Conventional Machining Processes (MACH 1010) Notes

Table of Contents
SCHEDULE CHAPTER 1 SAFETY RULES STUDY GUIDE WEEK #1 SPEEDS AND FEEDS CHAPTER 2 - SPEEDS AND FEEDS. STUDY GUIDE - SCALES, RULES AND VERNIERS CHAPTER 3 SCALES, RULES AND VERNIERS STUDY GUIDE MICROMETERS CHAPTER 4 - MICROMETERS STUDY GUIDE LATHES CHAPTER 5 - CMP - LATHES STUDY GUIDE MILLING MACHINES CHAPTER 6 - MILLING MACHINES. SAMPLE MID-TERM TEST: LECTURE GUIDES DRILLS AND DRILLING MACHINES CHAPTER 7 - DRILLING AND DRILLING MACHINES: LECTURE STUDY SHEET GRINDING: CHAPTER 8 - GRINDING. STUDY GUIDE: - BROACHING AND SAWING CHAPTER 9 - BROACHING STUDY GUIDE: - SAWING
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CHAPTER 10 - SAWING CHAPTER 11- DEVELOP PROCESS SHEETS STUDY GUIDE: - TOOL GEOMETRY CHAPTER 12 - IDENTIFY CUTTING TOOLS AND THEIR GEOMETRY CHAPTER 13 - MACHINABILITY OF VARIOUS MATERIALS FINAL TEST EXAMPLE: APPENDICES MACHINING FACTORS, SPEEDS AND FEEDS, DRILL TAP CHARTS

56 59 61 62 68 73

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Conventional Machining Processes

Course Number: MACH 1010 Course Duration: - 45 Hours (30 Lab - 15 Theory) Instructor: Fred Fulkerson (372fulkerson@conestogac.on.ca) (519) 748-5220 ext. 3802. Room 2A603 Text: Conventional Machining Processes Office Hours: Posted on Office Door _________________________________________________________________ This course is designed to allow you to a practical insight into machining operations. While we are not trying to make you machinists it is vital that you have an understanding of part process, metal removal, and measuring techniques to fully develop your machine or part designing skills. The evaluation for this course is as follows: 1 Quiz @ 5% each 2 Tests, Mid Term = 20% Final = 25% 2 lab projects @ 25% each = 5% = 45% = 50%

You will be allowed a single sided study sheet for each of the tests; it will consist of multiple choice, short answer, fill in the missing term, calculation type, and are taken both from the notebook and from the lessons. At the successful completion of this course you will be able to:
1. 2. 3. Understand the operating principles of the various machine tools used for metal removal. Understand the machining operations performed on the various metal removal machine tools. Identify, select, and employ the various cutting tools used in conjunction with metal removal machine tools. Understand the function of work holding devices used on metal removal machine tools. Set-up and perform typical machining operations on various metal removal machine tools. Observe the metal removal process on various machine tools. Specify and employ precision measuring instruments for measuring and checking operations on machine work pieces. Understand the metric system of measurement for precision measuring instruments. Understand the basic principles of metal removal.

4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

10. Select appropriate speeds and feeds from data sheet for various cutting applications.

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11. Calculate RPM and feed rates and time from selected feeds and speeds.

SCHEDULE
WEEK 1 DATE TOPIC TEXT REFERENCE Introduction to speed and feed calculations for Chapters 1and Mills and Lathes. Safety rules in the machine 2 shop. Speeds and feeds. Measuring Instruments Micrometers and verniers Quiz #1 5% Lathe Operations and tooling Threading and thread calculations Milling Machines and tooling Dividing Head Calculations Drilling Machines and tooling Test #1 20% Grinding and Abrasives Broaching and Sawing Process Sheets Cutting Tool Geometry Machinability Ductility and tool materials Test #2 20% Chapter 3 and 4 Chapter 3 and 4 Chapter 1-4 Chapter 5 Ch 5 Ch. 6 Ch. 6 Ch. 7 Ch 1 - 6 Ch. 8 Ch. 9 - 10 Ch. 11 Ch. 12 Ch. 13 Ch 8 12

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

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Chapter 1 Safety

Rules

Machining is a potentially dangerous exercise you will not find too many machinists that during their life time have not had a relatively serious accident. The aim of this introductory lesson is to ensure that you have been instructed in the proper techniques of operating rotating machinery, been given the safety rules for the Machine Shop here at Doon, and be made aware of what to do in a dangerous situation. Students are expected to practice safe working habits at all times while in the machine shop, failure to follow the rules that could result in injury to yourself or others may result in disciplinary measures. 1) Students must wear foot protection whilst in the machine shop. Safety boots must be purchased. 2) Safety glasses must be worn at all times in the machine shop, prescription eyewear is an adequate alternative to safety glasses. Safety glasses are available in the bookstore. 3) Students must wear appropriate clothing while in the machine shop. No shorts or loose clothing are allowed. 4) Any long hair must be constrained so as not to come into contact with any moving parts of the machinery. 5) Long neck or wrist chains must be removed while operating machinery. 6) Through-ways are marked with a wide yellow lines, nothing is to be placed within the marked areas. 7) Machines may only be used if the instructor is present. 8) Machine guards must be used where supplied. 9) If any accident occurs, notify the instructor immediately. 10) If there is a serious accident that requires immediate attention and the instructor for the course cannot be immediately notified, call the security office at extension 3514. 11) There is no access to the machine shop outside of the assigned hours. 12) Students are not to lift objects that weigh in excess of 30lbs; lifting apparatus is available for heavier objects. 13) Your instructor will notify you of the placement of the red emergency palm buttons, activate the emergency button if an accident warrants its use. 14) If you have any special needs that may affect you safely working machinery, you must notify your instructor prior to entering your first class. 15) The machines and the surrounding area must be cleaned thoroughly after each use. 16) Lock outs on machines can only be removed by the person who placed the lock out on the machine.
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Study Guide Week #1 Speeds and Feeds

Fill in the answers as we go through the information together with the self evaluation sheets found at the end of some chapters, the study guides will act as good review information prior to any tests
1. Cutting Speed is given as Feet Per Minute (or meters per minute) and can be defined as:

2. When we use a Lathe the federate is given in ___________________ 3. The feedrate for milling machines is always given in Inches Per Revolution True or False? 4. When we start cutting for the first time we always use the ________ speed from the data sheets to determine our R.P.M. 5. The approximate INCREASE in speed that carbide will give over High Speed Steel is about ____ times. 6. The full formula for determining the speed in the inch system is __________________.

7. The shortened formula for determining the speed in the inch system is __________________.

8. The full formula for determining the speed in the metric system is ______________________. 9. Generally there is no shortened formula for determining the speed in the metric system True or False?

10. The only difference between determining the speed for a turning operation and a milling operation is that in one you use the diameter of the _______ and the other the diameter of the _______.

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Chapter 2 - Speeds

and Feeds.

This will introduce you to using the correct Speeds and Feeds on the Lathes or Milling machines. There are formulas that need to be applied so that you can set the machines approximate speed and feed. Setting the incorrect speeds and feeds can damage the tooling or perhaps cause an accident. Speeds. Speeds are based on: The Material being cut The Material doing the cutting. The generic formula to determine speeds is:

R.P.M . =

Cutting Speed in Feet per Minute *12 Diameter of Workpiece* *

*The Diameter of the Work piece is replaced with the diameter of the Cutter when determining speeds for Milling Machines. The cutting speed formula is often shortened the 12/ is evaluated as 4 and so the formula becomes:

R.P.M . =

Cutting Speed in Feet per Minute * 4 Diameter of Workpiece*

As the RPM values need only be approximate, approximating the division of 12/ as 4 will not result in any difficulties. Calculated speeds act as a starting point only. Cutting Speed The Cutting Speed is a variable value that changes for the type of material being cut and also the material that you are cutting with. Refer to the data sheets at the back of the text that outline appropriate speed and feed ranges. For you projects, the material being machined is Aluminium; cutting speeds for this material are about 200 Feet per Minute for using high speed steel cutters. For Carbide cutters, multiply the cutting speed by about 4. It is worth noting that the majority of the data sheets are from experimental results and often are over stated always listen to your instructor about appropriate cutting speeds, they are familiar with the working condition of the machines we are using.

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Feeds. Feed Rates are in one of two forms: For a lathe the feed rate is expressed in Inches per revolution 1 For Milling Machines the feed rate is expressed in Inches per minute 2 Generally, incorrect speeds will result in tool damage or breakage, whereas feed rates that are too high result in personal damage. Appropriate feed rates for Aluminium is about .01 per tooth for rough machining and .005 per tooth for finishing. Therefore on a Lathe these values are set as seen - .005 or .010. On a milling machine the cutters have multiple teeth where the feed rate of about .005 is appropriate for each tooth. In order to find the feed rate in inches per minute, multiply the number of teeth by the R.P.M. and then by the feed rate per tooth. Examples in class will allow you to determine the correct feeds. Noise and vibration are often good indicators that a cutting operation is running correctly. There should be little vibration and the noise should be consistent. Excessive noise from the machine tool indicates problems. R.P.M. for Metric work pieces: The formula remains basically the same, that is:

SMPM x

r. p.m.

The difference is that as surface speeds are given in meters, and the diameter of the work or cutter is in millimeters so we have to multiply the SMPM by 1000, this gives us the general speed formula as:

SMPM x 1000 x

r. p.m.

Example: A work piece diameter of 90 millimeters needs to be turned using a cutting speed of 120 S.M.P.M. Calculate the required R.P.M.

120 x 1000 90 x

= 424 r. p.m.

1 2

Can also be Millimeters per revolution This can also be expressed in Millimeters per minute

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Self Evaluation: 1. Determine the R.P.M. for milling a piece of Aluminium if the ideal cutting speed for the material is 400 f.p.m. and you are using a 5.0 diameter cutter use the long formula.

2. We change the cutting tool to a High Speed Steel cutter having the same diameter what is the ideal R.P.M. now? 3. Using the data sheets in the back of your package, determine the range of speed (R.P.M.) for a 2 carbide cutter milling a piece of Titanium use the General Purpose Starting Conditions column to determine the cutting speed in Feet per Minute.

4. I have a diameter 2 flute, High Speed Steel cutter that I will use to produce a slot in a piece of Copper. a. Determine the speed using the lowest value Cutting Speed in the Roughing and Finishing column b. Determine the feed rate in Inches per Minute using the R.P.M. found from the first part of the question.

5. What is the correct feed rate in Inches per Revolution for a 5/8 diameter H.S.S drill cutting Cast Iron? 6. What is the Speed in Revs per Minute for a 200mm diameter cutter running at 1000 M.P.M?

7. Determine the correct speed and feed for turning a 50mm diameter bar made from thermoplastic using a ceramic coated carbide cutter. 8. You are drilling a piece of Stainless Steel with a carbide drill. What is the maximum speed and feeds for a drill?

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Study Guide - Scales, Rules and Verniers

Define: 1. Manipulative Error: 2. Error of Bias: 3. Inherent Instrument Error: 4. Observational Error: 5. What is the only type of error that CANNOT be completely erased? 6. What TWO checks do you perform with a vernier to determine its ability to measure accurately?

7. Complete the readings on the summary page

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Chapter 3 Scales, Rules and Verniers

Definitions: Scale: A device that is graduated proportionally to a length unit. For instance an engineering scale allows you to measure a scaled ink print drawing to determine the actual size of the part. Rule: The actual length is specified on the measuring device Discrimination: the smallest increment on the measuring instrument Direct Measurement: measuring with an instrument that can take a direct reading unlike: Indirect measurement: Comparative measurement talking a measurement (normally with a non-scaled object such as a calliper) and transferring the reading to a rule for an actual reading. Types of error (these are applicable for ALL measuring instruments)

1. 2. 3. 4.

Inherent instrument error Observational error Manipulative error Error of Bias

1. Inherent instrument Error This is like comparing cheap plastic rulers to an expensive steel engraved rule - you only get what you pay for when it comes to measuring instruments; Hence one instrument must be more accurate than another. An expensive rule has an allowable error of .0003 over the discrimination distance. The .0003 error per increment may accumulate; however with errors occurring over both the positive and negative side of the real value, in many cases the errors counter each other. The TOTAL errors over the entire length of a 6 rule is between +.004 and -.002. Regardless of the instrument and its cost, there is ALWAYS inherent instrument error. While on the most expensive instruments this error is minimalised as much as possible, it is still there in some shape or form. 2. Observational error This is also known as parallax error if the measuring instrument is not viewed perpendicular to the engravings then an error occurs try looking at a measuring instrument from the extreme left and right sides, the difference in reading is extremely noticeable. 3. Manipulative Error This is an error of feel or manual misalignment. The feel is a skill developed over years by machinists and inspectors and refers to their ability to match the pressure used when they calibrate the instrument to the pressure they use when they measure the part. It also refers to the alignment of the measuring instrument relative to the part being measured. The measuring tool must be axially correct to measure accurately (Abbes rule) therefore the instrument needs to be
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manipulated to align to the 3 axis of linear motion. ANY misalignment will result in an inaccurate measurement. 4. Error of Bias If something is not correct then we try and bias the reading to suit what we want. It is not a manipulative error in that we purposely misread but rather of unconsciously adjusting the instrument to obtain the size we are looking for. Generally several measurements have to be taken to avoid the errors stated above. The only error that cannot be controlled with practice is Inherent Instrument error.

Direct measuring linear measurement. Verniers. The vernier scale was invented in 1631 its original use was by astronomers who used a tool to determine the distance between stars it was not until 1850 that a practical tool was invented by Carl Ziess 3. The vernier splits the discrimination into an amplified scale it does this in one of two methods. The first most common method is the vernier calliper - this utilizes a linear vernier scale. Vernier scales all work on the same principle they take a number of graduations on a vernier scale and fit them into one less division on the fixed scale. On metric verniers the vernier scales have either 25 of 50 divisions depending on whether the main scale is divided up into 1mm or .5mm divisions. On the imperial scales the vernier scale is divided either into 25 divisions for a 0.025 division tool or 50 divisions for a .05 division tool. The discrimination of either type instrument is still .001. Difficulty in reading verniers together with manipulative and inherent instrument errors, restrict the working accuracy of about 0.003. In the metric scale the discrimination is .02mm but again the practical accuracy is about .06mm. Unlike other measuring instruments, verniers have the advantage in that they can measure internal, external and depth measurements with the same tool. A fallacy when using a vernier is the lock screw. People think that by locking the vernier up with the screw that they are actually holding the measurement as they remove the tool from the part but they are not. Mechanical movement will occur when taking the tool away try to measure and read the measurement while the tool is in contact with the part. Verniers therefore have three types of errors: Manipulative, Bias and Inherent instrument error. Of the three only the inherent instrument error is the one that cannot be totally removed however, of all the precision measuring instruments, the vernier calliper is the most difficult tool with which to obtain a reliable measurement. There are two checks that should be performed before using a vernier calliper. First, close the jaws together and ensure that the zero mark on the fixed beam matches with the zero mark on the travelling beam (which may or may not be adjustable). The second is to close the jaws together
3

His name lives on as one of the most prestigious machine tool builders in the world.

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and see if the jaws have been spread apart by the operator using excessive force if they have been stressed, a small bead of light will show between the two jaws. Summary. Verniers are still being used on measuring instruments, but because of their inherent difficulty in reading, digital and dial callipers are preferred. Some instruments have not yet been developed, or are too expensive, to replace the vernier scale with an easier reading technique. How to read a vernier calliper See the following examples first and then practice using the tool. Be prepared to see vernier callipers that have varying numbers of divisions on their vernier scale. Inch Vernier Readings

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Metric Vernier Readings

Tolerances. As it is impossible to have two identical measuring instruments measure exactly the same, then the concept of Tolerance must be introduced. Just as when we manufacture something the idea of machining a feature to an exact size is impossible, so to is the ability to measure an exact value. Tolerance is defined as being the acceptable range or error within which the part can still function effectively. While there is an ideal size for a feature, none of the parts we manufacture can ever hope of being made to that ideal size, therefore it is acceptable to make parts close to the ideal. The method of expressing the dimensional tolerance takes a few forms: Bilateral Tolerances represent values that are expressed either side of the basic size. The value above and below the basic size may or may not be the same value.

2.000 + .002 (Different values)

OR

.003

2.000 . 003 (Same values)

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Unilateral Tolerances represent a method of expressing the tolerance either above OR below the basic size.

2.000 + .001 +
The preferred method of expressing a tolerance is to actually state the Limits of Size. In place of the plus/minus values the actual upper and lower limits of the part are stated. This results in fewer manufacturing errors and is the preferred method of specifying tolerances. 2.004 2.000 The actual tolerance values are established by the application that the feature is to perform. For instance if two parts are assembled to run against each other then the tolerance values will be very explicit these values are found from data sheets that define the application and then suggest the applicable tolerances. For parts that do not touch another then the tolerance becomes one of experience. In the context of machining, tolerances represent the sophistication of the machine tool - the finer the tolerance, the more precise the machine needs to be. Apart from dimensional tolerances we also have to be cognizant of Geometric Tolerances. These establish tolerance zones based on geometric features or relationships to other features: for example, whether the face is flat, or whether it is perpendicular to a second face. For the most part these tolerances CANNOT be measured using dimensional metrology instruments and require comparative measures. Most often these features are checked using gauges and special purpose inspection tools. They are recognized by a Feature Control Frame: a boxed area containing the geometric requirement, and the range in which the part must fall. j 0.020 A B

.003

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Study Guide Micrometers

1. How can you tell if you have an expensive micrometer in your hand? 2. How many threads per inch does the screw of an Inch micrometer have? 3. What is the PITCH of the screw thread in an Inch micrometer? 4. What is the PITCH of the screw in a metric micrometer? 5. Approximately what is the largest practical micrometer you can use? 6. While the micrometer may be able to read to .0001 what is an inch micrometers practical accuracy? 7. What is the practical accuracy of a metric micrometer? 8. Inch micrometers normally have a range of _______. 9. Metric micrometers normally have a range of ________. 10. The process of ensuring that the micrometer (or any other measuring instrument) is measuring to its optimum performance is called _________. 11. What is the discrimination of a metric micrometer? Be sure to read ALL of the examples in the summary sheets

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Chapter 4 - Micrometers
Materials required for this lecture Inch Micrometer Metric Micrometer Thread Micrometer Digital Micrometer Calibration Rods Depth Micrometer Inside Micrometer Gauge Blocks

At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to read metric and imperial outside, depth and inside micrometers. The modern micrometer was developed by Brown and Sharp in 1867 - their company still produces high quality measuring instruments. Inch Micrometers Micrometers range in size up to about 36 inches. At this size and larger, micrometers get very difficult to manipulate and become unstable. Large format verniers are used for larger sizes and as you would expect, the ability to measure large values precisely, lessens. Most micrometers have a 1 range but there are some micrometers that have replaceable spindles to allow larger ranges normally 4 or 6 inches. However, these are less accurate because they require constant calibration. The more expensive micrometers have stationary spindles but the majority have rotating spindles. Nearly all micrometers have a ratchet or friction thimbles that tries to reduce the manipulation errors. By calibrating the micrometer using the friction or ratchet thimble, and then using the friction or ratchet mechanism to measure your part a more reliable reading can be attained. All micrometers use a thread based system to amplify the discrimination of the instrument. In the inch micrometer the internal thread thats connects the thimble to the barrel has 40 threads for every inch. Therefore, as rotary thread motion causes linear motion, one compete turn results in an axial movement of 1/40th of an inch, or .025. Forty full turns will move the spindle axially 1. The fixed portion of the micrometer (the barrel) is divided up into .025 divisions and at every 4th division, a 0.1 value is labelled (the smaller divisions are not). The Thimble (rotating part of a micrometer) is divided up into 25 0.001 divisions. The discrimination of an inch micrometer then is .001 (smallest increment). Some micrometers have a vernier scale that can further sub divide the value to allow a discrimination of .0001; however it is unlikely that you can physically manipulate the micrometer to measure within .0001.

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To read the INCH micrometer: Take a measurement

1. Determine the range you are measuring (i.e. 2-3 etc), use the lower value as the first
value = 2

2. Read the number displayed on the barrel this value may be clearly or partially visible 3. 4. 5. 6.
for instance assume that the fully visible number is a 2, add this to the first number to arrive at 2.2 Count the number of vertical lines that can be seen after the number 2. Each of these lines represents 0.025. Assume that we can see 3 of these lines. As each line equals 0.025 then we have .075 to add the previous reading = 2.275 Read the number on the thimble that coincides to the horizontal read line on the barrel it will be between 0 and 25. Assume that the 14 division is aligned, add the 0.014 to the last value for the final reading ( 2.289) If required go to the vernier scale and see which of the ten lines aligns exactly with a line on the thimble it will be between 0 and 9 lets assume the number 6. Add this to the total to achieve 2.2896. Final answer = 2.2896

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Metric Micrometer Reading One full turn of an inch micrometer was 0.025 that is because we have a screw mechanism that uses 40 threads to the inch. With metric micrometers the thread PITCH (the distance from one thread form to a second thread form) is .5mm. Therefore one full turn of a metric micrometer moves the anvil 0.5mm. These micrometers are read in the same manner but the divisions on the barrel are divided up into .5mm, with each 5mm major division being labelled. There are 50 divisions on the thimble, each representing 0.01mm, and they too may have a vernier scale, but this is less likely. Reading the micrometer follows the same steps as for inch tools.

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Study Guide Lathes

1. Lathes are sized by the ____________ and the ____________

2. The feed rates for Lathes are in ________ per ____________

3. There are three main functions for the tailstock. One is to support drill chucks, the second is to offset the tailstock to produce tapers, and the third is to _________________________

4. A Milling machine uses the X, Y and Z axis of motion what are the TWO axis of motion for a lathe?

5. The lathe machine that does NOT have a tailstock is called a ______________.

6. The machine that you have identified above is mainly used to produce ________ quantities of _________ sized parts.

7. Is it possible to knurl an internal diameter?

8. What is the recognized surface finish that you can attain on a lathe: In micro inches it is ________ and in micro meters it is ________.

9. Of the four main workholding devices, which one would you use if you want to hold a round part accurately and have a quick part change?

10. What part of the lathe controls the relationship of the workholding device rotation and the longitudinal carriage when thread cutting?

11. List the four techniques that can be used for cutting tapers: a. b. c. d.

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12. Which of the four taper turning techniques would you use to cut the following use each of the types once only: a. A chamfer on the front of a part to break the edge b. A 24 long shaft requiring an extremely accurate 2o taper c. An accurate internal taper - 2o and 12 long. d. A 30o taper having reasonable accuracy. 13. There is a practical limit to the size of the part that can be turned on a lathe because of the inertia and mass of a part what type of machine can turn very large parts?

14. What is the formula to find the ideal wire size for a 1.00 6 UNC thread?

a. Determine the wire size here:

15. Using the wire size from the above question, what is the distance over the wires for the stated thread:

16. What is the formula for determining the Pitch Diameter?

17. Determine the Pitch diameter using the information found in the previous questions for the 1.00 6 UN thread.

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Chapter 5 - CMP Introduction:

Lathes

Prior to James Watts steam engine (c1765), the need to machine metal parts accurately was non-existent. Metal parts were heated and beaten into shape but not machined. Wood parts were able to be machined using foot generated rotation techniques, but the power required to cut metal was more than could be created manually. The need for relatively close tolerances (one width of a coin between the piston and cylinder) required a machine tool. The first machine tool (John Wilkinsons Boring machine) was powered by a water wheel (FMM, 502). Once steam engines were developed they then found their way into producing manufactured parts, and the Industrial Revolution began. Today, Lathes (1775 figure 3), Screw Cutting Machines (1800), Milling Machines (1819), and the Drill Press (1846) still resemble those first machines from the 18th and 19th centuries (FMM, 502). Turning Operations.

Figure 1 - Engine Lathe (MPM 557) Definition: A process where a work piece of any shape rotates. A single point cutting tool transverses across the rotating surface to produce a cylindrical shape. By using drills, reamers, and boring tools internal shapes can be produced as well as external shapes, these cylindrical shapes can be straight or tapered (Fig 4).

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Figure 2 - Typical Lathe Cutting Operations Restrictions: Turning can usually produce cylindrical parts that are accurate to within about .001 (0.025mm) with surface finishes down to 32 inches (0.8 meters). Lathes vary in size from small watchmakers lathes that rotate up to 16000 r.p.m. through to large machines of over 20 feet long and 4 feet diameter and more. The corresponding tools that are used range from 1/8 High Speed Steel tools up to carbide square tool holders of 4 square. Tool shapes generally determine the shapes cut on a lathe: (Refer to Figure 4) Facing : Where the front face, or faces parallel to the front face are machined. The tool shape should have a side clearance angle of 00 or be a positive value. Turning: Generates cylindrical shapes internally or externally, straight or tapered. Forming: Causes a shape to be generated by following a pre-determined template using a copy attachment or, by plunging a cutter, whose shape has been previously ground

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to the correct contour, into the work piece. This type of forming can cause vibration problems if the surface area of the form is large. Grooving: Plunging a cutter to produce a grove in the face or the cylindrical part of the feature. Grooves are used for O rings, clips or undercut relief. Cutoff: Closely related to the grooving operations, this operation is used when you want to produce disc like objects (such as washers) or you have a long bar that you create a number of workpieces from and then part off the finished work piece from the parent bar. Thread Cutting: The production of an external or internal screw thread used for fastening or power transfer purposes. Drilling: Production of holes located on the center line of the work piece. The holes may be for pre-machining - for boring or reaming later, or if they are simply for clearance purposes then the drilled hole may be the finished feature. Knurling: Knurling produces a raised ridge, normally in the shape of a diamond cut that is generally used for gripping purposes. While most knurling tools form the shapes by pushing the material into shape, there are some knurls that do cut the material. Lathe Work holding Devices (fig 5) Three Jaw Self-Centering Chucks are used for the majority of operations. The gripping jaws are closed and opened by rotating a single chuck key. The accuracy of these jaws is adequate for most operations but they are susceptible to wear and strain which causes eccentricity to occur. Four Jaw independent chucks have four jaws, each controlled independently by the chuck key. Each jaw uses its own scroll thread to position the jaw they are used on odd shaped parts, or round parts that are out of round, such as cast or hot rolled material. They have the ability to hold round stock more accurately than a worn 3 jaw chuck. Collet chucks are high precision devices. Rather than gripping on a small portion of the part, they apply a force on a much wider surface area. Their location within the collet holder is also better engineered. They have advantages in that they will not damage the surface of the part they are holding and can also hole very small diameters. The main deficiencies are that the size range you can grip is restricted to a small amount and they also have a relatively small upper diameter limit. Face Plates are used when clamping kits have to be utilized to clamp the work piece that has an odd shape or uses a fixture for its locating and clamping. They attach to the headstock in the same way as a three or four jaw chuck, but have slots in place of the jaws. These slots are also used to locate Drive Dogs that are used to drive a work piece driven BETWEEN CENTERS. This is the most accurate method of assuring concentric diameters but it is a clumsy technique and should be avoided if at all possible. If grinding a diameter after turning then you do not need to use a between centers technique.

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Figure 3 - Lathe Work holding Devices

4 Jaw Chuck

Types of Tuning Machines. Engine Lathes (Fig 3) are the most common horizontal turning machine. Generally equipped with digital readouts for accurate positioning, a lathes bed supports a carriage that moves in the Z axis and a cross slide mounted on the carriage moves to provide X axis motion. A third slide called the compound slide, can rotate and clamp at any angle and is one method used to produce tapered internal or external cylindrical surfaces. A Tailstock has a movable spindle and can support drill chucks, drills and reamers. The tailstock can also support a Center a device that allows long work pieces to be supported. Turret Lathes have no tailstock. In place of the tailstocks is a 6 station rotating turret where a multitude of tools can be loaded. One of the problems with Engine lathes is that only one tool is in the correct cutting position at one time it takes time to change these tools and you cannot guarantee that the tool is placed back in exactly the same place each time. With a turret lathe, each of the six positional tool holders may be brought into the cutting position without their removal. For this reason Turret Lathes are often used for higher production applications. The lack of a tailstock does prevent longer work pieces from being machined. Vertical Boring Machines (VBMs) are vertically orientated turning machines. One drawback of horizontally orientated machines is the restriction of the work piece diameter that can be swung. The larger the work piece diameter the higher the machine, the more inertia and the more
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expensive the machine. A Vertical Boring machine is like a turret lathe on end, with all the weight of the work piece acting downwards this has obvious advantages for larger work pieces. They often have two, 6 station tool holders, one of which often take the function of a compound slide and so are used to turn tapers. Some machines can machine up to 20 feet diameters, an example of parts that require these sizes are large Ring Gears used on warship gun turrets. Horizontal Boring Machines are horizontally orientated machines that combine both turning and milling operations. The work piece remains stationary and the tool spindle rotates. A combination of tool and work piece motion allows machining in 4 axis. The fourth axis is the ability of these machines tables to rotate around the Y axis and lock into position. Horizontal boring machines can be classified as a milling or turning machine. For turning operations they are often used to machine very long bores as the boring bars can be supported by a tailstock like structure at the far end of the machine. You will often see these machines being used for gearbox manufacture. The part can remain clamped while the table rotates for machining bores on opposite sides of the gearbox input and output shaft locations.

Thread Cutting on Lathes Cutting threads on lathes is relatively time consuming but sometimes necessary to obtain threads that are diametrically correct. This technique is also used when threads require grinding to obtain extremely accurate thread forms and sizes. The thread creation technique involves a number of relatively small cuts as it is vital that the entry point into the part remains the same at each pass, there are a few rules that need to be maintained: a. Never remove the part from the chuck once the thread cutting process has started b. Do not push the part back into the chuck by using excessive force with the tailstock c. Avoid tightening thread gages that may move the part in the chuck It may be that the part will move during the thread cutting process you can re-establish the start point again but it is difficult especially when cutting internal threads. The mechanism that allows you to start at the same helical point each pass is called the Chasing Dial this dial has markings that allow you to judge when to engage the lead screw that drives the carriage. The lead screw is always in contact with the chuck rotation be careful not to disengage the chuck on some machines. If the lead screw still rotates while the chuck is in neutral then you are okay if it doesnt then the relationship between the chasing dial, lead screw and main gearbox is removed and cross threading will occur. Formulas to determine distance over wires. There are a number of techniques that can measure threads. Of these the measurement over wires is the most reliable. The only information you require is the Outside Diameter, the number of threads per inch and the thread form (angle). For this exercise we will look at a 0.500 13 UNC thread and list the formulas we will use. Diameter of Wire: = 0.57735 * Pitch of thread Distance over Wires: = M = D (1.5155 * Pitch) + (3 * W)

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Pitch Diameter: = (E) = M Constant (C) C = 3W - .86603P **These formulas are only applicable for 60o Imperial threads** Example:

Find the Wire size, the distance over the wires and the Pitch Diameter of a - 10 UNC thread. 1. Wire Size Formula = .57735 * Pitch Ideal Wire size = .57735 * .1 = .0578 2. Distance Over Wires M = D (1.5155 * Pitch) + (3 * W) Where Pitch = 1/10 = .100

M = 0.750 (1.5155 * .100) + (3 * .0578) M = 0.7719 3. Pitch Diameter Pitch Diameter (E) = M C C = (3*.0578) (.86603 * .1) C = .0868 E = 0.7719 - .0868 = 0.6851

Where Pitch = 1/10 = .100 D = Major Diameter = .750 W = Wire Size = .0578 M = Distance Over Wires

Where C = 3W - .8660 * Pitch Where M = Distance over wires

The calculated value MUST be greater than the major diameter (D) of the thread, but by only a small amount. You can approximate the Pitch Diameter (E) value as half way between the Major and Minor diameters. The minor diameter can be found by taking the Pitch, multiplying it by .63 and then subtracting the found value from the Major diameter. In the example above: Depth of thread = .63 * Pitch = .63 * .1 = .063 Approximate Pitch Diameter = .750 - .063 = .687 not exact but close to have confidence in your calculations.

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Study Guide Milling Machines

1. Mills are classified by their spindle orientation T or F?

2. If a cutter feeds around the outside of a part in a clockwise direction, the cutting action is known as _________________ milling.

3. If a cutter is feeding around the internal contour of a part in a clockwise direction, the cutting action is known as ________ milling.

4. Some cutters have a curved shape on their outside and are grooved these are known as ________ cutters. The aim of the grooves and spiral shape is to ___________________.

5. Larger milling machines are known as ______ mills. The major difference between these and Knee and Column machines is that __________________.

6. Cutters that create various shapes such as dovetails are called ________ cutters.

7. I want to machine a semi-circle on a milling machine in order to do this I need to use a ________ _________ as the work holding device.

8. I need to create the helix shape in an auger can I do this on a milling machine?

9. I need to cut a 14 sided polygon on a milling machine. What work holding device can I use?

10. What is the number of turns and partial turns I would use to create the 14 sided polygon above?

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11. If I have the following plates available for a dividing head, which plate would I choose, how many full turns and partial turns of that plate would I use to cut the 14 sided polygon?

a. 105 b. 135 c. 56 d. 86 e. 95 12. I have moved 9 full turns plus 17 holes on a 35 hole plate how much have I incremented? 13. Using only the plates above I need to increment 9 degrees and 3 minutes. What plate do I use to maintain the maximum accuracy, and how much error do I have by using the chosen plate? 14. I have a cutter in my hand how can I determine whether I can plunge into a part with this cutter. 15. Slitting saws can cut on both the cutters periphery and the sides T or F? 16. It is possible to use drills, reamers, counter bores and boring heads on Milling Machines. T or F?

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Chapter 6 - Milling

Machines.

The spindle orientation of the milling machine is one method of defining the type. They are either Vertical Milling Machines where the spindle is vertical or horizontal milling machines when the spindle is horizontal (fig 6). While most cutters can be used on both types of machines, it is more common to see one type of cutter on one machines and another type on the other. Regardless of the spindle orientation, milling machines are usually used for the production of flat surfaces. A further delineation of machine may be categorized as Knee and Column machines or Bed machines. Bed machines are larger with the cutting head moving to the work. Knee and Column machine use a combination of work and cutter movement to accomplish cutting.

Figure 4 - Horizontal and Vertical Orientation

Figure 5 - Various Milling Operations (FMM 518)

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Restrictions: These machines are accurate to within .001 with careful operation however you are subject to the accuracy of the work holding device that can prevent you from attaining this accuracy. Knee and Column machines can be very small tool room devices or bed types have footprints in excess of 20 feet long. In Knee and Column machines either the cutter or the table moves, in bed types only the cutter moves . Coupled with this is the ability of the machines head to rotate around two axis this allows the cutting of compound angles. CNC machining centers have the ability to synchronize multiple axis of motion at the same time. This allows the machine to produce very intricate shapes. Type of Operations (Refer to Fig 7): Face Milling: machining across the top of the part usually with an indexable insert carbide cutter. End Milling: this uses a carbide (solid or indexable inserts) or High Speed Steel cylinder shaped cutter to machine slot like parts. The cutters can cut on their sides or their ends. These are the most common types of cutters. Side/Face Milling: These are usually used on horizontal machines. They are large diameter cutters with a keyed hole through the center; generally the cutters are offset so that the forces are equalized as the cutting action takes places. They have a variable number of teeth, are very efficient and substantial, they are also very expensive. They can also come in a slitting saw variety where the cutting edges exist on the periphery only and not the sides. These cutters are usually thinner starting at about .03 wide. (Fig 6)

Figure 6 - Side and Face Cutters (MPM 620)

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Contour (form) cutting: These are often included within end mill cutting, however these cutters can be of the side and face variety or the end mill variety, so it becomes difficult to place them in a particular section. These cutters are pre-ground to the correct shape and can be used to cut inside and outside radii, tee-slots and dovetails. While there are standard shapes, almost any shape can be generated by the tool manufacturer.

Figure 7 - Tee Slot Cutting Work Piece Holders: Invariably parts are held by precision machine vices; however angle plates, rotary tables, dividing heads, and fixtures are used as work holding devices. Rotary Tables. A rotary table can hold a workpiece, turn the part through 360o and produce full or partial circles the cutter rotates about its spindle axis but remains stationary in the X, and Y axis during the process. The cutters position relative to the center of the rotary table determines the radius of the arc being machined. The one shown here has a hand crank on manual machines this is a drawback in that there is no feed mechanism to control feed rates. Dividing Heads. These are used to increment a part around its axis to produce accurate increments for holes, slots, and gears. They are made up of an Index Plate, and adjustable incline axis, a rotation handle, the Hole Plate, and a workholding device. The Index Plate is used to increment the workholding device a set amount normally 15o. The adjustable incline axis allows you to produce helical gears The rotation handle rotates the workholding device around a specific distance. The replaceable hole plate is fixed in place the bronze fingers that you can just see below the rotation handle can turn to set the increment required for instance if the angle needs you to increment 5 holes then the two fingers would be placed 5 holes apart.

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Premise of Dividing Head. One complete turn of the rotation handle moves the workholding device through 9o. This is because the controlling internal gearing has a 40:1 ratio one turn equals 1/40th of 360o which equals 9o. Various Hole Plates can be assembled to the dividing head allowing the parts of the full turn to be sub-divided for instance if you had a Hole Plate with 9 holes around the periphery then one hole would equal 1/9th of a full turn. As one full turn equals 9o then one hole in a nine hole plate will equal 1o. Example: I have two slots in a part 30o apart from each other. I have machined the first slot and now I want to increment the dividing head to the second slot. I have a Hole Plate with the following number of holes in it: 18, 27, 30, 54, 72, 98, and 105. From the list determine which of the available hole plates we should use and how many full and partial turns are required? Steps 1. Determine how many full turns you need by dividing the degrees between features by 9. 30/9 = 3 full turns 2. Take the remainder (30 27 = 3o) and change it to minutes 3 * 60 = 180 minutes 3. Divided the remainder by 540 (there are 540 minutes in 9o or one full turn) 180/540 = 1/3 4. Find a plate that divides by 3: with our plates it is 18,27,30,54, and 72. Choose 27 = therefore we need 1/3rd of the 27 holes = 9 holes. Answer = 3 Full Turns and 9 holes in a 27 hole plate. The process remains the same for ANY increment. Sometimes you will not be able to get an exact increment - you have to find the closest result that you can attain and then determine if the error is acceptable.

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Examples: Dividing Head

The following dividing head plates are available: - 15, 16, 18, 24, 25, 27, 30, 32, 35, 36, 39, 43, 47, 52, 54, 65, 78, 84, 96, 108, 114, and 135. Using the appropriate plate, determine the total number of full and partial turns that are needed to increment the following values. 1. 18 degrees 2. 19 degrees 30 minutes 3. 73 degrees 15 minutes 4. 27 degrees and 50 minutes 5. 19 degrees 5 minutes 6. 20 degrees 7 minutes 1. 18 Degrees. As one full turn rotates the dividing head 9 degrees then 18/9 = 2 Full Turns. 2. 19 degrees and 30 minutes. As one full turn equals 9 degrees, 19/9 = 2 full turns with 1 degree and 30 minutes remaining. There are two techniques to find the number of partial turns and the correct hole plate to use: a) Find the fraction of 1.5 degrees of 9 degrees = 1.5/9 = 1/6 Use any plate that divides by 6 - divide the plate number by 6 and then multiply that answer by the numerator 1) see below Or b) Turn the 1 degree 30 minutes into minutes = (1* 60) + 30 = 90 minutes. One full turn equals 9 degrees which equals 540 minutes - therefore to find the fraction of a turn we divide 90 by 540. 90/540 as its lowest common fraction is 1/6 (divide numerator and denominator by 90). Therefore we are looking at using ANY plate that divides by 6. They are 18, 24 or 30. If we use the available plates then to achieve the 1/6 fraction we would move 3 holes in a 18 hole plate, 8 holes in a 24 hole plate or 10 holes in a 30 hole plate. *1/2 degrees increments are the easiest values to determine full and partial turns.

3. 73 degrees and 15 minutes 73 degrees / 9 = 8 turns equal 72 degrees. Therefore there is 1 degree and 15 minutes leftover. 1 degree and 15 minutes equals 75 minutes. 75/540 equals the fraction
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15/108 = 5/36 Therefore use the 36 holes plate. 8 full turns plus 5 holes in a 36 hole plate = 73 degrees and 15 minutes 4. 27 degrees and 50 minutes 27/9 = 3 Full Turns. This means that there are 50 minutes left. 50/540 = 5/54 Therefore 3 full turns plus 5 holes on a 54 hole plate will increment the dividing head 27 degrees and 50 minutes. * There is always a 54 hole plate - anytime an increment of 10 minutes appears this plate can be used. 5. 19 degrees and 5 minutes. One turn equals 9 degrees; therefore 2 turns equal 18 degrees. This means that there is 1 degree and 5 minutes remaining = 65 minutes. 65/540 = 13/108 = 13 holes in a 108 hole plate. *If there is a 108 plate this can always be used for increments that have 5 minute multiples 6. 20 degrees 7 minutes 2 turns equal 18 degrees. That means that there is 2 degrees and 7 minutes left over = 127 minutes. 127/540 - 127 is prime - this is one of those situations where unless you have a plate with 540 holes in it you CANNOT find a solution. You only way you could use the dividing head in this instance is to find the closest fraction with the plates available, determine if the resulting error is acceptable and then decide if that error is acceptable. In this case the closest fraction is 32/135 (128/540) which would result in an error of 1/540 of 9 degrees = 1 minute. I will NOT give you a question that cannot be solved using the available plates.

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Sample Mid-Term Test:

Go to the link here for a sample test with the answers supplied as a separate document. Sample test - #1: K:\Tkattenhorn\Conventional Machining Processes\test1_2007.DOC Sample Test Answers - #1: K:\Tkattenhorn\Conventional Machining Processes\test1_2007_ANSWERS.DOC

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Lecture Guides Drills and Drilling machines

1. The three types of inch drill sizes are:

2. Number Drills start at ________ and end at _________ 3. Letter Drills start at _______ and end at ________ 4. Fractional drills increment by _______ up to 1 and greater than this diameter at various increments. 5. Are drills accurate enough to produce holes to the precise size? ________ 6. Why would drills cut oversize? ____________________________________ 7. What are the drills made from? _______________________________ 8. Drills come in specific lengths one variety is called ________ 9. What is the main advantage of straight shank drills? ___________ 10. I want to drill an accurate hole .375 diameter, 24 long what do I use? ______________________ 11. I want to drill and counter bore and counter sink with one drill what is this type of drill called? ____________________________________ 12. Spade drills have a few of advantages over twist drills name two

13. True or false I need to drill a small hole I am going to use a Radial Arm drill. 14. True or false The feed rate for reaming is 50% of the feed rate of drilling. 15. True or false the speed when reaming is 50% of the speed for drilling. 16. Whats the drill size for reaming a 3/16 hole? ________________ 17. Whats the drill size for reaming a 1- 3/16 hole? ______________

18. Whats the difference between spot facing and counter boring? ________________________________________

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Chapter 7 - Drilling

and Drilling Machines:

Turning, Milling and Boring Machines all have the ability to drill holes and produce associated features using standard cutting tools. There are specific machines for drilling and the other point operations such as; counterboring, spotfacing, tapping and reaming. These drilling machines are NOT designed to act as milling, turning and boring machines. Their advantage is that they are considerably less expensive than lathes and mills. Standard drills range from about .006 diameter up to about 3.5 diameter. Other techniques can be used to create larger holes (known as trepanning) which can create holes up to about 12 diameter.

Figure 8 - Various Drills Drills are multi-edged tools that are capable of limited accuracy. Drills are made from High Speed Steel, solid carbide or indexable inserts. Drill point geometry (Fig 9) prevents accurate locations and sizes from being produced, the holes that they create are ideal as is for fastening applications or are used as a preparatory function for tapping (producing screw threads) and reaming (producing dimensional accurate holes with good surface finish). Drills do not work well on thin plate where the drill point breaks through the underside of the work piece before its full diameter is fully supported.

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Figure 9 - Drill Nomenclature (MET 629) Other Operations. Any point operation can be performed on a drilling machine: the following schematic explains the most common (fig 10.): a) b) c) Reaming: produces accurate holes with good surface finish. The hole is pre-drilled. Tapping: produces a screw thread suitable for fasteners and power transmission, again the hole is pre-drilled. Counterboring: Produces a flat-bottom hole, these holes are generally to allow the head of a Cap Head Screw to sit below the surface. The size of the pre-drilled hole will determine the diameter of the counterbore. The previously drilled hole is often used as a guiding mechanism for the counterboring tool. Countersinking: Produces an angular indentation, generally to allow a countersunk screw to sit below the surface. Center Drilling: These are used prior to drilling a hole. A center drilled hole locates the drill, ensuring that the hole is at its correct location. Spotfacing: machines a face so that it is perpendicular to the drilled hole. The spotface ensures that washers, bolts and screws sit correctly.

d) e) f)

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Figure 10 - Other Drilling Operations Drill speeds and feeds are supplied in the data sheet at the back of this text.

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Lecture Study Sheet Grinding:

1. Identify which of the following are true or false: a. Grinding can produce surface finishes to 4 micro inches b. Grinding can produce tolerances of .0002 c. I can grind glass d. I can grind aluminum 2. Aluminum Oxide abrasives are used to cut ______________materials 3. Silicon Carbide abrasives are used to cut ________________ materials 4. Cubic Boron Nitride abrasives are used to cut _______________ 5. Diamonds are used to cut ______________ and ______________ 6. The higher the abrasive grain number gets the ______________ the grain size gets. 7. The bond strength ranges from A through to ___ 8. The bond strength refers to the ease that abrasive grains break away from the wheel. T or F 9. Structure is the percentage ratio on Abrasive to Bond to __________ and is denoted by the numbers ___ to ____ 10. There are 5 bond types they are a. b. c. d. e. 11. Of the five bond types the most flexible is ___________ 12. Of the five bond types 2 have little or no flexibility they are ____________ and _________

13. I can grind both internal and external diameters: T or F 14. In cylindrical grinding both the part and wheel rotate. 15. A name for surface grinding where the table and the wheel rotates is called Blanchard Grinding this is also known as ____________ grinding.

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16. I want to grind a 30 foot long 1 diameter bar what type of grinding technique would I use? _________________ 17. I have an extremely intricate shape to grind on an outside diameter what grinding technique would I use? ___________ 18. The maximum depth of cut when grinding is usually .002 the one exception to this is when we are _______ grinding. 19. What type of Bond does NOT break down?

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Chapter 8 - Grinding. This section will deal primarily with grinding wheels and the associated machine tools surface, cylindrical, and centerless grinders. Super finishing, honing, buffing and lapping all use abrasive techniques but are beyond the scope of this course. Abrasives: Are non-metallic, and are used for removing small amounts of material. With one exception (creep grinding), the maximum depth of cut is about .002. The work piece would probably have been pre-finished by a milling machine or lathe and brought down in size so that there is a little material left for finishing (about 0.01). The part may have been hardened (one of the major benefits of grinding is that it can machine very hard parts) or be left soft, and the lathe or mill unable to machine the part to the required tolerances or surface finish. Abrasives are also used to cut non-metallics such as glass and ceramics. Grinding is capable of machining parts to within .0002 (.005 mm) of size and creating surface finishes of 4 in (.1m). Other abrasive applications can create even finer tolerances and surface finishes. The materials that the abrasives are made from are (from softest to hardest): Aluminum Oxides Silicon Carbides Cubic Boron Nitride Diamond (Synthetic or natural) Aluminum Oxides: used to grind steel and other ferrous alloys Silicon Carbide: used for grinding Aluminum, ceramics and brass Cubic Boron Nitride: used for grinding harder steel alloys Diamonds: used for glass, carbide (cutting tools, dies), and ceramics Cutting Action. A grinding wheel consists of a series of abrasive grains submersed in a bonding material. As cutting takes place, the abrasive grains crack and eventually breaks away from the bond - this exposes new sharp grains with which to cut. Generally the smaller the grain the harder the material you are cutting. This is because the bonding material and air spaces are fewer with finer grains than they are with larger more irregular grains, and larger cuts require more space for the cut material to clear the result of using fine grained abrasives on soft material is a clogged wheel causing a burnt like finish on the part being cut. If this occurs the wheel has to be cleaned frequently; normally by using a diamond dressing block. The grain size uses a sieve system where grains of a certain size are captured by the size of the mesh. This continuous sifting operation results in same size grains being sorted. Generally a grain size of around 10 20 denotes a coarse grain, 30 55 as a medium grain, and 75 200 as a fine grain. Grain sizes below 220 are in the form of a fine powder and are used for honing and lapping operations. Coarse, medium and fine abrasive grits are used for Grinding Wheels. To sum up: The coarser the grain the faster the material removal rate, and the coarser the surface finish of the part the finer the grain becomes, the reverse occurs. The values indicate the number of sieve openings per square inch, therefore the higher the number the smaller the grit.

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The bonding material holds the abrasive grains together and creates air space you must have this air space to allow the material to clear the bond and grains. When burn marks are in evidence on the work piece it is a good indicator that the wheel needs to be re-sharpened to clean the debris out of these air spaces. Bonds. Vitrified: A clay like substance with ceramic added this is the most common bonding material. Silicate: Used when you want the bond to break down relatively easily and expose new grains. This allows less friction and heat build-up. Resinoid: Allows some flexibility in the wheel so that side loading when grinding can take place, ideal for cutoff wheels. Rubber: Ultimate flexibility in a grinding wheel used exclusively for cutoff operations. Metallic: Used for diamond abrasives. Diamond dust is impregnated in a durable bond. Diamonds do not break away as other abrasive grains do, so therefore there is no requirement for the bond to breakdown. Bond material is usually bronze or aluminum. Identification: Wheels are usually categorized as hard or soft this refers to the bond and not to the abrasive grain material, this then relates to the ability to regenerate new cutting edges. When ordering a grinding wheel you need to use the following nomenclature: # A 36 M 7 V XX

(# - optional prefix for manufacturers identification) A= the abrasive type A= aluminum B = Cubic boron nitride C = silicon carbide D = diamond 36 = grit size (only specific values are allowed see MET 711 for reference) M = grade scale of bond. This uses letters A-Z to indicate if the wheel bond is hard or soft.
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A = soft M = medium Z = hard 7 = structure (optional) V = bond type V = vitrified S = silicate R = rubber B = resinoid M = metal XX = optional manufacturers number Grinding Operations: Caution: grinding is one the most dangerous of all metal removal operations. A wheel could explode if they are run at too high a speed do not exceed the marked safe operating speed. Wheels may also crack if dropped or hit against hard objects. Be sure to ring test the wheel prior to mounting. Cutoff: For slicing washer like parts. Used for cutting hard materials in lieu of sawing operations. Very efficient and economical, wheels are usually hand fed through the work. Cylindrical Grinding: Grinding internal or external cylindrical surfaces using controlled feed and speeds (Fig 11).

Figure 11 - External and Internal Cylindrical Grinding Centerless Grinding: Grinding outside diameters using guides rather than work holding devices. Often used to produce long ground round stock. The part is fed by angling the regulating wheel.

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Snag Grinding: For roughly removing excess material. Usually this operation is carried out by hand by an angle grinder or by devices similar to cutoff saws. Surface Grinding: Grinding flat work pieces with controlled feeds and speeds. In the example below (figure 12) the surface grinding machine type shown is the most widely used. The second set of examples in figure 13 show all the examples of surface grinding. The vertically mounted wheels are often referred to as Blanchard Grinding or perhaps Snow Grinding and produce a distinct cutting pattern much like a spirogragh would produce.

Figure 12 - Horizontal Surface Grinder

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Figure 13 - Vertical Surface Grinders Hand (Offhand) Grinding: Used for grinding tool bits. Tool and Cutter Grinding: For the accurate grinding of dull cutting tools. Normally feed is hand controlled. Crush Grinding: For intricate shapes, the wheel shape is created by a crushed roll (Fig 14) and the shape then transferred into the work piece.

Figure 14 - Crush Grinding

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Creep Grinding: The wheel is very slowly fed into the work piece at much greater depths than you usually find in other grinding operations. With the exception of creep grinding the amount of material removed in a single pass is usually limited to .002 inches (.05mm). The wheel traverses across the part in surface and cylindrical grinding by automatic feed mechanisms to produce surfaces wider than that of the wheel. Because of the limited depth of cut, grinding is usually a finishing operation. Many grinding operations are now numerically controlled. For instance, the lobes on a cam inside of a car engine are ground by special cylindrical grinders that synchronize the motion of the wheel and feed to produce the lifter shape and also maintain the relationship from one lobe to the next. Coolant use: Coolant has two important roles to fill: to keep the work piece cool, and to clean the spaces between the grains of abrasive. Coolant therefore should be applied under pressure. Coolants are generally synthetic compounds mixed with water. Dressing a Wheel: Often the spaces between the grains become clogged and the wheel is no longer able to clean itself. For accurate dressing of wheels a supported diamond is used. For non-accurate cleaning, a hand-held silicate stick is sufficient.

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Study Guide:

- Broaching

Broaching
1. Both external and internal shapes may be broached T or F 2. Broaching is a single event machining process T or F 3. You can broach parts that have multiple shapes on their inside or outside contour T or F 4. Name 2 parts that are ideal broaching candidates:

5. What are the types of broaches called that cut round holes? 6. The first tooth on a broach takes off the majority of the material while subsequent teeth remove little or no material T or F. 7. How can you tell if you have a Push or Pull broach in your hand?

8. What do you need to have on a part that requires internal broaching? 9. Only one part at a time can be produced with a Pull broach T or F

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Chapter 9 - Broaching Definition: A method of producing features by cutting the entire surface/shape in one pass. Part features are either external or internal, and are produced by either pulling or pushing a preformed tool through the part. Introduction: Broaching is one of the most economical methods of forming shapes. Generally the shapes are those that would be difficult or impossible using traditional machining techniques (Fig 17). Wire EDM machines are the only comparable technique to produce the type of shapes that broaching is able to produce. The major drawback with broaching is the specialized machines that are required and the cost of the broaching tools that can easily cost $20,000.

Figure 15 - Cutting Edges Remove Material Progressively

The Broach: is usually a tapered tool whose teeth gradually change or increase in size to produce the shape required. The RPT (rise per tooth) determines each subsequent depth of cut taken (Figure 15). Broaches can also be used to produce flat surfaces but this is less common. Normally internal features are the best suited to broaching where a pre-drilled hole is first produced to allow the broach to begin the cutting action.

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Figure 16 - A Rotary Broach

Figure 17 - Various Broached Shapes (FMM 527) Intricate shape such as splines, squares, hexagons and others are easily produced by nonskilled workers. Each pass only take about 15 seconds, and multiple parts may be produced with each pass. Broaching Machines: are either push or pull type, with either the broach or the work moving. Push broaches are susceptible to buckling and the ratio of the length over the diameter should be less than 25:1, ratios over this amount should cause buckling equations to be utilized to determine the force requirements.

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Figure 18 - A Pull Type Broaching Machine (MPM 644) Pull broaches (Fig 18). These are identified by the long ground mounting area on which the parts are placed prior to broaching. These broaches are subjected to tensile loads and so the normal stress equation should be used to determine the maximum load or the stress produced. Using the required Factor of Safety and the yield strength of the cutting material taken into consideration we have:

Load x N = Actual Stress CSA

Where N CSA Load = Safety Factor = Cross Sectional Area at the minimum diameter = Pull load

The actual stress cannot exceed the Yield Strength of the cutting material. Limitations: As the work passes entirely over or through the broach, the part cannot have any steps and protrusions on the broached surface. Broach costs can appear to be prohibitive, but if the part numbers support the cost outlay the operation will cost far less than other manufacturing techniques. Broaches require re-grinding when they are dull, however as the cutting speeds tend to be low and if the correct lubrication is used while cutting, wear is light as the final finishing teeth only take small amounts of material off. Regrinding can reduce the size of the broach over time, so it is important that the broaching tool be initially manufactured to the larger range of the required tolerance.
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The broaches are usually made from High Speed Steel (25 120 FPM) and not carbides this is because Carbides are often too brittle to take the impact loads common with broaching operations. Parts are generally held to within .002 and with surface finishes up to 63 in. Broach design is an important issue, whenever size and space permits, make broaches hollow and in separate pieces, this way portions of the broach can be replaced, the initial cost will be higher but the cost of replacement is greatly reduced.

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Study Guide: - Sawing

1. What is the Set of a saw blade? 2. How many teeth need to be in contact with a part? 3. I want to cut a piece of 0.25 wide Cast Iron by hand I have a choice between a blade with 6 teeth per inch or another with 12 teeth per inch which one should I use? 4. I want to cut a piece of 1 wide Aluminum I have a 14 teeth per inch blade and a 4 tooth per inch blade which one are you going to use? 5. Another name for the Set of the blade is _________ 6. There are 2 types of band saw they are:

7. What does a band saw blade consist of? 8. A reciprocating saw cuts in both direction T or F? 9. Is it possible to file a part using a band saw machine? 10. I want to cut a part to within +/- .005 what type of saw machine would I use?

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Chapter 10 - Sawing Definition: normally used to cut off a length of material. An initial operation, sawing can be either to rough or exact dimensions, and be a hand or machine operation. Introduction: all sawing involves a relatively thin blade and with the exception of friction and abrasive sawing, involves a series of teeth cutting in one direction. The cutting action for these teeth is very similar to that of a single point turning tool. While most people will recognize hacksaws, other machining techniques such as Bandsawing, Power Hacksaws, and Circular Sawing are far more often used to produce cuts. Saw Blades: are classified by two methods, one method uses the two main tooth forms: Raker set and Straight set. The other classification is the number of teeth per inch (tooth spacing) on a linear saw blade, and the Circular Pitch on a round saw blade.

When cutting soft material, a coarser tooth form (approximately 5 TPI) is used while the reverse is true of harder materials (14 TPI). It is very important that at least two teeth are in contact with the work piece at any one time else the teeth will chip as the material falls between two teeth. The set of a linear blade prevents the body of the blade rubbing as it follows the teeth through the part.

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Saw blades are either the hand saw blade variety that requires that the blade be drawn back in a non-cutting action, or a continuous blade variety for bandsaw work. The continuous blades generally have a ductile backing with the teeth electron welded onto the front of the blade this provides the flexibility required for the blade to pass over guides that return the teeth to the cutting area through 360 degrees of travel. These cutting blades are made from Carbon, High speed steel and Cobalt and come in various widths up to about 1.5 and various thicknesses from .05 up to .1 Power Hacksaws: are automatically fed reciprocating machines that often utilize a cam motion to lift the blade on the backstroke and so prevent the blade from rubbing. The machines utilize coolant and are robust. Bandsaws: these may be either horizontal or vertical machines. In the wood industry, bandsaws can be huge automated machines that are capable of cutting at very high speeds and feeds. In vertical metal cutting bandsaws, the welded blade can be broken to allow cavity cutting. A pilot hole is drilled through the part, the blade broken and then fed through the pilot hole and re-welded. The cut is then completed and the blade re-broken to allow removal. Bandsaw blades can be replaced with file segments (Fig 21) mounted on a flexible stainless steel backing. The segments are required to allow them separate from each other as they pass around the guide wheels.

Figure 19 - Band File Bandsaws often have feed mechanisms that are based on a mechanical advantage pulley system this is to help the manual feed action, they may also have a table that can tilt to allow for angular cutting. A variable drive motor allows for various speeds to be set. Caution!! Bandsaws are by far the most dangerous of all sawing machines. It is vital that you use wood pushers to apply pressure to your part and not place your hands in contact with the part. Circular Saws: another name for these items is Cold Saws. Cold Saws produce accurate (within .003), smooth surfaces that often do not require any further machining. The blades are
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circular as the name suggests, are rigid and resemble a milling cutter. The blade rotates as the machine vertically power feeds through the work piece, these machines often have automatic chucking and in-feed mechanisms for semi automatic operation. Friction Saws: use a metal blade that does not cut but melts the parent material at the cutting zone. There may be a number of openings around the blade to allow the chip to drop out. Abrasive cut off is covered in the Grinding section of this chapter

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Chapter 11- Develop Process Planning

Process Sheets

Definition: Determining the most economic method of part manufacture given the restrictions of available processes, manpower and the requirement that the part conform to the drawing specifications. Process: Determining the best technique to manufacture a part is one of the most difficult tasks you will deal with in this course. Without considerable manufacturing knowledge the process becomes one of guessing at the correct and most appropriate technique; however there are steps that you should consider to guide the process. Steps: 1) If you are given a drawing file that is dimensioned the relative importance between features can be gauged by the dimensioning technique chosen. If a feature has been used to dimension from, then that feature is known as a DATUM. It is probably the connection point between this part and the sub-assembly that it attaches to the feature that cements the relationship between one part and the next. In the case above, look at machining this feature first. Normally the first operation is a milling or turning operation to establish these datums, followed by drilling, grinding, broaching. Ideally there will be three datum surfaces established to control the X, Y and X axis of motion these should be where the X, Y and Z dimensions are established from. If the part starts of as being round then it is likely that the first operation will be turning, if the part is rectangular in shape the first operation will be to mill the faces.

2)

3)

If you are not given an assembly drawing (such as the project we are going to do), it is essential that the detail drawing be dimensioned correctly to control the important functional relationships. Only then can you determine the appropriate datum surfaces and discern the important features from those less important ones. Seeing those features that require machining choose a machine that will perform that machining function to establish the datums. Try to create other features that use the previously machined features as the reference. As an example, two holes are dimensioned - the first from a surface and then the second from the first hole. Create the hole relative to the previously machined surface first and then the hole relative the first hole next. List the operation an operation is defined as the work that is completed before the part is removed from the work holding device. An OPERATION SHEET allows you to break down the parts features into machining or non-machining operations, they normally increment by 10 to allow insertion of operations. The operation sheet allows you to distinctly define the features you are machining, the machine the part is being machined on, the tools that you are using and the estimated time the operation will take. BE VERY DEFINITIVE in the description of the operation.
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4)

5)

6)

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7)

Note that the preparation of raw stock is not considered an operation in itself.

Often there are many choices of how something is done, however you will have restrictions, especially on machine choice. If you have a choice of machine perhaps you could drill and ream a hole both on a milling machine and a drilling machine, evaluate the time it would take to complete the task on both machines would it take longer to change tools on the milling machine than it would to unload the part, move to another machine and then drill the hole? The quantity also matters; the larger the number of parts, the more likely the part is broken down into multiple operations. Also consider the relative geometric relationships between the features do they need to be machined at the same operation to ensure accuracy, or can you take the part, remove it from a work holding device and place the part in another work holding device, remembering that every time you take a part out, some geometric error is being introduced.

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Study Guide: - Tool Geometry

Cutting Tool Material
1. Diamonds can be used to machine ferrous material. T or F? 2. CBN is used to cut ferrous materials. T or F? 3. How much more tooling life can you expect from a diamond over a carbide cutting tool? 4. If I have a low rake angle on a tool I am probably cutting a _____ material. 5. It is possible to have negative rake angles. T or F? 6. The ideal shape of a chip looks like a figure ___. 7. If the chip is tight and not fully formed into the shape listed above the changes that could be made to the rake angle would be to _______________. 8. If I increase the cutting feed the chip formation will move more toward a closed shape than open. T or F? 9. I want to tap a hole I would use a water based coolant. T or F 10. Carbide coatings are generally used to increase _______ ___________. 11. The two MAIN types of tool wear are called ____ wear and _______ wear. 12. A built up edge is a desirable chip formation technique. T or F? 13. Discontinuous chip formations are a function of the parts ___________. 14. If I increase the rake angle the power requirement will increase. T or F?

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Chapter 12

- Identify Cutting Tools and their Geometry

Cutting tools can be divided up into two main categories Single and multi-point tooling. Generally, turning operations use single point tools: external and internal turning, facing, thread cutting are some examples. Milling operations tend to use multi-point tooling, but be careful with generalizations, boring on a milling machine may involve either type of tool. Multi-point indicates that there is more than one cutting edge in contact with the work piece at any one time, these cover, milling, and drilling, broaching, sawing and grinding operations amongst others. In multi point tooling the tool is generally moving and the work forced against the cutting edges; in single point tooling the work piece is generally rotating. Process of Cutting In most machining operations the material is in the process of shear deformation placing the work piece into a situation where the materials shear strength is being exceeded. Regardless of whether single or multi-point machining is occurring, the cutting action remains the same. We want to stress that some metal removal operations such as grinding, laser cutting, EDM, and water jet cutting involve different cutting techniques these notes only apply to the physical cutting action of a tool being forced though a work piece. The cutting action is best described using a single point tool in a two-dimensional setting you should appreciate that this example of cutting action is greatly simplified. Theory of Chip formation. Chips represent the material that is removed from the parent material during the cutting operation. The two dimensional example is appropriate for describing the cutting action when planing (pronounced plane-ing), broaching, keyway cutting, shaping, and cold saw applications:

In the sketch above, deformation occurs at the approximate intersection of the toolpoint and the work piece- this is caused by a thermal reaction to the force being applied. A Shear Plane is created as shown, and the plastically deformed material slides up the face of the tool. At this
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point, depending on the material being machined, the chip will break off into small pieces, or it will generate a spiral - much like a corkscrew shape. The two main types of chip that can be generated are called: A continuous chip: typical of cutting a high ductile (> than 5% elongation), soft material such as Aluminum, and 11 series steels. A discontinuous chip: typical of cutting hard, brittle materials such as Brass and Cast Iron Added to these are two others and also need to be considered: Continuous chip with Built Up Edge (BUE): this is usually the result of a lower cutting speed on ductile materials. Friction and heat causes the built up edge to form on the top of the tool which eventually will break off, another BUE will then start to develop. This is a very undesirable chip formation as it is detrimental to the surface finish and causes undue tool wear. The last is the serrated chip (sometimes called segmented); which is a result of the type of material being cut. Titanium, high nickel alloys and Stainless Steels fall into this category. As far as material use is concerned, these three material types are growing in popularity and so a great deal of effort is being put into the development of suitable tooling to cut these effectively. Machinists dislike cutting these materials as they can be difficult to machine. Effect of Rake Angle on Cutting Much is made of the theoretical nature of cutting we can summarize it by saying: The higher the rake angle: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) the more likely you are cutting softer material the more likely you are producing a continuous chip the shear plane angle increases causing a smaller shear plane less force is required to cut the material because of the smaller shear plane less horsepower is required to cut the part the weaker the tool

As you would expect, making the rake angle smaller (or negative angular values) causes the reverse of the points noted above. The process of determining the shear stress created, and so the calculation of an ideal rake angle, is called the Merchant equation 4. It establishes the ideal rake angle based on the material type which causes the shear deformation to occur expending the minimum amount of energy. The two-dimensional model simplifies the equations of what happens in three-dimensional cutting, so while the equation has limited use it can aid in finding a rake angle for a material type based on the shear strength of that material. The tool manufacturers use the information calculated to generate unique tool geometry for specific applications this accounts for the very large number of choices available in tool selection. Machine tool builders use Merchants equation to determine power and rigidity requirements for their machine tools. The following table outlines approximate tool geometry angles for specific materials:

For a detailed mathematical description of the equation see any of the three reference books listed

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Recommended Turning Tool Angles High Speed Steel Tooling Carbide Tooling Material Back Side End Side Side/End Back Side End Side Side/End Rake Rake Relief Relief edge Rake Rake Relief Relief edge Aluminum 20 15 12 10 5 0 5 5 5 15 Copper 5 10 8 8 5 0 5 5 5 15 Steels 10 12 5 5 15 -5 -5 5 5 15 Stainless 5 85 5 15 -5 to -5 to 5 5 15 Steel 10 0 Titanium 0 5 5 5 15 -5 -5 5 5 5 Cast Iron 5 10 5 5 1 -5 -5 5 5 15 Thermoplastics 0 0 20 15 10 0 0 20 15 10 30 20 30 20 Thermosets 0 0 20 15 10 0 15 5 5 15 30 20 Note the major differences between the High Speed Steel values and the carbide tool inserts why do you think these occur? Now we take a look at the 3D model of the tool geometry.

Chip Breakers While continuous chips are a direct function of the material being cut and the tool geometry, they are not always desirable. Continuous chips tend to wrap themselves around the rotating part and workholder in turning and drilling operations, this can then tend to become a rotating hazard or worse, be thrown out by the rotating motion of the machine into the machine operators area, they also make a large volume of mess for disposal. Chip breakers are ground into most inserts and can be hand ground into the High Speed Steel (H.S.S) tools. Light cuts coupled with slow feeds on ductile materials tend to produce continuous chips even when chip
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breakers are ground into the insert, this is because the depth of cut is so small the chip does not contact the chip breaking area.

Coated inserts are the mainstay of cutting tools. An insert needs a hard, wear resistant exterior, but a softer, less brittle interior that can withstand shock loadings, hence the coatings. The coatings are very thin with triple coatings being the most popular. Normally the exterior coating is a ceramic or Titanium Nitrate, these are for reducing friction between the work and the insert. Following the external layer is a layer of Aluminum Oxide, this (despite the association that aluminum is soft) provides a resistance to abrasion, and the third layer of Titanium Carbide that provides the strength to the insert. These three layers are chemically bonded to a stable Tungsten Carbide core. There are a multitude of different layering combinations for various materials. The insert is accurately attached to a medium or high carbon steel base that that has relatively high ductility this absorbs vibration caused by shock loadings. The accurate placement of the insert into the base (through the center location hole shown above) allows you to change the insert and rely on the replacement inserts positional location. Wear Two types of wear can occur to a tool either fatal wear, which is generally unanticipated, or normal tool wear which is a normal function of the cutting process - it is the latter that we are interested in. Tool wear is caused by friction that generates heat that then breaks down the tool. The general wear locations are on top face of the tool and the cutting side that is in contact with the work as it feeds through the part. The wear on the top of the tool is called Crater Wear and the wear on the side is called Flank Wear. Flank wear is the erosion of the side clearance at the contact of the tool and the work piece. As with Crater Wear, flank wear occurs almost immediately the cutting begins, evens out over the next period of time and then accelerates so that finally the tool can no longer function effectively.

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Crater wear is caused by the chip sliding across the top of the tool. It is not as detrimental as flank wear and the sliding action causes a smooth crater to appear on the insert resulting in some cases in a smoother surface on the work piece. When does failure occur? 1) 2) 3) When the surface finish of the work piece degrades to such a point that it is no longer acceptable. When the dimensional tolerances can no longer be held to acceptable levels. When the machine is no longer able to handle the increase in cutting forces caused by the flattening of the tool edge.

Point number three is the one that is often a good indicator that it is time to change the tool and many of the newer CNC machines utilize load sensors in their spindles that cause automatic tool changes, or a manual indicator that the machine operator should replace the worn tool. You can appreciate with production how important it is to produce reliable parts. If you program CNC machines it is a good idea to have two tools for cutting specific important features one for roughing the feature and a second for finishing, in this manner wear on the finishing tool can be minimized. There are formulas for deriving tool life, these were first coined by Taylor in the early 1900s one useful outcome of the experiments was that it is SPEED that has the biggest effect on tool life. Experiments indicated that a reduction in speed of 50% can increase tool life by up to 300%. ** Be Careful!! This may first seem to be a logical answer to increasing tool life but remember you are also increasing the time it takes to make the part as the amount of material you are removing lessens. Tool Life is not the only variable to consider in economic production; you need to look at: Tool Life Tool Change time Tooling Cost Increase/decrease in part handling time Increase/decrease of part production

Cutting Fluids There are many reasons why you would use a cutting fluid when machining: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Improve cutting performance Reduce the heat generation at the cutting zone Reduce friction Wash away the chips Reduce the temperature of the work piece for easier handling after machining Reduce cutting forces and power requirements Improve surface finish Prolong tool life by 10% 40% Helps reduce the formation of the Built Up Edge

There are two types of cutting fluids, coolants and lubricants.

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Coolants are water based mixtures that are used to dissipate heat. As water readily conducts heat it is ideal for high speeds and tool materials that do not thrive in high heat conditions. By adding chemicals to the water, you prevent the parts and machines from rusting, and prevent the coolant from becoming rancid. Lubricants are normally oil based (they can also be synthetic); their main aim is to reduce the amount of friction that occurs at the cutting area. A lubricating solution causes a Pressure Film to form between the cutting tool and the part being machined. These are most effective when the cutting speeds are relatively low. Thread cutting, drilling and tapping are good application for lubricants. The three main concoctions are either petroleum based (or vegetable origin) for pressure lubrication, Emulsified oils that have some oil, some chemicals and water, (these are often used for both cooling and lubricating), and finally, Chemical based mixed with water for pure cooling. Methods of application Cutting fluids are applied by (in order of effectiveness): Pressure Flood Misting Hand application

Dry Machining While you can dry machine, the benefits of using cutting fluids outweigh the benefits of not having to store or dispose of cutting fluids. The only time that cutting fluids are detrimental is when you are performing an operation that involves interrupted cutting. The tool is in contact with the work piece that causes heat build up, leaves the work piece for a while and re-contacts the part again. The amount of cooling that takes place while the cutter is not cutting without coolant being applied is minimal. However if coolant is being applied then the continuous heating and cooling of the inserts can cause thermal shock and cracking. This can be avoided if some kind of high pressure cooling can be employed that literally immerses the part and cutters in a coolant bath. Using coolant in these circumstances is also very messy as the rotational motion of the cutter throws the coolant all over the place; if you have effective guarding then this is not a problem.

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Chapter 13 - Machinability Machinabilty

of Various Materials

Machinability values are generally based on a standard material type with 1 as its base index by which other materials are measured - this material is steel (B1112). The machinability index (ISO 3685) assumes a 30 minute tool life with .33mm of tool flank wear. While there are extensive volumes on Material Machinability, and various techniques to define them, I find that the simple K factor index will give you the quickest idea of a parts ability to be machined. The appendix at the back of this document will show you some K values for some materials; this will be adequate for most of the materials we use in industry today. If you are required to machine a very exotic material, cutting tool manufacturers such as Sandvik (www.coromant.sandvik.com) or Kennametal (www.kennametal.com) are always very happy to assist you in choosing an appropriate cutting tool material. Speeds: If I asked you to tell me what speed you were traveling at, the likely answer would be X miles per hour. If you are more of a scientific person you might say that your velocity is so many feet per second, but if you are familiar with machining then you would say feet per minute. If I asked you the speed of a rotating body you would probably respond with Revolutions Per Minute - this is always denoting the speed of the revolving cutter or material. The correct terminology then for machining speeds is Surface Speed Per Minute (either Meters or Feet). This is often known as S.F.P.M (S.M.P.M.) these then need to be calculated in Revolutions per Minute. Material Properties: All materials have specific properties you will study this in detail in your Materials classes. For machining purposes the most important properties are a materials Machinability, its Hardness, and its Ductility. Generally work piece hardness is indicative of its ability to be machined the harder the material the harder it is to machine. However this generic rule is sometimes not always the case, there are some soft, gummy materials that do not machine at all well, generally because the material is so soft that the material being removed does not part away cleanly from the parent material but instead tends to tear. For the sake of generalization we can state that the softer the material, the faster we can machine it and the easier it is to machine. Additives (such as phosphorus and sulphur) are added to many materials to improve their machinability while still maintaining their basic properties that made it a desirable choice in the first place. An excellent example of this is the 1100 series of steels. Cutting Materials: Speeds are also based on the material that is doing the cutting. The two most common materials High Speed Steel (H.S.S) and Tungsten Carbide have their own hardness values and wear resistance. As heat is produced during the cutting action, different cutting material types react differently: H.S.S does not react well to heat build up and tends to break down the cutting edge, whereas Carbide thrives when the cutting edge is very hot. There are also additives added to cutting tool materials that improve their
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properties during the cutting process. Added to these two generic types are Ceramics, Diamonds, Boron Nitrides, Stellite and various other specialized cutting tool materials. Again refer to the tooling websites for more expert information. Advantages and Disadvantages of: H.S.S: High Speed Steel is Tough and can resist shock loadings. They are easily formed into various shapes, and can be sharpened to have very sharp edges that can lessen vibration on long slender work pieces. Their main disadvantages are that they cannot be run at the same speeds as Carbide cutters. They are subject to heat stress that softens the material to a state that prevents cutting from taking place. As they must be regularly re-sharpened, the time to re-grind a tool takes away manufacturing time and the tool has to be reset back into the tool holder. You cannot use Negative rake angles to make the tool stronger they will not cut effectively. Can be used at much higher speeds and feeds so produce economical cutting. The normal technique for producing carbide cutters is to manufacture Inserts. These have multiple edges (normally 6 or 8) that are quickly changed with little or no loss in the inserts location. This means that you may only need to make minute adjustments to the tools position. No regrinding means little down time again this adds to the economy of using inserts. The major disadvantages are related to the brittleness of carbide. They do not like shock loads however if care is taken in choosing a substantial tool holder, and tools chosen that utilize maximum strength, even shock loadings can be accommodated. The machines that use carbides MUST be rigid to prevent vibration. WHENEVER YOU CAN ALWAYS USE CARBIDE TOOLING.

Carbide:

Ceramics: These utilize very high cutting speeds (x 2 compared with carbides) and also use indexable inserts. You would think then that this is a better option than Carbide however ceramics cannot take any shock loading. Diamonds: These can have a life span up to 10 times that of ceramics. Both diamonds and ceramics use small tips of the cutting material imbedded in a carbide insert. To sum up: The ideal cutting speed is a function of the material being cut, the material doing the cutting, and one other variable the machine tools ability to utilize the ideal machining speeds more about this later! Given that there are endless choices of materials and cutting tool combinations, we are lucky in that we have a good history of machining and so have been able to create tables and charts listing appropriate cutting speeds these are often listed as ranges rather than absolute values, and these often require adjusting based on the current cutting conditions. For instance, a new machine would be able to handle substantially higher cutting speeds than a 20 year old machine: therefore cutting speeds are guides and not absolutes. Changing Surface Speed Per Minute into angular velocity. Angular velocity on machines is listed in Revolutions per Minute (R.P.M.). We are given the ideal cutting speeds in Feet or Meters per Minute so we need a formula to translate SFPM (SMPM) to RPM. Lets first define Surface Feet Per Minute. Take a point on a 4 inch diameter

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circle and revolve it once how far has that point traveled? The circumference of the circle is 2r (d) so with r = 2 inches we have: 2 x x 2 = 12.566 inches Now take a 2 inch diameter and repeat the same calculation you of course get of the first value. If our ideal cutting speed for this material is 100 Feet Per Minute then we would have to travel at a different rate for the two diameters in order to maintain the ideal cutting speed. The 100 Feet Per Minute indicates to us that the point on that 4 inch piece of material has to revolve at a specific value for that point to travel 100 feet in one minute. We can see from the above calculation that one revolution travels 12.566 inches so if we divide 100 feet by that amount it will give us the number of revolutions per minute the work piece or cutter has to revolve at. We change the 100 feet per minute into inches by multiplying by 12 - in other words we have this:

100 x 12 95.5 r. p.m. 12.566

This is the general formula for INCH values only. The metric formula will be given later. Often machinists will divide the 12 by pi and approximate a value of 4 in place of the two former values as we said before they are guides and not absolutes so using the shortened formula is not detrimental to the machining process. R.P.M. for Metric work pieces: The formula remains basically the same, that is:

SMPM x

r. p.m.

The difference is that as surface speeds are given in meters, and the diameter of the work or cutter is in millimeters so we have to multiply the SMPM by 1000, this gives us the general speed formula as:

SMPM x 1000 x

r. p.m.

Example: A work piece diameter of 90 millimeters needs to be turned using a cutting speed of 120 S.M.P.M. Calculate the required R.P.M.

120 x 1000 90 x

= 424 r. p.m.

Most machinists are more familiar with the inch system and will convert mm to inches and use the inch formula. Cutting speeds DO change based on the type of machining operation being performed for instance the cutting speeds for drilling differ than those when milling, so ensure that you use the correct chart for the operation being utilized. Also remember that the diameter can either refer to the cutter diameter or the work piece diameter use the diameter of the part that is rotating. For instance, the work piece rotates in a turning operation, and the cutter rotates in a milling
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operation. There is one exception to this rule and that is cylindrical grinding where both the work piece and the cutting wheel are rotating these are special cases and will be dealt with later. So if the speed is only approximate, why cant we just have a guess and go from there? Well machinists will not bother to calculate the ideal cutting speed, they will use their judgment and experience to approximate the r.p.m., try the value and then make fine adjustments as they cut, but if you are programming a C.N.C machine, or are a novice machinist then you need a base from which to start. As we stated earlier, cutting speeds are given as ranges. We know from previous lessons that the idea of the cutting action is to create plastic deformation at the tool point this means generating heat at that location. The one thing we do not want to do is to generate so much heat that the tool starts to plastically deform. This will happen over time but we want to try and avoid this for as long as possible. One method is to apply coolant to the tool point and another is to prevent excessive heat build up during cutting. NEVER exceed the maximum cutting speed unless you are sure that the tool can handle it. Because of this it is usual to start the cut within the lower part of the cutting speed range. Associated with this speed restriction are facing operations while turning. We did a small exercise earlier when we compared speeds at 4 and 2 diameters and found that we required twice the speed at the smaller diameter, it logically follows that as the diameter approaches zero the speed would move toward infinity. A facing operation causes this very scenario, so what do we do about the speed? As NC machines can increase their speed based on the current diameter, it isnt a problem with these machine tools, but traditional lathes cannot adjust their speed automatically and it would not be practical to stop the cut, change the speed and restart the machine again. ALWAYS set the speed for the largest diameter and leave it there, compensate for the lack of correct speed by slowing the feed travel as the diameter decreases this way you are assured that the cutter will not generate excessive heat. An excellent source of appropriate cutting speeds can be found in cutting tool suppliers web sites and the Machinist Handbook I have supplied a data sheet derived from Kennametal data in the appendix of this handout for you to use. It is worth noting that the vast majority of machining operations use carbide and its derivatives as the base material as it is able to handle much higher cutting speeds. The faster the cutting action, the more economical it is to manufacture a part. Other Factors: Combined with the speed of the cutter or work piece is the feed rate the rate at which the material linearly passes through the work piece. Feed is expressed as either Inches Per Minute on milling machines, or Inches Per Revolution on turning machines (Meters per Minute or Millimeters Per Revolution). The feed rate has: a) b) c) The largest effect on Power requirements (H.P or Watts) The largest effect on surface finish The largest effect on cutting forces in the system

If we have unlimited power available then the feed becomes a total function of the surface finish we require the faster the feed the rougher the surface and vice versa. The required finish on a work piece is determined by its function within the assembly that it works within. While you will deal with this aspect of part geometry in the drawing class we can generally state that if two parts mate together and are stationary then the surface finish does not have to be as fine as when the two mating surfaces are moving against each other. If the feature has no contact with
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other parts at all then the surface finish is purely a function of its esoteric value (what it needs to look like!). Feed rates are also supplied in data sheets and are generally separated into two areas one for roughing operations and a second for finishing; however feed rates are much more likely affected by current cutting conditions. While the setting values on machines are in Inches per Minute or Inches per revolution, feed rates in data sheets are often given as values per tooth this is because in milling operations the same type of cutting tool can have a varying numbers of teeth. The last variable we need to consider is the Depth Of Cut. Together with the feed rate and the r.p.m., the depth of cut will determine how much volume of material is removed in a certain period of time. Ideally the depth of cut needs to be as high as it can be to increase the economy of cutting, but practically it is a function of the tools rigidity and its propensity to break. For instance the general rule for end mill cutters is that the depth of cut should not exceed of the cutter diameter. There are no such general rules with turning machines but as we will see, there are limits. Because the depth of cut determines the volume of material removed which then determines that power requirements in the cutting operation, there are safety limits that have to be considered. While we can determine the power requirements, the safety issue is not a calculative function but more of feel and experience you will gain these abilities as time progresses, remember that it is always better to be safe than sorry. One Last Thing We alluded to this earlier when we mentioned the ability of a brand new machine versus an older one Cutting Conditions Change!! The machines capability and accuracy, its initial cost (no way a Dodge Neon is a better car than a Lexus), the amount the tool overhangs, the newness of a tool, whether coolant is being used, the radius of the tool (this will increase vibration for instance), the stability of the work piece and so on: there are many variables that effect the cutting action. Time Time is equal to ???? Money of course. The longer it takes to cut the more it costs. Machining is not a very cost effective method of creating a work piece but it is one of the most popular. You should always cut to maximize the capabilities of the machine being used at $60, $80 or more per hour being spent to machine something you had better make sure that you are doing everything you can to keep the cutting time down to a minimum. There are whole courses that deal with economic use of machines and people, while we NEVER place people at risk the bottom line does matter. Machining time on C.N.C machines is easy to maintain and determine; software that programs these machines will give you the cutting time. Given the information above pertaining to speeds and feeds, develop an appropriate formula to determine cutting time for turning and milling:

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Final Test Example:

Sample Test: K:\Tkattenhorn\Conventional Machining Processes\test2_2009_alt.DOC

Sample Test Answers: K:\Tkattenhorn\Conventional Machining Processes\test2_2009_alt_answers.DOC

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Appendices Machining Factors, Speeds and Feeds, Drill Tap charts

Appendix A : K Factor Values for Selected Material Types:

Table Of Factors Material Aluminium Bronze Copper Malleable Iron Titanium Free Cutting Steel 0.38 0.60 0.72 1.0 - 1.2 2.25 1.1 - 1.4 Factor Brass Cast iron Magnesium Zinc Carbon Steels Alloy Steels Material 0.60 1.00 0.80 0.60 1.6 - 2.2 1.5 - 4.6 Factor

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Appendix B : Cutting Speeds for Selected Cutting Tool Materials, Part Materials, and Machining Operations (Note cutting Speeds for High Speed Steel are about 1/4 of Uncoated carbide tools) General Recommendations for Turning Operations
Work piece Material Cutting Tool General Purpose Starting Conditions Depth of Cut Feed Cutting Mm/rev Speed (in/rev) m/min ft/min 1.5 6.3 .35 90 (.06-.25) (.014) (300) 245-275 (800-900) 75 (250) 185-230 (600-750) Range for Roughing and Finishing Depth of Feed Cutting Speed Cut Mm/rev m/min (in/rev) (ft/min) Mm (in) .5 7.6 .15 1.1 60-135 (.02-.30) (.006 - .045) (200-450) 120-425 (400-1400) 45 120 (150 400) 120 410 (400 -1350)

Low Carbon, Free Machining steels

Uncoated Carbide Ceramic Coated Carbide Uncoated Carbide Ceramic Coated Carbide

Medium and High Carbon Steels

1.2 4.0 (.05 - .20)

.30 (.012)

2.5-7.6 (.10 - .30)

.15 - .75 (.006 - .03)

Grey Cast Iron

Uncoated Carbide Ceramic Coated Carbide Triple Coated Carbide Uncoated Carbide Ceramic Coated Carbide Uncoated Carbide Uncoated Carbide Coated Carbide Uncoated Carbide Ceramic Coated Carbide Uncoated Carbide Ceramic Coated Carbide Ceramic Coated Carbide Ceramic Coated Carbide

1.25-6.3 (.05 - .25)

.32 (.013)

90 (300) 200 (650) 150 (500) 25-45 (75 150)

.4 12.7 (.015 - .5)

.1 - .75 (.004 - .013)

75-185 (250 600) 120 365 (400 1200) 75 185 (250 600) 15 30 (50 -100)

Stainless Steels

1.5 4.4 (.06 - .175) 2.5 (.1)

.35 (.014) .15 (.006)

.5 12.7 (.02 - .5) .25 6.3 (.01 - .25)

.1 75 (.004 - .03) .1 - .3 (.004 - .012)

Nickel Based alloys

Titanium Alloys

1.0 - 3.8 (.04 - .15) 1.5 5.0 (.06 - .20) 1.5 5.0 (.06 - .20)

.15 (.006) .45 (.018) .25 (.010)

35 60 (120 200) 490 (1600) 760 (2500) 260 (850) 365 (1200) 75 (250) 395 (1300) 170 (550) 200 (650)

.25 6.3 (.01 - .25) .25 8.8 (.01 - .35) .4 7.5 (.015 - .3)

.1 - .4 (.004 - .015) .008 - .62 (.003 - .025) .15 - .75 (.006 - .03)

10 75 (30 250) 200 670 (650 2000) 60 915 (200 3000) 105 535 (350 1750) 215 670 (700 2200) 55 120 (175 400) 60 150 (200 500) 90 230 (300 750) 105 290 (350 950)

Aluminum Alloys

Copper Alloys

Tungsten Alloys

2.5 (.10)

.2 (.008)

.25 5.0 (.01 - .2)

.12 - .45 (.005 - .018)

Thermoplastics

1.2 (.075) 1.9 (.075)

.12 (.008) .2 (.008)

.12 5.0 (.005 - .20) .12 6.3 (.005 - .25)

.08 - .35 (.003 - .015) .12- 1.5 (.005 - .06)

Composites, graphite reinforced

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General Recommendations for Milling Operations General Purpose Starting Range for Roughing and Conditions Finishing
Work piece Material Cutting Tool Feed Mm/rev (in/rev) .13 - .20 (.005 - .008) Cutting Speed m/min ft/min 120 - 180 (400 - 600) Feed Mm/rev (in/rev) .085 - .38 (.003 - .015) Cutting Speed m/min (ft/min) 90 - 425 (300 - 1400)

Low Carbon, Free Machining steels

Alloy Steels - Soft

Uncoated Carbide and Ceramic Coated Carbide Uncoated and Coated Carbide

.1 - .18 (.004 - .007)

90 - 170 (300 - 550)

.08 - .30 (.003 - .012)

60 - 370 (200 - 1200)

Alloy Steels - Hard

Coated Carbide

.10 - .15 (.004 - .006) .10 .20 (.004 - .008) .1 - .2 (.004 - .008) .13 - .18 (.005 - .007) .10 - .18 (.004 - .007) .13 - .15 (.005 - .006) .13 - .23 (.005 - 009) .13 - .23 (.005 - .009) .13 - .23 (.005 - .009)

180 - 210 (600 - 700) 120 - 760 (400 - 2500) 120 - 210 (400 - 700) 120 - 370 (400 - 1200) 30 - 370 (100 1200) 50 - 60 (175 - 200) 610 - 900 (2000 - 3000) 300 - 760 (1000 - 2500) 270 - 460 (900 - 1500)

.08 - .25 (.003 - .010) .08 - .38 (.003 - .015) .08 - .38 (.003 - .015) .08 - .38 (.003 - .015) .08 - .38 (.003 -.015) .08 - .38 (.003 - .015) .08 - .46 (.003 - .018) .08 - .46 (.003 -.018) .08 - .46 (.003 - .018)

75 - 460 (250 - 1500) 90 - 1370 (300 - 4500) 90 - 460 (300 - 1500) 90 - 500 (300 - 1800) 30 - 550 (90 - 1800) 40 - 140 (125 - 450) 300 - 3000 (1000 10,000) 90 - 1070 (300 - 3500) 90 - 1350 (300 - 4500)

Cast Iron - Soft

Uncoated and Coated Carbide Coated Carbide Uncoated/Coate d Carbide Uncoated/ Coated Carbide Uncoated/Coate d Carbide Uncoated/ Coated Carbide Uncoated/ Coated Carbide Uncoated / Coated Carbide

Cast Iron - Hard Stainless Steel

High Temperature Alloys Nickel Based Titanium Alloys

Aluminum Alloys

Copper Alloys

Thermoplastics

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Appendix B : Cutting Speeds for Selected Cutting Tool Materials, Part Materials, and Machining Operations (Note cutting Speeds for Carbide Drills are about 2 3 times that of H.S.S) General Recommendations for Speeds and Feeds in Drilling Surface Speed Feed, mm/rev RPM based on (in/rev) drill diameter Based on drill diameter
Workpiece Material
Aluminum Alloys Magnesium Alloys Copper Alloys Steels Stainless Steel Titanium Cast Iron Thermoplastics

M / min
30 - 120 45 - 120 15 60 20 30 10 20 6 20 20 -60 30 60

Ft / min
100 -400 150 400 50 200 60 100 40 60 20 60 60 200 100 200

1.5 (.06) 12.5 (.5)

.07(.003) .07(.003) .05(.002) .07(.003) .05(.002) .025(.001) .05(.002) .1(.004)

>12.5 (.50)
.30 (.012) .30 (.012) .25(.01) .30 (.012) .18 (.007) .15 (.006) .30 (.012) .2 (.008)

1.5 (.06)
6400 > 9600 > 3200 12000 4300 6400 2100 4300 1300 4300 4300 12000 6400 12000

12.5 (.50)
800 - 3000 1100 3000 400 1500 500 800 250 500 150 500 500 1500 800 - 1500

As hole depth increases, speeds and feeds should be reduced. As hole diameter increases, feeds can generally increase All speed and feed tables are derived from information gained from Kennametal Incorporated.

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