Basic Aerodynamics

Basic Aerodynamics
Dartmouth Flying Club October 10, 2002 Andreas Bentz

Basic Aerodynamics

Lift
Bernoullis Principle

Energy

Definition: Energy is the ability to do work. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. We can only change its form. A fluid in motion has (mainly) two forms of energy:
kinetic energy (velocity), potential energy (pressure).

The Venturi Tube and Bernoullis Principle

kinetic energy (velocity) potential energy (pressure)

velocity increases pressure decreases

Lift: Wing Section

Air flows toward the low pressure area above the wing: upwash and downwash. Newtons third law of motion: to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

The reaction to downwash is, in fact, that misunderstood force called lift. Schiff p. 8

relative low pressure

upwash

downwash
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Angle of Attack

The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the average relative wind. Greater angle of attack creates more lift (up to a point).
total lift

Lift and Induced Drag

Lift acts through the center of pressure, and perpendicular to the relative wind. This creates induced drag.
induced drag effective lift total lift

Got Lift? Flaps

Flaps increase the wings camber.

Some also increase the wing area (fowler flap).

Almost all jet transports also have leading edge flaps.

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Too Much Lift? Spoilers

Spoilers destroy lift:

to slow down in flight (flight spoilers); for roll control in flight (flight spoilers); to slow down on the ground (ground spoilers).

Basic Aerodynamics

Side Effects
There is no such things as a free lunch.

Drag: Total Drag (Power Required) Curve

1,400 1,200

1,000
800 600 400 Drag (lbs) 200

max. lift/drag best glide

induced drag parasite drag

resistance

total drag

50

100

150

200

Indicated Airspeed (knots) 11

Wingtip Vortices and Wake Turbulence

relative low pressure

Wingtip vortices create drag:

ground effect; tip tanks, drooped wings, winglets.

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Basic Aerodynamics

Stability
Longitudinal: Static, Dynamic Lateral

Longitudinal Stability

down lift

lift

Static stability (tendency to return after control input)

up elevator increases downward lift, angle of attack increases; lift increases, drag increases, aircraft slows; less downward lift, angle of attack decreases (nose drops).
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weight

Aside: CG and Center of Pressure Location

down lift

lift

Aft CG increases speed:

the tail creates less lift (less drag); the tail creates less down force (wings need to create less lift). This also decreases stall speed (lower angle of attack reqd).
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weight

Lateral Stability

If one wing is lowered (e.g. by turbulence), the airplane sideslips.

The lower wing has a greater angle of attack (more lift). This raises the lower wing.

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Directional Stability

As the airplane turns to the left (e.g. in turbulence), the vertical stabilizer creates lift toward the left.

The airplane turns to the right.

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Speed Stability v. Reverse Command

Power is work performed by the engine. (Thrust is force created by the propeller.)

Percent horsepower

Power curve:

1,400 100% 1,200

max. endurance

1,000
800 50% 600 400 200

ca. 75% of max. lift/drag

Front Side: Power is greater than required: aircraft accelerates. Back Side: Power is less than required: aircraft decelerates.

Drag (thrust required)

Suppose airspeed decreases.

50

100

150

200

Indicated Airspeed (knots) 18

Basic Aerodynamics

Turning Flight
Differential Lift

Turning Flight

More lift on one wing than on the other results in roll around the longitudinal axis (bank).

Lowering the aileron on one wing results in greater lift and raises that wing.

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Turning Flight, contd

More lift on one wing than on the other results in roll around the longitudinal axis (bank).

Lowering the aileron on one wing results in greater lift and raises that wing. This tilts lift sideways. The horizontal component of lift makes the airplane turn. (To maintain altitude, more total lift needs to be created: higher angle of attack reqd)

Centrifugal Force

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Adverse Yaw and Frise Aileron

However, more lift on one wing creates more induced drag on that wing: adverse yaw. Adverse yaw is corrected by rudder application. Frise ailerons counter adverse yaw:

They create parasite drag on the up aileron.

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Basic Aerodynamics

Stalls
Too Much of a Good Thing

Stalls

A wing section stalls when its critical angle of attack is exceeded.

Indicated stall speed depends on how much lift the wing needs to create (weight, G loading).
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Stalls, contd

The disturbed airflow over the wing hits the tail and the horizontal stabilizer. This is the buffet. Eventually, there will not be enough airflow over the horizontal stabilizer, and it loses its downward lift. The nose drops: the stall breaks.

lift weight

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Stalls, contd

The whole wing never stalls at the same time.

Power-on stalls in most light singles allow the wing to stall more fully. Why?

Where do you want the wing to stall last?

Ailerons
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Stalls, contd (Stalls with one Engine Inop.)

Stalls in a twin with one engine inoperative lead to roll or spin entry:

Propeller slipstream delays stall.

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Stalls, contd

Stall strips make the wing stall sooner.

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Stalls, contd

Definition: The angle of incidence is the acute angle between the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the chord line of the wing. Twist in the wing makes the wing root stall first:

The angle of incidence decreases away from the wing root.

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Preventing Stalls

Slats direct airflow over the wing to avoid boundary layer separation. Slots are similar but fixed, near the wingtips.

Delays stall near the wingtip (aileron effectiveness).

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Stalls and Turns

Greater angles of bank require greater lift so that:

the vertical component of lift equals weight (to maintain altitude), the horizontal component of lift equals centrifugal force (constant radius, coordinated, turn)

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Stalls and Turns, contd

Load factor (multiple of aircraft gross weight the wings support) increases with bank angle. Stall speed increases accordingly.

limit load factor:

acrobatic 6G

Normal 3.8G

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Turns

As bank increases, load factor increases. But: as airspeed increases, rate of turn decreases.
In order to make a 3 degree per second turn, at 500 Kts the airplane would have to bank more than 50 degrees. Uncomfortable (unsafe?) load factor.

This is why for jet-powered airplanes, a standard rate turn is 1.5 degrees per second.
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Basic Aerodynamics

High and Fast

In the Flight Levels

High and Fast

Mach is the ratio of the true airspeed to the speed of sound.

Speed of sound decreases with temperature. Temperature decreases with altitude. At higher altitudes, the same indicated airspeed leads to higher Mach numbers. Conversely: at higher altitudes, a certain Mach number can be achieved at a lower indicated airspeed.

The indicated stall speed increases with altitude (compressibility).

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High and Fast, contd

At high subsonic speeds, portions of the wing can induce supersonic airflow (critical Mach number Mcrit). Where the airflow slows to subsonic speeds, a shockwave forms. The shockwave causes boundary layer separation.

High-speed buffet, aileron snatch, Mach tuck.

velocity increases velocity decreases, shockwave forms boundary layer separates

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High and Fast, contd

Vortex generators delay boundary layer separation.

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High and Fast, contd

With altitude:

indicated stall speed (low speed buffet) increases; indicated airspeed that results in critical Mcrit decreases.
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coffin corner

References

De Remer D (1992) Aircraft Systems for Pilots Casper: IAP FAA (1997) Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge AC61-23C Newcastle: ASA Lowery J (2001) Professional Pilot Ames: Iowa State Univ. Press Schiff B (1985) The Proficient Pilot vol. 1 New York: Macmillan U.S. Navy (1965) Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators Newcastle: ASA
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