attacks were done on Pakistani facilities on the Indian side of the LoC. The targets were identified along with the Army and engaged by day and by night in precision attacks by Mirage 2000s and Jaguars. Supply lines, logistic bases and enemy strong points were destroyed. As a result, the Army was able to pursue its operations at a faster rate and with fewer losses. To obviate the threat from SAMs, bombing was done accurately from 30,000 feet above sea level or about 10,000 feet above the terrain. In these high level attacks, the infantryman does not see his own fighters and, therefore, feels that air support is not there. It is estimated that in operation Vijay, about 700 intruders were killed by air action alone. The IAF has intercepted a number of enemy wireless transmissions indicating the effectiveness of IAF attacks. Pakistan Air Force fighters were picked up on the airborne radar of our fighters but the PAF planes did not cross to the Indian side of the LoC. Nevertheless, as a precaution, IAF , strike aircraft were accompanied by fighter escorts. After all, in the recent past no war has been won without control of the air space in which operations are conducted. Naval Operations While the Army and the Air Force readied themselves for the battle on the heights of Kargil, Indian Navy began to draw out its plans. Unlike the earlier wars with Pakistan, this time the bringing in of the Navy at the early stages of the conflict served to hasten the end of the conflict in Indias favor. In drawing up its strategy, the Navy was clear that a reply to the Pakistani misadventure had to be two-pronged. While ensuring safety and security of Indian maritime assets from a possible surprise attack by Pakistan, the Indian imperative was that all efforts must be made to deter Pakistan from escalating the conflict into a full scale war. Thus, the Indian Navy was put on a full alert from May 20 onwards, a few days prior to the launch of the Indian retaliatory offensive. Naval and Coast Guard aircraft were put on a continuous surveillance and the units readied up for meeting any challenge at sea.
Time had now come to put pressure on Pakistan, to ensure that the right message went down to the masterminds in that country. Strike elements from the Eastern Fleet were sailed from Visakhapatnam on the East Coast to take part in a major naval exercise called SUMMEREX in the North Arabian Sea. This was envisaged as the largest ever amassing of naval ships in the region. The message had been driven home. Pakistan Navy, in a defensive mood, directed all its units to keep clear of Indian naval ships. As the exercise shifted closer to the Makaran Coast, Pakistan moved all its major combatants out of Karachi. It also shifted its focus to escorting its oil trade from the Gulf in anticipation of attacks by Indian ships. As the retaliation from the Indian Army and the Air Force gathered momentum and a defeat to Pakistan seemed a close possibility, an outbreak of hostilities became imminent. Thus the naval focus now shifted to the Gulf of Oman. Rapid reaction missile carrying units and ships from the fleet were deployed in the North Arabian Sea for carrying out missile firing, anti-submarine and electronic warfare exercises. In the absence of the only aircraft carrier, Sea Harrier operations from merchant ships were proven. The Navy also readied itself for implementing a blockade of the Pakistani ports, should the need arise. In addition, Naval amphibious forces from the Andaman group of islands were moved to the western sea-board. In a skilful use of naval power in the form of Operation Talwar, the Eastern Fleet joined the Western Naval Fleet and blocked the Arabian sea routes of Pakistan. Apart from a deterrent, the former Prime Minister Nawaz Sharief later disclosed that Pakistan was left with just six days of fuel (POL) to sustain itself if a full fledged war broke out. 2002 - Kashmir Crisis Indian troops were placed on alert after a terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001. By early Jaunuary 2002 India had reportedly mobilised over 500,000 troops and its three armored divisions along the 3,000 km frontier with Pakistan. India also placed its navy and air force on high alert and deployed its nuclear-capable missiles. Pakistan reacted in kind, concentrating forces along the line of control that divides Kashmir. The deploy158 Mini Year Book 2011
ment, which included troops in the states of Rajasthan, Punjab and Gujarat, was the largest since the 1971 conflict between the two rivals. Over 300,000 Pakistani troops are also mobilized. According to some reports, by late May 2002 as many as 700,000 Indian Army and paramilitary forces have deployed along the IndoPakistani border and the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir. Pakistan has reportedly deployed as many as 300,000 troops, and perhaps as much as three-fourths of the army [which would be nearly 400,000 troops], at or near the Indian border. Both Pakistan and India have placed their forces in the disputed border area on alert. Indias paramilitary contingent comprises several hundred of thousand combat-ready troops, a major portion of whom were already deployed on the Line of Control. India has made a troop pull-back conditional on Islamabad halting the flow of militants into Kashmir, but this may not be evident until the summer when the snows melt and infiltration normally starts. When India did not act by the end of June, when the monsoons began, military action became more complicated through the summer. Indias primary security objective is to curtail the cross-border intervention by Pakistan and Kashmiri militants. Indias expected option, to avoid a wider war, consisted of limited strikes against militant camps in Kashmir. The four major militant centers which have been identified in PoK are in Zaffarwal, Samani, Kotli and Kahuta areas and are within two kilometres of the LoC. The center in Zaffarwal is run by the Lashkar-e-Toiba (LeT) ultras and the Samani center is manned by Mujahideens of almost all outfits. The Kotli center is operated by the Harkat-ul-Jehad-e-Islami (HUJI), and the Kahuta centre jointly by the Lashkar and Jaish-eMohammad (JeM) militants. India would probably prefer opening a limited front along the LoC, rather than a wider war. Even in event of a larger war on the international boundary, India would probably seek to break through Pakistans defenses along the LoC to capture some additional territory in Kashmir. Although India could also seek to punish Pakistan, and holding Pakistani territory would probably not be the aim of Indias offensive military operations. In the event of war, Indias Air Force was postured to initially
conduct air strikes at 50 to 75 militant bases and a few other targets in Kashmir. Targets could also include a bridge across the Karakoram highway connecting China to the region, and at least three others linking Pakistani Kashmir to the rest of the country. The destruction of these bridges would prevent China from replenishing Pakistan, and would also cut off supply routes from Pakistan to front-line units. India could also send troops across the high mountain passes in helicopters, though this would risk casualties as the helicopters crossed Pakistani air defenses. Indias broad strategy of air strikes could induce Pakistan into extending the conflict by opening a wider front along the International Border. Pakistan indicated that even if Indias actions were limited to air strikes in Kashmir border, Pakistan might not restrict actions to this sector. The possibility that Pakistan might open other fronts in Punjab or Rajasthan essentially meant that Pakistan was ready for a full-scale conventional war. Indias army lacks the logistics infrastructure to support a massive and sustained ground movement to take and hold all of Kashmir. Although India has a numerical superiority on almost all fronts, some of their military equipment is not in servicable condition. Despite having a numerical disadvantage, Pakistan has a qualitative edge in many equipment holdings, notably tanks and anti-tank missiles. Indias Air Force would face serious challenges from Pakistan. Many of Indias combat aircraft are poorly maintened, and trained pilots are in short supply. Pakistans air force is widely regarded as being better trained and equipped. The Indian Navy had a wide range of Indian navy fleet in the region, including frigates and destroyers. India reportedly deployed seven Kilo Class submarines in an offshore picket-line formation in the Arabian Sea. Chronology For India, the 13 December 2001 attack on Parliament by the suicide squad of Lashkar-e-Toiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed was the last straw in a series of attacks over the previous two years. The attack, which according to Home Minister L.K. Advani was aimed at wiping out the Indian political leadership, was a declaration of war against this country. The troops deployments were massive, extending from Gujarat to Kashmir. The Indian Army received reinforcements from central
and northern India to counter the Pakistani build-up which had not ebbed since their winter exercise codenamed Operation Khabardar. It commenced in October 2001, with troops from the strike corps, Mangla-based 1 corps, Karachi-based 5 corps and Bahawalpur-based 31 corps, an armoured brigade and infantry divisions, in the sensitive Jhelum-Chenab and Chenab-Ravi corridors close to the LoC. There were reports of massive Indian troop movements along the border in the Sindh-Rajasthan sector, as well as in the ChenabRavi corridor and along the Line of Control which divides Indian and Pakistani-ruled Kashmir. On 27 December 2001, Indian Defence Minister George Fernandes called the border situation grave, and said that the Indian forces deployment on the forward areas would be completed within two to three days. By 01 January 2002 the Indian Defence Ministry denied on Tuesday allegations by Pakistan that it was continuing its military buildup along their tense borders, saying that the mobilisation is more or less complete. India recalled its envoy to Pakistan for the first time in 30 years. India had previously withdrawn its ambassador prior to conflict breaking out in the 1965 war over Kashmir and the 1971 war over independence for Bangladesh (previously East Pakistan). India also ended bus and train service between the two nations, as part of the strategy to increase pressure against Pakistan. Pakistan moved 7 to 9 divisions of its army towards the Indian border. With the Pakistani Army having to cover shorter distances from its cantonments to its borders, it has the advantage of mobilising much faster than India. On 25 December 2001 Pakistans Army canceled all leaves for its troops and told them to report for duty immediately. India was moving troops by the trainload from south and central India to the northwestern border with Pakistan. The buildup was not just in Kashmir, but also along the International Bborder [IB] dividing the Indian states of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Punjab from the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sind. In 2000 Pakistan had unilaterally withdrawn its troops from the Line of Control under a maximum restraint policy that sought to normalize relations with India. Up to 20,000 Pakistani troops, who should have withdrawn from the area following winter exercises,
remained stationed near the line. Two corps of the Pakistani army were supposed withdraw from near the International Borders in Rajasthan and Punjab and the Line of Control following exercises, but they had not done so. Pakistan pushed its own troops forward, and moved the 10, 11 and 12 Corps from their Afghan frontier locations near Rawalpindi, Peshawar, Quetta to its eastern frontier. By early January 2002 the build-up of Pakistani forces near border areas raised concerns among Indian analysts. Pakistan had stationed 150,000 troops in the Jammu-Punch belt - from Chicken Neck on the International Border [IB] to Rajauri on the Line of Control [LOC]. The Indian army is regarded as being weak in the Chicken Neck and Pallanwala sectors. This suggested that, if war broke out, Pakistans major thrust would be from Jammu. Pakistans 1 Corps, in KhariyanMangla, Gujranwalas 30 Corps and Rawalpindis 10 Corps had also prepared to move at short notice. The troop build-up was taken as an indication that, if there were an outbreak of hostilities, Pakistan would attack and capture the Akhnoor-Pallanwala sector. In 1965, Pakistan had captured Chhamb. In 1971 Pakistan had made advances in Jayorian, but retreated after a counter-attack by Indian forces. The Pakistani build-up along Jammu indicated that Pakistan might seek to capture Akhnoor-Pallanwalla and Jayorian, cutting off the Rajauri-Punch Highway. The 10-km stretch of the Srinagar-Kargil Highway, which is within range of Pakistani artillery, has been shelled continuously. The recent build-up may indicate that Pakistan was also considering moves against the Jammu-Punch Highway. As part of New Delhis efforts to maintain pressure on Islamabad, on 11 January 2002 Army Chief Gen. S. Padmanabhan warned in a rare press conference that Pakistan would be severely punished if it launch ed a nuclear attack on India. Let me assure you of one thing as surely as Im alive. Should a nuclear weapon be used against India, Indian forces, our assets at sea, economic, human or other targets, the perpetrators of that outrage shall be punished so severely that their continuation thereafter in any form or fray will be doubtful, the general said. In mid-January 2002 Pakistani police arrested over 200 militants, bringing the total number of detentions to over 1,100. This
was part of the crackdown against five groups banned by President Pervez Musharraf. Two of the banned groups the Lashkar-eTaiba and the Jaish-e-Mohammad are among the most hardline Islamic militant groups fighting against Indian rule in Kashmir. On 30 January 2002 Pakistans Foreign Minister Abdul Sattar termed the deployment of about half a million Indian troops along the border with Pakistan as coercive and intimidating. Sattar said de-escalation was possible through dialogue as was done in 1987. By early April 2002 it had become apparent that Indias troop deployment along the Indo-Pakistan border would be prolonged until at least the autumn of 2002. The Indian Government had considered pulling back elements of some of its strike corps from the border by May end or early June, given an anticipation that by that time, trends in cross-border infiltration would become clear. On 26 April 2002, Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf accused India of offensive deployment of troops, and ruled out the possibility of unilateral withdrawal of troops from Indo-Pak border. The tension between the two countries heightened after militant attack on an army family accommodation camp in Kalu Chak [Kaluchak] on 14 May 2002. Three militants arrived by bus, and after opening fire on the bus passengers, they entered the lightlyguarded camp. The militants turned their guns on the family quarters of soldiers. The terrorists systematically fired at the families of Army personnel. Eight women and 11 children died of gunshot wounds. Most of the 25 injured persons were women and children. The gunmen were killed in an intense battle with soldiers that followed. The attack was the worst in Kashmir in the previous eight months. On 19 May 2002 the Indian Army centralized command of the paramilitary forces, including the Border Security Force (BSF) and the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF). These paramilitary forces, especially the BSF, are deployed along the International Border (IB), including parts of the Jammu sector, close to the Chenab river. The Army and not the paramilitary forces, in most cases, face Pakistani forces along the Line of Control (LOC) which stretches along most of the rest of Jammu and Kashmir. On 19 May 2002 the Coast Guard was placed under the operaMini Year Book 2011 163
tional control of the Indian Navy. In consequence of rising tensions between India and Pakistan, Indian merchant ships were placed on alert and directed to file daily location reports as well as to file voyage plans with the Mumbai based Maritime Administration for passing to the Navy. By taking command of the Coast Guard, the Navy sought to safeguard the coastal areas that straddle high value industrial complexes along the west coast. On 21 May 2002 India redeployed troops from Gujarat state, the site of prolonged sectarian violence, to the India-Pakistan border, where the two nations traded artillery fire for a fifth consecutive day. On 22 May 2002 the Indian Prime Minister said that India needed to be ready for sacrifices, but this will be a fight to victory. He said that the time for a decisive fight had come. By 26 May 2002 India had detached additional naval warships from its eastern fleet home base in Vishakapatnam, into the Arabian Sea closer to Pakistan. Among the warships of Indias Western Fleet which deployed in the Arabian Sea was the aircraft carrier INS Viraat with Sea Harrier jets. The Indian Navy moved five front-line warships of the Eastern Naval Command to join the Western Naval Fleet. The warships moved to the western coast include a Kashin class missile destroyer, a a Leander class multi-purpose frigate and three missile corvettes. The Indian objective was to have total control of the sea and deny movement to Pakistani ships and submarines. As of late May 2002 it appeared that eight out of nine strike divisions of the Indian Army had moved to jumping off points near the border. The 21st Strike Force (mainly comprised the 33rd Armored Division) had advanced towards Akhnur in the Jammu region, assuming a forward command post. This strike force was supplemented by two more mechanized infantry brigades and selfpropelled artillery units from Meerut and Mathra. The three Corps in Kashmir were augmented with additional armoured and infantry brigades to enable the Indian troops in the region to move forward from a defensive posture to major offensive. These forces include 16th Corps at Nagrauta, Jammu, 15th Corps at Badami Bagh, Srinagar and 14th Corps at Nimmud, Leh. In response to India deployment, Pakistan, in addition to engag164 Mini Year Book 2011
ing nine divisions in a holding formation, moved an attack-force of armored and motorized infantry divisions into combat readiness positions. The two infantry divisions based in Baluchistan and the NWFP North-West Frontier Province also moved towards the eastern borders. Pakistan reinforced the Uri Sector by deploying two brigades of 10-Corps (Rawalpindi). Four brigades of the 31-Corps (Bahawalpur) moved into forward positions along the BahawalpurFort Abbas stretch in Punjab and Rajasthan sectors. An independent Armoured Brigade moved forward to support the local infantry in the Old Beas Area. Further south, five brigades of 5-Corps (Karachi) moved up to the border stretch south of Fort Abbas to Gadra Road and Darwaza and in the border region adjacent to Jaisalmer, Bikaneer and Barnar forward areas. Pakistans formations include North and South Army Reserves, including 1-Corps (Mangla) with significant armored element. On 05 June 2002 the United States and Britain upgraded official warnings to their citizens in India and Pakistan, telling people to leave now. The raising of the status of travel alerts came after Pakistan rejected an offer from India for joint border patrols in the disputed territory of Kashmir. The US State Department issued new advice to the 60,000 Americans in India and several thousand in Pakistan, saying: Tensions have risen to serious levels and the risk of intensified military hostilities between India and Pakistan cannot be ruled out. The updated travel warning said it strongly urges that American citizens in India depart the country. Previous advice to Americans merely urged them to leave. In early June 2002 Pakistan agreed to immediately halt infiltration along the Line of Control, and eventually to dismantle Kashmiri militant training camps. Indian officials lifted a ban on overflights by Pakistani aircraft, pulled back warships from the Pakistani coast and selected a new ambassador to Islamabad. India awaited further steps by Pakistan, including the dismantling of militant training camps in the portion of Kashmir under Pakistani control and the severing of financial support for militant groups. By 05 June 2002, despite the stand-off between India and Pakistan at Almaty and Defence Minister George Fernandes assertion of non-withdrawal of forces from borders, there were indications that India may start the process of de-escalation at the internaMini Year Book 2011 165
tional border any day after June 15 in the wake of positive signals from Pakistan. The de-escalation may begin from Kutch, Rajasthan and Punjab but army deployment would continue along the Line of Control (LoC) in Jammu and Kashmir. Islamabad was believed to have taken steps to close down some militant training camps in Kashmir. Intercepts by Indian intelligence agencies reportedly indicated that Pakistan instructed its Tenth Corps to stop infiltration across the LoC. On June 26, 2002, the US State Department noted that the very high level of tension between India and Pakistan that had existed at the end of May and the beginning of June had subsided somewhat. This condition followed intense diplomatic activity and important steps taken by both India and Pakistan to reduce tension. Nonetheless, military mobilization by the two countries remained in place along the Line of Control and the international boundary with the risk of renewed high levels of tension impossible to rule out. The six-month standoff between India and Pakistan, which brought the two nuclear neighbours to the brink of war, had eased. But the return of peace was months away, pending Pakistans putting an end to sponsoring cross-border terrorism, and the October polls in Jammu and Kashmir. As of late August 2002 Indian officials insisted that infiltration by Pakistani-backed militants had declined but not ended. India will not engage in a dialogue with Pakistan over the future of Kashmir until cross-border terrorism stops. Indian troops remained in place to reduce violence in Kashmir. India has stated that it will not demobilize its troops prior to the 14 October 2002 election in Kashmir. Until both nations pull back their troops, the danger of a massive war remains. On 09 September 2002 Indian External Affairs Minister Yashwant Sinha said that although the infiltrations declined in June, they had gone up very, very significantly in the month of August. On 16 October 2002 the Indian government announced that it would pull back troops from its border with Pakistan in its most substantial step to reduce a military buildup begun 10 months ago that helped bring the two nations to the brink of war. The pullback, expected to cover anywhere from 500,000 to 700,000 troops, will
not affect troops stationed along the Line of Control in Kashmir. Tensions between India and Pakistan over Kashmir continued to oscillate. As of May 2003 both governments expressed willingness to talk, and both re-established formal diplomatic relations. No timeline for the talks was established, the conciliatory moves from both countries was due to pressure from the international community. Specifically, pressure exerted by the US, Britain, and Russia. On 25 November 2003 India and Pakistan agreed on a comprehensive ceasefire, coinciding with the start of the Eid festival which marks the end of the Muslim holy fasting month of Ramadan. This is the first formal truce between the two armies since the outbreak of militancy in Jammu and Kashmir five years earlier. On 18 December 2003 Pakistans president, General Pervez Musharraf, said his country was willing to drop its long-standing demands for the implementation of United Nations resolutions in a bid to end the Kashmir dispute. Musharraf said both India and Pakistan will have to show flexibility on the their stated positions on Kashmir if they want to settle the issue. 2008 - Mumbai Attack 22/11 In the weeks since the 26 November 2008 terrorist attacks in Indias financial capital, Mumbai, tensions were high between New Delhi and Islamabad. A group of ten gunmen armed with submachine guns and grenades swept through Indias commercial capital on 26 November 2008, attacking hotels, the railway station, a cinema, and a hospital. More than 25 foreigners were among the 188 people killed in the three-day rampage. Indian authorities have accused the Pakistani-based militant group Lashkar-e-Taiba, which has led a violent struggle against Indian rule in Kashmir, of training the terrorists and planning the attacks. India also suspects that the terrorist group arrived by boat from Karachi. Both India and Pakistan have nuclear weapons, and western observers did not believe the current tensions will lead to war, though this was probably the objective of the Mumbai attack. Both countries put forces on high alert and Pakistani also pulled out troops from the insurgency-hit areas to deploy them along borders with India. Pakistan placed its air force on high alert following what it described as threatening statements by Indian leaders. Besides
the Karachi-based 31 Corps and Bahawalpur-based 5 Corps of the army, naval detachments are also participating in the exercise. On 01 December 2008 Director General Inter Service Public Relation (ISPR) Major-Gen Athar Abbas said the Pakistan Army had so far not observed any military buildup by India on the western border. The ISPR chief said: We are closely monitoring the Indian military movements at the international border and no unusual activity has been witnessed so far. Indias government said all options were on the table in dealing with neighbor Pakistan in wake of the unprecedented terror attack on Mumbai. On 03 December 2008 India External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee, with U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice at his side, told reporters there is no doubt the terrorists who struck the countrys commercial capital came from Pakistan and were coordinated there. Government of India is determined to act decisively to protect its territorial integrity and the right of our citizens to a peaceful life with all the means at our disposal, Mr. Mukherjee said. With tensions heightened between India and Pakistan, the top American envoy called for Islamabad to show its resolve and to join the international effort to find those responsible for the Mumbai terror attack. U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice made the remarks in the Indian capital where she met with Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and other top Indian government officials. On 10 December 2008 Indian media reported that armed forces, especially the air force and the navy, have been kept in a state of war readiness, but said there has been no massive mobilization of troops on the border, though. Pakistan armed forces are highly professional. Pakistan has one of the best armies of the world. The nation should not be worried, Prime Minister Syed Yousuf Raza Gilani said. I want to give message to the nation that the country is in safe hands. They should not be worried, Gilani told reporters at the Multan airport on his arrival from Islamabad. Pakistan is a responsible state. Being a nuclear power, we are cautious in reaction, Gilani said. Pakistani Prime Minister Yousuf Raza Gilani, speaking to the national assembly in Islamabad, said the countrys armed forces are fully prepared and alert. Gilani says Pakistan does not want war, but, if aggression is imposed on the country, it will defend
itself. On 11 December 2008 Pakistan put its naval forces on alert, Pakistan Navy spokesman said. The navy spokesman said the action had been taken in response to movements of their Indian counterparts. Pakistan Airforce had also confirmed reports of increased vigilance but assured that such actions are a natural reaction of the activities on the other side of the border. On 16 December 2008, seeking to dampen persistent media speculation a retaliatory strike is in the works against Pakistan, Indias defense minister declared no military action was being planned. But he warned Islamabad to act against terrorists on its soil, if it wants normal relations with India. A.K. Antony said war is not an option, as a response to the terror attack on Mumbai. Antony spoke to reporters in the capital who asked him about troop deployments on the border and reported preparations for military action with Pakistan, against whom India has gone to war three times in 60 years. Indias Defense Minister A.K. Antony tried to allay widespread fears of a war with Pakistan. We are not planning any military action. At the same time, unless Pakistan take actions against those terrorists who are operating in their soil against India, and also against all those who are behind this Mumbai terrorist attack, things will not be normal, he said. Indian leaders later spoke a tougher language, saying they are frustrated by Pakistans failure to act against the terrorists responsible for the Mumbai attacks and previous terror strikes targeting India. This fueled speculation that New Delhi may mount a retaliatory strike against camps of extremist organizations such as the Lashkar-e-Taiba, which India has blamed for the attack. On 22 December 2008 Indias foreign minister told journalists that India had not ruled out military operations against terrorists in Pakistan if Islamabad does not deal with terrorists based on its own soil. If you ask about military conflict, nobody will say about it in the media, Foreign Minister Pranab Mukherjee said at a press conference while answering a question on the probability of a military conflict between Pakistan and India. We have kept our options open. By 26 December 2008 Pakistan Air Force was in a state of high alert and was conducting aerial surveillance of the Chashma power plant and other sensitive sites amid fears of a possible surgical
strike by India in the wake of the Mumbai terror attacks. Forces were also deployed along the Line of Control (LoC) and the international border to protect vital points. Pakistan moved 20,000 soldiers near the Indian border due to increase in tension with New Delhi in the aftermath of the Mumbai terror attacks. The Pakistan Armys 14th Division was redeployed to the towns of Kasur and Sialkot, close to the Indian border. The redeployment relocated about one-fifth of Pakistani troops serving in the countrys tribal areas. Pakistan shifted its 4 Corps, an important strike arm, to Lahore, just 25 km from Attari. Pakistan Armys 10th Brigade, consisting of around 5000 personnel, had been moved to forward areas in Lahore and the 3rd Armored Brigade had been moved to Jhelum. There has also been a heavy concentration of Indian troops on the border. Pakistan had ruled out the option of war, but has vowed to defend the country at every cost if attacked. On 27 December 2008 U.S. officials urged India and Pakistan to avoid escalating tensions, as Pakistan began moving thousands of troops toward its border with India. A White House spokesman, Gordon Johndroe, said the United States was in touch with both countries and urging greater cooperation in investigating last months Mumbai attacks, which India blames on Pakistan-based militants. Witnesses said they saw Pakistani troops moving eastward from Pakistans border with Afghanistan, where soldiers have been fighting al-Qaida and Taliban militants. The military also canceled leave for members of the armed forces, and put both the army and air force on high alert. News agencies quote unnamed Pakistani intelligence officials as saying the troop movement began 25 December 2008 with soldiers being redeployed from Waziristan to the towns of Kasur and Sialkot near the Indian border. The military reportedly plans to shift a total of 20,000 soldiers from the tribal area widely known as a hotbed for Taliban, Al-Qaeda, and other militants. On 30 December 2008 the Pakistani foreign minister asked India to de-active its forward air bases and re-locate its ground forces to peace time location to create a conducive atmosphere. I am floating two proposals to India to make the environment cordial and to defuse tension. I propose to India to de-activate air bases. It would be a positive step. I also propose to India to re170 Mini Year Book 2011
locate its ground forces to peace time positions, Shah Mahmoud Qureshi said in a televised speech on Pakistan Television. These measures will reduce tension and we will move forward in positive, the Pakistani foreign minister said. Rejecting Pakistans contentions, External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee said that there had been no escalation of tensions by India and that its military movements were routine winter exercises. Reacting to his Pakistani counterpart Shah Mehmood Qureshis statement that India had deployed ground forces to forward positions and activated forward airbases, Mukherjee said that there had been no such action on the part of India to escalate tension. The Indian army has made it clear that its military movements were a normal winter exercise, Indian official media reported quoting the minister. We have not done anything which can escalate the tension between India and Pakistan because from day one I am saying this is not an India-Pakistan issue, he said. This is an attack perpetrated by elements emanating from the land of Pakistan, and Pakistan government should take action. We have not escalated the tensions, so where is the question of de-escalation. Indian army chief Deepak Kapoor said on 15 January 2009 that Pakistan has moved some troops to its eastern borders with India and that he regarded war as a last resort. On 16 January 2009 Prime Minister Syed Yousuf Raza Gilani said that Pakistan and India were nuclear powers and there was no possibility of war between the two neighbourly countries. He said India was issuing provocative statements time and again under tremendous public pressure. India came close to trying the Cold Start doctrine, developed from experiences in troop mobilisation during Operation Parakram after 2001 December Parliament terror attack. Cold Start refers to the military doctrine under which a smaller formation in the borders carry out a short, but quick offensive at the enemys vital installation, in coordination with the IAF. Pakistans implied threat was that even surgical strikes against suspected terrorist training camps in Azad Kashmir would be considered an attack on Pakistans sovereignty, and Pakistan would retaliate with all its might.
Andhra Pradesh / Naxalite In India today there are many Maoist parties and organizations that either predate the Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) or emerged from factions when the CPI-ML split after the death of Charu Majumdar. Three of them, the CPI-ML (Peoples War), CPIML (Party Unity), and the Maoist Communist Center (MCC), are currently engaged in armed struggle. An inter-connected Naxalite belt stretches across central India, comprising Bihar, MP, Orissa, AP, Maharashtra and parts of Tamil Nadu. Those parts which were connected to the neighboring states came under the influence of Naxalism. Its members are called Naxalites after the eastern Indian town of Naxalbari, where their movement originated in 1967. The 25 May 1967 peasant uprising at Naxalbari in Darjeeling district of West Bengal began under the leadership of revolutionary communists belonging to the Communist Party of India - Marxist [CPI (M)]. The uprising was brutally suppressed by the CPI (M)-led United Front government of West Bengal at the behest of the Congress government at the Center. In reaction, communist revolutionary ranks rebel against the leadership of the party. The rebellion soon assumes an all India dimension. Entire state units of CPI (M) in Uttar Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir and considerable sections in Bihar and Andhra Pradesh joined this rebellion. On 22 April 1969 they formed the Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist). Since 1980 clashes between police and Naxalite Maoist revolutionaries have taken place in northwestern Andhra Pradesh. In areas under their control, Naxalites dispense summary justice in peoples courts which in some cases condemn to death suspected police informers, village headmen, and others deemed to be class enemies or caste oppressors. The Naxalites extort money from business firms, and railway services in one area had to be canceled in July and August due to PWG destruction of stations, track and signaling equipment. Over the past few years, hundreds of policemen and suspected Naxalites have been killed, according to press reports and human rights organization. As of September 1998 police had killed 102 Naxalites in approximately 80 encounters. Decades of guerrilla-style conflict have led to serious human rights abuses by both sides. Human rights groups
allege that encounters are usually faked by the police to cover up the torture and subsequent murder of Naxalite suspects, sympathizers, or informers. These groups cite as evidence the refusal of police to hand over corpses of suspects killed in encounters, which are often cremated before families can view the bodies. Andhra police have contributed to the establishment of an armed vigilante group known as the Green Tigers, whose mission is to combat Naxalite groups in the state. The NHRC is investigating some 285 reported cases so-called fake encounter deaths allegedly committed by the Andhra police in connection with anti-Naxalite operations. Between 1999 and 2001, several hundred deaths a year were attributed to Naxalite/ government fighting and activities. The revolutionaries sought to carve out a Compact Revolutionary Zone; however their efforts were suppressed by the Indian and Nepalese governments. In February, 2002 the Home Ministry held several rounds of talks with the state government of Andhra Pradesh and a representative of the Peoples War Group. In June 2002, the group withdrew from those talks following a police encounter. By May of 2003, tensions seemed to ease. The Naxalite revolutionaries had not been violently active in the preceding 4 months, and the Indian Government appeared committed to implementing the 1997 act which stipulated improvement for the Naxalite population. The government decided to reduce the number of police forces in the area, and agreed to unconditional talks with the revolutionaries. An assassination attempt against Chief Minster Naidu of Andhra Pradesh marked a serious downturn in the peace process and PWG and the police to step up their activities. In 2004 a government three month long cease-fire and a temporary lifting of a ban of the PWG failed to result in a long term peace agreement. More than 500 people were killed in 2004 in sporadic low-intensity conflict. 2004 also marked an important political development in the Naxalite movement. During the final months of 2004 the PWG merged with the Maoist Communist Center of India, creating the Communist Party of India (Maoist), becomming the largest Maoist rebel group with operations in over 9 states. This group also stepped
up cross border relations with Nepals Maoists. In the wake of the breakdown of the peace process between the PWG and the Andhra Pradesh state government in 2004, the fighting between government and Naxalite forces increased in 2005. While the fighting remained low-intensity and sporadic in nature, over 700 people were killed, a third of whom were civilians. In July, 2006 violence between Naxalites and government forces increased significantly. On July 17, an armed group of approximately 800 Naxalites attacked a relief camp in Dantewada killing at least 25 people and wounding 80 more. It is believed that the Naxalites staged their attack from the Andhra Pradesh state. The relief camp targeted provided shelter to over four thousand internally displaced persons. Four Naxalites were reportedly killed in retaliatory fire. On July 23, 2006 in what was claimed as a major blow against Andhra Pradesh Naxalite forces, the Naxalite leader of the Andhra Pradesh state was killed in a raid along with seven other people by police in the Prakasam district. From 2002-2006 over three thousand people have been killed in Naxalite-goverment conflicts. India Peace keeping operations Peace Keeping operations - In addition to the experience gained in wars with Pakistan and China, the Indian army has been involved in two regional peacekeeping operations. The first was in Sri Lanka from 1987 to 1990, the second in Maldives in 1988. In addition, Indian forces have participated in ten UN peacekeeping forces. Sri Lanka Since the early 1970s, ethnic conflict has pitted Sri Lankas Tamil minority against the Sinhalese majority over issues of power sharing and local autonomy. The main combatants are the Sri Lankan army and the secessionist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. Indian involvement, encouraged by pro-Tamil sentiments in its state of Tamil Nadu, which is close to Sri Lanka, and the Indian governments covert aid to and training of Tamil militants between 1977 and 1987, drew India into the conflict. The Indo-Sri Lankan Accord, signed on July 29, 1987, committed New Delhi to deploying a peacekeeping force on the island, making the Indian government the principal guarantor of a solution to the ethnic violence
that had heightened dramatically since 1983. Nearly 60,000 Indian troops drawn from two divisions (one from the Central Command and the other from the Southern Command) were in Sri Lanka as the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) between 1987 and 1990. Originally sent to Sri Lanka as a neutral body with a mission to ensure compliance with the accord, the IPKF increasingly became a partisan force fighting against Tamils. The popularity of Indian forces, which was never high, decreased still further amidst charges of rape and murder of civilians. Despite the considerable experience that Indian troops had gained in fighting insurgencies in Indias northeast, the IPKF was at a marked disadvantage in Sri Lanka. In fighting Naga and Mizo guerrillas in northeast India, the army had fought on home ground, and the central government could couple the armys efforts with direct political negotiations. In Sri Lanka, the Indian forces did not possess an adequate local intelligence network. Despite the growth of the IPKF to 70,000 strong, the predominantly urban context of northern Sri Lanka imposed constraints on the use of force. It also is widely believed that Sri Lankan forces offered only grudging cooperation. Given the inability of the IPKF to prevent either Sinhalese or Tamil extremist actions, it steadily lost the support of both sides in the conflict. As the Sri Lankan presidential elections approached in December 1988, both the contending parties, the ruling United National Party led by then Prime Minister Ranasinghe Premadasa, and the three-party United Front led by former Prime Minister Sirimavo Ratwatte Dias Bandaranaike, expressed their reservations about the 1987 accord. Premadasa was elected, and after he was inaugurated, he declared an end to the five-and-a-half-year state of emergency and asked India to withdraw the IPKF. In July 1989, the IPKF started a phased withdrawal of its remaining 45,000 troops, a process that took until March 1990 to complete. During the three-year involvement, some 1,500 Indian troops were killed and more than 4,500 were wounded during this operation. Another casualty resulting from the Sri Lanka mission was the assassination of former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi by a Tamil militant in 1991. As a participant in what began as a peacekeeping
mission, the Indian armed forces learned some valuable lessons. These included the realization that better coordination is needed between military and political decision makers for such missions. One of the commanders of the IPKF also noted that training, equipment, and command and control needed improvement. In 1995, at the request of the Sri Lankan government, Indian naval ships and air force surveillance aircraft established a quarantine zone around the LTTE stronghold in the Jaffna area. The supply of military matriel by Indian sympathizers to the Tamil insurgents in Sri Lanka from Tamil Nadu, just thirty-five kilometers across the Palk Strait, was an ongoing problem that continued to keep India involved in the conflict. Maldives In 1988, the Indian Army experienced a small success in squashing an attempted coup in Maldives, 600 kilometers south of India in the Indian Ocean. Maldivian minister of foreign affairs Fathullah Jameel had called Rajiv Gandhi (Indias prime minister from 1984 to 1989) at 5:30 a.m. on November 3, 1988 to request Indias assistance. By 9:00 a.m. the same morning, Indias Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs had been convened. At noon the same day, the committee gave its approval for military support to the regime of President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom. Later in the day, the first Indian troops were airlifted from a military base at Agra, Uttar Pradesh. Some 1,600 Indian troops were dispatched within hours. During the next three days, the mercenaries involved in the attempted coup were rounded up by Indian troops who had parachuted in. The Indian navy also effectively blocked maritime escape routes the coup leaders might have taken. The operation was completed by November 6. Three important inferences can be made from this successful attempt at force projection. First, it demonstrated that sufficient interservice cooperation existed to allow the armed forces to respond rapidly to political directives. Second, it showed the capability of the armed forces to airlift troops regionally at short notice. And third, it demonstrated the willingness of the Indian political leadership to use its military strength in the region to support a friendly regime. Indian armed forces personnel have been involved in a variety
of UN-sponsored peacekeeping missions and military observer operations, giving them invaluable experience in interacting with the armed forces of other nations. In addition, although it was not a peacekeeping force per se, an Indian airborne field ambulance unit participated in the Korean War (1950-53). Indian infantry, supply, transportation, and signal units served between 1956 and 1967 with the First United Nations Emergency Force in the Suez Canal, Sinai Peninsula, and Gaza. From 1960 to 1964, Indian infantry, aircraft, and medical personnel, and air dispatch, signal, supply, and postal units served in the Congo (as Zaire was then named). Indian military observers participated in UN observation groups in Lebanon in 1958; Yemen in 1963-64 (where India supplied one of the chiefs of staff); West Irian (which later became Indonesias Irian Barat Province) in 1962-63; the Iran-Iraq border in 1988-91; Angola in 1989-91; and Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua in 1989-92. Military observers, police monitors, and election supervisors were sent to Namibia in 1989 and 1990 to help oversee elections. In the 1990s, more military observers were sent abroad. There was a second observers mission to Angola (1991-92) as well as missions to El Salvador (starting in 1991), former Yugoslavia (starting in 1992), and Mozambique (starting in 1992). The last was a force of more than 900 administrative, engineering, and logistic personnel. A sappers contingent charged with clearing landmines and related construction projects participated in the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia in 1992-93. An infantry brigadeincluding army physicians, nurses, veterinarians, a tank sqaudron, a mechanized battalion, a 120-millimeter mortar battery, an engineer company, and two flights of helicoptersand an air force helicopter detachment, a force totalling nearly 5,000 personnel, were sent to Somalia in 1993-94 to participate in peacekeeping and humanitarian relief efforts. In an effort to achieve some joint operational understanding with other nations forces, India has also cooperated in various peacetime joint exercises with Indian Ocean nations and with the United States. In 1992, India and the United States conducted joint naval exercises in the Arabian Sea near Kochi (Cochin), and in 1994 Indian marine commandos and United States Marines conducted joint exercises with little fanfare.
21st Century
for India and the world
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India in the 21st Century

Chitra Singh Rajput
(Editor, Publisher, and Chief Managing Editor of Develop India, english weekly newspaper and also lead developindiagroup.com website)
Nineteenth century, it is said, was the best time to be a British and 20th century to be an American. No doubt, 21st century is the best period to be an Indian. Never before was the level of confidence in us so high, in spite of the rich heritage and past glories, as it is today. World history has changed the way in which it has been presented more than once. From the story of kings, it became the story of people. Perhaps now it is the March of Events. Where will India find herself in the March of Events at the end of this twentyfirst century or in the middle of it or even a few decades later? I propose to discuss here what we as Indians can do to hasten that MARCH. Sri Aurobindo has said that India is destined to become the Jagatguru. If there is any truth in it, do we see any symptoms of it now in Indian public life? If not, are there any ideas that confirm such a hope. The Divine Mother has said the bodies of Indians are filled with spiritual light. Surely it is promising, but it is a spiritual promise, which may be fulfilled in the distant future. Of Sri Aurobindos five promises, the first and the second have come true in His lifetime. He saw in 1910 India was free in the subtle plane. It came true in 37 years. He said Indian Freedom would lead to Asian freedom. About 45 nations thus became free. His next prophesy was World Union which is partially fulfilled in the European Union of which He spoke in 1916. India will become the Jagatguru was his fourth dream. Finally He said that the Supramental Being would be born. Even in 1956 The Mother told the world that the Supramental Force had descended on the earth. Since then events are marching faster. Thus we can hope this too will be fulfilled.
As long as Auroville is there, The Mother said, a third world war is not possible. Now it has become a reality. Sri Aurobindo said Pakistan would break up within twenty-five years. Bangladesh broke from Pakistan about that time. For India to become the Jagatguru, Sri Aurobindo said India must be free. She did become free in 1947 in two parcels. Again He said as long as the geographical unity is not restored that dream could not be realised. A poor nations voice will not be heard. Today the whole world is following the USA because she is rich. India will be heard with respect if she is Prosperous and Indians realise her spiritual greatness. Can she rise from $ 400 per capita income to $ 30,000? Some people think she can. Arindam Choudhury has drawn up a plan to achieve it in A.D.2025. We can call it patriotism and good will even if we cannot believe it. Only 150 years ago English authors who had extensively traveled in India had testified to the utter truthfulness of our population. They also said they had not heard of any reported theft. Looking at the horizon of the Indian public affairs, one can believe that the Spiritual Dawn is close at hand if one believes in the truth that the brightest dawn is preceded by the darkest hour. I do fervently believe there are thousands of pure souls if not lakhs and crores who are capable of utter Truthfulness. Wherever they are they belong to a Sat Sang a club of Men who live by Truth whose leadership in the subtle plane will be gratefully acknowledged by the nation. What these Spiritual Elite do today India will make a reality tomorrow. Truth is a lofty laudable ideal variously understood, and conceived as an austere goal. Certainly it requires an austerity of mind to adhere to TRUTH. Spiritually Truth is the objective status of which Spirit is the subjective poise. In life, where do we meet with Truth? Honesty, purity, loyalty, integrity, honour, and courage are the life versions of Spiritual Truth. These are the very aspects that are missing in Indian public life. Even in public life there are the select few who are paragons of virtue, whose life is an unsullied record of integrity. There are thousands and hundreds of thousands of men who struggle in their daily lives to choose the right. They want to be right and pure but they are unable to withstand social pressure, especially from their families that seek a life of modern comfort.
Public life has come to connive at lax morals in every field, if not condone them. Hundreds and thousands of the solders of Truth offering to make the right choice in a difficult hour will slowly come to lead the public opinion in the subtle plane. What is accomplished in the subtle plane will in time become a reality in the physical, gross, material plane. Would you make that choice? To be a Rishi is a spiritual privilege. It is no ordinary height of achievement. People in nirvikalpa samadhi did not respond to branding. They were dissolved in the Absolute Brahman. Those Rishis were more privileged than gods, sometimes more powerful. Still, in their waking consciousness they sometimes cursed, or gave way to anger or lust. The Gitas equality can be practised in yoga, not at home. When a child is beaten and is bleeding, how many Rishis would be able to declare, That is the duty of the teacher. It is not for me to question him. Spirituality in life means to maintain the equality of yoga in domestic life. Indian Spirituality gave us Paramahamsa, Ramana Maharshi, and Sri Aurobindo. It also gave us at the next level Srinivasa Ramanujam, Sir S. Radhakrishnan, and Rajaji. Gandhiji towered over all of them. These great souls arose in the days of slavery. Now that India is free, more is possible. Every Rishi has his lineage. When a Rishi or a Muni or a yogi realises, his realisation is felt by twenty-one previous generations. It is never lost by the succeeding generations. Nature rose to its spiritual height in India, then moved to Greece to develop mind, to Rome to develop the vital law to Europe to create scientific thinking and finally to the USA to develop scientific technology. Now that the cycle is completed, she must return to India. While she was away from India, in order to preserve the Spiritual Light, Nature covered it with its opposite, poverty and timidity and preserved them by untruth, much as a treasure is saved in the forest under mud and thorny bushes. Srinivasa Ramanujams will rise by the dozen, and Bill Gates by the score in India the moment India turns to TRUTH, truth in its spiritual purity. It is a delight to explain how such truth can be fostered at home, at school, in the offices, and at last in Indian Public Life. Foreigners entering the Indian air space have felt saturated with spiritual Peace. Passages of Sri Aurobindo quoted in American universities have transformed the
atmosphere from flimsy truancy to serious sedateness. The class was presided over by SILENCE. The Rishis entered the Silence behind Silence. We must restore our spiritual heritage.
Indias 21st-century war
A year on from the election of Barack Obama as United States president, the conflicts that dominated Washingtons concern under his predecessor are still raging - and even increasing in intensity. This is particularly true of the arc of insecurity that stretches from the middle east through to southwest Asia, where - from Afghanistan and Pakistan to Israel-Palestine and Iran - the reality and potential of violence have hardly been diminished as a result of the change of administration. Moreover, alongside the high-intensity conflicts where Washington is directly or by proxy involved in this region, there are other slow-burn insurgencies that often receive less attention than they deserve. The persistent rebellion in India of the Maoist guerrilla movement known as the Naxalites is one such. A reason for paying more heed to this issue is that the evolving nature of the Naxalite conflict - including the Indian governments approach in attempting to combat the movement - may represent a more accurate indicator of future trends in global insecurity even than the alQaida network. A hidden rage A case in point is the New Delhi governments developing assault on the Naxalite rebels in India. The Naxalite movement has its origins in a land dispute near the village of Naxalbari in the northern part of West Bengal in 1967. This lasted several years and appeared to have been brought under control. But later, a number of leftist groups fired by a Maoist ideology made links with disadvantaged peoples in parts of rural eastern India; in the early 2000s, this coalesced into a renewed movement (see Ajai Sahni, India and its Maoists: failure and success, 20 March 2007) Since then, the Naxalites have grown in power and influence. They are often brutal in their methods but have managed to win support from huge numbers of marginalised people, in part because of the great brutality inflicted by security forces in the areas the guerrillas control. The Indian authorities are increasingly con182 Mini Year Book 2011
cerned at the threat the movement poses to the countrys internal security - and even its much-vaunted economic miracle. For the state, and much of the economic elite, the Naxalite/Maoist rebels are simply terrorists who must be put down with whatever force is necessary (see A world in revolt, 12 February 2009). Since then, the Naxalites or Maoists have grown in power and influence, as part of a conflict with the authorities in which there has been great brutality on both sides. They are reported to be active in 220 of Indias 602 districts across fifteen of Indias twentyeight states. Much of the activity is spread across Indias so-called red corridor, which stretches from the Nepalese border down to the southern state of Karnataka. A current report says: With a force of 15,000 armed cadres, they control an estimated one-fifth of Indias forests. They are also believed to have 50,000 underground activists. Around 100,000 people, including the intelligentsia, are associated with various front organisations in different parts of the country (see Prakash Nanda, Indias deadly war within, UPI Asia Online, 4 November 2009). The problem with this view is that the guerrillas draw on the genuine injustices inflicted on poor Indians in rural areas, including (for example) the many thousands dispossessed of their lands and livelihoods by mining corporations and new industries (see Arundhati Roy, The heart of India is under attack, Guardian, 30 October 2009). These injustices are part of the entrenched and increasing disparities in wealth and poverty that Indias breakneck race for growth has created. The war between the Indian states security forces (including the armed militias it has organised) and the Naxalites is taking place amid this landscape of desperate poverty and inequality. The rebels tactics include the use of roadside-bombs and ambushes, which have helped them kill over 900 Indian security personnel in 2006-09. In the period from April-June 2009 alone, they killed 112 security personnel in four key regions of combat: Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa; over three days in early June, twenty police lost their lives in two attacks (see Divy Khare, Naxalites strike again, kill 10 cops in Jharkhand, Times of India, 13 June 2009). In Maharashtra, two Naxalites lured a
police patrol into a trap and iTimes of Indin an hours-long fight, seventeen policemen died (see Jim Yardley, A growing Maoist rebellion vexes India, International Herald Tribune, 31 October 2009). The authorities are now being shocked by years of accelerating conflict into raising the level of their response. New Delhi is mounting a large-scale operation - Operation Green Hunt - that is expected to involve some 70,000 paramilitary forces. The aim is partly to counter the spread of Naxalite influence beyond the most densely forested areas that have been their core domain into open countryside; Operation Green Hunt seeks to force the rebels back into the forests where they can (it is supposed) be more easily contained (see Anuj Chopra, Jungle lair of the Maoist rebels, 5 November 2009). The carefully planned operation could take several years to complete. At its root is the firm belief that the target groups, however strong their support, constitute a threat to the emergence of the new India as a global economic power. In such circumstances, strategic ores must be mined and factories built on suitable land. Those in the way - leftist rebels or local villagers - simply cannot be allowed to interfere with Indias onward march to western-style modernity (see China and India: heartlands of global protest, 7 August 2008). It is especially pertinent to note that this rebellion has caught India somewhat by surprise. At the very time that India has finally embraced the consumer society, when burgeoning cities are replete with shopping-malls, entertainment venues and gated communities - violent extremists appear, as if from nowhere, to wreck the party and threaten the future (see Manmohan Singh, A Systemic Failure, OutlookIndia, 4 November 2009). The fact that much of what is happening can be understood as a desperate response from intensely marginalised people is discounted. A warming conflict The import of the Naxalites and other Maoist groups in India may go far beyond the major internal-security problem they pose. From another perspective, they represent an early example of the kinds of radical response that could - if present dominant policies continue - become far more widespread in the coming decades (see
A world on the edge, 29 January 2009). In the 2010-40 period, climate change will affect the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world in ever more pervasive ways. As the continents warm up much faster than the oceans and the croplands dry out, the consequence will be a sharp decline in the lands ecological carrying-capacity (see Shanta Barley, A World 4 degrees C warmer, New Scientist, 3 October 2009) This is also a world where there are enormous gaps in livingstandards, life-chances and access to resources; where 10% of the worlds people have over 85% of the household wealth; and where hundreds of millions of people in the global south (and north) are marginalised and resentful. The results, if such trends are allowed to continue, will be a combination of more fragile and failing states with intense migratory pressures; in turn this will reinforces the tendency of the worlds elites to seek to close the castle gates (see A tale of two towns, 21 June 2007). In this perspective, the rational approach would be led by an awareness of how the dangers of socio-economic divisions and environmental limits make a new definition of security essential (see A world in need: the case for sustainable security, 10 September 2009). A continuation of the current path may mean that alQaida will be seen as a short-term problem that withered away and the Naxalite rebellion as the prototype conflict for the 21st century. Status of women in the 21st Century India Throughout ages women in India have faced gruesome atrocities. One side of history shows the faith among the Indians about Shakti or the Women Power to be the strongest energy. The other side of history is colored in black, grey shades of dowry, child marriage, sati and other related mal practices. Hinduism defines woman to be a mans half-batsman. It is clearly indicated and symbolized through Shiv-Shakti that a man is incomplete without a woman. Holy Books have preached equality of both sexes. But even in todays ultramodern India the situation remains the same as it was centuries ago. The face and style of women exploitation has changed from visible to invisible. However, the cruelty and extent is unchanged. In earlier times, where women were prohibited from pursuing eduMini Year Book 2011 185
cation, today, educated women are exploited at home and at their workplaces. Physical exploitation of women has its prominence in the rural areas of the country while urban women face mental torture that sometimes even extends to physical torture. Modern educated women have become independent but their responsibilities have increased. A modern Indian woman has to provide income as well as has to perform household duties to support her family. During marriage a womans family background and property still plays a major role for acquiring a good alliance. So, the question remains whether have women really acquired independence through education or have become scapegoats to new kinds of exploitation. The answers to these questions are difficult. Education surely makes us aware of our rights but social conditioning makes us believe the unacceptable norms of the society to be our duties. A divorcee woman or a widow still finds it difficult to find a worthy alliance. But it still works for a man under similar conditions. Even if the woman is the sole income provider of the household and the man has proven to be incompetent, she is expected to be a socially correct good wife. The change that has happened is only that the picture is hidden, sometimes behind the close doors and sometimes underneath a dark region imperceptible to the naked eye.
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Indias maritime challenges in the 21st century

Captain Devindra Sethi
(Captain Devindra Sethi is an alumnus of Indias National Defense Academy, the College of Defense Management, the College of Naval Warfare, and the War College in St. Petersburg, Russia. He is a successful entrepreneur in the maritime industry and fluent in English, Russian and Hindi)
Indian Army chief General Deepak Kapoors remarks at a closeddoor seminar in New Delhi on Dec. 30, 2009, that the army was ready to fight a two-front war simultaneously with China and Pakistan, were ham-handedly projected by the media. As India grows strong economically, Indians expect a threat to its sovereignty, especially at sea where 80 percent of its trade is plied. The Indian Navy faces a rising threat from Chinas Peoples Liberation Army Navy in the Indian Ocean region and from terrorists seeking a sea route to wage attacks on land like the one on Mumbai in November 2008. It is also concerned over the increasing number of incidents of piracy off the Somali coast, from the Kenyan coast to the Seychelles islands and the Malacca Straits, which challenge merchant naval ships in international waters. China has emerged as the second-largest economy in the world in 2010 and the need for commodities like oil, iron ore, coal, copper, aluminum and uranium to feed its economys gargantuan appetite has led to huge imports, most of which arrive by sea. This has led to the ambitious renaissance of its navy. The neglect of maritime industries since 1949 now weighs heavily on China, as it finds the Indian Navy having invested heavily in shipbuilding, training and manpower over the same period of time. The speed at which the Indian Navy provided relief aid to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations member states hit by the tsunami in December 2007 was an eye-opener to many maritime powers. Chinas communist rulers love challenges and will use this peaceful period till 2030 to rebuild the countrys maritime muscle. This is the real challenge to the Indian polity and its Admiralty.
The answer is not a numbers game but to correctly forecast strategic shortcomings and build strong competencies, which can overwhelm likely adversaries at the commencement of hostilities. A better strategy would be to deter adversaries, so that enemy naval planners realize the extent of damage that can be inflicted on prized assets. A recent article in Newsweek indicated that the age of terror had moved on. Unfortunately, that is not the case, as is evident from the failed terrorist bombing of a transatlantic Detroit-bound flight on Christmas Day. Terror in its most virulent form is still alive and kicking. The rising numbers of suicide bombings in the Afghanistan-Pakistan region against NATO and U.S. forces and the terror attacks on Pakistans major cities have severely affected civilian life. Most of it is self-inflicted, as the country has refused to evolve since 1947. The Taliban and al-Qaida view India as a soft target, as porous frontiers exist along the coast, which were traditionally used by the Dubai-based mafia for smuggling gold. The Indian Navys brown water capabilities, which refer to its capacity to carry out military operations in rivers or littoral environments, assisted by the Coast Guard, need a complete revamp. Policing such littoral environments is a slow, tedious, time-consuming and frustrating task, as the identity of every crew member of a fishing craft or sailing dhow must be checked. On any given day, about 200,000 fishing boats sail along Indias west coast alone, each carrying four fishermen at the very minimum. One way to police the waters is to restrict sailing space. Piracy of serious magnitude in international waters first surfaced off the West African coast. The scene shifted to the Malacca Straits in the late 1980s and was put down determinedly by littoral states in the 1990s. The failed state of Somalia and the lack of governance have resulted in the present imbroglio off the Horn of Africa and have spread hundreds of kilometers to the east coast of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Recent interceptions by coalition navies and the Indian Navy indicate a change in the complement of pirates from Somali residents to foot soldiers of al-Qaida. This has omi188 Mini Year Book 2011
nous portent. Presently, India is caught within the imperatives of the blue water and brown water navy, as both are important and necessary and both have short-term and long-term implications. The three-layer response to augment the navy, Coast Guard and Marine Police is a good start. What is needed is to ensure that neither fatigue nor flagging energy with time sets in. Terrorists need just one mistake by security forces in brown waters to succeed in their task. Indias blue water navy must respond to Chinas PLA Navy and sea pirates. Well-trained staff will be a recurring requirement as much as technology. For example, network-centric capabilities are excellent for above-sea surface requirements, while being dependant on an x-ray band spectrum that cannot penetrate seawater will yield no results. Blue water sonar systems for subsurface warfare are constrained in their performance in littoral waters. Indias likely adversaries are building a formidable fleet of submarines, both conventional and nuclear-powered. These are major examples, besides others, of the realities facing specialist naval planners. Major navies of the world, including the Indian Navy, have adopted network-centric capabilities as core competencies today. The combat areas in the 21st century have shifted to littoral waters. Will this result in suboptimal utilization of the assets built? Only time will tell. Maritime diplomacy needs to be refashioned with the Ministry of Defense (Navy) and the Ministry of External Affairs joining hands to complement each other, especially in the Indian Ocean region. Most countries in the region have weak maritime capabilities. This can be vigorously worked upon with generous assistance from India. The private sector in India seeks a major foothold in defense contracts today. The Indian government must assist the private sector in building merchant marine vessels or simple warships like offshore patrol vessels, on easy credit terms in Indian private shipyards, for our neighbors.
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The World Economy in the 21st Century

D.S. Rajput
(Chitra Singh Rajput is presently editor of Develop India english weekly newspaper and Develop India Group web portal. She is a famous Indian social activist, analyst and versetyle writer. Who write many opinion editorials in the Develop India newspaper, web portal and career Manch.com web portal.)
The 20th century has been one of unprecedented economic achievement and progress in many respects, especially in the United States and Europe and other advanced countries, and indeed in most countries of the world. However, significant problems remain in the US and world economy as challenges for the 21st century. Lets briefly review some of these important achievements and remaining challenges. During the 20th century, per capita real income increased 6-7 times in the US and 4 times in the world as a whole. These very rapid increases in per capita income dwarf all previous centuries combined. However, at the same time, the gap between rich nations and poor nations continued to increase in the 20th century. As Pritchett and others have shown, there has been divergence big time in the per capita incomes of advanced and developing countries. Will this divergence between rich nations and poor nations continue in the 21st century or will it finally be reversed? Furthermore, the degree of income inequality within nations has been increasing in recent decades in many countries of the world, in both advanced and developing countries, including the US of course. Overall in the 20th century, there has probably not been much reduction of inequality within countries and probably even an increase of inequality in some countries. Will this recent trend of increasing inequality within nations continue in the 21st century, or will the trend be reversed toward greater equality. What about poverty? The percentage of the population living below the poverty line in the US did decline significantly from around 40% in the early 20th century to 13-14% in recent decades. However, there has been no further progress in the reduc190 Mini Year Book 2011
tion of poverty in the US since the 1960s. Furthermore, the percentage of African-Americans and Hispanic Americans living in poverty remains above 25% and the percentage of all children in the US living in poverty remains above 20%, in this very rich country. In the world as a whole, at the beginning of the 20th century, the vast majority of the population in the less-developed countries of the world (which is 80% of the total worlds population) lived in extreme poverty by todays standards (for example, less than $1 a day of per capita real income). Today, a majority of the population in these countries have risen out of this extreme poverty. Along with the reduction of poverty, life expectancies have increased by 20 years or more and literacy rates have doubled. However, poverty remains a grinding reality for a large percentage of the worlds population. Recent decades have been lost decades for much of Latin America, Africa, and now Asia. Tens of millions of Asians will fall back into poverty as a result of the recent economic crisis (after significant gains in reducing poverty in previous decades). The World Bank estimates that overall today at least one-quarter of the worlds population live on less than $1 per day (one-half in S. Asia and sub-Saharan Africa); and that at least one-half of the worlds population live on less than $2 per day. Will the 21st century be the century in which poverty is finally eliminated and the World Banks dream of a world free of poverty is finally realized? The extent of economic inequality along racial and gender lines also has declined significantly in the US and in other countries, especially in recent decades. However, once again, significant racial and gender inequalities remain as challenges for the 21st century. A large portion of African-Americans in the US remain a sort of economic underclass. Will the 21st century also be the century in which racial and gender inequalities are finally eliminated, and Martin Luther Kings dream of full equality for all is finally realized? In the 1930s, the US and world economy suffered through the worst depression in history. Since the 1930s, there has not been another major global depression, due both to structural changes in the economy and to more active government intervention in the economy. However, since the 1970s, growth rates have been slower, some recessions
have been more severe, unemployment and inflation have generally been higher than in the early postwar years, and financial crises have been recurring, especially in developing countries who have borne the brunt of this recent period of greater macroeconomic instability. Furthermore, the recent Asian crisis and the threat of a more general financial crisis has once again raised fears of another serious depression. Will the 21st century be the century in which depressions are finally eliminated from capitalist economies? Are great depressions indeed a thing of the past? Finally, a very significant new problem has emerged during the course of the 20th century that was hardly even perceived 100 years ago: environmental degradation. The processes of economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization have produced serious environmental problems, which include: carbon emissions and global warming (with the consequent rise of sea levels and damage to agriculture), deforestation and threats to biodiversity, depletion of the worlds fish supply, etc. Many large cities of the world have become virtually uninhabitable in terms of reasonable health standards. (I have recently spent two years in Mexico City, which is positively harmful to ones health.) Will solutions to these environmental problems be found in the 21st century? How much growth is compatible with a sustainable ecology? Will there be an adequate food supply for a growing worlds population? Will there be an inadequate supply of water? If growth has to be reduced, how will this reduction be distributed among advanced and developing countries? These are some of the important questions that we will discuss this weekend. We have the great opportunity to hear what a very distinguished group of economists from around the world have to say about these questions and to join in a discussion with them of these questions. Please join us in the discussion.
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Opportunities and Challenges for World Nuclear Industry in 21st Century

My presentation today is about opportunities and challenges for the nuclear industry in the 21 century. Challenges and opportunities are polarities, and as opposite poles of the magnet they do not exist separately. And moreover an opportunity for some can be a challenge for others, or a challenge today can become an opportunity tomorrow. All these complexities are fully applicable to the nuclear industry and its future. Current world challenges such as energy demand, climate change, and energy security are opportunities for the nuclear industry. The IEA projects that the energy consumption will grow about 50% by 2030 with electricity use doubling globally and tripling in developing countries. The growth will be mainly based on the growing use of fossil fuels leading the world to a future which the Secretary General of the IEA described as dirty, expensive and unstable. Another concern is energy security which is already a primary challenge for many countries. Competition for natural resources leads to rising prices for fossil fuel. As the IAEA DG Dr. ElBaradei said at the G-8 Summit, if we ignore insecurities of others, they eventually become our own. Increase in fossil fuel use is a leading concern regarding the impact of human activities on climate change. The Executive Secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Mr. Yvo de Boer, said he has never seen a credible scenario for reducing emissions that did not include nuclear energy. All these world challenges have tended to increase the opportunities for the nuclear power and strengthen the achievements in NP development, including its safe operation. The way in which Nuclear Power has developed in Korea is a clear demonstration of how the challenges can become opportunities. After 30 years of operation in Korea, 20 units of operating NPPs are maintained at a high level of performance and safety,
with an average capacity factor of more then 90% compared to the global average of 77.8 percent. But before speaking about the challenges and their solutions we have to agree about the principles under which nuclear power has to be developed and used. Clearly demonstrating compliance with such principles is of special concern to the countries introducing nuclear power programs. Many projections forecast significant growth in nuclear power both in countries currently using it and in countries considering its use for the first time. The 2007 IAEA projections indicate that nuclear electricity generation may grow by 15 to 45% by 2020 and by 25 to 95% by 2030. The number of nuclear power reactors is predicted to increase by up to 60% and associated fuel cycle facilities by up to 45% by 2030. For the global nuclear power to be sustainable and to contribute to the worlds energy supply mix in the long term, it must respond to the challenges of further development. Among these challenges are the availability of uranium resources, management of waste, safety, public acceptance, aging of the facilities and workforce, complex infrastructure, and non-proliferation. In my presentation I will focus on those challenges that are marked with the red colour. Uranium Resources My conclusion (and the Red Book confirms it) is that there are enough resources, 16-22 Mt. Increased exploration is needed. I would say even more, we have too much uranium. I cannot imagine that we will continue to use uranium as we do now until we have accumulated16Mt of SF. Closing the fuel cycle will resolve the issue of availability of resources and in addition can help decrease the radiotoxicity of the nuclear waste. Technical solutions for LL and ILW exist. And just last week a remarkable announcement was made, an application for the licensing of Yucca Mountain was sent to the NRC. Public perception of nuclear power is changing. This is partly due to the successful operation of nuclear energy over the last 20 years and partly to the perception that nuclear energy can make a valuable contribution to reducing global warming. In some countries public perception may be heavily influenced by the lack of
practical and affordable alternatives as well as observations that nuclear power has made valuable contributions to raising living standards in countries like the Republic of Korea and India. I would stress that even though I have a positive tone in my coverage of this issue, it remains a challenge, and our joint efforts are needed to make this positive tone a reality. Rising expectations for nuclear power have focused attention on the human resource and industrial capabilities needed to meet these expectations. The nuclear facilities and workforce are aging as well as a decline in research potential has taken place as shown on this slide. The total number of nuclear power plants in operation worldwide is estimated to employ more than 250 000 people. Over one million people are estimated to have been engaged in supporting the nuclear industry worldwide in 2007. For its sustainable development the nuclear industry must address shortages of experienced personnel, the loss of knowledge and research potential due to retirement in countries with established nuclear programs, as well as the building of capabilities in countries starting nuclear program. The complexity of nuclear technology requires a highly educated and specifically trained workforce. In some countries, the government has provided incentives to develop academic programs and recruit students to nuclear fields. The Agency is also active in this area. With the support of the Agency several networks (Asian Network on Education in NT, European Nuclear Engineering Network, WNU, etc) have been established for information sharing and attraction of young generation to nuclear activity. Questions have been raised about whether there is available nuclear industrial capacity to meet the near term demand if high growth projections for nuclear power come true. The nuclear industry in the 1980s was able to support construction of more than two hundred nuclear power plants, which is more then the high projection now foresees, and the worlds industrial capacity was a lot smaller then. Manufacturing capability and capacity will need to be rebuilt to service the expected growth in new nuclear power plants. This may already be happening
Needs of Developing Countries
According to IAEA data, 47 countries have expressed an interest in the introduction of nuclear power: 16 are from the Asia/ Pacific region (from the Middle East to the Pacific), 15 are from Africa, 10 from Europe and 6 from Latin America. Expansion of existing nuclear programmes is currently largely centred in Asia, where the greatest expansion in energy production is also expected. Many countries in Europe and North America also expect to expand their nuclear programmes, though new construction starts remain to be seen. Regional cooperation for the introduction of new nuclear power plants is also being planned. The Baltic States are planning a regional project at the Ignalina site in Lithuania. The Gulf Cooperation Council states are considering the possibility of a regional approach to the introduction of a nuclear programme International support for States introducing nuclear power is important to ensure they are making informed decisions on the role of nuclear power in their energy mixes. The IAEA helps countries prepare for the introduction or expansion of nuclear power by 1) helping them ensure that nuclear energy is used safely, securely and with minimal proliferation risk, and 2) meeting the needs of developing countries to build capacity in terms of human resources, energy analysis, regulatory capabilities and other infrastructure necessary for nuclear power. The Agency has taken an integrated approach to all the issues that have to be taken into account for the introduction of a nuclear power programme, including in providing guiding documents, forums for sharing information, consultancies and technical meetings and sending multidisciplinary teams to countries requesting assistance with nuclear power infrastructure. The process also includes specific assistance and review services in the areas of infrastructure readiness, feasibility studies, draft nuclear law, regulatory frameworks and organization, siting issues, human resource development and planning, bid evaluation and technology assessment, owner/operator competence, and safety and security. Innovations in nuclear technology are necessary to achieve an increase in nuclear energys long term contribution to sustainable
development. There are a number of international initiatives to ensure and strengthen the future sustainability of nuclear power such as the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO) and the Generation IV International Forum (GIF). The IAEAs project, INPRO, assembles expertise, facilitates information exchange and catalyzes coordinated research among technology holders and technology users including potential users to ensure that new designs meet the needs of all countries, and especially developing ones. Improvements in sustainability are considered by INPRO in the context of developments in the areas of safety, economics, proliferation resistance, waste management, environment, resources utilization security and infrastructure. INPRO methodology provides a method for the holistic assessment of innovative nuclear systems. The expansion of nuclear power will increase the nuclear material in use and may increase the risk of proliferation or terrorism. The need to consider the challenges associated with the expansion of nuclear power has led to a number of international initiatives based on the idea of strengthening multinational control over, and assurance of, the supply of nuclear technology and materials. The IAEA Director General Dr. ElBaradei has proposed as the first step establishment of a mechanism to assure the supply of nuclear fuel. This back-up mechanism in which the IAEA becomes a guarantor for the supply of fissile materials to civilian nuclear users could add further confidence by helping to protect against political disruptions. The DG established a group of experts to review multilateral arrangements relevant to the front-end and back-end of the nuclear fuel cycle as well as the policy, legal, security, economic and technological elements of cooperation. Two factors dominate the assessments made by this group: assurance of non-proliferation and assurance of supply. Five steps were identified, including establishment of a fuel bank, a role for the IAEA as a guarantor of service supply, and further steps toward multilateral control over the sensitive FC technologies. Practical proposals for the introduction of mechanisms to enMini Year Book 2011 197
sure supply have been offered by Russia, USA, Germany, Japan and an NGO. Specifically, the Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) offered M$50 for the establishment of a fuel bank. Russia, Kazakhstan and Armenia have established an International Uranium Enrichment Center at Angarsk to provide access to the benefits of nuclear energy to interested countries in compliance with non-proliferation. An agreement on a fuel bank under the IAEAs control at Angarsk is also under development. In addition, the USA launched the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) to foster the expansion of nuclear energy while enhancing security and non-proliferation, focusing on reliable fuel services and the closed fuel cycle with technology without separated plutonium. As of February 2008, GNEP has 21 partners, and 3 observing international organizations. The fully developed framework is a complex endeavour to be developed in stages. In conclusion, nuclear power, by itself, is not a panacea for global energy security. It has the potential to be a significant, reliable, sustainable and environmentally friendly energy source that can contribute to providing access to affordable energy services in all interested countries for present and future generations. To realize this potential any use of nuclear energy should be designed to be beneficial, responsible and sustainable, and undertaken with due regard to safety, environmental impact, non-proliferation and social acceptance.
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TRIVIA AROUND THE WORLD

Basic Earth Facts
Here you will find a listing of essential facts about the planet earth, the home to all of humanity: Human Population of the Earth: 6,820,000,000 (6.82 billion) as of May 2010 World Population Growth: 1.13% - 2009 estimate (this means at the current rate of growth, the earths population will double in about 62 years) Countries of the World: 195 Earths Circumference at the Equator: 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 km) Earths Circumference Between the North and South Poles: 24,859.82 miles (40,008 km) Earths Diameter at the Equator: 7,926.28 miles (12,756.1 km) Earths Diameter at the Poles: 7,899.80 miles (12,713.5 km) Average Distance from the Earth to the Sun: 93,020,000 miles (149,669,180 km) Average Distance from the Earth to the Moon: 238,857 miles (384,403.1 km) Highest Elevation on Earth - Mt. Everest, Asia: 29,035 feet (8850 m) Tallest Mountain on Earth from Base to Peak - Mauna Kea, Hawaii: 33,480 feet (rising to 13,796 feet above sea level) (10204 m; 4205 m) Point Farthest From the Center of the Earth - The peak of the volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador at 20,561 feet (6267 m) is farthest from the center of the earth due to its location near the equator and the oblateness of the Earth. Lowest Elevation on Land - Dead Sea: 1369 feet below sea level (417.27 m)
Deepest Point in the Ocean - Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench, Western Pacific Ocean: 35,840 feet (10924 m) Highest Temperature Recorded: 135.8F - Al Aziziyah, Libya, September 13, 1922 (57.7C) Lowest Temperature Recorded: -128.5F - Vostok, Antarctica, July 21, 1983 (-89.2C) Water vs. Land: 70.8% Water, 29.2% Land Age of the Earth: 4.5 to 4.6 billion years Atmosphere Content: 77% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and traces of argon, carbon dioxide and water Rotation on Axis: 23 hours and 56 minutes and 04.09053 seconds. But, it takes an additional four minutes for the earth to revolve to the same position as the day before relative to the sun (i.e. 24 hours). Revolution around Sun: 365.2425 days Chemical Composition of the Earth: 34.6% Iron, 29.5% Oxygen, 15.2% Silicon, 12.7% Magnesium, 2.4% Nickel, 1.9% Sulfur, and 0.05% Titanium
Others
Pisa, Italy is six miles from the coast of the Mediterranean now, but that sea rises and falls over the ages and Pisa was a port city in the 5th century B.C. A couple of years ago excavators found 15 ships with antique cargoes intact buried in the clay under Pisa where it was left by withdrawing waters. The most populated city in the world is Shangai in China. In Caracas, the capital city of Venezuela, it is customary for the streets to be blocked off on Christmas eve so that the people can rollerskate to church. Using satellite-surveying techniques, scientists have determined that Los Angeles, California is moving east. At a rate estimated to be about one-fifth on an inch per year, the city is moving closer to the San Gabriel Mountains. The Vatican city, as well as being the smallest city in the world, is also one of the only countries within another country (it is inside Italy) The other is San Marino, also inside Italy. A building in Belgium was taxed if there was a street light on it...unless a statue of the Virgin Mary were placed above it. Hence, there are no buildings in the city without a statue of the Virgin
Mary. The longest official city name in the world is: Krungthep Mahanakhon Amorn Rattanakosin Mahintara Yudthaya Mahadilok Pohp Noparat Rajathanee Bureerom Udomrajniwes Mahasatarn Amorn Pimarn Avaltarnsatit Sakatattiya Visanukram Prasit. It is the official name of Bangkok, Thailand. In Chester, England, you can only legally shoot a Welsh person with a bow and arrow inside the city walls and after midnight. The only trouble is finding one ;o) The first city in modern history to reach 1 million people was London in 1811. We usually think of Montreal, Canada as a cold weather city, and Paris, France as a much warmer city than Montreal, but the fact is that Montreal is south of Paris.
KINGS AND QUEENS TRIVIA
The movie The Madness of King George was originally released in England under the title of The Madness of King George III. The III was dropped for its American release because it was believed that the American moviegoer would believe it to be a sequel, and not go see it because they had never seen The Madness of King George I and II yet. King George I of England could not speak English. He was born and raised in Germany and never learned to speak English even though he was King from 1714 to 1727. He left the running of the country to his ministers thereby creating the first government cabinet. Queen Anne had a transvestite cousin, Lord Cornbury, whom she assigned to be governor of New York and New Jersey. The colonists were not amused. You would think that as the ruler of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the defender of the faith, Queen Elizabeth II could go anywhere in her country she darn well pleases. However, she is not permitted to set foot in the House of Commons. It is reserved for commoners. Anne Boleyn, Queen Elizabeth Is mother, had six fingers on one hand. In the Forteenth century, King Edward II reigned in England and was deposed, to be succeeded by his son, Edward III. The
King was imprisoned in Berkeley Castle and instructions were that no one should harm him. When the decision was made to murder him, no mark was to be left on the body. A deer horn was inserted into his rectum and a red hot poker was placed inside that. His ghostly screams are said to be still heard in the castle. Sir Walter Raliegh financed his trip to America to cultivate tobacco by betting Queen Elizabeth I that he could weigh the weight of smoke, which he did by placing two identical cigars on opposite sides of a scale, lighting one and making sure no ashes fell. The difference in the weight after the cigar was done was the weight of smoke and Raliegh was on his way to America. Sir Thomas Crapper, attributed to inventing the flush toilet, was a nephew of Queen Elizabeth. Spain, or rather the part of it which was called Castile, once had a reigning queen, who had been a nun. She was Doa Urraca of the house of Navarre who reigned from 1109 - 1126, daughter of Alfonso the VI of Leon and Castile. Later on she married and had a son who took the throne, when she died. The French king Louis the XIV., also known as the Sun King, was with almost certainty not the son of Louis the XIII., but the son of the Danish nobleman Josiah Rantzau, who served in France as a general and marechal of France. Rantzau was very popular with the ladies on account of his great succes on the battlefields. It seems, that he was also a favorite of the French queen; and it is told, that he had to leave France when the boy Louis grew up, because the boy was the spitting image of Rantzau. Adolph Hitler had a half brother named Alois Hitler, he owned a bar in Germany that was frequented by prominent Nazi officials. Alois would never share his opinion on Adolph because he was afraid Adolph would revoke his liquor license! Adolf Hitler had some Jewish heritage in him. His great great grandmother was Jewish who was a maid. Hitler ordered tanks to be made in Michigan and told the company to not worry about sending them to Germany, hed pick them up on his way through Detroit. Quisling, which is used to describe a traitor, was the name of Vidkun Quisling, a Norwegian fascist and supporter of Adolf Hitler, who was appointed Fhrer of Norway in World War II. Arrested in
1945, Quisling was so despised, Norway broke with their centuries-old policy against capital punishment and executed him. Hitlers 3rd grade report from his teacher remarked that Hitler was...bad tempered and fancied himself as a leader. Adolf Hitler was fascinated by hands. In his library there was a well-thumbed book containing pictures and drawings of hands belonging to famous people throughout history. He liked particularly to show his guests how closely his own hands resembled those of Frederick the Great, one of his heroes. The NY phone book had 22 Hitlers before WWII. The NY phone book had 0 Hitlers after WWII. Hitler was voted Time Magazines man of the year in 1938 Adolph Hitler kept a framed photograph of Henry Ford on his desk and Ford kept one of Hitler on his desk in Dearborn, Michigan. Hitler had used in Mein Kampf some of Fords anti-semitic views, and he always welcomed Fords contributions to the Nazi movement.
Communist Countries
The Five Remaining Communist Countries in the World During the reign of the Soviet Union, there were communist countries throughout Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. Communist countries in the twentieth century included Afghanistan, Albania, Angola, Benin, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Congo, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Ethiopia, Hungary, Mongolia, Mozambique, Poland, Romania, Somalia, South Yemen, Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia. Today, there are only five communist countries in the world. 1. China Mao Zedong took control over China in 1949 and proclaimed China as the Peoples Republic of China, a communist country. China has remained consistently communist since 1949 although economic reforms have been in place for several years. China has been called Red China due to the communist partys control over the country. 2. Cuba A revolution in 1959 led to the taking over of the Cuban government by Fidel Castro. By 1961, Cuba became a fully communist country and developed close ties to the Soviet Union. 3. Laos Laos, officially the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, became
a communist country in 1975 following a revolution that was supported by Vietnam and the Soviet Union. 4. North Korea Korea, which was captured by Japan in World War II, was divided following the war into a Soviet north and American south. Despite being led by the USSR beginning in 1945, North Korea did not become a communist country until 1948. 5. Vietnam Vietnam was partitioned at a 1954 conference that followed the First Indochina War. While the partition was supposed to be temporary, North Vietnam became communist and supported by the Soviet Union while South Vietnam was democratic and supported by the United States. Following two decades of war, the two parts of Vietnam were unified and in 1976, Vietnam as a unified country became a communist country.
US State Nicknames
Official and Non-Official Nicknames of the 50 States Heres a listing of the often colorful nicknames of the fifty states. When a state has multiple nicknames, the official or most common state nickname is listed first. Alabama - Yellowhammer State, Heart of Dixie, Camellia State Alaska - The Last Frontier Arizona - Grand Canyon State, Copper State Arkansas - The Natural State, Land of Opportunity, The Razorback State California - Golden State Colorado - Centennial State, Colorful Colorado Connecticut - Constitution State, Nutmeg State Delaware - First State, Diamond State, Blue Hen State, Small Wonder Florida - Sunshine State Georgia - Peach State, Empire of the South, Goober State Hawaii - Aloha State, Pineapple State Idaho - Gem State, Spud State Illinois - Prairie State, Land of Lincoln Indiana - Hoosier State Iowa - Hawkeye State Kansas - Sunflower State, Salt of the Earth
Kentucky - Bluegrass State Louisiana - Pelican State, Sugar State Maine - Pine Tree State Maryland - Old Line State, Free State Massachusetts - Bay State, Old Colony State Michigan - Great Lakes State, Wolverine State Minnesota - North Star State, Gopher State, Land of 10,000 Lakes, Bread and Butter State Mississippi - Magnolia State Missouri - Show Me State Montana - Treasure State, Big Sky State Nebraska - Cornhusker State Nevada - Silver State, Battle Born State, Sagebrush State New Hampshire - Granite State New Jersey - Garden State New Mexico - Land of Enchantment New York - Empire State North Carolina - Tar Heel State, Old North State North Dakota - Peace Garden State, Flickertail State, RoughriderState Ohio - Buckeye State, Modern Mother of Presidents Oklahoma - Sooner State Oregon - Beaver State Pennsylvania - Keystone State, Quaker State Rhode Island - Ocean State, Little Rhody South Carolina - Palmetto State South Dakota - Coyote State, Mount Rushmore State Tennessee - Volunteer State, Big Bend State Texas - Lone Star State Utah - Beehive State Vermont - Green Mountain State Virginia - Old Dominion Washington - Evergreen State, Chinook State West Virginia - Mountain State Wisconsin - Badger State Wyoming - Equality State, Cowboy State
Countries With Multiple Capital Cities

Twelve countries around the world have multiple capital cities for a variety of reasons. Most split administrative, legislative, and judiMini Year Book 2011 205
cial headquarters between two or more cities. Benin Porto-Novo is the official capital of Benin but Cotonou is the seat of government. Bolivia The administrative capital of Bolivia is La Paz while the legislative and judicial (also known as constitutional) capital is Sucre. Cote dIvoire In 1983, President Felix Houphouet-Boigny moved the capital of Cote dIvoire from Abidjan to his hometown of Yamoussoukro. This made the official capital Yamoussoukro but many government offices and embassies (including the United States) remain in Abidjan. Israel In 1950, Israel proclaimed Jerusalem as their capital city. However, since Jerusalem is a city in dispute between Israel and the West Bank so most countries (including the United States) maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv-Jaffa, which was Israels capital from 1948 to 1950. Malaysia Malaysia has moved many administrative functions from Kuala Lumpur to a suburb of Kuala Lumpur called Putrajaya. Putrajaya is a new high-technology complex 25km (15 miles) south of Kuala Lumpur. The Malaysian government has relocated administrative offices and the Prime Ministers official residence. Nonetheless, Kuala Lumpur remains the official capital. Putrajaya is part of a regional Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC). The MSC itself is also home to Kuala Lumpur International Airport and the Petronas Twin Towers. Myanmar On Sunday, November 6, 2005 civil servants and government officials were ordered to move immediately from Rangoon to a new capital, Nay Pyi Taw (also known as Naypyidaw), 200 miles north. While governmental buildings in Nay Pyi Taw had been under construction for more than two years, its construction was not widely publicized. Some report the timing of the move was related to astrological recommendations. The transition to Nay Pyi Taw continues so both Rangoon and Nay Pyi Taw retain capital status. Other names might be seen or used to represent the new
capital and nothing is solid as of this writing. Netherlands Though the legal (de jure) capital of the Netherlands is Amsterdam, the actual (de facto) seat of government and residence of the monarchy is The Hague. Nigeria The capital of Nigeria was officially moved from Lagos to Abuja in December 2, 1991 but some offices remain in Lagos. South Africa South Africa is a very interesting situation, it has three capitals. Pretoria is the administrative capital, Cape Town is the legislative capital, and Bloemfontein is the home of the judiciary. Sri Lanka Sri Lanka has moved the legislative capital to Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte, a suburb of the official capital Colombo. Swaziland Mbabane is the administrative capital and Lobamba is the royal and legislative capital. Tanzania Tanzania officially designated its capital as Dodoma but only the legislature meets there, leaving Dar es Salaam as the de facto capital city.
Countries that Lie on the Equator

From Africa eastward... 1. Sao Tome and Principe 2. Gabon 3. Republic of The Congo 4. Democratic Republic of The Congo 5. Uganda 6. Kenya 7. Somalia 8. Indonesia 9. Kiribati (the equator may or may not touch dry land) 10. Ecuador 11. Colombia 12. Brazil
The Seven Wonders of the World

The Seven Wonders of the World has historically been a listing of seven sites known to the Ancient Greeks as the most notable locales in their known world. Since then, many have developed lists of the modern Seven Wonders of the World. The only list that really stands out and has stood the test of time for more than a decade is the Seven Wonders of the Modern World, developed by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The Original Seven Wonders of the World The Colossus of Rhodes The Great Pyramid of Giza The Hanging Gardens of Babylon The Lighthouse of Alexandria The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus The Statue of Zeus at Olympia The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
The Seven Wonders of the Modern World
Channel Tunnel CN Tower Empire State Building Golden Gate Bridge Itaipu Dam Netherlands North Sea Protection Works Panama Canal
Natural Wonders of the World
In 1997, CNN announced a listing of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World... Grand Canyon The Great Barrier Reef The Harbor at Rio de Janeiro Mt. Everest Northern Lights Paricutin Volcano Victoria Falls
The New Seven Wonders of the World
On July 7, 2007 an organization announced a new set of the Seven Wonders of the World based on online voting from around the world...
Chichen Itza, Mexico - Mayan City Christ Redeemer, Brazil - Large Statue The Great Wall, China Machu Picchu, Peru Petra, Jordan - Ancient City The Roman Colosseum, Italy The Taj Mahal, India
Longest Rivers in the World

The 10 Longest Rivers on Earth 1. Nile River - Africa - 4,160 miles - 6,695 km 2. Amazon River - South America - 4,049 miles - 6,516 km 3. Yangtze River - Asia - 3,964 miles - 6,380 km 4. Mississippi-Missouri River System* - North America - 3,709 miles - 5,969 km 5. Ob-Irtysh Rivers - Asia - 3,459 miles - 5,568 km 6. Yenisey-Angara-Selenga Rivers - Asia - 3,448 miles - 5550 km 7. Huang He (Yellow River) - Asia - 3,395 miles - 5,464 km 8. Congo River - Africa - 2,900 miles - 4,667 km 9. Rio de la Plata-Parana - South America - 2,796 miles - 4,500 km 10. Mekong River - Asia - 2,749 miles - 4,425 km * The Missouri River is, hydrologically, the upstream continuation of the Mississippi River as the Missouri River carries more water than the Mississippi River at the confluence of the two rivers.
The Largest Lakes in the World

The Deepest Lakes and Largest Lakes by Surface Area and Largest by Volume
Largest Lakes by Surface Area

1. Caspian Sea - Asia - 371,000 sq km (143,000 sq mi)* 2. Lake Superior - North America - 82,100 sq km (31,698 sq mi) 3. Lake Victoria - Africa - 68,800 sq km (26,563 sq mi) 4. Lake Huron - North America - 59,600 sq km (23,011 sq mi) 5. Lake Michigan - North America - 57,800 sq km (22,316 sq mi) 6. Lake Tanganyika - Africa - 32,900 sq km (12,702 sq mi) 7. Baikal - Asia - 30,500 sq km (11,776 sq mi)
8. Great Bear Lake - North America - 31,328 sq km (12,095 sq mi) 9. Lake Malawi (Lake Nyasa) - Africa - 30,044 sq km (11,600 sq mi) 10. Great Slave Lake - North America - 28,568 sq km (11.030 sq mi) Source: The Times Atlas of the World
Largest Lakes by Volume

1. Baikal - Asia 23,600 cubic km** 2. Tanganyika- Africa - 18,900 cubic km 3. Superior - North America - 11,600 cubic km 4. Lake Malawi (Lake Nyasa) - Africa - 7,725 cubic km 5. Lake Michigan - North America - 4900 cubic km 6. Lake Huron - North America - 3540 cubic km 7. Lake Victoria - Africa - 2,700 cubic km 8. Great Bear Lake - North America - 2,236 cubic km 9. Issyk-Kul (Ysyk-Kol) - Asia - 1,730 cubic km 10. Lake Ontario - North America - 1,710 cubic km Source: Wikipedia
Deepest Lakes in the World

1. Lake Baikal - Asia - 1,637 m (5,369 ft) 2. Lake Tanganyika - Africa - 1,470 m (4,823 ft) 3. Caspian Sea - Asia - 1,025 m (3,363 ft) 4. OHiggins Lake (San Martin Lake) - South America - 836 m (2,742 ft) 5. Lake Malawi (Lake Nyasa) - Africa - 706 m (2,316 ft)
Euro Countries
22 Countries Use the Euro as their Official Currency On January 1, 1999 one of the largest steps toward European unification took place with the introduction of the euro as the official currency in eleven countries (Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain). However, residents of the first European Union countries that adopted the euro didnt begin using euro banknotes and coins until January 1, 2002. Today, the euro is one of the worlds most powerful currencies, used by more than 320 million Europeans in twenty-two countries. The countries currently using the euro are: 1) Andorra
2) Austria 3) Belgium 4) Cyprus 5) Finland 6) France 7) Germany 8) Greece 9) Ireland 10) Italy 11) Kosovo 12) Luxembourg 13) Malta 14) Monaco 15) Montenegro 16) Netherlands 17) Portugal 18) San Marino 19) Slovakia 20) Slovenia 21) Spain 22) Vatican City
Axis of Evil
Axis of Evil, Rogue States, Outposts of Tyranny, and Axis of Terror Prior to President Bushs proclamation of the Axis of Evil in his State of the Union address on January 29, 2002, there were other lists of countries not considered friends of the United States. As well, since that time, there are newer lists of unfriendly countries established by leading American diplomats and others.
Cold War
Certainly, during the Cold War, the Soviet Union, its allies, members of the Warsaw Pact countries, and other communist countries were part of the Cold War-eras Axis of Evil. Interestingly, during the Cold War era of the Soviet Union, the term first world referred to the United States and its allies while the second world referred to the USSR and its allies. The third world referred to those countries that were unaligned with either
the Soviet Union or the United States. These third world countries were often the less-developed countries of the world. Today, these worlds are obsolete so most refer to two groups of countries as being either developed versus less-developed or developing. During the time of the Cold War, there was also a list developed of the State Sponsors of Terrorism.
State Sponsors of Terrorism

The current list of State Sponsors of Terrorism are Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan, and Syria. International talks with North Korea in February 2007 paved the way for the removal of North Korea from the list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Libya is being removed from the list in mid-2006. Syria is the oldest member of the list, having been placed there in 1979.
Rogue States
At the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Soviet bloc countries were no longer enemies of the United States. Thus came the development of the list of Rogue States, which included North Korea, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Libya. Afghanistan, Iraq, and Libya would no longer be considered part of this list (due to U.S.-led invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq and the mid-2006 restoration of full diplomatic relations with Libya).
Beyond the Axis of Evil

In May 2002, Under-Secretary of State John Bolton (later U.N. Ambassador) gave a speech which listed the three Axis of Evil members (Iraq, Iran, and North Korea) along with Libya, Syria, and Cuba as part of the beyond the Axis of Evil as countries having the potential of using Weapons of Mass Destruction.
Outposts of Tyranny
Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice listed in a speech the six anti-American countries that are the Outposts of Tyranny. These include Iran, North Korea, Cuba, Belarus, Zimbabwe and Myanmar (called Burma by the U.S. government).
Axis of Terror
The most recent axis was identified in April 2006 by Dan Gillerman, Israeli Ambassador to the United Nations, who identified the Axis of Terror as Iran, Syria and the Palestinian govern212 Mini Year Book 2011
ment.
New Countries of the World

Since 1990, 33 new countries have been created. The dissolution of the USSR and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s caused the creation of most of the newly independent states. You probably know about many of these changes but a few of these new countries seemed to slip by almost unnoticed. This comprehensive listing will update you about the countries which have formed since 1990. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Fifteen new countries became independent with the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Most of these countries declared independence a few months preceding the fall of the Soviet Union in late 1991. Armenia 1. Azerbaijan 2. 3. Belarus Estonia 4. 5. Georgia Kazakhstan 6. 7. Kyrgyzstan Latvia 8. 9. Lithuania 10. Moldova 11. Russia 12. Tajikistan 13. Turkmenistan 14. Ukraine 15. Uzbekistan Former Yugoslavia Yugoslavia dissolved in the early 1990s into five independent countries. 1. Bosnia and Herzegovina, February 29, 1992 Croatia, June 25, 1991 2. 3. Macedonia (officially The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) declared independence on September 8, 1991 but wasnt recognized by the United Nations until 1993 and the United
States and Russia in February of 1994 4. Serbia and Montenegro, (also known as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia), April 17, 1992 (see below for separate Serbia and Montenegro entries) Slovenia, June 25, 1991 5. Other New Countries Thirteen other countries became independent through a variety of causes. March 21, 1990 - Namibia became independent of South Africa. May 22, 1990 - North and South Yemen merged to form a unified Yemen. October 3, 1990 - East Germany and West Germany merged to form a unified Germany after the fall of the Iron Curtain. September 17, 1991 - The Marshall Islands was part of the Trust Territory of Pacific Islands (administered by the United States) and gained independence as a former colony. September 17, 1991 - Micronesia, previously known as the Caroline Islands, became independent from the United States. January 1, 1993 - The Czech Republic and Slovakia became independent nations when Czechoslovakia dissolved. May 25, 1993 - Eritrea was a part of Ethiopia but seceded and gained independence. October 1, 1994 - Palau was part of the Trust Territory of Pacific Islands (administered by the United States) and gained independence as a former colony. May 20, 2002 - East Timor (Timor-Leste) declared independence from Portugal in 1975 but did not became independent from Indonesia until 2002. June 3, 2006 - Montenegro was part of Serbia and Montenegro (also known as Yugoslavia) but gained independence after a referendum. June 5, 2006 - Serbia became its own entity after Montenegro split. Febraury 17, 2008 - Kosovo unilaterally declared independence from Serbia.
Capitals of Every Independent Country

The 195 Independent Countries on Earth With Their Capital City or Cities Below is a complete listing of the 195 official independent countries of the world and their capital cities. Please see my article about the Number of Countries in the World for more information on the number 195. There are a significant number of countries that have multiple capital cities. Where that occurs, the additional capital cities are listed as well. (Note that the word capitol refers to the building and not to the city). My World Atlas provides maps and geographic information about every country and many non-countries on the planet. Follow the linked country name for maps and geographical information about each of the 195 countries in the world. The countries of the world and capitals of every country follow: Afghanistan - Kabul Albania - Tirane Algeria - Algiers Andorra - Andorra la Vella Angola - Luanda Antigua and Barbuda - Saint Johns Argentina - Buenos Aires Armenia - Yerevan Australia - Canberra Austria - Vienna Azerbaijan - Baku The Bahamas - Nassau Bahrain - Manama Bangladesh - Dhaka Barbados - Bridgetown Belarus - Minsk Belgium - Brussels Belize - Belmopan Benin - Porto-Novo Bhutan - Thimphu Bolivia - La Paz (administrative); Sucre (judicial) Bosnia and Herzegovina - Sarajevo Botswana - Gaborone
Brazil - Brasilia Brunei - Bandar Seri Begawan Bulgaria - Sofia Burkina Faso - Ouagadougou Burundi - Bujumbura Cambodia - Phnom Penh Cameroon - Yaounde Canada - Ottawa Cape Verde - Praia Central African Republic - Bangui Chad - NDjamena Chile - Santiago China - Beijing Colombia - Bogota Comoros - Moroni Congo, Republic of the - Brazzaville Congo, Democratic Republic of the - Kinshasa Costa Rica - San Jose Cote dIvoire - Yamoussoukro (official); Abidjan (de facto) Croatia - Zagreb Cuba - Havana Cyprus - Nicosia Czech Republic - Prague Denmark - Copenhagen Djibouti - Djibouti Dominica - Roseau Dominican Republic - Santo Domingo East Timor (Timor-Leste) - Dili Ecuador - Quito Egypt - Cairo El Salvador - San Salvador Equatorial Guinea - Malabo Eritrea - Asmara Estonia - Tallinn Ethiopia - Addis Ababa Fiji - Suva Finland - Helsinki France - Paris
Gabon - Libreville The Gambia - Banjul Georgia - Tbilisi Germany - Berlin Ghana - Accra Greece - Athens Grenada - Saint Georges Guatemala - Guatemala City Guinea - Conakry Guinea-Bissau - Bissau Guyana - Georgetown Haiti - Port-au-Prince Honduras - Tegucigalpa Hungary - Budapest Iceland - Reykjavik India - New Delhi Indonesia - Jakarta Iran - Tehran Iraq - Baghdad Ireland - Dublin Israel - Jerusalem* Italy - Rome Jamaica - Kingston Japan - Tokyo Jordan - Amman Kazakhstan - Astana Kenya - Nairobi Kiribati - Tarawa Atoll Korea, North - Pyongyang Korea, South - Seoul Kosovo - Pristina Kuwait - Kuwait City Kyrgyzstan - Bishkek Laos - Vientiane Latvia - Riga Lebanon - Beirut Lesotho - Maseru Liberia - Monrovia
Libya - Tripoli Liechtenstein - Vaduz Lithuania - Vilnius Luxembourg - Luxembourg Macedonia - Skopje Madagascar - Antananarivo Malawi - Lilongwe Malaysia - Kuala Lumpur Maldives - Male Mali - Bamako Malta - Valletta Marshall Islands - Majuro Mauritania - Nouakchott Mauritius - Port Louis Mexico - Mexico City Micronesia, Federated States of - Palikir Moldova - Chisinau Monaco - Monaco Mongolia - Ulaanbaatar Montenegro - Podgorica Morocco - Rabat Mozambique - Maputo Myanmar (Burma) - Rangoon (Yangon); Naypyidaw or Nay Pyi Taw (admin istrative) Namibia - Windhoek Nauru - no official capital; government offices in Yaren District Nepal - Kathmandu Netherlands - Amsterdam; The Hague (seat of government) New Zealand - Wellington Nicaragua - Managua Niger - Niamey Nigeria - Abuja Norway - Oslo Oman - Muscat Pakistan - Islamabad Palau - Melekeok Panama - Panama City Papua New Guinea - Port Moresby
Paraguay - Asuncion Peru - Lima Philippines - Manila Poland - Warsaw Portugal - Lisbon Qatar - Doha Romania - Bucharest Russia - Moscow Rwanda - Kigali Saint Kitts and Nevis - Basseterre Saint Lucia - Castries Saint Vincent and the Grenadines - Kingstown Samoa - Apia San Marino - San Marino Sao Tome and Principe - Sao Tome Saudi Arabia - Riyadh Senegal - Dakar Serbia - Belgrade Seychelles - Victoria Sierra Leone - Freetown Singapore - Singapore Slovakia - Bratislava Slovenia - Ljubljana Solomon Islands - Honiara Somalia - Mogadishu South Africa - Pretoria (administrative); Cape Town (legislative); Bloemfontein (judiciary) Spain - Madrid Sri Lanka - Colombo; Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte (legislative) Sudan - Khartoum Suriname - Paramaribo Swaziland - Mbabane Sweden - Stockholm Switzerland - Bern Syria - Damascus Taiwan - Taipei Tajikistan - Dushanbe Tanzania - Dar es Salaam; Dodoma (legislative)
Thailand - Bangkok Togo - Lome Tonga - Nukualofa Trinidad and Tobago - Port-of-Spain Tunisia - Tunis Turkey - Ankara Turkmenistan - Ashgabat Tuvalu - Vaiaku village, Funafuti province Uganda - Kampala Ukraine - Kyiv United Arab Emirates - Abu Dhabi United Kingdom - London United States of America - Washington D.C. Uruguay - Montevideo Uzbekistan - Tashkent Vanuatu - Port-Vila Vatican City (Holy See) - Vatican City Venezuela - Caracas Vietnam - Hanoi Yemen - Sanaa Zambia - Lusaka Zimbabwe - Harare While the listing above is an authoritative listing of the independent countries of the world, it is important to note that there are also more than sixty Territories, Colonies, and Dependencies of independent countries. * The executive, judicial, and legislative branches of the State of Israel are all located Jerusalem so Jerusalem is the capital of Israel. Nonetheless, all countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv.
Biggest Countries
Heres a listing of the twenty largest countries in the world by area, in both square kilometers and square miles. 1. Russia: 17,075,200 km2 (6,591,027 mi2) 2. Canada: 9,984,670 km2 (3,854,082 mi2) 3. United States: 9,631,418 km2 (3,717,727 mi2) 4. China: 9,596,960 km2 (3,704,426 mi2) 5. Brazil: 8,511,965 km2 (3,285,618 mi2)
6. Australia: 7,686,850 km2 (2,967,124 mi2) 7. India: 3,287,590 km2 (1,269,009 mi2) 8. Argentina: 2,766,890 km2 (1,068,019 mi2) 9. Kazakhstan: 2,717,300 km2 (1,048,877 mi2) 10. Sudan: 2,505,810 km2 (967,243 mi2) 11. Algeria: 2,381,740 km2 (919,352 mi2) 12. Congo, Democratic Republic of the: 2,345,410 km 2 (905,328 mi2) 13. Mexico: 1,972,550 km2 (761,404 mi2) 14. Saudi Arabia: 1,960,582 km2 (756,785 mi2) 15. Indonesia: 1,919,440 km2 (740,904 mi2) 16. Libya: 1,759,540 km2 (679,182 mi2) 17. Iran: 1,648,000 km2 (636,128 mi2) 18. Mongolia: 1,564,116 km2 (603,749 mi2) 19. Peru: 1,285,220 km2 (496,095 mi2) 20. Chad: 1,284,000 km2 (495,624 mi2)
Most Populas countries

This is a listing of the 23 largest countries in the world (those having a population over fifty million). Data are estimates for these largest countries from mid-2008. 1. China - 1,330,044,544 2. India - 1,147,995,904 United States - 303,824,640 3. Indonesia - 237,512,352 4. Brazil - 196,342,592 5. Pakistan - 172,800,048 6. 7. Bangladesh - 153,546,896 8. Nigeria - 146,255,312 Russia - 140,702,096 9. 10. Japan - 127,288,416 11. Mexico - 109,955,400 12. Philippines - 96,061,680 13. Vietnam - 86,116,560 14. Ethiopia - 82,544,840 15. Germany - 82,369,552 16. Egypt - 81,713,520 17. Turkey - 71,892,808 18. Democratic Republic of the Congo - 66,514,504
19. 20. 21. 22. 23.
Iran - 65,875,224 Thailand - 65,493,296 France - 64,057,792 United Kingdom - 60,943,912 Italy - 58,145,320
Countries That Lie on the Prime Meridian

The Eight Countries that Lie on the Prime Meridian From north to south, these are the eight countries that lie on the prime meridian, zero degrees longitude... United Kingdom France Spain Algeria Mali Burkina Faso Ghana Togo
Countries Without Diplomatic Relations with the United States

Four Countries that the U.S. Doesnt Work With These four countries and Taiwan do not have official diplomatic relations with (nor an embassy in) the United States. Bhutan According to the Unites States Department of State, The United States and the Kingdom of Bhutan have not established formal diplomatic relations; however, the two governments have informal and cordial relations. However, informal contact is maintained through the U.S. Embassy in New Delhi to the mountainous country of Bhutan. Cuba Although the island country of Cuba is a close neighbor to the United States, the U.S. only interacts with Cuba via a U.S. Interests office at the Swiss Embassy in Havana and Washington D.C. The U.S. broke diplomatic relations with Cuba on January 3, 1961 Iran On April 7, 1980, the United States broke diplomatic relations with theocratic Iran, and on April 24, 1981, the Swiss Government
assumed representation of U.S. interests in Tehran. Iranian interests in the United States are represented by the Government of Pakistan. North Korea The communist dictatorship of North Korea is not on friendly terms with the U.S. and while talks between the two countries are ongoing, there is no exchange of ambassadors. Taiwan Taiwan is not recognized as an independent country by the U.S. since the island nation claimed by the mainland Peoples Republic of China. Unofficial commercial and cultural relations between Taiwan and the United States are maintained through an unofficial instrumentality, the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office, with headquarters in Taipei and field offices in Washington D.C. and 12 other U.S. cities.
Missing Countries
Since many countries merge, split, or just decide to change their name, there are many missing countries that no longer exist. This list is far from comprehensive, but its meant to serve as a guide to some of the most well-known missing countries of today. Abyssinia: The name of Ethiopia until the early 20th century. Austria-Hungary: A monarchy (also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire) that was established in 1867 and included not just Austria and Hungary, but also parts of the Czech Republic, Poland, Italy, Romania, and the Balkans. The empire collapsed at the end of World War I. Basutoland: Lesothos name prior to 1966. Bengal: An independent kingdom from 1338-1539, now part of Bangladesh and India. Burma: Burma officially changed its name to Myanmar in 1989 but many countries still arent recognizing the change, such as the United States. Catalonia: This autonomous region of Spain was independent from 1932-1934 and 1936-1939. Ceylon: Changed its name to Sri Lanka in 1972. Champa: Located in south and central Vietnam from the 7th century through 1832.
Corsica: This Mediterranean island was ruled by various nations over the course of history but had several brief periods of independence. Today, Corsica is a department of France. Czechoslovakia: Peacefully split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993. East Germany and West Germany: Merged in 1989 to form a unified Germany. East Pakistan: This province of Pakistan from 1947-1971 became Bangladesh. Gran Colombia: A South American country that included what is now Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, and Ecuador from 1819-1930. Gran Colombia ceased to exist when Venezuela and Ecuador seceded. Hawaii: Though a kingdom for hundreds of years, Hawaii wasnt recognized as an independent country until the 1840s. The country was annexed to the U.S. in 1898. New Granada: This South American country was part of Gran Colombia (see above) from 1819-1830 and was independent from 1830-1858. In 1858, the country became known as the Grenadine Confederation, then the United States of New Granada in 1861, the United States of Colombia in 1863, and finally, the Republic of Colombia in 1886. North Yemen and South Yemen: Yemen split in 1967 into two countries, North Yemen (a.k.a. Yemen Arab Republic) and South Yemen (a.k.a. Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen). However, in 1990 the two rejoined to form a unified Yemen. Ottoman Empire: Also known as the Turkish Empire, this empire began around 1300 and expanded to include parts of contemporary Russia, Turkey, Hungary, the Balkans, northern Africa, and the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire ceased to exist in 1923 when Turkey declared independence from what remained of the empire. Persia: The Persian Empire extended from the Mediterranean Sea to India. Modern Persia was founded in the sixteenth century and later became known as Iran. Prussia: Became a Duchy in 1660 and a kingdom in the following century. At its greatest extent it included the northern twothirds of Germany and western Poland. Prussia, by World War II
a federal unit of Germany, was fully disbanded at the end of World War II. Rhodesia: Zimbabwe was known as Rhodesia (named after British diplomat Cecil Rhodes) prior to 1980. Scotland, Wales, and England: Despite recent advances in autonomy, part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, both Scotland and Wales were independent nations that were merged with England to form the U.K. Siam: Changed its name to Thailand in 1939. Sikkim: Now part of far northern India, Sikkim was an independent monarchy from the 17th century until 1975. South Vietnam: Now part of a unified Vietnam, South Vietnam existed from 1954 to 1976 as the anti-communist portion of Vietnam. Southwest Africa: Gained independence and became Namibia in 1990. Taiwan: While Taiwan still exists, it is not always considered an independent country. However, it did represent China in the United Nations until 1971. Tanganyika and Zanzibar: These two African countries united in 1964 to form Tanzania. Texas: The Republic of Texas gained independence from Mexico in 1836 and existed as an independent country until annexation to the United States in 1845. Tibet: A kingdom established in the 7th century, Tibet was invaded by China in 1950 and has since been known as the Xizang Autonomous Region of China. Transjordan: Became the independend kingdom of Jordan in 1946. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR): Broke into fifteen new countries in 1991: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldovia, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. United Arab Republic: From 1958 to 1961, non-neighbors Syria and Egypt merged to become a unified country. In 1961 Syria abandoned the alliance but Egypt kept the name United Arab Republic itself for another decade. Urjanchai Republic: South-central Russia; independent from 1912
to 1914. Vermont: In 1777 Vermont declared independence and existed as an independent country until 1791, when it became the first state to enter the United States after the thirteen colonies. West Florida, Free Independent Republic of: Parts of Florida, MIssissippi, and Louisana were independent for ninety days in 1810. Western Samoa: Changed its name to Samoa in 1998. Yugoslavia: The original Yugoslavia divided up into Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro, and Slovenia in the early 1990s. Zaire: Changed its name to the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1997. Zanzibar and Tanganyika merged to form Tanzania in 1964.
Worlds Largest Oil Spills

On April 20, 2010, a large oil spill began in the Gulf of Mexico after an explosion on a British Petroleum (BP) oil drilling rig there. In the weeks following the spill, the news was dominated by depictions of the spill and its growing size as oil continued to leak from an underwater well and pollute the Gulfs water as well as harm wildlife, damage fisheries and hurt the overall economy of the Gulf region. The Gulf of Mexico oil spill was not contained until late July 2010 and throughout the spill it was estimated that 53,000 barrels of oil per day were spilled into the Gulf. In total almost 5 million barrels of oil were released which makes it the largest oil spill in history. Oil spills like the one in the Gulf of Mexico are not uncommon and many other spills have occurred in the worlds oceans and other waterways in the past. The following is a list of fifteen additional major oil spills that have taken place around the world. The list is organized by the final amount of oil that entered waterways. 1) Arabian Gulf Spills Location: Persian Gulf Year: 1991 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 520 million gallons (1.9 billion liters) 2) Ixtoc I Oil Well Location: Gulf of Mexico
Year: 1979 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 140 million gallons (530 million liters) 3) Atlantic Empress Location: Trinidad and Tobago Year: 1979 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 90 million gallons (340 million liters) 4) Fergana Valley Location: Uzbekistan Year: 1992 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 88 million gallons (333 million liters) 5) ABT Summer Location: 700 nautical miles from Angola (3,900 km) Year: 1991 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 82 million gallons (310 million liters) 6) Nowruz Field Platform Location: Persian Gulf Year: 1983 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 80 million gallons (303 million liters) 7) Castillo de Bellver Location: Saldanha Bay, South Africa Year: 1983 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 79 million gallons (300 million liters) 8) Amoco Cadiz Location: Brittany, France Year: 1978 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 69 million gallons (261 million liters) 9) MT Haven Location: Mediterranean Sea near Italy Year: 1991 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 45 million gallons (170 million liters)
10) Odyssey Location: 700 nautical miles (3,900 km) off of Nova Scotia, Canada Year: 1988 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 42 million gallons (159 million liters) 11) Sea Star Location: Gulf of Oman Year: 1972 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 37 million gallons (140 million liters) 12) Morris J. Berman Location: Puerto Rico Year: 1994 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 34 million gallons (129 million liters) 13) Irenes Serenade Location: Navarino Bay, Greece Year: 1980 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 32 million gallons (121 million liters) 14) Urquiola Location: A Corua, Spain Year: 1976 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 32 million gallons (121 million liters) 15) Torrey Canyon Location: Isles of Scilly, United Kingdom Year: 1967 Amount of Oil Spilled in Gallons and Liters: 31 million gallons (117 million liters) These were some of the largest oil spills to take place around the world. Smaller oil spills that have been equally as damaging have also taken place throughout the late 20th century. For example, the Exxon-Valdez oil spill in 1989 was the largest spill in United States history. It occurred in Prince William Sound, Alaska and spilled around 10.8 million gallons (40.8 million liters) and impacted 1,100 miles (1,609 km) of coast.
How Many Countries in the World?

There are 195 countries in the world today. Unless you don't count Taiwan Taiwan is not considered an official country by many, which would bring the count down to 194 countries. Although Taiwan operates as an independent country, many countries (including the U.S.) do not officially recognize it as one. Because the People's Republic of China considers Taiwan a breakaway province of China, countries who wish to maintain diplomatic relations with China have had to sever their formal relations with Taiwan (more than 100 countries, however, have unofficial relations with Taiwan). How many countries belong to the United Nations? 192 countries are UN members. The exceptions are Taiwan (in 1971, the UN ousted Taiwan and replaced it with the People's Republic of China) and Vatican City. Kosovo is not yet a member. The newest UN members are Switzerland (2002) and Montenegro (2006). What are the world's newest countries? The world's newest country is Kosovo, which became a country in February 2008, after splitting off from Serbia. Before that, the newest country was Montenegro, which became a nation in 2006 after also gaining independence from Serbia. Since 1990, 28 new nations have come into being. Many of these emerged from the collapse of the Soviet Union (14 countries) and the breakup of the former Yugoslavia (7 countries). See our Guide to New Nations. Are there still any countries that have colonies? There are 61 colonies or territories in the world. Eight countries maintain them: Australia (6), Denmark (2), Netherlands (2), France (16), New Zealand (3), Norway (3), the United Kingdom (15), and the United States (14). See Territories, Colonies, and Dependencies for a list of the world's colonies and what countries administrate them, p. 663. Are there still territories in the world that are claimed by more than one country? There are six major disputed territories in the world: the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, the Paracel Islands, Spratly Islands, Western Sahara, and Antarctica (about a dozen nations have laid claims to portions of it). In addition, there are innumerable other
territorial disputes throughout the world, many of which had resulted in ongoing armed conflicts. Families of Countries People aren't the only things with relatives; countries have them, too. Families of countries exist for several reasons, such as location, trade or politics.
Balkans
The Balkans refers to the southeastern-most peninsula of Europe. It includes all or most of Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro (formerly Yugoslavia), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria and European Turkey. Southeast Romania and northern Greece are also part of the Balkans.
Central America
Central America refers to the seven countries of North America between Mexico and South America: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama.
Latin America
Latin America refers to all countries south of the United Statesthe nations of Central and South America and Mexico.
The Middle East
These countries of western Asia, northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula are related geographically: Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Qatar, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
NATO Countries
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), formed in 1949, has one goal: to protect democratic systems of government. Today the member countries are: Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Polynesia
Polynesia, "many islands," is a collective term for the islands of the east-central Pacific Ocean, which include Cook, Easter, Pitcairn, Samoa, Tahiti, and Tuvalu, as well as the Hawaiian islands.
Southeast Asia
The countries that make up Southeast Asia are: Brunei, Indone230 Mini Year Book 2011
sia, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar (formerly called Burma), Vietnam, Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines, and East Timor.
Scandinavia
This family has many ties: geographical, cultural, political, and historical. These countries occupy a region of northern Europe: Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Sometimes Finland, Iceland, and the Faeroe Islands are included.
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
The USSR, 15 republics in eastern Europe and northern Asia, was formed in 1922, after the Russian Revolution. Until 1991 it was the world's largest country, covering one-sixth of the land area of the world. Many people thought that the USSR and Russia were the same thing. But Russia was really only one of its republics. As of December 31, 1991, the USSR no longer existed as a single country. Instead, it became 15 independent countries: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus (Byelorussia), Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.
The United Arab Emirates
This group of seven kingdoms was created in 1971 on the Persian Gulf coast of the Arabian Peninsula. They are ruled by sheiks. In the Muslim world, an emir is a ruler or prince; an emirate is his state. The kingdoms are: Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Qaiwain.
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
These countries are ruled by the British royal family and Parliament: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Great Britain includes England, Scotland, and Wales. The British Isles include Great Britain, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands.
The European Union
Formed in 1993, the EU is an economic and political confederation of European nations that are responsible for a common foreign and security policy and for cooperation on justice and home affairs. Twenty-seven countries - Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany (originally West Germany), Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
and Sweden - are full members of the organizations of the EU.
Kingdoms and Monarchs of the World

Country Monarch Type of monarchy Bahrain King Hamad bin Isa al-Khalifa Constitutional Belgium King Albert II Constitutional Bhutan King Jigme Khesar Namgyal WangchukinTr a n s i tional1 Brunei Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Constitutional Cambodia King Norodom Sihamoni Constitutional Denmark Queen Margrethe II Constitutional Japan Emperor Akihito Constitutional Jordan King Abdullah II Constitutional Kuwait Sheikh Saad Al Abdullah Al Salim Al SabahConstitutional Lesotho King Letsie III Constitutional Liechtenstein Prince Hans Adam II Constitutional LuxembourgGrand Duke Henri Constitutional Malaysia King Syed Sirajuddin Constitutional Monaco Prince Albert II Constitutional Morocco King Muhammad VI Constitutional Nepal Constitutional2 Netherlands Queen Beatrix Constitutional Norway King Harald V Constitutional Oman Sultan Qabus ibn Sa'id Absolute Qatar Emir Sheik Hamad ibn Khalifa al-ThaniC o n s t i t u tional Saudi Arabia King Abdullah Absolute Spain King Juan Carlos I Parliamentary Swaziland King Mswati III Absolute Sweden King Carl XVI Gustaf Constitutional Thailand King Bhumibol Adulyadej Constitutional Tonga King George Tupou V Constitutional U. A.E. Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahayan Constitutional U.K. Queen Elizabeth II3 Constitutional4 Note: 1. Bhutan is in the process of becoming a constitutional monar232 Mini Year Book 2011
chy. 2. Constitutional monarchy suspended in 2002, when King Gyanendra assumed power. A popular uprising in 2006, however, forced him to relinquish much of his power. 3. Queen Elizabeth II is also the Sovereign of 15 countries in the Commonwealth of Nations: Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, the Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu. 4. Also parliamentary democracy.
Amazing worldwide trivia

Pisa, Italy is six miles from the coast of the Mediterranean now, but that sea rises and falls over the ages and Pisa was a port city in the 5th century B.C. A couple of years ago excavators found 15 ships with antique cargoes intact buried in the clay under Pisa where it was left by withdrawing waters. The most populated city in the world is Shangai in China. In Caracas, the capital city of Venezuela, it is customary for the streets to be blocked off on Christmas eve so that the people can rollerskate to church. Using satellite-surveying techniques, scientists have determined that Los Angeles, California is moving east. At a rate estimated to be about one-fifth on an inch per year, the city is moving closer to the San Gabriel Mountains. The Vatican city, as well as being the smallest city in the world, is also one of the only countries within another country (it is inside Italy) The other is San Marino, also inside Italy. A building in Belgium was taxed if there was a street light on it...unless a statue of the Virgin Mary were placed above it. Hence, there are no buildings in the city without a statue of the Virgin Mary. The longest official city name in the world is: Krungthep Mahanakhon Amorn Rattanakosin Mahintara Yudthaya Mahadilok Pohp Noparat Rajathanee Bureerom Udomrajniwes Mahasatarn Amorn Pimarn Avaltarnsatit Sakatattiya Visanukram Prasit. It is the official name of Bangkok, Thailand. In Chester, England, you can only legally shoot a Welsh person with a bow and arrow inside the city walls and after midnight. The
only trouble is finding one ;o) The first city in modern history to reach 1 million people was London in 1811. We usually think of Montreal, Canada as a cold weather city, and Paris, France as a much warmer city than Montreal, but the fact is that Montreal is south of Paris.
LONGEST WORDS TRIVIA

Longest word with all the vowels in order (23): Pancreaticoduodenostomy Longest words that can be reversed (8): stressed & desserts Word with the longest run of vowels (4): queuing Longest word with 180 degree symmetry (5): SWIMS Longest word in which all letters appear twice (16): Esophagographers Longest word that can be typed with the left hand (12): Stewardesses Longest word with only one vowel (9): strengths Longest word to alternate consonants and vowels (27): Honorificabilitudinitatibus Longest word with letters in alphabetical order (8): Aegilops Longest word without a repeating letter (15): uncopyrightable & dermatoglyphics Word with the longest run of consonants (6): latchstring Longest one-syllable word (9): screeched & strengths
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Mini Year Book 2011
World : An Introduction
Background
Globally, the 20th century was marked by: (a) two devastating world wars; (b) the Great Depression of the 1930s; (c) the end of vast colonial empires; (d) rapid advances in science and technology, from the first airplane flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina (US) to the landing on the moon; (e) the Cold War between the Western alliance and the Warsaw Pact nations; (f) a sharp rise in living standards in North America, Europe, and Japan; (g) increased concerns about the environment, including loss of forests, shortages of energy and water, the decline in biological diversity, and air pollution; (h) the onset of the AIDS epidemic; and (i) the ultimate emergence of the US as the only world superpower. The planets population continues to explode: from 1 billion in 1820, to 2 billion in 1930, 3 billion in 1960, 4 billion in 1974, 5 billion in 1988, and 6 billion in 2000. For the 21st century, the continued exponential growth in science and technology raises both hopes (e.g., advances in medicine) and fears (e.g., development of even more lethal weapons of war).
Geographic overview
The surface of the earth is approximately 70.9% water and 29.1% land. The former portion is divided into large water bodies termed oceans. The World Factbook recognizes and describes five oceans, which are in decreasing order of size: the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean. The land portion is generally divided into several, large, discrete landmasses termed continents. Depending on the convention used, the number of continents can vary from five to seven. The most common classification recognizes seven, which are (from largest to smallest): Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia. Asia and Europe are sometimes lumped together into a Eurasian continent resulting in six continents. Alternatively, North and South America are sometimes grouped as simply the Americas, resulting in a continent total of six (or five, if the Eurasia designation is used).
North America is commonly understood to include the island of Greenland, the isles of the Caribbean, and to extend south all the way to the Isthmus of Panama. The easternmost extent of Europe is generally defined as being the Ural Mountains and the Ural River; on the southeast the Caspian Sea; and on the south the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea, and the Mediterranean. Portions of Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkey fall within both Europe and Asia, but in every instance the larger section is in Asia. These countries are considered part of both continents. Armenia and Cyprus, which lie completely in Western Asia, are geopolitically European countries. Asia usually incorporates all the islands of the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The islands of the Pacific are often lumped with Australia into a land mass termed Oceania or Australasia. Africas northeast extremity is frequently delimited at the Isthmus of Suez, but for geopolitical purposes, the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula is often included as part of Africa. Although the above groupings are the most common, different continental dispositions are recognized or taught in certain parts of the world, with some arrangements more heavily based on cultural spheres rather than physical geographic considerations. Area: Total: 510.072 million sq km Land: 148.94 million sq km Water: 361.132 million sq km Note: 70.9% of the worlds surface is water, 29.1% is land Area - comparative: land area about 16 times the size of the US top fifteen World Factbook entities ranked by size: Pacific Ocean 155.557 million sq km; Atlantic Ocean 76.762 million sq km; Indian Ocean 68.556 million sq km; Southern Ocean 20.327 million sq km; Russia 17,098,242 sq km; Arctic Ocean 14.056 million sq km; Antarctica 14 million sq km; Canada 9,984,670 sq km; United States 9,826,675 sq km; China 9,596,961 sq km; Brazil 8,514,877 sq km; Australia 7,741,220 sq km; European Union 4,324,782 sq km; India 3,287,263 sq km; Argentina 2,780,400 sq km top ten largest islands: Greenland 2,166,086 sq km; New Guinea (Indonesia, Papua New Guinea) 785,753 sq km; Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia) 751,929 sq km; Madagascar 587,713 sq km;
Baffin Island (Canada) 507,451 sq km; Sumatra (Indonesia) 472,784 sq km; Honshu (Japan) 227,963 sq km; Victoria Island (Canada) 217,291 sq km; Great Britain (United Kingdom) 209,331 sq km; Ellesmere Island (Canada) 196,236 sq km
Land boundaries:
The land boundaries in the world total 251,060 km (not counting shared boundaries twice); two nations, China and Russia, each border 14 other countries note: 45 nations and other areas are landlocked, these include: Afghanistan, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bhutan, Bolivia, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Czech Republic, Ethiopia, Holy See (Vatican City), Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Lesotho, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malawi, Mali, Moldova, Mongolia, Nepal, Niger, Paraguay, Rwanda, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Swaziland, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uganda, Uzbekistan, West Bank, Zambia, Zimbabwe; two of these, Liechtenstein and Uzbekistan, are doubly landlocked
Coastline
356,000 km Note: 94 nations and other entities are islands that border no other countries, they include: American Samoa, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Ashmore and Cartier Islands, The Bahamas, Bahrain, Baker Island, Barbados, Bermuda, Bouvet Island, British Indian Ocean Territory, British Virgin Islands, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Christmas Island, Clipperton Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Comoros, Cook Islands, Coral Sea Islands, Cuba, Cyprus, Dominica, Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), Faroe Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, French Southern and Antarctic Lands, Greenland, Grenada, Guam, Guernsey, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, Howland Island, Iceland, Isle of Man, Jamaica, Jan Mayen, Japan, Jarvis Island, Jersey, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Kiribati, Madagascar, Maldives, Malta, Marshall Islands, Martinique, Mauritius, Mayotte, Federated States of Micronesia, Midway Islands, Montserrat, Nauru, Navassa Island, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Norfolk Island, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Palmyra Atoll, Paracel Islands, Philippines, Pitcairn Islands, Puerto Rico, Reunion, Saint Barthelemy, Saint Helena, Saint Kitts and
Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, Singapore, Solomon Islands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Spratly Islands, Sri Lanka, Svalbard, Tokelau, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Virgin Islands, Wake Island, Wallis and Futuna, Taiwan
Maritime claims
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea treaty, is the international agreement that resulted from the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III), which took place from 1973 through 1982. The Law of the Sea Convention defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the worlds oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural resources. The Convention, concluded in 1982, replaced four 1958 treaties. UNCLOS came into force in 1994, a year after Guyana became the 60th state to sign the treaty. To date, 158 countries and the European Community have joined in the Convention. However, it is uncertain as to what extent the Convention codifies customary international law. While the Secretary General of the United Nations receives instruments of ratification and accession and the UN provides support for meetings of states party to the Convention, the UN has no direct operational role in the implementation of the Convention. There is, however, a role played by organizations such as the International Maritime Organization, the International Whaling Commission, and the International Seabed Authority (the latter being established by the UN Convention). A variety of situations exist, but in general, most countries make the following claims measured from the mean low-tide baseline as described in the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: territorial sea - 12 nm, contiguous zone - 24 nm, and exclusive economic zone - 200 nm; additional zones provide for exploitation of continental shelf resources and an exclusive fishing zone; boundary situations with neighboring states prevent many countries from extending their fishing or economic zones to a full 200 nm The UNCLOS replaces the older and weaker freedom of the
seas concept, dating from the 17th century: national rights were limited to a specified belt of water extending from a nations coastlines, usually three nautical miles, according to the cannon shot rule developed by the Dutch jurist Cornelius van Bynkershoek. All waters beyond national boundaries were considered international waters free to all nations, but belonging to none of them (the mare liberum principle promulgated by Grotius). In the early 20th century, some nations expressed their desire to extend national claims: to include mineral resources, to protect fish stocks, and to provide the means to enforce pollution controls. (The League of Nations called a 1930 conference at The Hague, but no agreements resulted.) Using the customary international law principle of a nations right to protect its natural resources, President Truman in 1945 extended United States control to all the natural resources of its continental shelf. Other nations were quick to follow suit. Between 1946 and 1950, Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador extended their rights to a distance of 200 nautical miles to cover their Humboldt Current fishing grounds. Other nations extended their territorial seas to 12 nautical miles. By 1967, only 25 nations still used the old three-mile limit, while 66 nations had set a 12-mile territorial limit and eight had set a 200-mile limit. As of May 28, 2008, only two countries still use the three-mile limit: Jordan and Palau. That limit is also used in certain Australian islands, an area of Belize, some Japanese straits, certain areas of Papua New Guinea, and a few British Overseas Territories, such as Anguilla.
UNCLOS I
In 1956, the United Nations held its first Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS I) at Geneva, Switzerland. UNCLOS I resulted in four treaties concluded in 1958: Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone, entry into force: 10 September 1964 Convention on the Continental Shelf, entry into force: 10 June 1964 Convention on the High Seas, entry into force: 30 September 1962 Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas, entry into force: 20 March 1966
Although UNCLOS I was considered a success, it left open the important issue of breadth of territorial waters.
UNCLOS II
In 1960, the United Nations held the second Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS II); however, the six-week Geneva conference did not result in any new agreements. Generally speaking, developing nations and third world countries participated only as clients, allies, or dependents of United States or the Soviet Union, with no significant voice of their own.
UNCLOS III
The issue of varying claims of territorial waters was raised in the UN in 1967 by Arvid Pardo, of Malta, and in 1973 the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea was convened in New York. In an attempt to reduce the possibility of groups of nationstates dominating the negotiations, the conference used a consensus process rather than majority vote. With more than 160 nations participating, the conference lasted until 1982. The resulting convention came into force on November 16, 1994, one year after the sixtieth state, Guyana, ratified the treaty. The convention introduced a number of provisions. The most significant issues covered were setting limits, navigation, archipelagic status and transit regimes, exclusive economic zones (EEZs), continental shelf jurisdiction, deep seabed mining, the exploitation regime, protection of the marine environment, scientific research, and settlement of disputes. The convention set the limit of various areas, measured from a carefully defined baseline. (Normally, a sea baseline follows the low-water line, but when the coastline is deeply indented, has fringing islands or is highly unstable, straight baselines may be used.) The areas are as follows:
Internal waters
Covers all water and waterways on the landward side of the baseline. The coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use, and use any resource. Foreign vessels have no right of passage within internal waters.
Territorial waters
Out to 12 nautical miles from the baseline, the coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use, and use any resource. Vessels were given the right of innocent passage through any territorial waters,
with strategic straits allowing the passage of military craft as transit passage, in that naval vessels are allowed to maintain postures that would be illegal in territorial waters. Innocent passage is defined by the convention as passing through waters in an expeditious and continuous manner, which is not prejudicial to the peace, good order or the security of the coastal state. Fishing, polluting, weapons practice, and spying are not innocent, and submarines and other underwater vehicles are required to navigate on the surface and to show their flag. Nations can also temporarily suspend innocent passage in specific areas of their territorial seas, if doing so is essential for the protection of its security.
Archipelagic waters
The convention set the definition of Archipelagic States in Part IV, which also defines how the state can draw its territorial borders. A baseline is drawn between the outermost points of the outermost islands, subject to these points being sufficiently close to one another. All waters inside this baseline are designated Archipelagic Waters. The state has full sovereignty over these waters (like internal waters), but foreign vessels have right of innocent passage through archipelagic waters (like territorial waters).
Contiguous zone
Beyond the 12 nautical mile limit there was a further 12 nautical miles or 24 nautical miles from the territorial sea baselines limit, the contiguous zone, in which a state could continue to enforce laws in four specific areas: pollution, taxation, customs, and immigration.
Exclusive economic zones (EEZs)
Extends from the edge of the territorial sea out to 200 nautical miles from the baseline. Within this area, the coastal nation has sole exploitation rights over all natural resources. In casual use, the term may include the territorial sea and even the continental shelf. The EEZs were introduced to halt the increasingly heated clashes over fishing rights, although oil was also becoming important. The success of an offshore oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico in 1947 was soon repeated elsewhere in the world, and by 1970 it was technically feasible to operate in waters 4000 metres deep. Foreign nations have the freedom of navigation and overflight, subject to the regulation of the coastal states. Foreign states may
also lay submarine pipes and cables.

Continental shelf
The continental shelf is defined as the natural prolongation of the land territory to the continental margins outer edge, or 200 nautical miles from the coastal states baseline, whichever is greater. States continental shelf may exceed 200 nautical miles until the natural prolongation ends. However, it may never exceed 350 nautical miles from the baseline; or it may never exceed 100 nautical miles beyond the 2,500 meter isobath (the line connecting the depth of 2,500 meters). Coastal states have the right to harvest mineral and non-living material in the subsoil of its continental shelf, to the exclusion of others. Coastal states also have exclusive control over living resources attached to the continental shelf, but not to creatures living in the water column beyond the exclusive economic zone. Aside from its provisions defining ocean boundaries, the convention establishes general obligations for safeguarding the marine environment and protecting freedom of scientific research on the high seas, and also creates an innovative legal regime for controlling mineral resource exploitation in deep seabed areas beyond national jurisdiction, through an International Seabed Authority and the Common heritage of mankind principle. Landlocked states are given a right of access to and from the sea, without taxation of traffic through transit states. Part XI and the 1994 Agreement Part XI of the Convention provides for a regime relating to minerals on the seabed outside any states territorial waters or EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zones). It establishes an International Seabed Authority (ISA) to authorize seabed exploration and mining and collect and distribute the seabed mining royalty. The United States objected to the provisions of Part XI of the Convention on several grounds, arguing that the treaty was unfavorable to American economic and security interests. Due to Part XI, the United States refused to ratify the UNCLOS, although it expressed agreement with the remaining provisions of the Convention. From 1983 to 1990, the United States accepted all but Part XI as customary international law, while attempting to establish an alter242 Mini Year Book 2011
native regime for exploitation of the minerals of the deep seabed. An agreement was made with other seabed mining nations and licenses were granted to four international consortia. Concurrently, the Preparatory Commission was established to prepare for the eventual coming into force of the Convention-recognized claims by applicants, sponsored by signatories of the Convention. Overlaps between the two groups were resolved, but a decline in the demand for minerals from the seabed made the seabed regime significantly less relevant. In addition, the decline of Socialism and the fall of Communism in the late 1980s had removed much of the support for some of the more contentious Part XI provisions. In 1990, consultations were begun between signatories and nonsignatories (including the United States) over the possibility of modifying the Convention to allow the industrialized countries to join the Convention. The resulting 1994 Agreement on Implementation was adopted as a binding international Convention. It mandated that key articles, including those on limitation of seabed production and mandatory technology transfer, would not be applied, that the United States, if it became a member, would be guaranteed a seat on the Council of the International Seabed Authority, and finally, that voting would be done in groups, with each group able to block decisions on substantive matters. The 1994 Agreement also established a Finance Committee that would originate the financial decisions of the Authority, to which the largest donors would automatically be members and in which decisions would be made by consensus.
Signature and ratification
Opened for signature December 10, 1982. Entered into force November 16, 1994. The convention is ratified by 160 countries, Niue, Cook Islands and the European Union. Countries that have signed, but not yet ratified (19) Afghanistan, Bhutan, Burundi, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Colombia, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Iran, Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, Libya, Liechtenstein, Malawi, Niger, Rwanda, Swaziland, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, United States. Countries that have not signed (16) Andorra, Azerbaijan, Ecuador, Eritrea, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Peru, San
Marino, Syria, Tajikistan, Timor-Leste, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Venezuela. Non-Voting Member State - Vatican City Non-State Observer - Palestine Liberation Organization Non-Members and/or Non-Observers - Taiwan and Sahrawi Republic. Indias Maritime claims: territorial sea: 12 nm contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin Definition: This entry includes the following claims, the definitions of which are excerpted from the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which alone contains the full and definitive descriptions:
Territorial sea
The sovereignty of a coastal state extends beyond its land territory and internal waters to an adjacent belt of sea, described as the territorial sea in the UNCLOS (Part II); this sovereignty extends to the air space over the territorial sea as well as its underlying seabed and subsoil; every state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles; the normal baseline for measuring the breadth of the territorial sea is the mean low-water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts officially recognized by the coastal state; the UNCLOS describes specific rules for archipelagic states.
Contiguous zone
According to the UNCLOS (Article 33), this is a zone contiguous to a coastal states territorial sea, over which it may exercise the control necessary to: prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration, or sanitary laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea; punish infringement of the above laws and regulations committed within its territory or territorial sea; the contiguous zone may not extend beyond 24 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured (e.g. the US has claimed a 12-nautical mile contiguous zone in addition to its 12-nautical mile territorial sea).
Exclusive economic zone (EEZ)
The UNCLOS (Part V) defines the EEZ as a zone beyond and

adjacent to the territorial sea in which a coastal state has: sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources, whether living or non-living, of the waters superjacent to the seabed and of the seabed and its subsoil, and with regard to other activities for the economic exploitation and exploration of the zone, such as the production of energy from the water, currents, and winds; jurisdiction with regard to the establishment and use of artificial islands, installations, and structures; marine scientific research; the protection and preservation of the marine environment; the outer limit of the exclusive economic zone shall not exceed 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
Continental shelf
The UNCLOS (Article 76) defines the continental shelf of a coastal state as comprising the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond its territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory to the outer edge of the continental margin, or to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured where the outer edge of the continental margin does not extend up to that distance; the continental margin comprises the submerged prolongation of the landmass of the coastal state, and consists of the seabed and subsoil of the shelf, the slope and the rise; wherever the continental margin extends beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline, coastal states may extend their claim to a distance not to exceed 350 nautical miles from the baseline or 100 nautical miles from the 2500 meter isobath; it does not include the deep ocean floor with its oceanic ridges or the subsoil thereof.
Exclusive fishing zone
While this term is not used in the UNCLOS, some states (e.g., the United Kingdom) have chosen not to claim an EEZ, but rather to claim jurisdiction over the living resources off their coast; in such cases, the term exclusive fishing zone is often used; the breadth of this zone is normally the same as the EEZ or 200 nautical miles.
Climate
Current Weather
A wide equatorial band of hot and humid tropical climates - bordered north and south by subtropical temperate zones - that separate two large areas of cold and dry polar climates
Terrain
The greatest ocean depth is the Mariana Trench at 10,924 m in the Pacific Ocean Elevation extremes Lowest point: Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,555 m Note: in the oceanic realm, Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench is the lowest point, lying -10,924 m below the surface of the Pacific Ocean Highest point: Mount Everest 8,850 m top ten highest mountains (measured from sea level): Mount Everest (Nepal-China) 8,850 m; K2 (Pakistan) 8,611 m; Kanchenjunga (Nepal-India) 8,598 m; Lhotse (Nepal) 8,516 m; Makalu (Nepal-China) 8,463 m; Cho Oyu (Nepal-China) 8,201 m; Dhaulagiri (Nepal) 8,167 m; Manaslu (Nepal) 8,163 m; Nanga Parbat (Pakistan) 8,125 m; Anapurna (Nepal) 8,091 m
Disputes - international
stretching over 250,000 km, the worlds 322 international land boundaries separate 194 independent states and 71 dependencies, areas of special sovereignty, and other miscellaneous entities; ethnicity, culture, race, religion, and language have divided states into separate political entities as much as history, physical terrain, political fiat, or conquest, resulting in sometimes arbitrary and imposed boundaries; most maritime states have claimed limits that include territorial seas and exclusive economic zones; overlapping limits due to adjacent or opposite coasts create the potential for 430 bilateral maritime boundaries of which 209 have agreements that include contiguous and non-contiguous segments; boundary, borderland/resource, and territorial disputes vary in intensity from managed or dormant to violent or militarized; undemarcated, indefinite, porous, and unmanaged boundaries tend to encourage illegal cross-border activities, uncontrolled migration, and confrontation; territorial disputes may evolve from historical and/or cultural claims, or they may be brought on by resource competition; ethnic and cultural clashes continue to be responsible for much of the territorial fragmentation and internal displace246 Mini Year Book 2011
ment of the estimated 6.6 million people and cross-border displacements of 8.6 million refugees around the world as of early 2006; just over one million refugees were repatriated in the same period; other sources of contention include access to water and mineral (especially hydrocarbon) resources, fisheries, and arable land; armed conflict prevails not so much between the uniformed armed forces of independent states as between stateless armed entities that detract from the sustenance and welfare of local populations, leaving the community of nations to cope with resultant refugees, hunger, disease, impoverishment, and environmental degradation.
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Knowledge
Bank
Important General Knowledge Facts
G.K. Trivia
First in World
First in World Important general Knowledge Facts GK Trivia First talkie movie in the world The jazz Singer (1927) First Oscar winner for the Best Actor Emil Jannings (1928) First Oscar winner for Best Actress janet Gaynor, (1928) First Asian city to host Olympics Tokyo, Japan (1964) First woman black tennis player to win a singles title at Wimbledon A Gibson (1957) First woman to win a Grand Slam Maureen Catherine (195 3) First Tour de France (road bicycle race) winner Maurice Garin (1903) First recognized boxing (fisticuffs) champion -Tim Hyer (1841) Worlds first chess champion Wilhelm Steinitz (1886) First golf club in the world Honour able Company of Edinburgh Golfers(1744) First man to run a mile under 4 minutes- Sir Roger Bannister (1954) First athlete disqualified at the Olympics for drug use HansGunnar Lijenwall Mexico summer Olympics (1968) The first cricket club Cricket club founded in Hambledon, England (1750) First woman to win an Olympic Gold Medal Charlotte Cooper, UK, Tennis singles (1900) First professional woman bullfighter- Patricia Mccormick (1952) First American woman to win three gold medals in a single Olympics W Rudolph, Rome Olympics (1960) First Womens Olympic marathon Champion Joan Benoit, Los Angles ( 1984) First man to fly solo non stop across the Atlantic Charles Lindbergh (1927) First person to fly faster than the speed of sound Charles Elwood Chuck Veager, he flew a Bell X-1 rocket at 670 mph in level flight (1947) First man to reach the South Pole Roald Amun-dsen, Norwegian team (1911) First person to swim across the English Channel Matthew
Webb (1875) First person to cross Antarctic Circle James Cook (1773) First humans to fly Marquis d Arlandes & Pilatre de Rozier (1783) First balloonist to fly solo nonstop around the world Steve Fossett, U.S. (2002) First man to cross the Pacific Ocean in hot air balloon Ben Abruzzo and team in the Double Eagle V (1981) First people to sight the North Pole- Roald Amundsen and lincoln Ellsworth (1926) First people to reach the North Pole Lt Col. Joseph O. Fletcher and Lt. William P. Benedict (1952) First successful conquest of Mount Everest-Tenzing Norgay & Sir Edmund Hillary (New Zealand) (1953) First conquest of Everest via the North Ridge Chinese team (1960) First person to conquer the Everest twice- Nawang Gombu Sherpa(1965) First blind person to conquer the Everest- Erik Weihenmayer, USA (2001) First person with only one arm to climb the Everest American Gary Guller(2003) First woman to fly solo Bessica Medlar Raiche flew in an airplane built of bamboo, wire and silk (1910) First woman to fly solo around the world jerrie Fredritz Mock.(1964) First woman to fly solo across the English Channel- Hariiet Quimby First woman to climb Everest Junko Tabei of Japan (1975) First woman to fly solo across the Atlantic- Amelia Earhart (1932) First woman to swim the English Channel Gertrude Ederle (1926 ) First ascent of Everest without bottled oxygen Peter Habeler (Austria) and Reinhold Messner, (Italy) (1978) First woman to set foot on North Pole- Ann Bancroft, USA (1986) First woman to sail around the world solo in under 100 days Ellen MacArthur, English Sailor (2001) First person ever to transmit speech from one point to another by electrical means Alexander Graham Bell, (1876)
First sound recording -Thomas Alva Edisons Phonograph (1877) First antibiotic drug Penicillin, discovered by Alexander Fleming (1928) The first and only supersonic airliner Concorde, twice the speed of sound, about 2,170 kph (1969) The first mechanical computer by Charles Babbage (1835) first computer programmer Ada Byrons (1842) First Compact Disc (CD) Jointly developed by Sony and Philips (1978) First Atom Bomb -Little Boy dropped over Hiroshima by the US during the second world war (1945) First submarine Built by Cornelius Drebbel, Dutch inventor(1620) First artificial satellite launched into orbit- Sputnik 1, USSR (1957) First manned space vehicle Vostok 1,USSR (1961) First manned private spaceflight Space Ship One piloted by Mike Melvill (2004) First fully controlled soft landing on moon-Surveyor 1 (1966) First spacecraft to orbit Saturn Cassini Huygens (2004) First living creature to orbit the earth- Laika, the dog, aboard the Soviet satellite, Sputnik 2. (1957) First man in space Yuri Gagarin USSR. (1961) First human to walk on the Moon Neil Armstrong, Apollo 11(1969) First human to walk in space Alexei Arkhovich Leonov (1965) First Nobel Prize winner for Literature Sully Prudhomme, France (1901) First Nobel Prize winner for Peace -Jean Henri Dunant, Switzerland & Frederic Passy, France (1901) First Nobel Prize winner for Economics- Ragnar Frisch, Norway & Jan Tinbergen, Netherlands (1969) First person to win two Nobel Prizes Marie Sklodowska Curie (Physics,1903) Chemistry,1911 First woman Nobel Prize winner Marie Sklodowska Curie, Physics. She is the first to win Physics Nobel (1903). First woman Nobel Prize winner for Chemistry Marie Sklodowska Curie (1911) First woman Mother and daughter to win Nobel prize Marie Sklodowska Curie (1903) and daughter Irene Joliot Curie (1935)
First human heart transplant was per formed by Dr. Christian Barnard(1967) First human heart transplant recipient.- Louis Washkansky. (1967) First recipient of a permanent artificial heart Barney Clark (1982) Parkinsons disease was first described by James Parkinson, British neurologist (1817)
FIRST IN INDIA
First in India (Men)
First American President to visit India: Dwight David Eisenhower First Asian to be elected president of Britains Liberal Democratic Party (LDP): Lord Navnit Dholakia First Asian to head a British university: Lord Swaraj Paul (when he was elected Chancellor of the Wolverhampton University on May 9, 2000) First British Prime Minister to visit India: Harold Macmillan First Chairman of the University Grants Commission: S.S.Bhatnagar First Chief Election Commissioner of India: Sukumar Sen (21.3.1950 to 19.12.1958) First Chief Justice of India: Harilal J.Kania (26.1.1950-6.11.1951) First Chief Minister of the tri-lingual Bombay Presidency: B.G.Kher First Chief of Air Staff: Air Marshall Sir Thomas Elmherst (19471950) First Chief of Army Staff: Gen. Maharaj Rajendra Sinhji (1.4.1955 to 14.5.1955) First Commander-in-Chief: Gen.Sir Roy Bucher (1.1.1948 - 14.1.1949) First Dalit Lok Sabha Speaker: G M C Balayogi First Defence Minister of Independent India: Sardar Baldev Singh First Deputy Prime Minister of India: Sardar Vallabhai Patel First Director General of ICAR: B.P.Pal First Eunuch to be elected as a Mayor of an Indian city: Kamla Jaan, who elected Mayor of Katni city in Madhya Pradesh in January 2000. First Eunuch to get elected to a state legislature: Shabnam Mausi,
won the Sohagpur Assembly constituency in Madhya Pradesh in the February 2000 elections. First European to invade India: Alexander First Field Marshal: Gen. S.H.F.J. Manekshaw First fighter pilot to win the Param Vir Chakra: Flying Officer Nirmaljeet Singh Sekhon (posthumous) for IAF in 1971 Indo-Pak conflict. First Foreign Secretary of Free India: K.P.S.Menon First Governor-General of Independent India: Lord Mountbatten First Indian bowler to get a hattrick in Test cricket: Harbhajan Singh First Indian Chief of Air Staff: Air Marshal Subroto Mukherjee (April 1, 1954). First Indian Chief of Naval Staff: Vice Admiral R.D.Katari (19581962). First Indian Governor-General of India: C.Rajagopalachari First Indian to be awarded with the Victoria Cross: Khuda Dad Khan (for Gallantry in Belgium during the first World War) First Indian to be elected a member of British Parliament: Dadabhoi Naoroji First Indian to be elected to the US House of Representatives: Dilip Singh Saund First Indian to go in space: Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma. He went in the Soyuz 7-II Spacecraft on April 3, 1984 and returned on April 11, 1984. First Indian to hoist the National Flag over the North Pole: Squadron Leader Sanjay Thapar. First Indian to record a song on a gramophone disc: Sashi Mukhi of Classic Theatres, Calcutta (1902) First Indian to swim across the English Channel: Mihir Sen First Indian to win an Olympic Bronze: Khashaba Jadhav (wresting; 1952, Helsinki Olympics) First Indian to win the All England Open Badminton Tournament: Pullela Gopi Chand (March 11,2001) First Indian to win the World Billiards Championship: Wison Jones First Jnanpith Award Winner: G.Sankara Kurup (1965), for his work Ottakkuzhal in Malyalam. First Minister without Portfolio: N.Gopalswami Ayengar in
Jawaharlal Nehrus Cabinet. He, however, went on to become the Minister of Defence. First Photographer in India: Raja Deendayal First President of India: Dr Rajendra Prasad (1950-1962) First President of the Indian Union of Civil Liberties: Rabindranath Tagore (1930s). First Prime Minister of India: Jawaharlal Nehru (1947-1964) First Prime Minister to win a popular entertainment award: Atal Behari Vajpayee (when he won the Screen-Videocon Best Lyricist prize in the non-film music category for his collection of poems titled Nayi Disha in February 2000). First Secretary-General of South-South Commission: Dr Manmohan Singh First Surveyor General of India: Sir George Everest First Vice-President of India: Dr S.Radhakrishnan (1952-1962) First Winner of Param Vir Chakra: Maj.Somnath Sharma (posthumously) in November, 1947 Indias first Test-tube baby: Harsha (born on August 6, 1986). Indian Johann Sebastian Bach: Ustad Ali Akbar Khan Indias longest serving Chief Minister : Jyoti Basu Only Army Chief to be awarded with Maha Vir Chakra twice: Late Gen. A.S.Vaidya
First in India (Women)
First Woman President of India : Pratibha PatilDelhis First Mayor: Aruna Asaf Ali (1958) Delhis First woman chief secretary: Shailja Chandra Fastest Asian to swim across the English Channel: Anita Sood First all-women crew to fly an air Force Chetak Helicopter: Flight Cadets Cheryl Dutta and Simran Sodhi of IAF (December, 1995). First Asian woman magistrate appointed in United Kingdom: Kantha Talwar First Asian woman mayor in United Kingdom: Lata Patel First Indian woman President of Indian National Congress: Sarojini Naidu (1925) First Indian woman producer and director: Fatima Begum, who produced and directed Bulbul-e-Parastan in 1926. First Indian woman to become Miss Universe: Sushmita Sen (1994) First Indian woman to become Miss World: Reita Faria (1966)
First Indian woman to climb Mt. Everest: Bachendri Pal First Indian Woman to go in space: Kalpana Chawla First woman to head any Wakf board in India : Bader Sayeed (TN Wakf Board) First Indian woman to reach the final of an Olympic event: P.T.Usha First Indian woman to win a medal in an Olympic event: Karnam Malleshwari (bronze medal, Sydney Olympics) First Indian woman boxer to win an international event : M.C.Merykom First Indian woman to swim across the English Channel: Arati Saha First Miss Universe of the new millennium: Lara Dutta First woman Ambassador from India: Vijay Lakshmi Pandit (to USSR from 1947-49) First woman Central Minister: Rajkumari Amrit Kaur First woman chief justice of a High Court: Leila Seth (CJ of Himachal Pradesh, 1991) First woman Chief Minister of an Indian state: Sucheta Kriplani (Uttar Pradesh from 1963-1967) First woman film star to be a member of Rajya Sabha: Nargis Dutt First woman Governor of an Indian state: Sarojini Naidu (Uttar Pradesh from 1947-1948) First woman Governor of Tamil Nadu: Justice M. Fatima Beevi (1997) First woman IPS Officer of India: Kiran Bedi First woman Judge of the Supreme Court: Justice M. Fatima Beevi (1989) First woman judicial officer: Anna Chandy, who was appointed munsif in the Travancore state in 1937. First woman Minister of an Indian state: Vijay Lakshmi Pandit (Uttar Pradesh) First woman officer of the Indian Air Force (IAF) to be promoted to the rank of air commodore: 55-year old Padma Bandhopadhyay who was commissioned to the IAF in 1968. First woman President of Indian National Congress: Annie Besant (1917) First woman President of UN General Assembly: Vijay Lakshmi Pandit (1953-54)
First woman Prime Minister of India: Late Indira Gandhi (19661977 and 1980-1984). First woman Speaker of an Indian state: Shano Devi First woman Speaker of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly :Kavali Prathibha Bharati First woman winner of the Bharat Ratna: Indira Gandhi (1971) Grandma Madonna from India: Asha Bhonsle Indias first commercial pilot: Durba Banerjee (1966, Indian Airlines) Indias first Test-Tube Baby: Kruti Parekh Indias first woman railway driver: Surekha Yadao Indias first woman tabla maestro : Dr Aban MistryIndias officially recognized billionth citizen: Astha (She was born on May 11,2000 at New Delhi). Worlds first woman Airbus pilot: Durba Banerjee First Youngest Indian to swim across the English Channel: Arati Pradhan First Graduates: Kadambini Ganguly and Chandramukhi Basu, 1883 First Head of an Undergraduate Academic Institution: Chandramukhi Basu, 1888 First Honours Graduate: Kamini Roy (1886) First Lawyer: Cornelia Sorabjee (1892) First Doctorate of Science: Asima Chatterjee (1944) First Chief Justice of a High Court (Himachal Pradesh): Leila Seth, 1991 First Supreme Court judge: Kumari Fathima Beevi First High Court Judge : Anna Chandy First Physician: Kadambini Ganguly, 1886 First Airline Pilot: Durba Banerjee First In space: Kalpana Chawla aboard Space Shuttle Columbia flight STS-87, on November 19, 1997. She was a naturalized United States citizen, and represented the US during the event. First Nobel Prize winner: Mother Teresa in 1979 (Albanian born Indian citizen)
First in India (Miscellaneous)
Earliest school of medicine known to humans: Ayurveda First Air Force in Asia to fly jets: Indian Air Force (1948) First Book in any Indian Language: It was printed in 1578 in Tamil. First Census in India: 1901 First Cinema House in India: It was built by J.F.Madan in 1907 in Calcutta. First complete Technicolor film: Jhansi Ki Rani (1953) First Constitutional Amendment: 1950 First country-wide agricultural census: 1970-71 First English Newspaper in India: Bengal Gazette printed in 1790 by James Augustus in Calcutta. First Film Centre: Nandan. Located in Calcutta, it was inaugurated in September 1985. First Film with an all-female cast: Marathi Film Bindhast, directed by Chandrakant Kulkarni. First Five-Year Plan: Started in 1951 First General Elections: They were held in 1952. First hydroelectric project in India: Shivasamudram, across the River Kaveri in 1902 First Indian state to set up a womens court: Andhra Pradesh First international co-production: Nala Damayanti (1921) made in collaboration with Italy. First Marine National Park: Jamnagar First Moonlit Animal House in Asia: Located in the Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad. First Navodaya School: Navegaon-Khairi in Nagpur First Postage Stamp: It was issued in India in 1852 at Karachi. First Printing Press: It was set up in Goa in 1556 by the Portuguese. First Railway Line: It was opened on April 16, 1853 between Bombay and Thane. First Rupee in India: It was minted during the reign of Sher Shah Suri in 1542. First ship built in India: Jala Usha built by Vishakapatnam Shipyard was commissioned in 1948. First silent feature film in India: Pundalik made in 1912 by N.G.
Chitre and R.G. Torney. It was half British in its make. First solar crematorium: It is proposed to be set up in Valsad, Gujarat. First Solar Energy Centre: Gwalpahar, Gurgaon, Haryana First song-less film: JBH Wadias Naujawan (1937). First south Indian film to be released in Korea: Tamil Film Muthu Maharaja (June, 2000) First Talkie Film: Alam Ara (1931) First Telefilm: Satyajit Rays Sadgati (telecast on Doordarshan in April 1981) First Telegraph Line: It was laid between Calcutta and Agra in 1854. This line was 1280 km long. It was extended up to Lahore in 1857. First Telephone system: It was started in 1881 from Calcutta. First Television Reception Centre: Arvi, located in Maharashtra First veterinary college: Opened in Parel in Bombay in 1885. It is still in existence and is the oldest veterinary college in Asia. First Wind farm: Mandvi, Kutch in Gujarat Highest Airfield in the world: Thoise, Ladakh Highest road in India: Khardung La Pass Indias first Antartica expedition: January 11, 1982 Indias first Satellite: Aryabhatta, April 19, 1975 Indias first colour film: Prabhats Sairandhri, which was processed and printed in Germany in 1933. Indias first fully indigenous silent feature film: Raja Harishchandra produced by Dada Saheb Phalke on May 3, 1913. Indias first indigenously built missile destroyer: INS Delhi (commissioned on November 15, 1997 at Mumbai). Indias first indigenously built submarine: INS Shakti (commissioned on February 7, 1992) Indias first indigenously made colour film: Ardashir Iranis Kisan Kanya made in 1937. Indias first manufacturer of light bulbs and electrical equipment: Bengal Lamps, Calcutta (1933) Indias First Oil well: Digboi (1890) Indias first radio programme: This was broadcast privately with a 40w transmitter by the Madras Presidency Club Radio in 1924. Indias largest inland lake: Lake Chilika, Orissa Largest circulated multi-edition daily in India: Roudramukhi Swar
in Hindi (12,92,277 copies in 1997). Largest circulated periodical in India: Malayala Manorama (11,27,414 copies) Largest circulated single edition newspaper in India: Hindustan Times from Delhi (5,40,919 copies in 1997). Largest Nandi in India: Nandi of the Leepakshi Temple at Andhra Pradesh Largest Stupa in India: Mahachaitya Stupa, Amravati, Andhra Pradesh Oldest era in the world: Hindu Era Oldest para-military force in India: Assam Rifles (1835) in Shillong Only Place in the world where a Brahma Temple is found: Pushkar in Rajasthan Shortest era in the world: Christian Era State with the highest % of Scheduled Castes to total population: Punjab (28.31% - 1991 Census) State with the highest% of Scheduled tribes to total population: Mizoram (94.75%) State with the largest number of Scheduled Castes: Uttar Pradesh (29.276 million - 1991 Census) State with the largest number of Scheduled Tribes: Madhya Pradesh (15.399 million - 1991 Census) State with the largest number of towns: Uttar Pradesh (704) State with the largest number of villages: Uttar Pradesh (1,12,803 - 1991 Census) State with the least number of towns: Nagaland (7) State with the lowest % of Scheduled tribes to total population: Uttar Pradesh (0.21%) State with the lowest number of Scheduled Castes: Mizoram (1000 - 1991 Census) State with the lowest number of Scheduled Tribes: Sikkim (91,000) State with the lowest number of villages: Goa (360 - 1991 Census) Worlds First University: Taxila (700 B.C.) Worlds highest STD/PCO facilities: Siachen glacier (established in November 1997) Worlds largest school: The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes City Montessori School in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, as
the worlds largest school with 23,000 students on its rolls. Youngest para-military force in India: Coast Guard (1978)
Architecture
First Islamic Mausoleum (tomb) in India: Sultan Ghari, built in 1231 CE for Prince Nasir ud din Mahmud, eldest son of Iltumish. First true dome, Alai Darwaza, Qutb complex, Delhi, built in 1311 CE, by first Khilji Sultan of Delhi, Ala-ud-din Khilji. First true arch, Balbans tomb, Mehrauli Archeological Park, Delhi, built in ca 1287 CE, by Ghiyas ud din Balban of Mamluk dynasty. First garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent, also the first with Persian double-dome: Humayuns Tomb, Delhi, built 1562-1571 CE.
Awards and Titles
Miss World: Reita Faria in 1965 Miss Universe: Sushmita Sen in 1994 Dhan Gopal Mukerji, first Indian to win any literary award (the Newbery Medal) in the United States, in 1927 for Gay Neck, the Story of a Pigeon Nirad C. Chaudhuri, first Indian to win a major non-fiction award, the Duff Cooper Prize in the United Kingdom, in 1966 for The Continent of Circe Salman Rushdie won the Booker Prize for Midnights Children in 1981 Bharat Ratna: Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, C. Rajagopalachari, and Dr C.V. Raman in 1954 Commandeur of the Order of Arts and Letters: Mrinal Sen Chevalier of the Order of Arts and Letters: Sivaji Ganesan Dadasaheb Phalke Award: Devika Rani in 1969 Ashoka Chakra Award to a civilian : D.K. Jatar (posthumous) and M.C Dixit, captain and co-captain respectively, of the sabotaged plane Kashmir Princess, for most conspicuous bravery, daring and self-sacrifice Magsaysay Award: Vinoba Bhave, 1958 Oscar for Lifetime Achievement - Satyajit Ray Ford Supermodel of the World (contest): Bipasha Basu, 1996
Nobel Prize
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Nobel Prize winner: Rabindranath Tagore for the Nobel Prize in Literature, 1913. He was also the first Asian to get the prize. Nobel Prize in Physics: C. V. Raman in 1930. Nobel Prize in Medicine: Har Gobind Khorana in 1968. (India born US citizen) Nobel Peace Prize: Mother Teresa in 1979 (Albania born Indian citizen) Nobel Prize in Economics: Amartya Sen in 1998 Nobel Prize in Chemistry: Venkatraman Ramakrishnan in 2009 (US citizen)
Defence
Commander-in-Chief of Free India: General Sir Roy Bucher Indian Commander-in-Chief of Free India: General Kodandera Madappa Cariappa, 1949 Chief of Air Staff: Air Marshal Sir Thomas Elmhirst Indian Chief of Staff: General Kodandera Madappa Cariappa, 1947 Commander-in-Chief, IAF: Air Marshal Subroto Mukerjee, 1954 Chief of Naval Staff: Vice Admiral R D Katari Cosmonaut: Sqn Ldr Rakesh Sharma, 1984 Field Marshal: Sam Manekshaw, 1973.
Exploration
Person to reach the South Pole: Col Jatinder Kumar Bajaj Woman to scale Mount Everest: Bachendri Pal on May 23, 1984. She was the 5th woman in the world to scale the peak. Woman to reach South Pole: Reena Kaushal Dharmshaktu
Film and TV
First Film to be exhibited in India 1896 First silent film to be made in India Raja Harishchandra 1913 by Dadasaheb Phalke First Sound film: Alam Ara directed by Ardeshir Irani, 1931, First Talkie actress: Zubeida Oscar winner: Bhanu Athaiya for Best Costume Design for Gandhi (film) in 1982 Oscar nomination for Best Foreign Language Film: Mother India in 1957 Music director to win an Oscar and first double Oscar winner-Mr. A. R. Rahman for Slumdog Millionaire, 22 February 2009. Sound engineer to win an Oscar: Resul Pookutty for Slumdog Millionaire, 22 February 2009
Palme dOr at 1946 Cannes Film Festival:Neecha Nagar directed by Chetan Anand First National Film Award for cinema: Shyamchi Aai in 1954 Colorized film: Mughal-e-Azam in 2004 (the original black-andwhite version was released in 1960) First Sponsored TV serial: Hum Log, started on July 7, 1984, was also the first soap opera of India, ran for 156 episodes First Guinness Book of World Records in the category Fewest actors in a narrative film: Yaadein (1964) directed and acted by Sunil Dutt Actor to enact 10 roles: Kamal Haasan First 3D film: My Dear Kuttichathan, a Malayalam film, produced in 1984, dubbed in Hindi as Chhota Chetan. First 70 mm film: Padayottam, a Malayalam film, produced in 1982 Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (officer of the order of arts and letters): Director: Mrinal Sen (1985); Actor:Sivaji Ganesan (1995); Actress: Aishwarya Rai Bachchan(2009) First Hindi film to be screened at the United Nations: Lage Raho Munna Bhai on 10 November 2006
Governance
President: Rajendra Prasad (1950-1962) Vice-President: S. Radhakrishnan Prime Minister: Jawaharlal Nehru (1947-1964). The first term lasted till 1952 after which he was re-elected Deputy Prime Minister: Vallabhbhai Patel (1947-1950) Prime Minister to be voted out of office: Indira Gandhi (1977) when the Indian National Congress lost to the Janata Party Non-Congress government: by Janata Party with Morarji Desai as the Prime Minister (1977-1980) Non-Congress State government with Majority by a single party: E. M. S. Namboodiripad of CPI, Kerala 1957 Prime Minister to lead a minority government for a full term (five years): P. V. Narasimha Rao, June 21, 1991 May 16, 1996 Person outside the Nehru-Gandhi family to serve as Prime Minister for a full term (five years): P. V. Narasimha Rao, June 21, 1991 May 16, 1996Prime Minister from South India: P. V. Narasimha Rao, 1991 Governor-General: Warren Hastings Governor General of Independent India: Lord Mountbatten, 1947 Indian Governor-General of Indian Union: C Rajagopalachari, 1948 Chief Justice of India: H. J. Kania (1947-1951) Indian ICS Of262 Mini Year Book 2011
ficer: Satyendranath Tagore, 1863 Speaker of Lok Sabha: G.V. Mavlankar (1952-1956) Finance Minister of Independent India: R.K. Shanmukhan Chetty (1947-1949), for others see First Indian Cabinet Presentation of First Budget after Indias Independence : R. K. Shanmukhan Chetty on Nov 26, 1947 First Home Minister of India: Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel First Indian Chief Minister to die in Office: C.N.Annadurai, TamilNadu First Indian President to die in Office: Dr Zakir Hussain, 3 May 1969 First Indian Prime Minister to resign from office: Morarji Desai, 1979 First Woman Cabinet Minister in India: Rajkumari Amrit Kaur First Woman Minister in India: Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit First Woman Chief Minister: Sucheta Kriplani First Female Home Minister: Sabitha Indra Reddy Youngest ever Chief Minister: Prafulla Kumar Mohanta, Assam, at the age of 32 First Woman Speaker of the Lok Sabha: Meira Kumar Science Hydroelectric plant: On the Gaganachukki waterfall of the Sivasamudram Falls, Karnataka. Built in 1902. Place to get electricity: Kolar Gold Fields, in 1902 (it was the second city in Asia to get electricity after Tokyo, Japan.) Man in space: Rakesh Sharma aboard Salyut 7, on April 3, 1984. He was the 138th man in space worldwide. Woman in space: Kalpana Chawla aboard Space Shuttle Columbia flight STS-87, on November 19, 1997. She was a naturalized United States citizen, and represented the US during the event. Test-tube baby: Durga Agarwal, born 1978 Scientific Expedition to Antarctica: 1981 Nuclear Reactor: CIRUS, Mumbai, Maharashtra First Genetically Modified Food Product in India : Bt. Egg plant Hybrid (Bt. Bacilius thuringiensis) Satellite : Aryabhata, launched on April 19, 1975 Satellite dedicated exclusively for educational services : EDUSET Successfully indigenous launch vehicle : SLV-3
Prospective space tourist: Santhosh George Kulangara, proposed in 2009 aboard Virgin Galactic Minorities First Sikh Prime Minister : Manmohan Singh First Muslim President : Zakir Hussain (1967-1969) First Sikh President : Giani Zail Singh First Parsi Army Chief: Field Marshall Sam Manekshaw First Christian Army Chief: General Sunith Francis Rodrigues First Sikh Army Chief: General Joginder Jaswant Singh First Parsi Air Force Chief: Air Marshal Aspy Engineer First Sikh Air Force Chief: Air Marshal Arjan Singh First Muslim Air Force Chief: Air Marshal Idris Hasan Latif First Parsi Navy Chief: Admiral J L Cursetji First Christian Navy Chief: Admiral R L Pereira Administration and Politics Monarch of Delhi Sultanate: Razia Sultan (1205-1240)of Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi) Prime Minister: Indira Gandhi, 1966 Minister in a government: Rajkumari Amrit Kaur in the Ministry of Health Chief Minister of a State: Sucheta Kripalani, Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, 1963-1967 Governor: Sarojini Naidu, Governor of Uttar Pradesh, 1947-1949 Central Minister (in pre-independent India): Vijayalakshmi Pandit, minister of local self-government and public health, 1937 Speaker of the Lok Sabha: Meira Kumar Indian National Congress President: Annie Besant President: Pratibha Patil, 2007 IPS Officer Kiran Bedi Places City to have electricity: Kolkata, CESC started as Kilburn & Co when the company acquired the license to provide electricity to Calcutta city on January 7, 1897. District to achieve 100% literacy rate: Ernakulam district, Kerala , 1990 City/town to achieve 100% literacy rate: Kottayam, Kerala, 1989 District to achieve 100% literacy rate and lowest population growth rate: Pathanamthitta district, Kerala
District to be polio-free: Pathanamthitta district, Kerala District to achieve tobacco free: Kottayam district, Kerala, 27 September 2008 City to have an e-court: Ahmedabad, 8 February 2009
Transport
First Passenger Train: between Mumbai and Thane on 16th April 1853 First suburban railway line: Mumbai Suburban Railway in 1857 First rapid transit (Metro) rail: Kolkata Metro in 1984 First Motorcar: in 1897, Kolkata First Motorcar in regular use, in 1901, Francis Spring, Chennai First competitive event Delhi-Bombay trials 1905 at the behest of Lord Curzon and Motor Union of Western India to test the suitability of the Automobile for Indian roads and to facilitate interaction between the fledging Automobile Industry and prospective Indian clients Oldest surviving and running cars in India De Dion Bouton 1904, Rover 1905 First Motor Taxi Mumbai, 1911 First largescale import of motor cars: Relatively large contingent of Motorcars imported for the Delhi Darbar held in 1911 to mark the arrival of King George VArrival of mass production technology makes the Automobile a practical means of transport by the 1920s and most British officers had cars First Assembly of motor cars: General Motors sets up the first assembly unit to assemble cars from imported parts in 1928. The National Series AB sedan is produced. First manufacture of motor cars: Hindusthan Motors begins production of cars in 1942. Premier automobiles and Standard Motors setup. Technology stagnates as a result of Economic autarky as India is isolated from the rest of the world First act leading to liberalization of the Auto sector: Maruti 800 launched in 1983 and the automotive industry is progressively liberalized First fully indegenous passenger car developed in India, Tata Indica launced in 1998 First expressway: Mumbai-Pune Expressway in 2000 First major acquisition of a foreign company by an Indian company: Tata Motors acquires Jaguar and Land Rover in 2007.
Mahindra Automotive emerges as the top bidder for SSangsyong motors in 2010 First world-famous automotive product designed and developed in India. Tata Nano launched in 2008 First Aeroplane in India Maharaja of Patiala 1910 Domestic commercial aviation is born in India in 1911 when on February 18, Henri Piquet, flying a Humber biplane, carries mall from Allahabad to Naini Junction, some six miles away. The worlds first airline, Imperial Airways, extends to Empire Routes to India, connecting India with the outside world for the first time through an air network. A de Havilland Hercules flies the CairoBasra-Karachi-Jodhpur-Delhi route. It is also the first domestic passenger flight to be operated in India. Passengers could be for the first time fly from Karachi to Jodhpur and to Delhi on Imperial Airways. On February 10 1929, JRD Tata is awarded Indias first pilot licence, Pilot Licence No.1 by Federation Aeronotique International signed by Sir Victor Sasoon on behalf of the Aero Club of India and Burma. 1932: Urmila K Parikh becomes the first woman to get a pilot licence when she is given an a licence by the Aero Club of India and Burma. 932: JRD Tata launches Indias first scheduled airline, Tata Airlines, by piloting the first flight himself from Karachi to Mumbai via Ahmedabad on a single-engine. Puss Moth with a load of airmail.
Sports
Person to swim across the English Channel: Mihir Sen, 1958 Woman to swim across the English Channel: Arati Saha, 1959 Formula One race driver: Narain Karthikeyan Formula One team: Force India F1 A1 GP race victory: Narain Karthikeyan, Zhuhai, China, 2007 Person to equal world record in Archery: Limba Ram, 1992 Olympics Olympic team medal: Gold for Hockey at the 1928 Summer Olympics Amsterdam, beating the Netherlands. Olympic Individual medal (in British India): Silver by Norman Pritchard for 200 metres races at the 1900 Summer Olympics, Paris. (This is disputed however.
The IOC claims he participated for India. The IAAF records him as participant for Great Britain.) Olympic Individual medal: Bronze by K. D. Jadhav for wrestling at the 1952 Summer Olympics Helsinki. Olympic Individual medal by a woman: Bronze by Karnam Malleswari for weightlifting 54 kg class, at the 2000 Summer Olympics Sydney. Olympic Silver medal: Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore for Mens Double Trap at the 2004 Summer Olympics Athens. Olympic Individual gold medal: Abhinav Bindra for 10 m Air Rifle at the 2008 Summer Olympics Beijing. Olympic Bronze medallist in Boxing:Vijender Kumar in Beijing Olympics 2008. Olympic Bronze medallist in Wrestling: Sushil Kumar in Beijing Olympics 2008. Chess Chess Grandmaster : Male - Vishwanathan Anand, 1988. Female - Koneru Humpy - 2002 - She was also the youngest woman to become a grandmaster at 15 years old. Tennis Grand Slam title: Mahesh Bhupathi (partnering with Japanese Rika Hiraki) in the Mixed Doubles category of the 1997 French Open. Woman to win a match in a Grand Slam event: Nirupama Vaidyanathan beat Italian Gloria Pizzichini in the first round of the 1998 Australian Open Woman to reach 4th round (highest as of 2009) of a Grand Slam singles event: Sania Mirza in the Singles category of the 2005 US Open. Woman to win a Grand Slam title: Sania Mirza (partnering with Mahesh Bhupathi) in the Mixed Doubles category of the 2009 Australian Open. Grand Slam junior title: Leander Paes in the Singles category of the 1990 Wimbledon Championship Grand Slam junior title by a woman: Sania Mirza (partnering with Russian Alisa Kleybanova) in the Doubles category of the 2003 Wimbledon Championships. Cricket The Bombay Triangular (1905-1911) which later became the Bombay Quadrangular (1912-1936)
Cricket test match: Against England at Lords, June 25, 1932 First One day Cricket captain: S.Venkataraghavan First Test Cricket captain: C. K. Nayudu for the 1932 tour of England First Indian to score ODI century was Kapil Dev, 175* against Zimbabwe in the 1983 Cricket World Cup Cricketer to score a century: Lala Amarnath, 118 against England in December 1933 at Bombay Gymkhana grounds Cricketer to score a double century: Polly Umrigar, 223 against New Zealand at Hyderabad in 1955-56 Cricketer to score a triple century: Virender Sehwag, 309 against Pakistan in Multan in 2004. ODI cricket hat-trick: Chetan Sharma in Reliance World Cup against New Zealand in 1987. Test cricket hat-trick: Harbhajan Singh against Australia in March 2001 Cricket World Cup championship win: At the 1983 Cricket World Cup, England beating West Indies. Batsman to complete 10,000 runs in Test cricket: Sunil Gavaskar (he was first in the world to achieve this feat) Batsman to complete 10,000 runs in ODI cricket: Sachin Tendulkar (he was first in the world to achieve this feat) Cricket Twenty20 world cup winner: India in 2007. Cricketer to score 90 centuries in Test and ODIs combined: Sachin Tendulkar First bowler to take all 10 wickets in an innings: Anil Kumble First batsman to score a double century in a one day International : Sachin Tendulkar Other Sports Asian Games gold medal winner: Kamlijit Sandhu To swim across the English Channel: Arati Saha, 1959 The first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest : Bachendri Pal , 1984 Chess Grandmaster: Koneru Humpy, 2002. She was also the youngest woman in the world to become a grandmaster at 15 years old. To win 1st round match in a Grand Slam event: Nirupama Vaidyanathan beat Italian Gloria Pizzichini in the first round of the 1998 Australian Open To reach 4th round (highest as of 2008) of a Grand Slam event: Sania Mirza in the Singles category of the 2005 US Open. Grand Slam junior title: Sania Mirza (partnering with Russian Alisa Kleybanova) in the Doubles category of the 2003 Wimbledon Cham268 Mini Year Book 2011
pionships. Others Wax statue of a living Indian: Mahatma Gandhi at Madame Tussauds in 1939Newspaper : Hickeys Bengal Gazette in 1779 Exclusive internet magazine: Bharat Samachar Miss India to participate in Miss Universe: Indrani Rahman in the Miss Universe 1952 Pageant at Long Beach, California President of the Indian National Congress: W C Bonnerjee, 1885 Graduate in Medicine: Soorjo Coomar Goodeve Chuckerbutty
Political and Social Terms

APARTHEID : Policy of racial segregation practiced by the South African Government. ADJOURNMENTA : motion moved by a member of a legislature to adjourn consideration of the issues in hand for discussing a matter of urgent public importance. AMNESTY : Grant of pardon or exemption from prosecution to political importance.ARMISTICETemporary cessation of hostilities pending formal negotiations for peace. APPEASEMENT : The policy of gratifying ones enemy with concession and special grants by sacrificing even principles. AUTONOMY : Power to control internal affairs. BILATERAL AGREEMENT : An agreement between two countries. BLOCKADES : Imposing closure of ports and waterways to prevent ships from reaching or leaving it. BOLSHEVISM : The doctrine of Proletarian Dictatorship as propounded by Lenin.BOURGEOISE : Capitalist class in Marxian terminology. BUFFER STATEA : small neutral state between two big states. BY-ELECTIONA : mid term election to fill a seat rendered vacant. CASTING VOTEA : vote casting of which decides the tie. CAUCUSA : powerful group of party. CHARGED AFFAIRS : The senior most diplomat after the head of the mission, officiating in his absence. COALITION : Combination of two or more parties with the purpose of forming a composite government. CONFEDERATION : Alliance of nations for some specific purpose our retaining the respective individual nation sovereignty. COLD WAR : The state of ideological or wordy warfare between
two countries or blocks. ENVOYA : diplomatic emissary accredited to the country and holding position below that of an ambassador. FIFTH COLUMN : An anti-national clique of spies and saboteurs. FLOOR CROSSING : The act of changing political loyalty by a person or a group. FRANCHISE : Right to cast vote in the public elections. GALLUP POLL : An opinion poll-may be with the help of interview. GENOCIDE : Intention to destroy wholly or in part a religious, ethnic or political group. GHERAO : Encircling a person and rending him incapable of doing anything till he/she concedes demands. GLOSNOST : Means openness. Term used for reforms introduced in Russian society by M.Gorbachov. HABEAS CORPUSA : type of a writ issued by a High Court or Supreme court against illegal detention of a person. HOT LINEA : direct telephone link between the White House and Kremlin established in 1963. IMPEACHMENT : Trial by the Parliament. LOBBYINGExercising influence or pressure on members of the legislative bodies in the lobby for supporting or opposing an issue in the House. LOK PAL : An official appointed by the President to investigate public complaints against ministers and high officials. MANIFESTO : A declaration of political party about its policies and programmes given at the time of elections. NATIONALISATION : The act of taking business undertakings an institutions by the state and controlling them. NAXALITEA : movement violent in character believing in Maoism: the term was first used for the peasants of Naxalbari (West Bengal) who rose against the landlords demanding land for the landless. NEW DEAL : The name given to the policy of Franklin D.Roosevelt to revive and boost American economy . ORDINANCE : An Act or decree promulgated by the Head of State in an emergency or when the legislative body is not in session. PLEBISCITE : Voting on regional or national issue. PERSONALITY CULT : Too much adulation for a ruler or a political
figure. PRIVY PURSE : Yearly allowances granted to the princes of Indian states after the merger of their states with the Indian Union. (New these purses are abolished). PRIVILEGE MOTION : A motion moved by a legislator drawing attention of the House towards a matter involving breach of privilege of the House or any of its members. REFERENDUM : Peoples verdict on some constitutional amendment and some other legislative issue of controversial nature. SECULARISM : Affirmation in all the faiths, showing no official patronage to any religions or religions. SANCTIONS : Penalty or reward imposed for disobedience or obedience attached to the law. SOCIALISM : Control of production and means of distribution in the hands of the State. STATUTE : Law made by the Parliament, enshrined in the statue book, which are binding on al subjects, of a particular country. SUFFRAGE : Right of voting in political elections. SELF-DETERMINATION : Right of a nation deciding its own form of government, its political destiny or independence. TERRITORIAL WATERS : Areas of the sea up to 12 km measured from the low water mark of the coast and within the executive control of an adjacent State. UNICAMERALA : legislature having only one House. VETO : Right to reject any resolution or enactment passed by the legislature.
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