THE ARTICLE The definite article (the) We use the definite article: to refer again to something which has

s already been mentioned; Take a pen. Put the pen on the desk. with plural states and countries; They went to the Netherlands and the U.S.A. with mountain ranges, oceans, seas and rivers; We saw the Himalayas / the Pacific Ocean / the Mississippi (River). with names of hotels, cinemas, opera houses, theatres and museums; We stayed at the Ritz (hotel). The Odeon (cinema) is very good. We met her at Metropolitan Opera. He saw a good play at the Nottara (theatre). Last week they visited the Art Museum. with parts of the day; She arrived in the morning/ afternoon / evening, with superlatives; It's one of the best places I've ever been to. when we talk about a unique person, thing or group of people; The president had a press conference. The Earth moves round the Sun. The English like tea. with musical instruments; He plays the piano.

The indefinite article (a / an) We use "a" when the noun begins with a consonant sound: a desk, a pen, a boy, a cat, a dog. We use "an" when the noun begins with a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u): an apple, an elephant, an icecream, an ox, an umbrella. We use "a" before "u" when we pronounce it with a "y" sound: a uniform BUT an umbrella. We use "an" before "h" when it is silent: an hour BUT a horse.

We use the indefinite article: when a noun is mentioned for the first time: You can get an icecream if you want. with jobs; Tom is a teacher. after what and such; What a good story! He's such a kind boy! in expressions of ratio (price, speed, frequency, etc); six pence a box; sixty miles an hour; once / twice a day. with certain numbers and expressions of quantity; a dozen, a hundred, a thousand, a lot of, a few, a little. when we want to emphasize that a person is unknown; A Mr. Jones called while you were out. after the verbs be and become when the noun has indefinite reference. It's an English book.

THE NOUN There are four kinds of nouns: abstract (love, beauty etc.), common (pen, desk etc.), collective (class, audience, family, government, staff, team etc.), proper (Mary, Tom, England etc.). Gender Masculine = men, boys, animals when we know their sex (he); Feminine = women, girls, ships, animals when we know their sex (she); Neuter = things, babies / animals when we don't know their sex. Most personal nouns have the same form whether male or female (doctor, teacher etc.), Some nouns have different forms, king - queen; landlord though. Some of these are: landlady; lord - lady; monk actor- actress; boy - nun; nephew - niece; - girl; policeman - policewoman; bride (groom) - bride; brother prince - princess; son sister; duke - duchess; daughter; steward emperor - empress; father stewardess; uncle - aunt; mother; gentleman - lady; waiter - waitress; widower grandfather - grandmother; - widow. headmaster - headmistress; hero - heroine; husband wife; The plural of Nouns A. Nouns are made plural by adding: - s to the noun (chair - chairs etc.); - s to the nouns ending in: vowel+0 (radio - radios), double o (zoo - zoos), abbreviations (photograph / photo - photos), musical instruments (piano - pianos) and proper nouns (Eskimo - Eskimos). Some nouns ending in -o can take either -es or -s. buffalo - buffalos / bufalloes;

The zero article We use no (zero) article: with the and preposition by and with subjects languages; forms of transport; She's studying Maths / They went by car/ bus / Geography / French. tram / train etc. with the with sports and games; words: school, home, She plays cards / university and college when handball every day. we are referring to a particular place; I'm with streets, towns and starting school / countries; university next week. with She lives in Saxon Street abstract nouns; Knowledge in Winchester. of languages is important. with uncountable nouns; with meals; Do you take sugar? They had breakfast / with general plurals; lunch / dinner / tea. I prefer teaching children.

mosquito - mosquitos / mosquitoes; volcano - volcanos / volcanoes. - s to nouns ending in vowel+y (boy - boys, day - days etc.); - es to nouns ending in -s, -ss, -x, -ch, -sh (bus - buses, glass - glasses, box - boxes, torch - torches, bush - bushes etc.); - es to nouns ending in -o (tomato - tomatoes); - ies to nouns ending in consonant+y (baby - babies, lady ladies, family - families, factory - factories); - ves to some nouns ending in -f / -fe (leaf - leaves, wife wives, wolf - wolves, knife - knives); BUT: chef - chiefs, roof - roofs, cliff - cliffs, handkerchief -handkerchiefs etc. B. Compound nouns form their plural by adding -s / -es: to the second noun if the compound consists of two nouns (shopkeeper - shopkeepers); to the first noun if the compound consists of two nouns connected with a preposition (sister-in law - sisters-in law); to the noun if the compound consists of an adjective and a noun (frying pan - frying pans); at the end of the compound if this is not made up of any nouns (breakdown - breakdowns). C. Irregular plurals: man - men; child - children; woman - women; goose - geese; foot - feet; tooth sheep - sheep - teeth; louse deer - deer; fish lice; mouse fish; trout - trout. mice; D. Some nouns take only a plural verb. These are objects which consist of two parts: garments {trousers, pajamas etc.), tools {scissors, compasses etc.), instruments {binoculars, spectacles etc.) or nouns which have a plural meaning such as: belongings, cattle, clothes, congratulations, earnings, goods, greens, (good) looks, outskirts, people, police, riches, stairs etc.

E. Some nouns take only a singular verb. These are: mass nouns {bread, tea, sugar etc.), abstract nouns (advice, love, death etc.), words ending in -ics {athletics, mathematics etc.), games / diseases ending in -s (billiards, mumps etc.), nouns such as: weather, luggage, furniture, money, news etc. F. Group nouns refer to a group of people. These nouns can take either a singular or a plural verb depending on whether we see the group as a whole or as individuals. Such group nouns are: army, audience, class, club, committee, company, council, crew, family, government, press, public, staff, team etc. The team was the best in the country (the team as a group). The team were all given medals (each member separately as individuals). G. Some nouns have a different meaning in plural. Singular The needle of a compass always points north. It is an English custom to celebrate the Queen's birthday. She has a lot of experience working with children. Woul d milk? hair. you like a glass of She has got long blonde withcan't searchedthe planethe experiences You can got hairs really woods. see off ofare in circle fascinating.lotsherselfjourney scales.are worksperfectthishis bag was drawon lost inwithout soup!had his weighted Whenboy gotveryourexciting Weglasses.Pluralat Customs. The compasses. There he two a well on the She He Picasso's through Africa.

They were shocked at the scale of the disaster. This door is made of wood. He goes to work every day except Sunday.

Countable - Uncountable Nouns

Nouns can be:

THE ADJECTIVE Adjectives describe nouns. They have the same form in both the singular and the plural. The red pencil is on the table. The red pencils are on the table. Order of Adjectives Adjectives normally go before nouns.

countable (those that can be counted, e.g. 1 bag. 2 bags etc). uncountable (those that can't be counted e.g. sugar). Uncountable nouns take a singular verb. They are not used with a / an. Some, any, no, much etc. can be used with them e.g.: / need some help, (not: a help). There isn't much sugar left. The most common uncountable nouns are: accommodation, advice, anger, baggage, behavior, blood, bread, business, chess, coal, countryside, courage, damage, dirt, education, evidence, food, fruit, furniture, gold, hair, happiness, help, homework, housework, information, jewellery, knowledge, laughter, luck, luggage, meat, money, music, news, rubbish, seaside, shopping, soap, spaghetti, traffic, trouble, water, weather, work, writing etc. Note that the nouns for types of meat are also uncountable: beef, mutton, pork etc. Many uncountable nouns can be made countable by means of partitives: a piece of cake / information / advice / furniture; a glass I bottle of water; a jar of jam; a rasher of bacon; a box of chocolates; a packet of biscuits / tea; a slice I loaf of bread; a pof of yogurt; a pof / cup of tea; a kilo I pound of meat; a bottle of vinegar; a tube of toothpaste; a bar of chocolate / soap; a bit I piece of chalk; an ice cube; a lump of sugar; a sheet of paper; a bag of flour; a pair of trousers; a game of soccer; a(n) item I piece of news; a drop I can of oil; a can of Coke; a carton of milk; a block of wood etc.

I have a white cat.

Adjectives can also be used without a noun after certain verbs (appear, be, become, feel, seem, taste, smell, look etc.). He felt nervous. She looks happy. The cake smells good. She is pretty. The adjectives: afraid, alone, alive, awake, asleep, glad etc. are never followed by a noun. The girl was afraid (not: an afraid girl). Some nouns can be used as adjectives if they go before another noun. They have no plural form in this case: the garden gate, a morning class, a three-week holiday (not: a three weeks holiday). Certain adjectives can be used as plural nouns referring to a group of people in general. These are: the poor, the rich, the blind, the young, the old, the disabled, the hungry, the strong, the deaf, the living, the dead, the sick, the elderly etc. The rich should help the poor. But in the singular: The rich man helped the poor woman. Opinion adjectives (wonderful, awful etc.) go before fact adjectives (large, old etc.). They lived in a wonderful big house. She found an ugly old dog.

 When there are two or more fact adjectives, they normally go in the following order: Fact Adjectives
opinio size n That's nice big a age new shape colour origin square brown materi purpos noun al e Germa woode linen chest n n

Regular Comparative and Superlative Forms Adjectives

of one syllable add (e)r / -(e)st to form their comparative and superlative forms. of two syllables ending in -er, -!y, -y, -w, also add -er/-est. of two or more syllables take more / most. Positive short big large heavy shallow special attractive

Comparative
shorter (than) bigger (than) larger (than) heavier (than) shallower (than)

Superlative
the shortest (of/in) the biggest (of/in) the largest (of/in) the heaviest (of/in) the shallowest (of/in)

- When a one syllable adjective ends in one vowel and one consonant (not w or y) we double the final consonant. hot - hotter - the hottest big bigger - the biggest fat fatter - the fattest - We can use the intensifiers much, a lot, far to make a comparative stronger. much more important - We can use almost, nearly, just with as...as. She is almost as tall as her mother. - Comparative phrase the...the. The older you get the more careful you become. Irregular Adjectives Positive
good bad much many little far

more special (than) the most special (of/in) more attractive (than) the most attractive (of/in)

Notes: - Certain adjectives form their comparative and superlative in both ways, either by adding -er / -est to the positive form or taking more / most. Some o these are: clever, common, cruel, friendly, gentle, narrow, pleasant, polite, quiet, simple, stupid etc. clever - cleverer - the cleverest or clever more clever - the most clever. - When a short adjective (one or two syllables) ends in -y (dry, happy) we change the y to an i and add -er / -est. dry - drier - the driest happy - happier - the happiest

Comparative better worse more more less further

Superlative the best the worst the most the most the least the furthest

Note: further = more For further details, consult your lawyer.

THE ADVERB Adverbs normally describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. They say how (adverbs of manner), where (adverbs of place), when (adverbs of time), how much / to what extend (adverbs of degree), or how often (adverbs of frequency) something happens. There are also sentence adverbs (certainly, surely, probably, possibly etc.) and relative adverbs (where, why, when). Formation of Adverbs from Adjectives Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective:

In spoken English the adverbs loud, quick, slow, cheap are the same as their adjectives. In formal English we use: loudly, quickly, slowly, cheaply: He speaks loud (spoken English). He speaks loudly (formal English). Some pairs of adverbs have different meanings: 1. deeply = greatly The scientist was deeply respected. 2. freely = willingly He spoke freely about his past. hardly = scarcely I hardly see him. highly = very much She is highly regarded by her employers. 5. lastly = finally Lastly, read the instructions then do the test. 6. lately = recently I haven't seen him lately. 7. nearly = almost I have nearly finished. prettily = in an attractive way She smiled prettily. shortly = soon, not long He will be arriving shortly. 10. widely = to a large extend It's widely believed that the Prime Minister will resign soon.

deep = a long way down He dug deep into the ground. free = without payment Children travel free on buses. hard = with a lot of effort He works hard. high = to / at a high level The pilot flew high above the clouds. last = after all others He got here last. late = after the arranged or proper time They arrived late. 7. near = close I live near the school. 8. pretty = fairly The film was pretty awful. 9. short = suddenly The driver stopped short. 10. wide = far away from the right point He threw the ball wide.

quick - quickly
Adjectives ending in -ic add -ally to form their adverbs: dramatic - dramatically Adjectives ending in -le drop -le and add -ly to form their adverbs: terrible - terribly Adjectives ending in consonant+y drop -y and add -ily to form their adverbs: happy - happily Adjectives ending in -ly (friendly, lonely, lovely, fatherly, motherly, silly, lively, ugly etc.) form their adverbs with in a... way: in a friendly way e Adjectives ending in -e form their adverbs adding -ly without dropping -a: rare - rarely Exceptions: whole wholly; true - truly. The adverb of good is well. . Some adverbs are the same as their adjectives: (daily, early, fast, hard, late, monthly, best, easy, low etc.): He works hard (=adverb), This is a hard job (=adjective).

Order of Adverbs Adverbs can go in front, mid or end position in a sentence: front position is at the beginning of the sentence. mid position is before the main verb or after the auxiliary. end position is at the end of the sentence.
Front Mid End

Finally, he will probably start working here next week. Adverbs of frequency (often, usually, never, ever, regularly, barely, seldom, scarcely, rarely, sometimes etc.) normally go before main verbs but after auxiliary verbs {mid position). However, in short answers they go before the auxiliary verb. He often drinks coffee. She is usually late for school. He is always telling lies, isn't he? Yes, he always is. Used to and have to take the adverb of frequency before them. He always used to drink milk in the morning. They usually have to take the bus to go there. For reasons of emphasis the adverbs of frequency can also go at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. Sometimes I play football. I make that cake occasionally. Adverbs of time usually go at the end of the sentence (They went to hospital yesterday). If we want to put emphasis on the time we use them at the beginning of the sentence (Yesterday they went to hospital). Short time adverbs as: soon, now, still, then etc. can go in mid position. He is now having a bath. The adverbs: already, no longer, normally, hardly, nearly, almost usually go in mid position. They have nearly missed the train. She is no longer living here. There's hardly any cake left.

Sentence adverbs (probably, certainly, possibly, clearly, fortunately, luckily, maybe, perhaps, of course etc.) go in any position: front, mid or end; but the front position is the most usual though. Probably he believed you. He probably believed you. He believed you probably. In negations certainly, possibly and probably go before the auxiliary. He probably didn't believe you. Adverbs do not normally go between the object and the verb. He likes dogs very much (not: Ho likes very much dogs). Adverbs of degree (absolutely, just, totally, very, completely, extremely, a lot, really, terribly, much, awfully, rather, quite, fairly, pretty, a little, a bit, slightly, enough, too etc.) can go before the adjective or the adverb they modify. She's quite good at Maths. Most of these adverbs can also go before a main verb or after an auxiliary verb. I rather like this film. I can't quite understand it. The adverbs: a lot, much, a little, a bit, awfully, terribly, absolutely, completely, totally go in mid or end position. The train was delayed a little. The train was a little delayed. The earthquake completely destroyed the area. The earthquake destroyed the area completely. Adverbs of manner (beautifully, badly, eagerly etc.) and place (here, there etc.) go after the verb or the object of the verb if there is one (end position). She looked at me angrily. Adverbs of manner can also go in mid position. She looked angrily at me.

Gramatica limbii engleze

.............................1.7
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When there is more than one adverb in a sentence, their order is manner-place-time. However, when there is a verb of movement (go, run, leave etc.), the place adverb goes next to the verb of movement.
manner place place manner time time

DEMONSTRATIVES PRONOUNS POSSESSIVES Demonstratives This / These are used: for people or things near us. This is my pen and these are my pencils. for present or future situations. He is leaving for Tokyo this month. when the speaker is in the place he / she is referring to. This room is very large. (The speaker is now in the large room). to introduce people or when we introduce ourselves on the phone. "Mum, this is my friend, Jack!" "Hello? This is Tom Wilson speaking." That / Those are used: for people or things not near us. I don't like that picture, over there. for past situations. They enjoyed very much that year. to refer back to something mentioned before. "He was very rude to her." "That's too bad." when speaking on the phone to ask who the other person is. "Hello? This is Pam Brown. Who's that speaking? / Who's that, please?" Note: This / these - that / those are not always followed by nouns. This is the best I can do for you. "I've won the lottery." "That's too good to be true."

He spoke well at the meeting yesterday. She goes to work on foot every day. Regular Comparative and Superlative Forms
Adverbs Positive Comparative
faster

Superlative
the fastest

adverbs having the same fast forms as adjectives add -er/est "early" drops -y and adds -ier/iest. two syllable or compound adverbs take more/most (compound adverbs are adjectives+ly e.g. careful -carefully) early often safely easily

earlier more often more safely more easily

the earliest the most often the most safely the most easily

Irregular Adverbs
Positive much well little badly
fast far

Comparative more better less worse faster farther further harder higher later

Superlative the most the best the least the worst the fastest the farthest the furthest the hardest the highest the latest

hard high late

Note: farther / further = longer (in distance) He lives farther / further away than me.

Pronouns Personal Pronouns

before verbs after verbs as subjects as objects I you he she it we you they me you him her it us you them

Possessive Possessive Reflexive - Emphatic adjectives pronouns pronouns

followed by nouns my your his her its our your their not followed by nouns mine yours his hers ours yours theirs myself yourself himself

It is also used for weather, distance, temperature, time expressions and in the following: It seems that, It appears that, It looks like, It is said that etc. It's hot today, isn't it? It seems that it's going to rain. But we say: There seems to be a problem. Possessive adjectives / pronouns They express possession. Possessive adjectives go before nouns, whereas possessive pronouns do not go before nouns. This is her jacket. It's hers. Sometimes possessive pronouns go at the beginning of a sentence. Yours is more beautiful. We use the rather than a possessive adjective with this pattern. verb+person+preposition She hit Tom on the back, (not: on his back). Own is used with possessive adjectives to emphasise the fact that something belongs to someone / and no one else. We've got our own house. We've got a house of our own. Possessive case with 's or s' for people or animals singular nouns (person or animal) +'s: the child's toy, the cat's tail. regular plural nouns +': the girls' room. irregular plural nouns not ending in s +'s: the women's hats, the men's trousers. compound nouns +'s: my sister-in-law's cat. 's after the last of two or more names to show common possession: Bob and Ann's house is very big. (They live in the same house).

Personal Pronouns we use personal pronouns to refer to people, things or animals. They've brought some flowers. They are on the table. we don't use a noun and a personal pronoun together. My cat is under the chair, (not: My oat it's undor tho oh air). My father took me there, (not: My fathor he took mo thoro). I, you, he, she, it go before verbs as subjects and me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them after verbs as objects. They gave me a beautiful painting but I didn't like it. There+be is used for something mentioned for the first time or to say that something or someone exists. There are some people in the waiting room. It+be is used to give more details about something or someone already talked about. There is someone at the door. It's the postman. It+be with to-infinitive or that-clause is used to begin a sentence. It's hard to believe her. It's bad luck that you failed the exam.

 's after each name to show individual possession Ted's and Mary's houses aren't big. (They live in different houses). Possessive case with "of" for inanimate things for inanimate things or abstract nouns: the walls of the room, the trees of the garden. of+possessive case / possessive pronoun when there is a determiner (this, some etc.) before the noun: That's a poem of Ken's (one of Ken's poems). some books of mine (some of my books). Note: - phrases of place+'s: at the butcher's - time or distance expressions+'s /': Sunday's paper, two days' leave, one mile's walk. - we can use either '"s" or "of" when we talk about places or organisations: Rome's churches or the churches of Rome. - we can use "of" with people in longer phrases: That's the car of one of my friends at work. Reflexive / Emphatic Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns are used after certain verbs (behave, burn, cut, enjoy, hurt, kill, look, laugh at, introduce, dry, teach etc.) when the subject and the object of the verb are the same. He cut himself. They enjoyed themselves at the party. - reflexive pronouns can be used after be, feel, look, seem to describe emotions or states: She doesn't look herself these days. - certain verbs do not normally take a reflexive pronoun. These are: wash, shave, (un)dress, afford, complain, meet, rest, relax, stand up, get up, sit down, wake up etc

She washed and got dressed (not: Sho waohod horself and got dresed herself). - we can use a reflexive pronoun with wash or dress when we talk about young children or animals: Although she is only 4 years old, Pam can dress herself. The elephant is washing itself. Emphatic pronouns have the same form as reflexive pronouns but a different meaning. They emphasise the noun or the fact that one person, and not another, performs an action: He himself did the whole job. He did the whole job himself. - they also mean without help: She painted the gate herself (without help). - they go after nouns, pronouns, at the end of a sentence, or after but and than: You should count on no one but yourself. Note these idioms: Enjoy yourself! = Have a good time! Behave yourself! = Be good! I like being by myself = I like being alone She lives by herself = She lives on her own Help yourself to coffee = You're welcome to take some coffee if you want some Do it yourself = Do it without being helped Make yourself at home! = Feel comfortable Make yourself heard = Speak loudly enough to be heard by others Each other means one another.

THE VERB I Present forms A. Present Simple Affirmative

1 walk You walk He walks She walks It walks We walk You walk They walk

Negative
Long Form 1 do not walk You do not walk He does not walk She does not walk It does not walk We do not walk You do not walk They do not walk Short Form 1 don't walk You don't walk He doesn't walk She doesn't walk It doesn't walk We don't walk You don't walk They don't walk

Interrogative
Do 1 walk? Do you walk? Does he walk? Does she walk? Does it walk? Do we walk? Do you walk? Do they walk?

repeated / habitual actions (especially with frequency adverbs: often, usually etc.). The frequency adverbs go after the verbs "to be" and "can" but before the main verbs: I usually get up at 6 o'clock. permanent truths or laws of nature: Water freezes at 0C. timetables / programmes (future meaning): The film finishes at 9 p.m. The train leaves at 10 a.m. reviews / sports / commentaries / dramatic narrative: Richard Gere acts very well in this film. B. Present Continuous Affirmative Negative Interrogative
Long Form I am talking You are talking He is talking She is talking It is talking We are talking You are talking They are talking Short Form I'm talking You're talking He's talking She's talking It's talking We're talking You're talking They're Long Form I am not talking You are not talking He is not talking She is not talking It is not talking We are not talking You are not talking They are not talking Short Form I'm not talking You aren't talking He isn't talking She isn't talking It isn't talking We aren't talking You aren't talking They aren't talking Am I talking? Are you talking? Is he talking? Is she talking? Is it talking? Are we talking? Are you talking? Are they talking?

Negative - interrogative
Don't you walk? Doesn't he walk? etc.

Spelling: - Verbs ending in: -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -o --es: I watch - he watches; I go - he goes. - Verbs ending in : consonant+y -> -ies: I study - he studies. BUT verbs ending in a vowel (a, e, o, u)+y -> ys: I buy - he buys. Time expressions used with Present Simple: every day / week / month /year, usually, often, always, rarely, never, sometimes, in the morning / evening / afternoon, at night, on Mondays etc. We use Present Simple for: permanent situations or states: He works in a hospital. They own a beautiful car.

Negative - Interrogative
Aren't you talking? Isn't he talking? etc.

Spelling: - When verbs end in one stressed vowel between two consonants, we double the final consonant: swim - swimming; stir - stirring; sit - sitting BUT: walk - walking wait - waiting open - opening - When the infinitive ends in one e we delete the e: write - writing dive - diving

- Look at the spelling of these verbs! lie - lying die - dying Time expressions used with Present Continuous: now, at the moment, at present, nowadays, today, tonight, always, still etc. We use Present Continuous for: temporary situations: They are living with Ann at present. actions happening at or around the moment of speaking: She is looking for a better job. repeated actions with "always" expressing annoyance or criticism: You are always interrupting me. The baby is always crying at night. fixed arrangements in the near future: We are visiting grandma on Sunday. (It's all arranged). changing or developing situations Your English is getting better. C. Present Perfect: have/has+past participle (the 3rd form of the verb) Regular Verbs: talk - talked-\talked] Affirmative
Long Form 1 have talked You have talked He has talked She has talked It has talked We have talked You have talked They have talked Short Form I've talked You've talked He's talked She's talked It's talked We've talked You've talked

Spelling: - stop - stopped; prefer - preferred;

study - studied: play - played;

type - typed; smoke - smoked.

Irregular Verbs:eat- ate-eaten\ Affirmative

Long Form 1 have eaten You have eaten He has eaten She has eaten It has eaten We have eaten You have eaten They have eaten Short Form I've eaten You've eaten He's eaten She's eaten It's eaten We've eaten You've eaten They've Negative Long Form 1 have not eaten You have not eaten He has not eaten She has not eaten It has not eaten We have not eaten You have not eaten They have not eaten Short Form 1 havent eaten You haven't eaten He hasn't eaten She hasn't eaten It hasn't eaten We haven't eaten You haven't eaten They haven't eaten Interrogative Havel eaten'? Have you eaten? Has he eaten? Has she eaten? Has it eaten? Have we eaten? 9 Have you eaten Have they eaten?

Negative - Interrogative
Haven't you eaten? Hasn't he eaten? etc.

Negative
Long Form ! have not talked You have not talked He has not talked She has not talked It has not talked We have not talked You have not talked They have not talked Short Form 1 havent talked You haven't talked He hasn't talked She hasn't talked !t hasn't talked We haven't talked You haven't talked They haven't talked

Interrogative
Have 1 talked? Have you talked? Has he talked? Has she talked? Has it talked? Have we talked? Have you talked? Have they talked?

Negative - Interrogative
Haven't you talked? Hasnt he talked? etc.

Note: For the past participle look at a list of irregular verbs. Time expressions used with Present Continuous: just, ever, never, already, yet (negations & questions) always, how long, so far, recently, since (=from a starting point in the past), for (=over a period of time), today, this week / month etc. We use Present Perfect for: recently completed actions: She has washed her blouse. (She has finished washing her blouse. You can see it's clean now - evidence in the present). actions which happened at an unstated past time and are connected with the present: He has lost his keys. (He is still looking for them) personal experiences / changes which have happened: I've lost 10 kilos. emphasis on number: He's written three stories this month.

D. Present Perfect Continuous: (have / has been + verb + ing) Affirmative Negative Interrogative
Long Form I have been working You have been working He has been working She has been working It has been working We have been working You have been working They have been working Affirmative Short Form I've been working etc. Long Form I have not been working You have not been working He has not been working She has not been working It has not been working We have not been working You have not been working They have not been working Have I been working? 9 Have you been working Has he been working? Has she been working? 9 Has it been working Have we been working? Have you been working? 9 Have they been working

Negative
Short Form 1 haven't been working etc.

Negative - Interrogative
Haven't you been working? etc.

Time expressions used with Present Perfect Continuous: how long, for, since. We use Present Perfect for: actions started in the past and continuing up to the present: She's been listening to music for three hours. (She started listening to music three hours ago and she is still listening to it). past actions of certain duration having visible results or effects in the present: They've been playing football. (They are tired). actions expressing anger, irritation, annoyance, explanation or criticism: Who has been using my toothbrush? (annoyance) emphasis on duration (usually with for, since or how long): She's been packing since this morning. Note: The verbs: live, feel and work can be used either in the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect Continuous with no difference in meaning. I've been living / I've lived in London for two years.

Stative Verbs Verbs describing a permanent state (stative verbs) do not normally have continuous forms. These are: verbs of the senses: see. hear, smell, taste etc. (We often use can or could with these verbs: Can you hear that noise?). - The verbs: look, watch and listen express deliberate actions and can be used in continuous forms Be quiet please! I'm listening to the news. But: I can't hear you. Can you speak louder, please? - The verbs: feel and hurt can be used in either continuous or simple forms, though. A: "How are you feeling today?"/"How do you feel today?" B: "My leg is hurting" / "My leg hurts". verbs of opinion: agree, believe, consider etc. verbs of emotion: feel, forgive, hate, like, love etc. other verbs: appear (=seem), be, belong, fit (=be the right shape and size for something), have (=possess), know, look (=appear), need, prefer, require, want, weight, wish etc. He knows when Peter is (not io knowing). Some stative verbs (see, smell, taste, feel, think, have etc.) have continuous forms but there is a difference in meaning. State Action
1 think she's rich (> 1 believe). The milk tastes awful (= it has a bad flavour). He has a pet dog (=he owns). The cloth feels like velvet (= has the texture). 1 sea you're in trouble (= ! understand). The kitchen smells of burnt (= has the smell). He comes from Spain (= he was born in). 1 love holidays (= in general). Your hair looks great (= it appears). The baby weights 5 kilos (it is). Ann is very tall I'm thinking about your plan (= I'm considering). He's tasting the sauce; it might need some salt (= he's trying its flavour). He's having dinner now (= he's eating). She's feeling her way in the dark (= she's finding her way). I'm seeing my lawyer tonight (= I' m visiting). Why are you smelling your food? (= trying the smell of). He's coming from Spain (= he's travelling from). I'm loving this holiday (= I'm enjoying; specific). She's looking at some photos (= she's examining). I'm weighing myself on my new scales (= I'm finding out my weight). Ann is being very kind to me these days (= she's behaving).

II Past Forms A. Past Simple Regular Verbs We form the past simple of regular verbs by adding -ed. Affirmative Negative Interrogative
Long Form I walked You walked He walked She walked It walked We walked You walked They walked I did not walk You did not walk He did not walk She did not walk It did not walk We did not walk You did not walk They did not walk Short Form I didnl walk You didn't walk He didn't walk She didn't walk It didn't walk We didn't waik You didn't walk They didn't walk Did I walk'? Did you walk? Did he walk 9 Did she walk Did it walk? Did we walk? Did you walk? Did they walk?
?

Negative - Interrogative
Didn't you walk? Didn't he walk? etc.

We use Past Simple for: pat actions which happened one after the other: She got up, washed and had breakfast. past habit or state: He used to go / went to school on foot. complete action or event which happened at a stated past time: They phoned three days ago. (When? Three days ago.) action which happened at a definite past time although the time is not mentioned. This action is not connected with the present: Shakespeare wrote a lot of plays. (Shakespeare is now dead; he won't write again - period of time now finished). Past Simple is the equivalent of Present Simple in the Reported Speech, when the reporting verb is in the Past Tense: Tom: "I am hungry." Tom said he was hungry. B. Past Continuous: was / were + verb+ing Affirmative ^ Negative Interrogative
Long Form I was walking You were walking He was walking She was walking It was walking We were walking You were walking They were walking I was not walking You were not walking He was not walking She was not walking It was not walking We were not walking You were not walking They were not walking Short Form I wasn't walking You weren't walking He wasn't walking She wasn't walking It wasn't walking We weren't walking You weren't walking They weren't walking Was I waikfig? Were you walking? Was he walking? Was she walking? Was it walking? Were we walking? Were you walking? Were they walking?

Spelling
-e->-ed
like. - liked hats - haled close - closed

doubleconsonant+ed
prefer - preferred stop. - stopped travel - travelled

consonant+y>ied carry - carried

study - studied tidy - tidied

vowel+y-yed
play -played enjoy - enjoyed stay - stayed

Irregular verbs have a special past form: i go I drink I am Present I went I drank I was Past Note: For the past tense of the irregular verbs see a list of these verbs. Time expressions used with Past Simple: yesterday, last week /night / month /year, how long ago, then, two days ago, in 1998 etc.

Negative - Interrogative
Weren't you walking? Wasn't he walking? etc.

Time expressions used with Past Continuous: while, when, as etc.

We use Past Continuous for: an action going on at a stated past time: She was eating at 8 a.m. yesterday. a past action in progress which is interrupted by another past action: While I was watching TV mum came home. Note: We use Past Continuous for the longer action and Past Simple for the shorter one. two or more simultaneous past actions: While mum was reading, dad was watching TV. a description of events in a story: They were walking in the forest... The dog was barking ... Past Continuous is the equivalent of Present Continuous in the Reported Speech, when the reporting verb is in the Past Tense: Tom: "I am watching TV." Tom said he was watching TV. C. Past Perfect: had + past participle (= the 3rd form of the verb)
Affirmative Long Form Ihad walked You had walked He had walked She had walked It had walked We had walked You had walked They had walked Short Form Id walked You'd walked He'd walked She'd walked ltd walked We'd walked You'd

We use Past Perfect for: a past action which happened before another past action or before a stated past time: She had finished the exercises by the time her mum came home (or by 7 p.m.). a past action which had visible results in the past: He was in hospital because he had had an accident. Past Perfect is the past equivalent of Present Perfect in the Reported Speech, when the reporting verb is in the Past Tense: Tom: "I can't recite the poem because I have forgotten the lines." Tom said he couldn't recite the poem because he had forgotten the lines. D. Past Perfect Continuous: had been + verb+ing Affirmative
Long Form I had been walking You had been walking He had been walking She had been walking It had been walking We had been walking You had been walking They had been walking

Negative
Long Form Iliad not been walking You had not been walking He had not been walking She had not been walking li had not been walking We had not been walking You had not been walking They had not been walking

Interrogative Had I bean walkhg? Had you been walking? Had he been walking? Had she been walking? Had it been walking? Had we been walking? Had you been walking? Had they been walking?

Negative
Long Form I had not waked You had not walked He had not walked She had not walked It had not walked We had not walked You had not walked They had not walked Short Form 1 hadn't walked You hadn't walked He hadn't walked She hadn't walked It hadn't walked We hadn't walked You hadn't walked They hadn't walked

interrogative Had I waked? Had you walked? Had he walked? Had she walked? Had it walked? Had we walked? Had you walked? Had they walked?

Affirmative
Short Form I'd been walking etc.

Negative
Short Form I hadn't been walking etc.

Negative - Interrogative
Hadn't you been walking? etc.

Negative - Interrogative
Hadn'i you walked? Hadn'i he walked? etc.

Time expressions used with Past Perfect Continuous: for, since. We use Past Perfect Continuous for: a past action going on over a period of time up to a specific moment in the past: She had been working as a nurse for 10 years before she resigned.

Time expressions used with Past Perfect: for, since, already, after just, yet before, never, by, by the time etc.

 a past action having certain duration and visible results in the past: He was tired because he had been playing football. Past Perfect Continuous is the past equivalent of Present Perfect Continuous in the Reported Speech, when the reporting verb is in the Past Tense: Tom: "I am going to see a dentist. My tooth has been aching for a week." Tom said he was going to see a dentist because his tooth had been aching for a week. Ill Future Forms A. Future Simple: will + verb Affirmative
Long Form I will walk You will walk He will walk She will walk It will walk We will walk You will walk They wiil walk

hopes, fears, threats, offers, promises, warnings, predictions, requests, comments (especially with words such as: think, expect, suppose, hope, believe, know and probably): Shall I do the washing-up? Will you help me? Freeze or I'll shoot! You will soon be rich. I'm afraid you'll cut yourself. He'll probably marry you soon. B. Future Continuous: will be+ verb-ing Affirmative Negative Interrogative
Long Form I will be walking You will be walking He will be walking She will be walking It will be walking We will be walking You will be walking They will be walking Long Form I will not be walking You will not be walking He will not be walking She will not be walking It will not be walking We will not be walking You will not be walking They wiil not be walking Wil Ii be walking? Will you be walking? Will he be walking? Will she be walking? Will it be walking? Will we be walking? Will you be walking? Will they be walking?

Negative
Short Form I wont walk You won't walk He won't walk She won't walk It won't walk We won't walk You won't walk They won't walk

interrogative Will / Shall I walk? Will you walk? Will he walk? Will she walk? Will it walk? Will we walk? Wll you walk? Will they walk?

Short Form Long Form I'll walk I wilt not walk You'll walk He'll walk She'll walk It'll walk We'll walk You'll walk They'll walk You will not walk He will not walk She will not walk It will not walk We will not walk You will not walk They will not walk

Affirmative
Short Form I'll be walking You'll be walking etc.

Negative
Short Form 1 won't be walking You won't be walking etc.

Negative - Interrogative
Wont you be walking? Won't he be walking? etc.

Negative - interrogative
Won't you walk? Wont he walk? etc.

Note: Shall can be used with "I" or "We" in questions, suggestions, offers or when asking for advice. Time expressions used with Future Simple: tomorrow, tonight, soon, next week / month / year etc., in a week / month etc. We use Future Simple for: on-the-spot decisions (= decisions taken at the moment of speaking): O.K. I'll take the blue one (= jacket).

Time expressions used with Future Continuous: tomorrow, tonight, soon, next week / month / year etc., in a week / month etc. We use Future Simple for: actions going on at a certain moment in the future: I'll be walking on the beach this time tomorrow. actions which are the result of a routine (instead of Present Continuous): I'll be seeing Tom tomorrow. (We work in the same office so we'll definitely meet). when we ask politely about people's arrangements to see if they can do something for us or because we want to offer to do something for them: Will you be going to the supermarket? Can you buy me some tea?

C. Future Perfect: will have +past participle (=the 3rd form of the verb) Affirmative Negative Interrogative
Long Form I will have walked You will have walked He will have walked She will have walked It will have walked We will have walked You will have walked They will have walked Affirmative Short Form I'll have walked You'll have walked etc. Long Form I will not have walked You will not have walked He will not have walked She will not have walked It will not have walked We will not have walked You will not have walked They will not have walked Negative Short Form 1 won't have walked You won't have walked etc. Won't you have walked? Won't he have walked? etc. Win I have walked Will 7 you have walked Will he have walked? Will 9 she have walked Will it 7 have walked Will we have walked? Will you have walked? Will they have walked?
9

Time expressions used with Future Perfect Continuous: by... for. We use Future Perfect Continuous for: duration of an action up to a certain time in the future: By the end of this year she will have been working here for two years. E. Be Going To + verb Affirmative Negative Interrogative
Long Form I am going to eat You are going to eat He is going to eat She is going to eat It is going to eat We are going to eat You are going to eat They are going to eat Long Form I am not going to eat You are not going to eat He is not going to eat She is not going to eat It is not going to eat We are not going to eat You are not going to eat They are not going to eat Am 1 going to eat? Are you going to eat? Is he gang to eat? Is she going to eat? Is it going to eat? Are we going to eat? Are you going to eat? Are they going to eat?

Negative - Interrogative

Time expressions used with Future Perfect: before, by, by then, by the time, until (is used only in negative sentences with this tense). We use Future Perfect for: actions which will be finished before a stated future time: He will have visited Jamaica by the end of the year. She won't have finished her homework until 9 o'clock. D. Future Perfect Continuous: will have been + verb-ing Affirmative Negative Interrogative
Long Form 1 will have been walking You will have been walking He will have been walking She will have been walking It will have been walking We will have been walking You will have been walking They will have been Long Form will not have been walking You will not have been walking He will not have been walking She will not have been walking It will not have been walking We will not have been walking You will not have been walking They will Wil I have been walking? Will you have been walking? Will he have been walking? Will she have been walking? Will it have been walking? Will we have been walking? Will you have been walking? Will

Affirmative
Short Form I'm going to eat You're going to eat etc.

Negative
Short Form I'm not going to eat You aren't going to eat etc.

Negative - Interrogative
Aren't you going to eat? Isn't he going to eat? etc.

Affirmative

Negative

Negative Won'tInterrogative you have been walking?

Short Form Short Form I'll have been walking 1 won't have been walking You'll have been walking You won't have been walkinc

Time expressions used with Be Going To: tomorrow, tonight, next week / month / year , in two / three days, the day after tomorrow, soon, in a week / month etc. We use Be Going To for: actions intended to be performed in the near future: I'm going to meet her tomorrow. planned actions or intentions: They are going to have a party on their birthday. evidence that something will definitely happen in the near future: She is going to have a baby. Look! The sky is grey. It's going to rain. things we are sure about or we have already decided to do in the near future: He's going to be promoted (The boss has decided to do it).

MODAL VERBS The modal verbs are: can, could, may, might, must, ought to, will, would, shall, should, have to, need. They take no -s in the third person singular except for have to and need. They come before the subject in questions and take "not" after them in negations. Except for ought to and have to. modal verbs are followed by an infinitive without to. Modal verbs are used to express: ability, possibility, probability, logical assumptions, permission, requests, offers, suggestions, advice, criticism, obligation, prohibition or necessity. Ability can / be able to (ability in the present / future). "Can" in more usual and less formal than "be able to" when talking about the present and the future: I can pay you next week (usual). I will be able to pay you next week (less usual). could/was able to (ability in the past) are used for either repeated or single actions. However with the verbs see, hear, smell, understand etc, we normally use "could" for single actions: He could / was able to swim when he was four, (repeated action). I could smell something burning, (single action) (not: + was able to smell). . Can is the Present Simple and could is the Past Simple. Can borrows the rest of its tenses from be able to. She hasn't be able to finish work today but she can finish it tomorrow. Possibility may/might / could + present infinitive (it's possible that something will happen in the future or perhaps it is true at the moment): I may / might / could pass this difficult exam. may / might / could + perfect infinitive (perhaps something happened in the past): He looks very happy! He may / might/ could have won the lottery.

could +perfect infinitive is also used for something which was possible but didn't actually happened: Don't drive so fast! You could have killed that boy! (Luckily you didn't kill him). Probability ought to / should + present infinitive show that something is probable now or in the future: She ought to / should pass her exams. (She will probably pass). ought to / should + perfect infinitive show that we expected something to happen but we don't know if it happened or not. They ought to / should have arrived by now. Logical assumptions can't / couldn't + present infinitive (I don't think; it's logically improbable): They can't be at home. Nobody answered the bell. must + present infinitive (I'm sure): Her face is red. She must be angry. can't/ couldn't + perfect infinitive (It's impossible that something happened in the past): He can't / couldn't have lost his dog. I heard it barking yesterday. must+ perfect infinitive (it's very probable that something happened in the past): You look tired. You must have worked a lot. Asking for permission can (informal) / could (more polite) may (formal) / might (more formal): Can /Could I borrow your pen, please? May / Might I talk to your manager, please? Giving or refusing permission can (informal; giving permission): Can I use your phone? Of course you can! (informal).

may (formal; giving permission - also used in written notices or formal announcements): May I use your phone? Of course you may! (formal). Luggage may be left here (written notice). mustn't /can't (informal - refusing permission): I'm afraid they mustn't /can't come in. may not (formal - refusing permissing): May I open the window? No, you may not! Requests(askinq someone to do something): Can you?(informal) Can you lend me your pen? . Will you ? (familiar) Will you fetch me a glass of water? Could you?(polite request) Could you bring my glasses? May I?(formal request) May I borrow your pen? . Would you /Would you mind? (more polite and formal than "could you"?) Would you do this for me? Would you mind posting this letters? Offers (offering to do something): I'll... (informal) I'll do the washing up for you. . Shall I /we /Can I /we...? Shall I feed your dog? Would you like /Would you like me to...? Would you like some more tea? Suggestions (making suggestions): Shall I /we Shall we go to the mountains? //we can /could We could go to the club if you like. Advice (saying what the best thing to do is): Should /ought to + present infinitive (I advise you to).You should keep a diet. Shall I (asking for advice) Shall I come too? had better (it's a good idea) You'd better go home now. Criticism (saying what the best thing to do in the past was): Should / ought to + perfect infinitive: You shouldn't have behaved like that yesterday. Obligation - Necessity must / have to (it's necessary, I'm obliged to): Must is used only in the present and the future when the speaker decides. It borrows the rest of the tenses form

have to which forms its questions and negations with do /does (Present Simple) and did (Past Simple): I must keep a diet. (I say so) Do you have to write your homework now? Did you have to finish the report yesterday? Have to is used when somebody else decides for the speaker I have to keep a diet (the doctor says so). Have got to (more informal and usual then have to), is used for an obligation on a single occasion: I've got to tidy my room: mother is angry. Ought to (duty; it's the right thing to do but people don't always do it): You ought to use a zebra crossing. Need (it's necessary) is followed by a passive full infinitive or an -ing form and takes -s in the 3rd person singular in statements: Your hair needs to be cut / cutting. Absence of necessity neednt + bare present infinitive / don't have to / don't need to (it's not necessary in the present or future): You needn't take your umbrella. It's not raining. You don't have to / don't need to take your umbrella. It's not raining. didn't need to /didn't have to (It wasn't necessary in the past and we may not know if the action happened or not): You didn't need / didn't have to buy any bread. There was a lot in the cupboard (I don't know if you brought any). needn't + bare perfect infinitive (We know that something happened in the past although it was not necessary): You needn't have bought any bread. There was a lot in the cupboard (I know you bought some bread but it wasn't necessary). Prohibition mustn't (it's forbidden) You mustn't go in there (it's forbidden). can't (you aren't allowed to) You can't wait here (you are not allowed to).

INFINITIVE / - ing form / PARTICIPLES Tenses of the Infinitive Active Voice Passive Voice (to) offer (to) be (to) be offered offering (to) to (to) have been have offered (to) have been offering offered Tenses of the -ing form Active Voice Passive Voice He denied having stolen the money, or He denied stealing the money. Subject of the infinitive / -ing form The subject of the infinitive or of the -ing form is omitted when it is the same as the subject of the verb. They want to go to the circus. I left without taking my keys. When the subject of the infinitive or of the -ing form is different from the subject of the veb, then an object pronoun (me, you, him, her, us, you, them) or noun is placed before the infinitive or the -ing form. The subject of the gerund can also be a possessive adjective (my, your, etc.), the possessive case or a noun. I want her to clean the table (= She should clean the table). but I want to clean the table (= I should clean the table). I remember his /him / Tom's / Tom complaining about the difficulty of the task. The to - infinitive is used: to express purpose: after nouns: He came here to meet us. It's a pleasure to talk with after certain verbs (advise, you. agree, after too /enough appear, decide, expect, hope, constructions: promise, It is too good to be true. refuse etc.): She is rich enough to give She advised me to wait. money after certain adjectives to the poor. (angry, happy, with it + be + adjective (+ of glad etc.}: + He was happy to come. object): after question words (where, It is nice of you to lend me how, what, your bike. who, which, but not after "why"): with "only" to express Did he tell you where to go? unsatisfactory But 1 don't know why he left so result: The infinitive without "to* is used: after modal verbs: 3ut: in the passive form: be You must come back. made / be heard / be seen -+ after had better / would to - infinitive: He was made to rather. apologise. I'd rather have stayed in last ^Jote: help, is followed by a night. to - infinitive or an infinitive after make / let / see / hear / without "to": He helped me

Present Present Continuous Perfect Perfect

Present offering being offered Present Continuous having having been Perfect offered offered Perfect Note: - the Present Infinitive refers to the present or future: I'd like to sleep for a while. The Present Continuous Infinitive is used with appear, claim, seem, pretend, must, can't, happen, should, would etc. to describe an action going on at the moment of speaking. She must be rehearsing by now. The Perfect Infinitive is used with appear, happen, pretend, seem etc. to show that the action of the infinitive happened before the action of the verb. They claim to have passed the exam (First they passed the exam, then they claimed they had passed it). The Perfect Continuous Infinitive is used with appear, seem, pretend etc. to emphasize the duration of the action of the infinitive, which happened before the action of the verb. He looks tired. He seems to have been playing football all morning. The Present Gerund (-ing form) refers to the present or future. I enjoy listening to music. The Perfect Gerund (-ing form) shows that the action of the gerund has happened before the action of the verb. We can use the Present Gerund instead of the Perfect Gerund without a difference in meaning.

The -ing form Is used:

as a noun: Speaking English is a pleasure tor him. after certain verbs: admit to avoid, consider, continue, delay, deny, enjoy, escape, excuse, fancy, finish, forgive, imagine, involve, keep continue, look forward to. mention, mind. miss, object to. postpone, practice, prevent, report, resist, risk. save, stand, suggest, understand etc. I suggest going on a trip. after: love. tike, dislike, hate, enjoy, prefer (to express general preference): She likes dancing (in general). after: I'm busy, it's no use. it's (no) good, it's (not) worth, what's the use of. can't help, there's no point in, can't stand, be / get used to, be / get accustomed to. have difficulty (in): I'm busy doing the washing-up. after "go" for physical activities: They go swimming every summer.

Mote: if two infinitives came in after prepositions: Sheare joined by without knocking at of the second "and' the "to" the door, after see. infinitive can be omitted: I want to hear, listen, watch, to express an incompleteand watch TV. go home action, an action in progress or a long action: I saw Kate painting the kitchen (I saw Kate in the middle of painting. I didn't wait until she had finished). But: see. hear, listen, watch + infinitive without "to", to express a complete action, something that one saw or heard from beginning to end. I watched Kate paint the kitchen. It took her two hours (I saw the whole action from beginning to end).

Verbs taking to - infinitive or -ing form with a change in meaning a) forget + to - infinitive = not remember: I'm sorry, I forget to come earlier. forget + -ing form = forget a past event: I'll never forget visiting Spain. b) remember + to - infinitive = remember to do somethingRemember to switch off the lights before leaving. remember + -ing form = recall a past event: He doesn't remember leaving the keys at home. c) go on + to - infinitive = finish doing something and start doing something else; then: After finishing cooking she went on to wash the dishes. go on + -ing form = continue: They went on walking for hours. d) mean + to - infinitive = intend to: He means to find a job abroad. mean + -ing form = involve: Finding a job means attending many interviews. e) regret + to - infinitive = be sorry to: I regret to tell you there is no money left in your account. regret + -ing form = having second thoughts about something one has already done: I regret buying that dress. f) try + to - infinitive = do one's best, attempt: The policemen are trying to catch the thief. try + -ing form = do something as an experiment: Why don't you try sleeping in the afternoon. g)want + to - infinitive = wish: I want to come with you. want + -ing form = need something done: This wall needs painting.

Verbs taking to - infinitive or -ing form without a change in meaning begin, start, continue + to - infinitive or -ing form. However, we never have two -ing forms together: She began dancing / to dance. But: It's beginning to get cold. Not: It's boginning getting cold. advise, allow, permit, recommend, encourage when followed by an object or in passive form take a to - infinitive. They take the -ing form when not followed by an object: He doesn't allow us to smoke here. They aren't allowed to smoke here. They don't allow smoking here. it needs / it requires / it wants + -ing form. "It needs" can also be followed by a passive infinitive: The house needs / requires / wants painting. The car needs repairing / to be repaired.

h) stop + to - infinitive = pause temporarily: She stopped to finish her lunch. stop + -ing form = finish, end: She stopped playing the piano. i) be sorry + to - infinitive = regret: I'm sorry to see you sad. be sorry for + -ing form = apologise: I'm sorry for telling / having told you that lie. j) be afraid + to - infinitive (the subject is too frightened to do something): The cat is afraid to climb the ladder. be afraid of + -ing form (the subject is afraid that what is described by the -ing form may happen): She won't climb that tree; she is afraid of falling (she is afraid she might fall). Too - Enough too + adjective / adverb (negative meaning): He is too short to reach the ceiling. adjective / adverb + enough (positive meaning): He is rich enough to buy a new house. enough+ noun (positive meaning): He's got enough patience to be a teacher. Participles Present Participles (verb + ing) describe what something or somebody is. Tom is an interesting person. Past Participles (verb + ed) describe how someone feels: Ann is interested in maths.

CLAUSES A. Time clauses They are introduced with the following time conjunctions: after, as, as long as, as soon as, just as, since, before, by the time, when, while, until/till, the moment (that), whenever etc. As soon as he (had) finished studying / he turned on the TV.
(Time clause) (Main clause)

Time clauses follow the rule of the sequence of tenses: when the verb of the main clause is in a present or future form, the verb of the time clause is in a present form; when the verb of the main clause is in a past form, the verb of the time clause is in a past form too. I'll phone him when I am ready, (not: whon I will bo roady). She did the cleaning after she had done the washing-up (not: aftor oho dooo). We never use will / would (future forms) in time clauses; we normally use a present form. Note: when (time conjunction) + present I'll come when I have time. when (question word) + present or future Do you know when she'll be / is back home? B. Clauses of purpose Clauses of purpose follow the rule of the sequence of tenses (see Time clauses). I'll leave early so that I can catch the train. He locked the door in case someone broke in. Clauses of purpose are introduced with: to - infinitive (when the subject of the verb and the subject of the infinitive are the same): She phoned me to invite me to her birthday (informal). in order to / in order not / so as not + to infinitive: She phoned me in order to me to her birthday (formal). They hurried so as not / in order not to miss the train (not:

 so that + will / can / may (present / future reference): I'll save money so that I can buy a computer. so that + would / could / might (past reference): She moved the vase so that the cat wouldn't break it. in case + present (present / future reference): I'll buy some flowers in case they arrive. in case + past (past reference): I bought some flowers in case they arrived. Note: "in case" is never followed by "will / would". . for + noun / -ing form: They went out for a walk. A pencil is used for writing. C. Clauses of concession They are introduced with : although, even though, though (at the beginning or at the end of the sentence), despite / in spite of + noun / -ing form, despite the fact that, in spite of the fact that+ clause, white, but or whereas + clause. Even though / Although she likes Maths she gets very poor marks in it. Though she had been warned, she wants to take the risk or She's been warned. She wants to take the risk, though. Note: though + clause is informal. She came to work despite / in spite of her cold / having a cold. In spite of the fact / Despite the fact that she had a cold, she came to work. I did well on the test while / whereas / but my friend didn't. D. Clauses of reason They are introduced with: as, since (are normally used at the beginning of the sentence), because (which usually answers a why - question). As / Since it's warm outside, you can go out and play. Why didn't you phone him earlier? Because I was very tired.

E. Clauses of result They are introduced with: such I so...that, (and) as a result or therefore. such a(n) + adjective + singular countable noun: He is such a good teacher that all his students like him. such + adjective + uncountable / plural noun: It was such nice weather that we went on a trip. . so + adjective / adverb. So can be also used before much, many, few or little: The problem was so difficult that he couldn't solve it. He drove so carefully that no accident happened. I ate so much last night that I couldn't sleep. How can you sleep so little and not look tired. as a result / therefore + clause: He has broken his leg and as a result / therefore he had to go to the hospital. F. Exclamations They are words and phrases used to express surprise, shock etc. They take an exclamation mark (!). Some exclamations are: Good heavens! Goodness! Oh dear! Really! Ah! Exclamations are introduced with what or how as follows: what a(n) / (adjective) + singular countable noun: What a nice day! what / (adjective) + uncountable / plural noun: What beautiful earrings! how + adjective / adverb: How clearly he speaks! G. Relative clauses They are introduced with: a) relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which or that and: b) relative adverbs: when, where or why as follows:

Relative Pronouns
Subject of the verb of the relative clause (cannot be omitted) used for who / that This is the teacher who / that taught mewhich / that English. Object of the verb of the relative clause (can be omitted) who / whom / that Here's the boy who/ whom / that I gave the book. Possession (cannot be omitted) whose This is Mr. Smith whose sister lives next to me whose / of which This is the house whose roof / the roof of which was recently repaired.

non-defining relative clauses the relative pronouns cannot be omitted. That cannot replace who or which. The relative clause is put in commas. Ann, who is my best friend, told me a secret yesterday (not: Ann, that io my boot friond). H. Clauses of manner They are introduced with: as if / as though and are used to express the way in which something is done / said etc. we use as if / as though after verbs such as: act, appear, be, behave, feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste to say how somebody or something looks, behaves etc.: He sounds as if / as though he's got a cold. She looks as if / as though she is a model. we use as if / as though +past tense when we are talking about an unreal present situation. Were can be used instead of was in all persons: She behaves as if / as though she were the boss ("were" is more formal than "was"). Note: We can use like instead of as if / as though in spoken English. It looks as if / as though it is going to rain. It looks like it is going to rain (informal spoken English). EMPHATIC STRUCTURES We use them when we want to emphasize a particular part of a sentence in spoken or written English. we can use it is / was (not) + subject / object + that or who(m) in statements / negations or is / was it + subject / object + that or who(m) in questions. If the object is a person, we use that, who or whom, otherwise that is the correct form: It was the headmaster that / who organised the school bazaar. It wasn't Tom that / who cooked the meal. is it me that / who you're talking to?

used for

which / that This is the dress I saw a cat which / (which / that) I brought that had no tail, last night.

Who, whom, which or that can be omitted when there is a noun or personal pronoun between the relative pronoun and the verb, that is, when they are the objects of the relative clause. When who, which etc. are subjects of the relative clause, they cannot be omitted (see the table above). Relative Adverbs time: when (= in / on / at which); place: where (= in / at / on / to which); reason: why (= for which). July is the month when people go to the seaside. This is the garden where I like to play. Lack of money is the reason (why) we stay at home. Defining / Non-defining Relative clauses A defining relative clause gives necessary information and it is essential to the meaning of the main sentence. The clause is not put in commas. Who, which, that can be omitted when they are the object of the relative clause. She is the giri who became famous in the world ("who" as subject is not omitted). That's the necklace (which, that) Tom bought for me ("which / that" as object can be omitted). A non-defining relative clause gives extra information and it is not essential to the meaning of the main sentence. In

 we can use that is / was + question word in statements or is / was that + question word in questions: That is what I told the police. Is that where he's living now? we can use question word + is / was it + that in questions: Where is that you're planning to go? Who was it that sent you flowers? When was it that you realised you were being followed? . we can use question word + subject + verb + is / was: What he needed was a good mother? . emphatic questions can be used to express admiration, anger, etc: Wherever did you find it? Whoever did you talk to? Whatever are you doing there? in the Present Simple, Past Simple or Imperative we can use the construction do / does / did + bare infinitive to give emphasis: I do care for you. Do sit down, please! He did tell me he was leaving. INVERSION We invert the subject and auxiliary verb in the sentence to give emphasis. This happens: . after certain expressions when they are at the beginning of a sentence: Seldom; Little; Rarely; Barely; Scarcely (ever)... when; Nowhere; Hardly (ever)... when; Not till / until; No sooner... ihan; On no occasion; Not only... but also; In no way; In / Under no circumstances; Only in this way; Never Only by; Never before Nor / Neither; Not since Only then;

Not even once On no account. Rarely do we see her these days. No sooner had we got into the house than he phoned us. Note: When the following expressions begin a sentence we use inversion in the main clause. only after, only by, only if, only when, not till/until, not since. Only after he had graduated, did he start looking for a job. Only if you invite her, will she come to your party. Not until all tests had been completed, were we told the results. after so, such, to such a degree (in result clauses) when they are at the beginning of a sentence: So careful is he that he never makes any mistakes. Such a brilliant student was he that he was offered a scholarship. with should, were, had in conditionals at the beginning of the sentence when "if" is omitted: Type 1: Should you see him, tell him to call me (= If you should see...). Type 2: Were I you, I would cancel my trip (= If I were you). Type 3: Had he known, he would have made arrangements (= If I had known...). after so, neither / nor, as when expressing agreement: "I like icecream". "So do I". ("So" is used to agree with an affirmative statement). "I don't like milk". "Neither / Nor do I" ("Neither / Nor" are used to agree with a negative statement). The subject and the main verb are also inverted in the following structures: after adverbs of place: Here comes the bride ! Away ran the mouse! in Direct speech when the reporting verb comes after the quote and the subject is a noun: "I've never seen" him said Mary.

p y if Future / Imperative Type 1 If + any present h form (Present can / may / might / must real e / should + bare infinitive present Simple. Present c Continuous or Perfect Simple (for gen o Present Perfect) eral truth) m e If he phones me, I'll s tell him the news. . If you have written the CONDITIONALS
If - clause Main clause

exercises, we can go shopping. If you're tired, go to bed. If you heat water, it boils.
If - clause If + Past Simple or Past Continuous

II I

Main clause would / could / might + bare infinitive

If I were a queen I would be very happy (not likely to happen). If I were you, I wouldn't eat so many sweets (advice).
If - clause Main clause

Type 3 If + Past Perfect would / could / unreal or Past Perfect might + have + Continuous past participle past

If I had followed his advice, I wouldn't have had that bad accident (regret). If he had told the truth, the teacher wouldn't have punished him. Notes: - when the if-clause is before the main clause, we separate the two clauses with a comma; If h e c o m e s , w e w il l b e h a p p y, b u t I w il l b e h a p

Gramatica limbii engleze

- we do not normally use will, would or should in an if-clause: If you hurry, you'll catch the train (not: If you will hurry. you will...). - however, we can use will / would in Type 1 Conditionals to make a request or to express insistence or annoyance, and should when we are less sure about a possibility (slight possibility). If you will give me a hand with my homework, we can go to see a film (Please, give me a hand...). If you would give me a hand with my homework we can go to see a film (Please, give me a hand...). If you will continue to go out every night, you'll be very tired (insistence; if you insist on going out...). If I should meet her, I'll ask her to come with me (I may meet her, but I doubt it). - after if, we can use were instead of was in all persons:

If I were / was you I wouldn't spend so much money on sweets. - unless means if not: Unless her husband likes the hat, she won't buy it (If her husband doesn't like the hat, she won't buy it). 51 - as long as, providing / provided that can be used instead of it: As long as he's on time, we won't be late for the meeting. (If he is on time, we won't be late for the meeting). We'll come by car provided / providing that father lends us his (We'll come by car if father lends us his). Mixed conditionals All types of conditionals can be mixed. Any tense combination is possible if the context permits it.__________________________________
If - clause Main clause Type 1 Type 3 Type 2 he won't come to the Type 2 If nobody phoned him meeting. he wouldn't have spoken If he knew her to her. Type 2 he wouldn't be searching If he had found a job for one now. type 3

WISHES
Form I wish (if only) (regret about the present) + Past Simple Use regret about a present situation which we want to be different

- if only means the same as I wish but it is more dramatic; If only I was / were blonde. PASSIVE VOICE The Passive Voice is formed by using the appropriate tense of the verb to be + past participle
Active Voice Present Simple Present Continuous Past Simple Past Continuous Future Simple Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect Present Infinitive. Perfect Infinitive Gerund Perfect Gerund Modals + be + p.p. They make chairs. They are making chairs. They made chairs. They were making chairs. They wili make chairs. They have made chairs. They had made chairs. They will have made chairs. They will have to make chairs. He ought to have made chairs. He likes people buying his chairs Having made chairs. You must make this chair. Passive Voice Chairs are made. Chairs are being made. Chairs were made Chairs were being made. Chairs will be made. Chairs have been made. Chairs had been made. Chairs will have been made. Chairs will have to be made. Chairs ought to have been made He likes his chairs being bought. The chairs, having been made. This chair must be made.

I wish I were / was rich (I regret I'm not rich).

Form I wish (if only) (wish / regret about the present) + subject + could + bare infinitive Use wish or regret in the present concerning lack of ability

I wish I could speak Japanese (But I can't).

Form I wish (if only) + subject + would (impossible wish for a + bare infinitive future change] Use wish for a future change unlikely to happen or wish to express dissatisfaction; polite request implying dissatisfaction or lack of hope

I wish he would study harder (But ! don't think he will wish for future change unlikely to happen). I wish Jane would go to university (Jane refused to go and I'm unhappy about it - dissatisfaction). I wish you would be quiet (But I don't expect you will request implying lack of hope). 1 wish it would stop raining (But I'm afraid it won't stop raining - wish implying dissapointment).
Form I wish (if only) (regret about the past) Use + Past Perfect regret that something happened or didn't happen in the past

I wish I wouldn't lost my watch (But I did - It's a pity). Notes: - in wishes we go one tense back. This means that we use Past Simple in the present and Past Perfect in the past: I'm poor. I wish I were rich (present). I lost my watch yesterday. I wish I hadn't lost it (past). - after I wish we can use were instead of was in all persons: I wish I was / were blonde.

We use Passive Voice for: when the person who does the action (= agent) is unimportant, unknown or obvious from the context: My bike was stolen two days ago (unknown agent). The files were filled in yesterday (unimportant agent). The thieves have been arrested (by the police - obvious agent). to make statements more polite / formal: My favorite cup has been broken (It's more polite than saying "You've broken my favorite cup"). in news reports, instructions, headlines, formal notices, processes, advertisements (when the action is usually more important than the agent): Smoking is not allowed (written notice). The President's son was kidnapped this morning (news report). Margarine is added...(process).

...........................................................................................

to emphasize the agent: The town of London was built by William the Conqueror. with only transitive verbs (verbs that take an object): She bought the dress yesterday. The dress was bought yesterday. in colloquial English get can be used instead of be to express something happening by accident: She got sunburnt last week (more usual than "She was sunburnt last week"). CAUSATIVE HAVE (Having something done) We use have + object + past participle to say that we arrange for someone else to do something for us. Sarah arranged for her hair to be cut. Sarah had her hair cut. Active Voice Passive Voice
Present Simple Present Continuous Past Simple Past Continuous Future Simple Future Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Infinitive Gerund He repairs his car. He is repairing his car. He repaired his car. He was repairing his car. He will repair his car. He will be repairing his car. He has repaired his car. He has been repairing his car. He had repaired his car. He had been repairing his car. He must repair his car. He likes repairing his car. He has his car repaired. He is having his car repaired. He had his car repaired. He was having his car repaired. He will have his car repaired. He will be having his car repaired. He has had his car repaired. He has been having his car repaired. He had had his car repaired. He had been having his car repaired. He must have his car repaired. He likes having his car repaired.

REPORTED SPEECH Direct speech is the exact words someone said. We use quotation marks in Direct speech. Reported speech is the exact meaning of what someone said but not the exact words. We do not use quotation marks in Reported speech. Direct speech "I'll go there" he said. Reported speech He said he would go there. Say - Tell We use say in Direct speech. We also use say in Reported speech when say is not followed by the person the words were spoken to. We use tell in Reported speech when tell is followed by the person the words were spoken to: Direct speech: He said to me "I can't sing". Reported speech: He said that he couldn't sing. Reported speech: He told me that he couldn't sing. Expressions with say: say good morning / evening etc., say something, say one's prayers, say a few words, say so etc. Expressions with tell: tell the truth, tell a lie, tell somebody the time, tell somebody one's name, tell a story, tell a secret, tell somebody the way, tell one from another etc. We can report: A statements; B. questions; C commands, requests, suggestions. A. Reported statements To report statements we use a reporting verb: say, tell, explain etc, followed by a that - clause. In spoken English that can be omitted: She said: "I am alone at home." She said (that) she was alone at home. Pronouns and possessive adjectives change according to the context: Direct speech: She said, "I'll lend you my bike." Reported speech: She said, she'll lend me her bike.

Notes: - the verb to have used in the Causative forms its negations and questions with do / does (Present Simple) and did (Past Simple): Don't have this letter posted yet! Did you have your hair cut?

 time words also change;

Direct speech tonight today this week ' month / year now yesterday last night / week ' month tomorrow next week / month / year a week / month / year ago Reported speech that night that day that week ' month / year then the day before the previous night ' week / month the following day ' the next day the next week ' month / year the week / month / year before

"I'm leaving tonight" she said. She said she was leaving that night, places and demonstrative pronouns also change;
Direct speech here this these Reported speech there that those

when the reporting verb is in the past, the verb change as follows:
Direct speech Present Simple "I like chocolate" he said. Present Continuous "She is playing tennis" he said. Present Perfect "He has just left" she said. Present Perfect Continuous "I have been watching TV since morning" she said. Past Simple "I visited London" he said. Future "I'll go there" he said. Reported speech Past Simple He said he liked chocolate. Past Continuous He said she was playing tennis. Past Perfect She said he had just left. Past Perfect Continuous She said she had been watching TV since morning. Past Perfect He said he had visited London. Conditional He said he would go there.

Notes: - if the direct verb is already in the Past Simple, in Reported Speech it can either change into Past Perfect or remain the same: "I was late for work" she said. She said she was / had been late for work. - if the direct verb is in the Past Perfect it remains the same in Reported speech: "I had already talked to Jim", he said. He said he had already talked to Jim. - Past Continuous usually remains the same in Reported speech: "I was playing football while my sister was reading a book" he said. He said he was playing football while his sister was reading a book. - there are no changes in the verb tenses in Reported speech when the direct sentence express a general truth, is Conditional Type 2 or Type 3 or a wish: "The Earth moves round the Sun" he said. He said the Earth moves round the Sun. "If you worked harder you would get better marks" he said. He said if I worked harder I would get better marks. "If he had phoned he would have known the news" she said. She said if he had phoned he would have known the news. "I wish I were / was a queen" she said. She said she wished she were / was a queen. -when the introductory verb is in the Present, Future or Present Perfect, there are no changes in the verb tenses: "We like honey" they say. They say they like honey. - the verb tenses can change or remain the same in Reported speech when a sentence expresses something which is up to date or still true. However, the verb tenses usually change

when something is not true or out of date: "I like cats" she said. She said she likes / liked cats (still true). "Big hats are still in fashion" she said. She said big hats were still in fashion (we know it isn't true). B. Reported questions in Reported questions we use affirmative word order: . we use: a) ask + wh-word (who, what etc.) when the direct question begins with such a word; b) ask + if / whether when the direct question begins with an auxiliary verb (do, has, can etc.). pronouns, possessive adjectives, tenses, time expressions etc. change as in statements: Direct speech: "Where do you go" he asked. Reported speech: He asked me where I went. Direct speech: "Do you know Tom" she asked. Reported speech: She asked me if/whether I knew Tom. Indirect questions are different from Reported questions. We use Indirect questions to ask for information whereas we use Reported questions to report someone else's questions. They are introduced with: Could you tell me,..?, Do you know...?, I wonder...?, I want to know...? and their verb is in the affirmative. There are no changes in the verb tenses as in Reported questions.
Direct questions "What's her name" she asked me. "Where does she go" he asked me. Reported questions She asked me what her name was. He asked me where she went. Indirect questions Could you tell me what her name is? 1 wonder where she goes.

b) a not to - infinitive; c) an - ing form, according to the construction of the introductory verb.
Direct speech He said to me. "Come with me." He said to me, "Don't lie to me." He said. "Let's go out." Reported speech He told me to go with him. He told me not to lie to him. He suggested going out.

Modals in Reported speech There are changes in the verb tenses of some modal verbs in Reported speech: will /shall -would; can -> could (present) / would be able to (future); may -> might shall - should (asking for advice) / would (asking for information) must -> must / had to (obligation) must remains the same when it expresses possibility or deduction would, could, used to, mustn't, should, might, ought to and had better remain the same.
Direct speech She said, "I'll come later." She said, "I can play the piano." She said, "I can come tomorrow." She said, "I may speak to Tom.' She said, "How shall I do this." She said, "When shall we reach York." She said, "You must be back at 9 o'clock." She said, "You must be a liar." She said, "You should learn more." She said, "You had better go home." Reported speech She said (that) she would come later. She said (that) she could play the piano. She said (that) she would be able to come the next day. She said (that) she might speak to Tom. She asked (how) she should do that (advice). She asked when they would reach York (information). She said (that) I must / had to be back at 9 o'clock (obligation). She said (that) he must be a liar (deduction). She said (that) I should learn more. She said that I had better go home.

C. Reported commands / requests / suggestions to report commands, requests, suggestions etc. we use a reporting verb (advise, ask, suggest, beg, offer, order, tell etc.) followed by: a) a to - infinitive;

Reporting a dialogue or conversation In conversations we use a mixture of statements, commands and questions. When we turn them into Reported speech we use: and, as, adding, that, and he / she, added that, explaining that, because, but, since, and then he /she went on to say, while, then etc. Words or expressions such as: Oh, Oh dear, Well etc. are omitted in Reported speech.
Direct speech "Oh, this is a very nice cat" he said. 'Where do you have it from?' "Well, my husband gave it to me. It was a present on my birthday." Reported speech He remarked that that was a very nice cat and he asked where I had it from. ("Oh" is omitted). She answered that her husband had given it to her and added that it had been a present on her birthday. ("Well" is omitted).