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ADVERSE YAW
Adverse yaw is simply the tendency of an airplane to yaw opposite to the direction of the
desired turn. For instance, as you roll to the right, your airplane may initially yaw to the left.
When you roll your airplane to the right, your right aileron goes up and your left aileron
goes down. The aileron in the upward position (the right aileron in this example) creates less lift
and less drag than the aileron that is lowered. The aileron angled downward (the left aileron in
this example) produces more drag and more lift, initially yawing the airplane in the opposite
direction of your roll.

Countering Adverse Yaw

1. In a coordinated turn, adverse yaw is effectively
countered by the use of the rudder. When you add
rudder input, you're creating a side force on the vertical
tail that opposes adverse yaw. In adding rudder, you
create a yawing moment that helps turn the airplane in
the desired direction.
2. To counter the effects of adverse yaw, you'll find a
few different aileron designs commonly found on many
airplanes.
(a) Differential Ailerons: One aileron is raised a greater distance than the other aileron is
lowered. The extra upward aileron movement produces more drag change than an increase in
AOA on the downward aileron. This produces an increase in drag on the descending wing, which
reduces adverse yaw.
(b) Frise Ailerons: The aileron being raised pivots on an offset hinge. The leading edge of the
aileron is now pushed into the airflow creating drag, which reduces adverse yaw. In this case,
frise ailerons are using form drag to counter induced drag.
And some airplanes have more adverse yaw than others. On many airplanes, you can find a
combination of differential and frise style ailerons.

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AILERON REVERSAL
1. At low speeds, an aircraft has a relatively high AOA that is close to the stall angle. If the
ailerons are operated while the wings are at this high angle of attack, the increase in the effective
angle of attack may cause the wing with the aileron deflected downwards to have a lower
CL than the other, instead of the normal higher CL. This will cause the wing to drop instead of
rise and the aircraft is said to have suffered low speed aileron reversal.
2. When ailerons are deflected at high speeds the aerodynamic forces set-up may be sufficiently
large to twist the outer end of the wing (Figure).

Aerodynamic twisting of the wing caused byailerons as speed is increased, which may reduce,
neutralize, or reverse the direction of the lift. We say that the aircraft has suffered a high speed
aileron reversal. Aileron reversal results if the aileronstructure is insufficiently stiff in torsion.
The effect is most pronounced at near sonic speeds.

Solutions to this problem include:

o Building sufficiently stiff wings that can resist torsional divergence beyond the maximum
speed of the aircraft.
o Use of two sets of ailerons, one outboard pair that operate at low speeds and one inboard
pair that operate at high speeds, where the twisting moment will be less than when the
ailerons are positioned outboard.
o Use of spoilers, either independently or in conjunction with ailerons, where their use
reduces the lift on the down-going wing by interrupting the airflow over the top surface.
Spoilers do not cause the same torsional divergence of the wing and have the additional
advantage of providing increased drag on the down-going wing, thus helping the adverse
yaw problem, created by aileron drag.

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WEATHERCOCK EFFECT
Whenever an airplane, originally flying with zero sideslip, develops a sideslip (ß), the
vertical tail tends to bring it back to the original position of zero sideslip. This effect is similar to
that of the vane attached to the weathercock which is used to indicate the direction of wind and is
located on top of buildings in meteorological departments and near airports (Fig.). When the
vane is at an angle of attack, it produces lift on itself and consequently a moment about its hinge.
This moment becomes zero only when the vane is aligned with the wind direction. Hence, the
vane is always directed in a way that the arrow points in the direction opposite to that of the
wind. The action of vertical tail on the airplane is also similar to that of the vane and helps in
aligning the airplane axis with wind direction. Hence, the directional stability is also called
weathercock stability.

ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE CONDITION (ASYMMETRIC POWER CONDITION /

CRITICAL ENGINE CONDITION)
When one engine becomes inoperative, a yawing moment develops, the magnitude of
which is equal to the lateral distance of the thrust vector of the operative engine to the center of
gravity (C.G.), also called moment arm, multiplied by the thrust of the engine. In addition, a
rolling moment might develop due to asymmetrical propulsive lift generated by the wing section
behind the operative propeller. These moments yaw and/ or roll the aircraft towards the
inoperative engine, a tendency which must be counteracted by the pilot's use of the flight
controls: rudder and ailerons.

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RUDDER REQUIREMENTS
There are several purposes for a rudder on an aircraft. These usually drive the sizing of
the rudder. The four dominant needs for a rudder are:
1) To counter yawing moments due to propeller slip stream effects, especially at high angle of
attack and low speed. This effect is sometimes called the “p” effect. The “p” effect is caused by
the asymmetric loading of the propeller due to the angle of attack. The down moving blade (on
the right side) sees a bigger angle of attack than the up-moving blade on the left side.
Consequently there is more thrust on the right side than the left. In addition, the torque of the
engine driving the propeller requires more lift on the left wing then the right, causing more
induced drag on the left wing adding an additional left yaw moment. Further, the rotation of the
air behind the propeller causes more of a side wash on the vertical tail from the left, causing an
additional nose left yaw moment. All these yaw moments must be countered with the rudder.
2) To counter adverse yaw. When turning to the right, the left aileron is down, and the right
aileron is up. This alignment causes the left wing to have more lift and hence more drag. Hence
even though one wants to turn right, the ailerons cause a left yaw moment. This moment must be
countered by the rudder.

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3) To counter asymmetric thrust (one engine inoperative condition). If one engine goes out on a
multi-engine aircraft, then the rudder is used to counter the resulting thrust.

4) To assist in cross wind landings. The one time that it is desired to fly with a sideslip angle is
during a cross-wind landing. Here the yawing moment due to the sideslip angle is countered by
using the rudder.

RUDDER LOCK
Rudder lock is the sudden arrest of the flight control mechanism to the rudder assembly,
hence "lock". It prevents the free-flowing movement of the side-to-side motion of the rudder and
creates an out-of-trim condition. The airplane cannot be cross-controlled or slipped.
Uncoordinated turns are nearly impossible to the right and worse in the turns to the left.

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Prevention of rudder lock

1. Aerodynamic balancing helps to alter the hinge moment coefficient and the floating
characteristics of a control surface. So, rudder lock phenomenon can be avoided.
2.

DIHEDRAL EFFECT
Refer the book, “Introduction to flight” by John D Anderson. Topic: Lateral stability (Page No:
563)

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LONGITUDINAL DYNAMIC STABILITY

Stability is the tendency of an airplane to fly a prescribed flight course. Dynamic

longitudinal stability concerns the motion of a statically stable airplane, one that will return to
equilibrium after being disturbed. Basically, there are two primary forms and one secondary
form of longitudinal oscillations with regard to an airplane attempting to return to equilibrium
after being disturbed.

Primary Oscillations:

 Phugoid (longer period) oscillations

The longer period mode, called the "phugoid mode" is the one in which there is a large-
amplitude variation of air-speed, pitch angle, and altitude, but almost no angle-of-attack
variation. The phugoid oscillation is really a slow interchange of kinetic energy (velocity)
and potential energy (height) about some equilibrium energy level as the aircraft attempts to re-
establish the equilibrium level-flight condition from which it had been disturbed. The motion is
so slow that the effects of inertia forces and damping forces are very low. Although the damping
is very weak, the period is so long that the pilot usually corrects for this motion without being
aware that the oscillation even exists. Typically the period is 20–60 seconds.

 Short period oscillations

With no special name, the shorter period mode is called simply the "short-period mode". The
short-period mode is a usually heavily damped oscillation with a period of only a few seconds.
The motion is a rapid pitching of the aircraft about the center of gravity. The period is so short
that the speed does not have time to change, so the oscillation is essentially an angle-of-attack
variation. The time to damp the amplitude to one-half of its value is usually on the order of 1
second. Ability to quickly self damp when the stick is briefly displaced is one of the many
criteria for general aircraft certification.

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Secondary Oscillation:

 Porpoising mode
A secondary type of short-term oscillation occurs if the elevators are left free. This is
called the "porpoising" mode, and is influenced by the elevator balance. The main effect is
vertical accelerations of the airplane that may get out of hand if a coupling between the free
elevator and airplane occur. Proper design is essential here.

LATERAL AND DIRECTIONAL DYNAMIC STABILITY

Lateral and directional stability are interrelated. Briefly, the motions of an airplane are
such that a roll motion causes a yaw motion and a yaw motion causes a roll motion. Thus, cross-
coupling exists between the directional static stability and lateral static stability and gives rise to
the three important dynamic motions observed: directional divergence, spiral divergence, and
Dutch roll.

Directional divergence

Directional divergence is a result of a directionally unstable airplane. When the airplane

yaws or rolls into a sideslip so that side forces on the airplane are generated, the yawing
moments that arise continue to increase the sideslip. This condition may continue until the
airplane is broadside to the relative wind.

Spiral divergence (Spiral mode)

Spiral divergence is characterized by an airplane that is very stable directionally but not
very stable laterally; for example, a large finned airplane with no dihedral. In this case when the
airplane is in a bank and side slipping, the side force tends to turn the plane into the relative
wind. The outer wing travels faster, generates more lift, and the airplane will roll to still a higher

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bank angle. No lateral stability is present to negate this roll. However, a rolling moment would
also be set up in the same direction as the yaw and if this rolling moment were strong enough to
overcome the restoring moment due to static stability, the angle of bank would increase and
cause the aircraft nose to drop into the direction of the yaw. The aircraft then begins a nose spiral
which may develop into a spiral dive.

Dutch Roll

Dutch roll is a motion exhibiting characteristics of both directional divergence and spiral
divergence. The lateral stability is strong, whereas the directional stability is weak. If a sideslip
disturbance occurs, as the airplane yaws in one direction, the airplane rolls away in a
countermotion. The airplane wags its tail from side to side.

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If an aircraft is subject to a yaw disturbance, it will roll in the same direction as the yaw.
Directional stability will then begin to reduce the yaw; the aircraft will over-correct and start to
yaw in the opposite direction. The Dutch roll may be described as a yaw and roll to the right,
followed by a recovery towards the equilibrium condition, then an overshooting of this condition
and a yaw and roll to the left, then back past the equilibrium attitude, and so on. The period is
usually on the order of 3–15 seconds, but it can vary from a few seconds for light aircraft to a
minute or more for airliners. The development of Dutch roll is prevented by fitting aircraft with
yaw damping systems. Damping is increased by large directional stability and small dihedral and
decreased by small directional stability and large dihedral. If the Dutch roll is very lightly
damped or unstable, the yaw damper becomes a safety requirement, rather than a pilot and
passenger convenience. Ventral fins, although primarily used to augment the vertical fin that
may be in the wake of the wing at high angles of attack, are also beneficial in decreasing the
lateral stability and increasing the directional stability to reduce the effects of Dutch roll.

Spin and Spin recovery

A spin is by definition an un-commanded and stabled flight condition combining roll,
yaw and sideslip. Most times you will find this situation caused by improper control input by the
pilot. When a plane enters a stall, the plane will normally begin to roll to one side. There are two
main reasons for this. When the plane enters the stall, the torque of the engine may start to roll
the plane in the opposite direction of the prop's rotation. This is possible because the wing lift is
no longer providing the steadying influence that keeps the engine torque under control. The
second reason is that one wing may lose lift before the other. This causes the wing that still has
lift to start the plane rolling because the plane has lost lift of the other wing. End result throwing
the aircraft into a spin.

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To recover from a spin, the pilot must reduce throttle, and push forward on the stick to
get the aircraft in a nose down attitude then apply rudder opposite from the direction of spin
rotation. Once the spin slows down and comes to a stop, increase throttle and slowly pull out to
level flight when the aircraft is back under control, if you over correct or pull out to soon you
may find your aircraft will enter into another spin more abruptly. This is the reason to be gentle
and cautious on the first attempt. Inverted spin recovery can be a little more challenging but is
possible. On the flat spin / horizontal spin you will find the most challenging and sometimes if
not most almost impossible to recover from.

Autorotation
In aviation, autorotation refers to processes in both fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft.
The term means significantly different things in each context. For fixed-wing aircraft,
autorotation refers to the tendency of an aircraft in or near a stall to roll spontaneously to the
right or left, leading to a spin (a state of continuous autorotation). In helicopters and auto gyros,
autorotation refers to generation of lift by the main rotor when it is not being driven by an
engine. Should an engine fail, a helicopter is able to use autorotation lift to slow its descent and
land in a controlled manner. Auto gyros' main rotors are unpowered, so they rely continuously on
autorotation for lift.

Roll subsidence mode (Roll mode)

Roll subsidence mode is simply the damping of rolling motion. There is no direct
aerodynamic moment created tending to directly restore wings-level, i.e. there is no returning
"spring force/moment" proportional to roll angle. However, there is a damping moment
(proportional to roll rate) created by the slewing-about of long wings. This prevents large roll
rates from building up when roll-control inputs are made or it damps the roll rate (not the angle)
to zero when there are no roll-control inputs. Roll mode can be improved by adding dihedral
effects to the aircraft design, such as high wings, dihedral angles or sweep angles.

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