Current and Voltage

8 Transformer
Sylabus
Construction of Current Transformers, Diference Between CT Cores
those Used for Protective Relays, Calculation of CT Used for Measurement and
Accuracy,
Selecting a CT, Construction of Potential Transformer, Factors to be Considered while

Capacitor Voltage Transformer. Specifications of Voltage Transformer,

Contents
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Curent Transformers (C.T.)
8.3 Construction of Cument Transformers
8.4 Why Secondary of
C.T. Should not be Open?
8.5 Tems and Definitions Related to C.T.
86 Magnetisation Curve of a C.T. .
. . Winter-17, .
.. Marks 4
8.7
Measurement and Protective C.T.s... ... Summer-15,16,17,18,
Winter-16,17,18,19,20, Marks 7
8.8 Potential Transformers (P.T.
8.9 Construction of Wound Type Potential Transformer
8.10 Ratios of
Instrument
Transformers
8.11 Burden of an Instrument Transformer
8.12 C.T. Errors ..Summer-13,14,19,
. . Winter-19, Marks7
8.13 Calculation of Accuracy of C.T.
8.14 Accuracy Class of C.T.
8.15 Selection of C.T.
Marksz
Summer-16, Winter-18,
8.16 Capacitive Voltage Transformer(CV1)....... Summer-18,
. Marks 3
8.17 Comparison of C.T. and P.T.
8.18 Transient Errors in C.T. and CVT
Transroimers
6.19 Advantages and Disadvantages of Instrument
8.20 Specifications of C.T.
8.21 Specfications of P.T.
8.22 Short Questions and
Answers
(8 1)
 wtchgeara r n dP r o t e c t i o n
83
8 2 CuTent and Voltage Transt Current6 nd Voltage Transformer
Switchgear and Protection
nsformer For a transformer,

8.1 Introduction
N2
In heavy currents and high voltage a.c. circuits, the measurement cannot be dono
using the method of extension of ranges of low range meters, by providing
by
able
N ***

shunts. In such conditions, specially constructed accurate ratio transformers call

called very high compared
compa to N the ratio to l2
also very high for current is
instrument transformers are used. These can be used, irrespective of the voltage AsNa is Such a current
a current ratio is indicated tor
and transformers.
representing the range of current
current of the a.c. circuits. These transformers not only extend the range of
ratings the consider a 500:5
range then it indicates that
transformer.
For example, C.T. steps down
low range instruments but also isolate thenm from high current and high voltage ac from primary
to secondary by a ratio 500 to 5.
current
circuits. This makes their handling very safe. These are generally classified as (i) Cuent the
transformers and (i) Potential transformers.

8.2 Current Transformers (C.T.) Knnwing this current ratio and the meter reading on the secondary, the actual high
The currents which cannot be sensed or the primary can be obtained
large alternating passed through normal current flowing through
line
ammeters and current coils of wattmeters, energymeters can easily be measured by use
of current transformers along with normal low range instruments.
Camole 8.2.1 A 250 5, current transformer is used along with an ammeter. 1f ammeter
reading is 2.7 A, estimate the line current.
A transformer is a device which consists of two windings called primary and
250
secondary. It transfers energy from one side to another with suitable change in the level Solution: 5
of current or voltage. A current transformer basically has a primary coil of one or more 2
turns of heavy cross-sectional area. In some, the bar carrying high current may act as a But as ammeter is in secondary, I2 = 2.7 A

primary. This is connected in series with the line carrying high current.
Heavy
The secondary of the transformer is made line current To load
up of a large number of turns of fine wire
1 - 135 A
having small cross-sectional area. Thisis
Primary C.T.
usually rated for 5 A. This is connected to the So line current is 135 A.
coil of normal range ammeter. Symbolic SecondaryT*0-5 A * * -

representation of a current transformer is as

shown in the Fig. 8.2.1. Ammeter
Review Question
Fig. 8.2.1 Current transformer
Eplan the
8.2.1 Working Principle working principle of a current transyor
These transformers are
basically step up transformers i.e. stepping up a voltage from 8.3 Construct of Current Transformers
primary to secondary. Thus the current reduces from primary to secondary. So fron transformers
whicn are,
current
current point of view, these are step down transformers, stepping down the current are two types of constructions used for the
1. Wound type
value considerably from primary secondary.
to
2. Bar type.
Let N Number of turns of primary 83.1 Wound Type Current Transformer
N2 Number of tums of
secondary In wound type for more
tnat
ote

is wound
Primary current e core. The constru Otstruction, the primary

8.3.1. is wound

In a low istruction is shown in the Fig. secondary

winding
the
l Secondary current transformer, t h e sed
the top of
a bakelite oltage
form wound type is directly
wound
on

winding
mer. The heavy
eavy primary
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5
Current and Voltage
winding with used for Transformer
secondary stampings
The
suitable insulation in between
the two. Otherwise the primary
Pinary laminations

have
ansformers must hav
the
in current

high
Secondary-
is wound completely separately area than the Secondaryy Barttype
rOss-sectional leads
and then taped with suitable ordinary transtormers. Due primary
insulating material and reluctance of the Core
this, the
assembled with the secondary insulation
Moulded to
interleaved corners remains

on the core. Hence the

low as possible.
Core as
The current transformers can corresponding magnetizing
The
Secondary
be ring type or window type. also small. Core
current is insulation
Some commonly used shapes windingsare placed very
for the stampings of window each other so as to
lose to
type current transformers are Secondary leads reduce the leakage
reactance.
Fig.8.3.3 Bar type current transformer
shown in the Fig. 8.3.2 corona effect, in
Fig. 8.3.1 Wound type current transformer To avoid the
bar type transformer, the external diameter of the tube is kept large.

The windings are so designed that without damage, they can withstand short circuit
forces which may be caused due to short circuit in the circuit in which the current
transformer is inserted.
For small line voltages, the tape and varnish are used for insulation. For line voltages
above 7 kV the oil immersed or compound filled current transformers are used.

Review Question
. Explain the constructional details transformer.
of a current
(a) Rectangular (b) Ring (c) Stadium
8.4 Why Secondary of C.T. Should not be Open 7
Fig. 8.3.2 Stampings for current transformers
Eitner It
should not be kept open.
The core material for wound type is nickel iron steel. *svery important that the secondary of C.T. such as
-

alloy or an oriented electrical ould be shorted or

must be connected in series
low resistance coil
with a
Before installing the secondary winding on core it is insulated with the
end
then curTent through
collars and circumferential wraps of pressboards. Such pressboards provide adauional nep OT
wattmeter, coil of ammeter etc. If
it is left open,
second
DeComes zero hence the ampere turns produced by secondary Wrucn generaly
insulation and protection to the m.m.i, unopposed
winding from damage due to the sharp corners. As there is
no cournter
primary ampere turns becomes zero.

core. his produces

excessive

8.3.2 Bar Type Current Transformer produce high flux in the

induced o n
core npere turns) e.m.fs will be
losses, heating Similarly heavy is
In this the primary the beyond limits. core insulation of the
winding. This
type of current transformer, the primary winding bar of the the
nothing but
is nothing but a
side. This may damage
usual to ground
the C.T. on
suitable size. The construction is shown in the
Fig. 8.3.3. danger from theECondary
operator point of view as well. It is

The însulation on the bar type primary is bakelized directy

daryside to avoid a of shock to
the operat
danger while its
paper tube or a resu
transtormer
current
moulded on
the bar. Such bar type primary is the
urrent

Hence never winding

circuit of a
transformer. The core and the
integral part or Pimary winding is
e secondary
secondary windings are same
same in
in bar
bar type
type transforme ura energised.
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8-7
urent and
Switchgear and Protection 8-6 Current and Voitage Voltage Transformer
Transfom
fomer error or Ratio error: Ideally the current ratio
racticaly due to magnetising and core loss,I2/11 equal to the turns
is
Thus most of the current transformers have a short circuit link or aa switch at
11. C u r r e n t
But practicaly
secondary terminals. When the primary is to be energised, the short circuit link - ratioN ad current is not constant fraction of the secondary current and its
a
link must be factor,
the load
primary current. This
closed so that there is no danger of open circuit secondary. power called ratio error.
error
an
causes

1s defined as,
error
Review Question The
ratio

1. Why secondary of C.T. should not be open

*****************

=
K x 100 =
* 100
% Ratio
error

Ip
8.5 Terms and Definitions Related to C.T.
Nominal ratio =
Rated transformation
where Kn
1. Rated primary current: The value of primary current on which the performance of for I
the current transformer is specified by the manufacturer is called rated I Actual secondary current
primary curen
Ip
Actual primary current
2. Rated short time primary current The r.m.s. value of the a.c. current which current
transformercan carry safely for rated time. It should not
damage the transformer duet e angle error: Ideally, the phase of the secondary current is to be displaced
temperature rise or electrodynamic stresses. Such a current rating is associated with time primary current. But actually it is not so. The phase angle between
which may be 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2 or 3 seconds.
oacdy 180 from the
primary current vector and the reversed secondary current vector is called phase angle
error denoted
as e.
3. Rated transformation ratio: It is the ratio of rated
primary current to the rated
secondary current. The rated secondary current is specified on the rating plate of the 13. Composite error: The r.m.s. value of the difference (Kn is -ip) integrated over
current transformer. It is denoted
as Kn. It is also called nominal ratio.
one cycle under steady conditiorn is called composite error. Mathematically it is given by,
4. Actual transformation ratio The ratio of the actual primary 100
secondary current. It is denoted as R.
current to the actual Composite error
TT Kn i,-ipPdt
5. Exciting
current: It is the r.m.s. value of the where ip i are instentaneous primary and secondary currents respectively, n 1s
secondary current taken when
secondary is excited by sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency with open circuited nominal ratio ie. rated transformation ratio and is primary r.m.s.current
Ip
primary winding.
14. Rated accuracy limit value of primary current
primary current The highest
6. Rated errors are within pemissiie
saturation factor: It is the ratio of rated
primary saturation current to ue
pecitied by the manufacturer for which the composite
rated primary current. limits.

7. Rated primary saturation current: It is the maximum value of

which the current transformer works with primary cure
Current at
Review Question
required accuracy. i) Nomal
current transformer: )
Burden
Derne and terms related to
8.
Overcurrent factor: It is the ratio of rated short time explain following a
primary
current to the ratea pi factor v) Over curTent facror
current. Actual transformation ratio iv) Rated saturation
N
Katio error vii) Phase angle error vii)
Lonmpo
9.Burden: The load connected to the 8.6
secondary of current transtormer is callea
GTU: Winter-17, Marks 4
burden. It is
expressed in
volt-amperes (VA) or ohms at the rated secondary cu rrent. Magnetisation
The magnetisation curv
urve of a C.T.
Turns (AT)
graph of secondary Ampere-
10. Rated of a C.T. is the saturation
burden: The load mentioned
by the manufacturer which can be
co
nnectea

aunst peak flux It is also called

excitation
characteristics or

to current
transformer, maintaining the specified density Bm
characteristics of aC.T.
Sity Bm.
accuracy of the pertormarne
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Current and Volta Switcthgear
a n dP r o t e c t i o n Current and Voltage Transformer
Age Transformer
The Fig. 8.6.1 shows the typical magnetisation Peak
flux
flux density
Thus the graph of E, E
Curve of a C.T. oeak Saturaton
density K SaluralOn gives
the required magnetisation
Itis divided into four regions: m characteristicS called
against excitati
excitation The characteristics.
called Knee
1. Region OA: It is nonlinear Knee point the experimentally obtained excitation region
region. The small 8.6.3shows
ampere-tums supplied are used to produce the AB Linear Figacteristics. Theknee point
K in this case is defined
flux in the core. Thus in this region which an increase of 10 in the open Linear
region, C.T. can not whi at
region
reproduce the primary current on the secondary the point
Ankle point as causesan
increase of 50 % in the
side faithfully. Thus ratio error of tit voltage
C.T. is large if Circuit

operated in this region. Secondary

amp-turns
(AT) exciting current.

over the range from

C.T.S. are operated
2.Region AB: point A, there is Fig.8.6.1 Magnetisation curve of
From the Protective
while the measuring C.T.
Fig. 8.6.3
to knee region
proportional relation between secondary amp-turns and C.T. ankle point
in the region of ankle point only.
is called ankle density
point. The region AB is linear andpeak flux
density. Such a has the
flux
magnetisation characteristics. This region continues nonsaturated region ofpointthe Review Questions
till point B.
3. Region BK:
This is called knee characteristics of a C.T.
Kis called knee point. The knee region and it is again nonlinear in nature. 1. Draw and explain magmetisation
C.T.
point is defined as the The determination of magnetisation characteristic of a
point where a 10% increasepointin Explain the experimental
the flux
density causes 50 % increase in the
2.
GTU: Winter-17, Marks 4
4. Region after exciting amp turns. -

knee point: This is

current is utilised in saturation region. In this and Protective C.T.s.
The maximum flux producing flux in the core and region, total primary 8.7 Measurement GTU: Summer-15,16,17,18,Winter-16,17,18.19,20
density remains secondary
constant though there is output of C.T. is zero.
amp-turms, in the saturation increase in the secondary lower level
The factors
region. Lne T.s are used to reduce very high level of primary currents to a

affecting magnetisation
the
for the relay operation. The magnetisation
characteristics of a C.i. 1s

1. The nature
of the
characteristics of a C.T. are, WuCn 1s Suitable

material
core
2. The
discussed in the last section.
of the ankle point.
While
3.
Length of the cross-sectional area of the core current transformers operate
in the region
magnetic path of the core 4. The
measuring
full range between
ankle and kriee pOint
The Fig.
8.6.2 shows number of turns in the POective current transformers operate
over
C.T. is expected to
the winding because the measuring
characteristics of a CT. experimental set up to obtain the he Portion beyond this range This is
current only, while
.

the protective C.T.

is expected to

Practically magnetisa h e upto 1.2 times its rated

the secondary
side for a very large range
as currents linearly on to
number of tums are Exciting current t h e primary
of currents about
20 Secondary
fixed, the secondary times its full load Voltage
exciting current s Current. Thus the Expected to
measured Protective C.T.
as
e The measuring C.T. saturates handle large
af current
range

exciting Current is
Primary
winding tor the
currents about lineany
Single
varied by
varying the E Variac phase
20 % of
its rated value
voltage with the P2o A.C. suppy and it is
of Variac. help t advantageous as

The protects the instrument Measuring C.T.

: Saturates
its
corresponding Connected to it. While eariier at about
120 % of

circuit
open Secondary protective C.T. has to
ated current

voltage Es is winding nandle very large tauit

noted down which Fig. 8.6.2 ExCiting
Experimental set up for obtain urrents flowing through Current

characteristics of a C.T. magnetisation the burden (load).

Comparison of measuring
C.T. and protective C.T..
Fig.8.7.1

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The Fig. 8.7.1 shows the comparison of the magnetization otential Transformers
C.T. and protecting C.T. for the same rated burden.
characteristic of Types
of

For the same volt-ampere ratings and material used, the protective CT
measuring 6.8.1

T hore
ere
are two
types of potential
transformers,

potential transformer.
cross-sectional area of the core compared to CT. require large conventional

measuring C.T. hence it is hicos 1.

Wound type
transformer.
For measuring C.Ts, nickel-iron alloys are used as the core Capacitive voltage
exiting ampere-turns per unit length. Ihe knee material ha 2
potential transformers
are used for the system voltages upto or
point for such
material low wound type While forthe system voltages above
low value of flux density. occurs at The
the economic aspects.
very kV, due to voltage transformer
For protective C.T.s, below132 used. The
transformers are capacdtive
grain oriented steel is used as the core KV, the capacitive
voltage
two windings as in case of wound
has very high saturation levels. material as such material
137 divider, instead of
basically uses capacitor potential
ype potential transformer.

Review Question is used along with a voltmeter reading

11000 110, potential
transformer
**************************
Example 8.8.1 A
1 Discuss the vaBue of line voltage.
difference betrween the measurement C.T. 87.5 V. Estimate the
and the
protective C.T. Solution: For a P.T.
GTU Summer-15,16,17,18,
Winter-16,17,18,19,20 Marks 7
8.8 Potential Transformers
************

11000
(P.T) V 110
The basic
principle of these
transformers is same 87.5 V
alternating voltage are current and V2 =
as
reduced in
fixed proportion for the
a hign transformers. The
the
help of potential transformers.
The constructiorn of these
measurement purpose wi 875 l000
the normal
transformers is similar to 110
transformer. These are
windings are low power extremely accurate ratio step down transformers. IE
rating V =
8750 V
windings. Primary winding consists
of to be measurea.
large number of turns while PT This is the value of high voltage
secondary has less number of turns
and Review Question
usually rated for 110 V,
High
irrespective of the
primary voltage
voltage 0-110 V
Voltmeter
Load
of a potential transforntE
rating. The
primary is connected
Explain the working principle
Type Potential Transformer

across the
secondary
high voltage line while
is
Secondary of P.T 8.9 Construction of Wound sizes
compared
to

connected to the Primary of P.T and

conductor

is not an

voltmeter coil. One end of low

material
core
ot
range ne potential transformer use larger economy
important
the Fig. 8.8.1 Potential transformer transformer,
an

secondary is
always grounded for
Onventional power transformer. In potential
design.
The
accuracy
1

Sarety purpose. The importar consideratio a t the time of

oonnections are shown in the consideration.
The
Fig. 8.8.1.
transtormer.

As a normal
transformer, for potential At the
its ratio can be The shell is preferred transformers
specified as, typ or core type
construction

c o r e type
for high
voltage
at the joints.
ell type is used for low
voltage while
the
air gap
effect of
time of assembly uired to
reduce
reduce the
the leakage
special core is are
used,
to
next to the
So if The coaxial primary and windings is always
voltage ratio of P.T. is reading is known then the hign Feactance. secondary voltage
winding
For high
voltage to be measured, can be known and the voltmeter is a low
transtormers.

The secorndary winding which voltage

low
determined. Core. The
primary winding Ang is a single
su
coil in

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 Switchgesr and Protection 12 8- 13
Curent and Curent and Voitage
Voltage
S w t d h g e aa
r naProlection

Transformer
voltages, insulation is the main problem. Hence in high voltage potential Transformer ratlo [K,]
primary is divided into number of small sections of short coils to
insulation between coil layers.
reduce trtheansfoneedrmerso, 2)
Nomlinal

The
nominal ratio is defined
e i t h e r current
or
as the ratio of rated
voltage.
primary quantity to the rated
The cotton tape and varmished cambric are used quantity, aprpsa*amsa*roan*****

as the insulations for seCondary

fiber separators are used in windin Rated primary current
between the coils. The oil
iings. Hard Kn Rated secondary current ForC.T
immersed potential
transformers are used for the Rated primary voltage
For P
voltage levels above 7 kV. Kn Rated secondary voltage
For oil Oil High voltage
filled potential bushings
transformers, ol filled ratio [n]
3) Turns * ********************

bushings are used.

Twoo econdary
low voltage-
Core Number of turns of secondary winding . For C.T.
bushings are
required when winding Number of turns of primary winding
no side of the line is at Insulation
earth Primary
potential. high voltage Number of turns of primary winding For P.T
The overall winding Number of turns of secondary winding
construction of
single phase, two
winding
potential transformer (RCF)
is 8.10.1 Ratio Correction Factor
shown in the Fig. 8.9.1.
Fig. 8.9.1 Single phase the nominal ratio.
actual ratio to
potential transformer It is the ratio of transformation i.e.

Reivew Question
1.
Explain the
RCF
K
construction of a wound *******************************************

type potential transformer. i.e. R= RCF x Kn

8.10 Ratios of Instrument **********

plate of
transformer is always
its nomna

The various ratios

Transformers u C n is indicated on the name
a

defined for the

instrument transformers
ratio
1) Actual ratio are
[R] or
Transformation Review Questions
The actual
ratio
transformation ratio is defined ratio ofmsirure
primary phasor to the as the ratio of the
magnitude o a n transformation ratio and nominal
corresponding magnitude of actual secondary Wha ratio connection factor of instrument
formers
Paso
R Magnitude of actual primary
Magnitude of actual secondarycurrent
current
... For C.T. 8.11 Burden of an Instrument Transformer
not
remain
constant in practice
does secorndary
current,
The nominal ratio of an instrument
Magnitude ot
transformer,

R of actual of effect
primary voltage
Instrument

s
because
and this causes

Magnitude of actual
secondary voltage
. For P.T. the load on
the secondary changes. It
changes
loss
components
of
current

specific loading
The actual ratio is power factor and core the
as well
magnetising
w e as the
transformers

also called errors in the 5sin8 class of do not

exceed

transformation ratio. at ratec measurements. For the

particular
such
that the
errors

transtormer.

imits. Such
secondary winding voltage 1s specified

burden of an
instrument

a
permissible load is called

knowledge
for
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Switchgear and Protection

d d Protection
8-15
Curent and Voltag
the secondary winding expressed in volt-am. load and Transformer
do not exceed mpere
Thus the permissible load across power factor of exciting curreni of the
the rated secondary winding voltage or current, such that errors
xceed tthe limits at
introduced in the measurements done by the
transformer. Due to this fact,
is called burden of an instrument transtormer.
is
called ratio error.
instrument transformers. Such large error
an error is

is defined as,
(Secondary winding induced voltage The ratio
error

Total secondary winding burden

Total impedance of secondary circuit Nominal ratio -

Actual ratio
% Ratio error=

including load and winding Actual ratio -100

(Secondary winding) Total impedance of secondary circuit % Ratio error

current including load and winding x 100 .. (8.12.1)

****************** *******************-** *

If only the impedance of the load is considered then burden due to only load can hebe The actual ratio R for a C.T. is given by,
obtained.
*******************

, mSin ð-+Iç cos o

R= n+
(Secondary winding induced voltage) s (8.12.2)
Secondary winding burden due to load =

Impedance of the load on secondary

Im Magnetising componernt of no load current Io =
Io sino
(Secondary winding I Core loss component of no load current IoIo cos O0
Current
x
Impedance of the load on secondary Is Secondary current and I , = Primary current

8 Phase
angle of total impedance of secondary including burden
Thus if Zs Secondary impedance = Is+jXs
Review Question
**
ZeImpedance of burden re +jXe
1. Explain the burden of an instrument transformer. then d = tan

8.12 C.T. Errors GTU: Summer-13,14,19, Winter-19

i s positive for lagging p.f. load while negative for leading p.. load.
For an instrument transformer, it is necessary that the transformation ratio must be very smal.
*PPrOximate result: Practically loads are inductive with d positive and
exactly equal to turms ratio and phase of the secondary terms (voltage and current) must
As is very small, sin ô> 0 and cos > 1
be displaced by exactly 180° from that of the 0
primary terms (voltage and current.
types of errors affect these characteristics of an instrument transformer which are, R n+ but n- ie. 1,
1) Ratio error 2) Phase angle error.
... (8.12.3)
R = n nc
8.12.1 Ratio Error +
1p
In practice
it is said that current tums

ratio N/N2. But

transformation ratio I, /I1 is equal to u e
actually is not so. The current ratio is not equal to furt
it
ratio 8.12.2 Phase Angle Error current is to be
of secondary
because of magnetizing and core loss get in the power that the phase of
components of the exciting current. t While the phase
affected due to the secondary current and its IS
t
not
displaced measurementS, * must
C d s u r e m e n t s , it is for C.T. current
for
povwer factor. The load curre exactly 180° from that of primary from that
of primary voltage,
constant fraction of the
primary current. Similarly in case of
the
Second: exactly 180° phase angle
displaced by
nsformers,

voltage ratio V2 potential transtoianed PI. but tage is to be

due to this
fact is
called

/V1
is also not
exactly equal to N2/N1 due to the factors Tent actually it is nnot so. The
o t so.
error
introduced

above. Thus the transformation ratio is currer

not constant but

depends on the loau
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Current and voltage Transtom
Switchgear and Protection
8- 16
Current and Voltage
phase angle of the burden, as ircuit breakers use currernt zero
phase difference between
error. It denoted by angle 8 by which the
primary and actor of the
burden directly affects the C.T. errors interruption. Thus the
secondary is different from 180 pon

The phase angle error is given by, Review Q u e s t i o n s

COS-1, sin 87
e=0m degrees aete d ratio error ana
nls (8.12.4) n0te on phase angie error in C.T.
GTU: Summer-14,19, Marks 7
2. Discuss the factors affecting C.T. errors
the loads are inductive andd is
GTU Summer-13, Winter-19,
Approximate results: In practice, positive and
very
Marks 4
small. 6.13 Calculation of Accuracy of C.T.
sin - 0 and cos 8 - 1 hence the equations (8.12.2) and (8.12.4) becomes,
To calculate the accuracy of C.T. means to determine
its ratio error and ratio
R n+ .(8.12.5) correction factor. The ratio correction tactor 1s the ratio of actual ratio to the nominal
ion factor.

and 180 m| degrees ..(8.12.6)

ratio.
The ratio error is expressed as,

interms of lp, these can be written using n= n %Ratio error at Ip

Knl 100
R n+
.(8.12.7)
where Kn Nominal ratio
IpR.M.S. value of primary current.
and degrees . (8.12.8) s R.M.S. value of secondary current.
The steps to determine the ratio error are based on the fact that the magnetisation
8.12.3 Factors Affecting C.T. Errors characteristics (E, Vs Ie) is known and the secondary impedance of C.T. is known. The
steps are,
The various factors affecting C.T. errors are,
Assume magnitude of secondary current. Select the values upto which accuracy
1. Magnetising current: The primary and secondary currents are directly related s is required.
p Nl, +lo. The Io has magnetising current which is function of core flux o. The inx 1, (2, +2,)
is proportional the secondary voltage
to
Knowing the burden Z, and secondary impedance Z, obtain E, as

E. Thus E drives the burden hen ne

e COnsists of lead impedance as well as load impedance
magnetising current is
proportional to the total burden Z +Z. Hence C.T. error for the valve ot Es
directly related to the burden of C.T. The error is small below the saturation level or TOm the magnetisation characteristics, obtain the value of Ie
core. Thus burden must be
kept small enough that
obtained.
saturation of the core.
so secondary e.m.f. will nor
a
4. I, gives slightly
Add I to I, which gives The arithmetic addition of I and
2. Effect
of saturation: In case of saturation, the secondary current of Kn
Thus CT. behaves .
s zero.

higher ratio errors.

as open circuit. This reduces the speed of the relays
causing the errors. For an highly inductive load, there is overcurre 5. Ip be obtained
Multiplying by I, can
the nameplate, the required
large ratio error. Kn 8iven Dy on

3. Effect of residual at which

flux in core: If there is produces assumed Is
residual flux
saturate

in the core, it
Currents well below the
normal saturation level. The Wu dson
amount of residual fux uer

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 8- 18 Current and oltage Transfoma c h g e e ra n d P r o t e c t i o n
8-119
Switchgear and Protection Currer and Voltage Transformer
factor can be obtained, For

Thus the ratio

error and ratio
correction

factor for each,

the rafio correction
ifferent values
facto
ctor curve can
Review Question

ratio correction
of I and obtaining the accuracy
class of a C.T,
be obtained. 1, Explain
Selection of C.T.
Review Question .
8.15
be considered while selecting C.T. are,
the calculation of accuracy of
C.T. Thefactors to
1. Explain
primary
current should be selected from standard values.
1. Rated The rated
of C.T. be always greater than equal to the normal service current and
8.14 Accuracy Class current mnu

permissible
overload current.

Acuracy cass assigned to current transrormer 1s with specitied limits of Tatin.error

and phase angle error. The aCcuracy dass indicates the imit of the error in he Aifferential protection the rated currents of two C.T.s must be inversely
current transformer.
rional to the voltages. For instantaneous overcurrent relays, C.T.s may be selected
proportional to
rated turms-ratio of the given
percentage of the current.
current transtormer includes rated
of a burden, accuracy clasc for higher rated primary
The specifications The reference values of rated primary currents are 0.5 - 1 - 2.5 -5 - 10 - 12.5 - 15 - 20
The standard values of rated burden are 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15
accuracy limit factor.
and
25- 30-40 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 300 400 500 600 750 800-
30 VA. 1000 1250 - 3000 4000 5000 6000 7500 10000 A.
The accuracy classes are specified as 5P, 10P and 15P which gives a composite ero
at the rated accuracy limit of 5 %, 10 % and 15 % respectively.
2. Rated short time current rating and its duration: t is the maximum fault (short
This means a current transformer with specifications 15 VA and accuracy class 10P20 circuit) current that a C.T. can withstand for a short duration of time. This rating
means it is rated for the burden of 15 VA and will not have more than 10 % of depends on the factors,

composite error at 20 times the rated current. i) R.M.S. value of the fault current for a short time.
The accuracy class is defined by a composite error which is the r.m.s. value of the i) The time period for which the fault current persists.
difference between instantaneous primary current and the product of the instantaneous
in) Peak asymmetric value of the fault current.
secondary current and the transformation ratio.
1v) Transient voltage at the instant of fault.
So it l Rated primary current t Is specified as, 750 A for 0.5 sec, 525 A for 1 sec etc.

i Instantaneous primary current value which is immediately

It depends the burden. Select the
i2 Instantaneous secondary current habove theOutput: on

calculated total burden.

T Period of the cycle 4. Accuracy class for which C.T. is
to be selected.
Ihis depends on the application class 5P tor
N Transformation ratio For overcurrent relay while use

se class 15P for instantaneous

Then the % stabiliY accuracy and accurate time grading etc.

composite error is given by,
and constraints
conditions
the
ted secondary current suitable for
%
Composite error =-100 1 related
It must be
situations, use 5 A while tor
TT Ni2 -iPdt its a
PPcations. For
indoor applications
and local
Emote
ne
highest value of the primary current at
limits
6.
applications 1 A is used.
denoted as ALF and given by,
Le. when which the composite error rate
curacy limit limit factor is
of
transformer will not saturate is
called accuracy limit
The
current.
factor
he
accuracy
prmary
ry imit

accuracy limit primary current to the called accuracyi Maximum fault current
factor. The rated primary current 15 ALF
accuracy limit factor is a Rated primary current
generally
10, 15 or 20.
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8- 21
8- 20 Voltage Current and
Switchgear and Protecton
Transfomer ***************p
Voltag Transformer
C.T. transtorms maximum
The factor indicates how much
faithfully a
ssible failt Vout C+C2 Vin
current.

7. Insulation level : This must be

other system
in co-ordination with other system apparatus, tlowing through the
current
But when
t both phase angle error
then
depends on the factors, oad is
large
ratio introduced. This can
error are
in
i) Maximum system voltage and 6OG0 Load
be compensated by connecting an
ii) Method of earthing
reactance in series with the Burden
tnductive
i) Degree of exposure to overvoltages. shown in the Fig. 8.16.2.
load. This
is Fig. 8.16.2 CVT with
CVT consists of
compensating inductor
8. Knee point voltage: It should not be less than the maximum secondary indu a two
Practically
fault current.
nduced primary assemblies,
voltage at the highest
The choice must be made from the catalogue of the 'referenced' C.Ts
which most 1. The high voltage capacitor section

suitable for the application purpose. 2. The base box consisting of electromagnetic components.
The Fig. 8.16.3 shows a capacitive voltage transformer circuit
Review Question
*
Line
1. Explain the factors to be considered in selecting C.T. for a protective relaying. age

8.16 Capacitive Voltage Transformer (CVT) GTU Summer-16, Winter-18

Capacitor
A Ferroresonance
potential transformer
potential transformer which
transformer discussed earlier is an instrument
or a
voltage
is conventional two winding transformer. In such
sections Suppression circuit
Reactor Intermediate
transformer, the primary is connected to high supply voltage while secondary is transformer
O000-
connected to a voltage coil of the relay. L
Load
Another of
Gap
type voltage
transformer is a capacitive voltage transformer which 1s à Burden
capacitance potential divider connected between the phase and the ground of the power C2
circuit. The conventional wound
type potential transformers are used upto 132 kV jeve
while the capacitive voltage transformers are used
above 132 kV level.
A CVT is
expected to convert high transmission voltage to standard, low and eas circuit
measurable 8.16.3 Capacitive voitage transformer
Fig.
voltage which is used for metering, protection and control of
,

voltage system. Hence accurate and reliable

tne A
pac r section consists of series connected capacitor elements
housed in
transformation is essential. A CVT also to elements is
the function of used for capacitor
coupling capacitor for coupling high frequency power line nals
hieh s , each hermetically sealed. The insulation with highly
to the transmission line. carier *Ypolypropylene film or paper dielectric
and impregnated
to each
chamber is provided
n e t i c fluid. A stainless steel expansion
8.16.1 Construction ection so that the
fluid can be expanded
synthetic and contracted in
it, according to the
changes in chamber has a puncture pin
In its basic form, C nanges the ambient temperature. Similarly an expansion
a CVT is a
capacitance Vin Which is nt
operated
temperature.
build up within
a capacitor
section. Thus the

potential divider as shown in the

Fig. 8.16.1. If Vout pressure
if
is released due
excessive pres»
pressure is
The high voltage gets
dropped o v e r
the load current C2 operation of the pin.
to the
flowing through the output these capacitor sectio
circuit is
negligible then,
Fig. 8.16.1 Basic CVT

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-23
- 22 Current and voitage Current and
Voltage Transformer
Switchgear a n d Protection
Transfom
Errors in C.T. and CVT
section and given to an Transient
A voltage is
circuit which
tapped from the
is placed in
cast
ilowest capacitor
aluminium base box. circuit consists
This circuit electromagnetic
tra of
&.18
The
im
measuring e s of protective relays
times are reduced to very low value related
which provides output voltage. This
the final n it is
state. essary to
Hence
necoa

concentrate on the transient

to the
intermediate transformer thros
er
has transient behaviour of the
winding and provides output voltage instrument transformers.

multiple tapped secondary ferToresonance control circuitry. A series

compensating inductive reactor and
a
d.c. component of the short
illations to buildoresonance C.T.s,
due to .
circuit current, the
the oscilla In core can be saturated
aircuit provides a superior
damping and opposes witho milliseconds. Due to this, the secondary current gets fully distorted.
degrading the transient response. It protects the circuit from ferroresonance oscillations few
within
gets distorted due to the transients which are initiated
breaker capacitor. The C.T. output mainly by,
with the network or
Large asymmetrical primary fauit currents with a decaying d.c. component
compo
2. esidual magnetism left in the core due to the
asymmetrical fault or field testing.
Review Questions 3. Large nected burden mbined with high magnitudes of primary fault currents.
1. Explain the capacitor voltage transformer. GTU: Summer-16, Marks 7 r uoiding the transient errors the enlarged cores are used with air gaps introduced
F r

n them. As the cores of C.T saturate during transient period, the action of the high
2. Compare electromagnetic PT
with capacitor type PT. GTU: Winter-18, Marks 3
eneed relays get delayed. A linear core C.T.s are used nowadays which provide

8.17 Comparison of C.T. and P.T.
The comparison of C.T. and P.T. is given in the following table,
Sr. Current Transformer
No.
1. It can be treated as series transformer
under virtual short circuit conditions.
2. Secondary must be always shorted.
A small voltage exists across its
terminais as connected in series.
The winding carries full line current.
GTU: Summer-18 caturation freetransient behaviour and fast working of protective systems. A linear core
means the core with proper
air gaps. Due to such air gaps, time constant of transient
oscilations get reduced and the main flux density also reduces. This improves the
transient behaviour of C.T.
Potential Transformer
steady state, the secondary voltage waveform of CVT is exact replica of the
In the
elements used in CVT, the
It can be treated as parallel transformer under primary voltage waveform. But because of the energy storage
the primary voltage is no
open circuit secondary. transientsecondary voltage caused due to sudden change in
distorted due to the transients.
Secondary is nearly under open circuit longer replica of the primary voltage. The output gets
conditions. Ihe transients caused by CVT are of significant magnitude and comparatively long
Ihese
Full line voltage appears across its terminals duration. The distorted output can last for few cycles of the supply frequency.
errors in the output are called CVT transient errors.
The winding is impressed with full line for large Source lmpedance Ratios
errors are particularly important

voltage. TO slent and the relay reach impedance.

the ratio of the system equivalent impedance
15 used by the relay for
the
The primary current and excitation The line voltage is almost constant hence the at the relaying point
varies over a wide varies overd dic rault occurs, voltage small signial
range. exciting current and flux density transients override the
CVT
limited range. calculations very low. The
becomes the taults at
voltage nus it becomes very difficult to
differentiate quickly between
The
the r
.
primary current is independent of The primary current depends on the
Electromechanical relays
can
cope
the
secondary circuit conditions. and faults within the protection zone.
secondary circuit conditions. Pont static and microprocessor
based relays
Needs only one when neither
sie
t h CVT transients due to their inertia but
bushing as the two ends WO bushings are required used for high to the CVT
transient errors.

of
primary winding are brought out of the line is at ground potential. face problems due
through the same insulator. Hence there E e d operation may the following
factors,
1S saving8 in cost. The CVT transient mainly dependent
errors are
on

voltage level.
to the secondary
Table 8.17.1
.The Thevenin's equivalent capacitance referred
2. The figuration and the value of the burde for the
transient is worse

Review Question 3. The point

interruption.
The effect
of

aults at
a v e voltage
1.
Compare C.T. and P.T. GTU: Summer-18,Marks
a
voltage zero crossing knowledge
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 8 24 Curent nd Voltage S w i t c h g e aa
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ction
8-225
Switchgeer and Protection Transfor urrent and
Voltage Trar sformer
R
When the ult occurs at a Itage zero crossing the
The CVT consists ot
8.18.2. The CVT
ig. transients can last for transients are severe, as shown
capacitive voltage divider, % of
40 %. the normal voltage. upto two
cycles and reach the
reactor, magnitude of
upto
inductive
intermediate transformer and The ntsolution
different
to CVT transient
problern are narrow
distance relay reach and band pass filtering of the
ferroresonance suppression
voltage,
reducin; directly delaying the distance relay tripping
CVI transient is detected.
8.18.1 shows
circuit. The Fig. decision when
the simplified equivalent
ircuit of a CVT Review Question
Fig. 8.18.1 Simplified model of CVT
The various parameters
the transient errors in C.T. and CVT.
1. Explain
are, ******

C: Sum of the stack capacitances. 6.19 Advantages and Disadvantages of Instrument Transformers
L: Equivalent inductance of inductive reactor and transformer.
The advantages of instrument transformers can be listed as,
R: Equivalent resistance of inductive reactor and trarnsformer.
1, The normal range voltmeter and ammeter can be used along with these
Ro Resistance of burden. transformers to measure high voltage and currents.
The Cf, R and Lf are the parameters of the ferroresonance circuit. The Cf and L; in 2. The rating of low range meter can be fixed irrespective of the value of high
parallel forms a high impedarnce parallel resonant circuit tuned at the fundamental voltage or current to be measured.
requency. 3. These transformers isolate the measurement from high voltage and current cireuits.
At harmonic or subharmonic frequencies, the impedance of ferroresonance circuit This ensures safety of the operator and makes the handling of the equipments
drops off sharply and only R remains in the circuit which acts as damping resistor. very easy and safe.
This suppresses the ferroresonance oscillations.
These can be used for operating many types of protecting devices such as relays

Voltage or pilot lights.

. Several instruments
100 High
can be fed economically by single transformer.
30 CVT
60 Extra high 'C Disadvantage
,CVT be used only
40
disadvantage of these instrument transformers is that they can
TOrO y
20 a.c.
circuits and not for d.c. circuits.
20
40
Review Question
- 60 1. List
the transformer.
- 80 uOatages and disadvantages of instrument
100
Fault occurs at
Voltage zero 8.20 Specifications of C.T.
various specifications of C.T. are,
Time
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11
in sec
1.Type It
covers,
Fig. 8.18.2 CVT transients
reduce the fundamental voltage i)The
1)
C.T. type ing
1 or window type. contact.
The second terminated with tinned cooper rose
l e a d s shall be
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8-227
Switchgear and Protection Voltage Trans Current and
nsfomer point
voltage
Voltage Transformer
and secondary.
ii) Marking of polarities for both primary
Knee
15.

iv) Type of insulation like varnished, fibre glass tape insulated,

air cooled et current specified at,
tc Exciting
t6.

Whether indoor or outdoor. Knee point voltage

2.Installation
i) 50 %
of knee poirnt voltage
3. Standards: The C.T. shall confirm IS 2705 Part I and II, IS 4201 ui
ith latest ii) 25 %
of knee point voltage
amendments.
in mA.
It is specified
4. Technical specifications: It includes, in ohms
resistance
i) Class of accuracy i) Rated burden 17. Secondary
ii) Power frequency withstand voltage characteristic curves
18.The different
iv) Highest system voltage i) magnetisation curve

v)Nominal system voltage

iRatio and phase angle error curves
vi) Frequency which is 50 Hz in India
ii) Ratio correction factor curve
vi) Supply system generally 3 phase solidly grounded neutral system.
19. Tests: These include,
5. Number of phases : Usually single unit per phase is used.
i) Type tests such as polarity test, HV power frequency test on primary and
6. Rated continuous primary current: This secondary, overvoltage interturn test, error measurement, short time current test,
30, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 300, 500, 750, 1000,
rating is out of
following values, 10, 15, 20
1500, 2000, 3000, 5000, 7500 and 10000 temperature rise test etc.
A
i) Routine tests such as ratio test, phase angle test etc.
7. Rated secondary current: It is 1 A or 5A

8. Extended
11) Commissioning test which are carried out after erection on site
primary current: It is 120 % of the rated
primary current in accordane 20.
e T h e s e include the use of C.T. in bus zone protection, distance protection
with IS 2705.
aiterential protection, metering purpose etc.
9.
Rated C.T. ratio: It should be specified from the following standard ratings: U
150/5, 300/5, 400/5, 1000/5. Review Question
Secondary with 1 A may be specified if same is desired.
Explain the various specifications of C.i
10. Rated
short time current rating: As per IS 4201.
821 Specifications of P.T.
11. Rated dynamic current: It is ne
usually 2.5 times the rated short
time current ta various specifications of P.T. are,
12. Bore diameter of C.T.
dry type, naturally
Type It covers
mounting, type of
n t i n g , type
insulation, oil
immersed or

13. Output burden cOoled or

Smou
air cooled etc.
2.
14. Accuracy limit factor Install
ation Whether indoor or outdoor.
3.
Rated system
voltage
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 Switchgeara n dP r o t e c t l o n
- 29

8-28 Cument and Voltage Current and Voltag

Switchgear end Protection Transfomer and
ransformer
Questions Answers
4. Highest system voltage G.22 Short
Mention the differences befween the current
Which is 50 Hz in
India. ansformars used for
5. System rated frequency a.1 and measurement.

protection
10%. ring C.T.s require hign accuracy over the
6. Voltage variation: Usually specified as
range of 10 % to 120 % of
Ans
It iis betterif C.T. saturates tor
currents
exceeding
current.

rated this range. The

atection C.T.s require The characteristics upto secondary voltage
7. Number of phases Usually 3 single phase units are preferred. linear
corresponding
protectior

ximum
fault c u r r e r n t . core of
protective C.T. is of larger cross-section. Theto
8. Rated insulation level oriented steels having
terials like grain high saturation levels are used for
mater

protection
CTs while nickel-iron alloys having low exciting ampere-turns per unit length of core
9. Creepage distance: Specified in total mm. C.T.s.
are used for measuring
10. Accuracy class: It is 0.2 for metering and 3P for protection as per IS 3156. of burden C.T. ?
a.2 What is the meaning on

The burden on C.T. is defined as the load connected

across its
ich is usually expressed in Volt Amperes (VA). It can also be expressed insecondary,
11. Power frequency over voltage withstand : Requirements for secondary winding termsof
impedance at the rated secondary current at a given power factor.
12. 1.2/50 4us impuise withstand outage voltage in kV (peak)

Q.3 What are the applications of C.T.s and P.T.s in a power system?
13. Rated transformation ratio
Ans. 1. To sense the current in circulating current diferential protection
14. Rated output in VA 2. In over current phase fault protection. 3. In various types of distance protection.
4. Intermediate C.T.s for feeding protective devices, measuring systems, relays etc.
15. Overvoltage factor: Which is 1.2 continuous, 1.5 times for 30 sec. etc.
Q.4 Why the secondary of C.T. should not be open ?
16. Tests:
These incdude,
Ans.: If the secondary of C.T. is kept open then current through secondary becomes
i) Type tests such as
temperature rise test, lightning impulse test, error zero hence the ampere turns produced by secondary which generaly oppose pnimary
measurement, switching impulse test etc.
ampere turns becomes zero. As there is no counter m.m.f, unopposed primary m.mt
i) Routine tests such verification of
fests
as
polarities,
frequency dry withstand
power
produce high flux in the core. This produces excessive core loss heating the core. it also
on
primary and
secondary, partial discharge measurement, error produces heavy em.f. on primary and secondary side which may damage the
measurement etc.
5lation of the winding. This is dangerous from the operator point of view as w e
ii) Commission tests to be carried out after ience the
secondary of C.T. should not be open
erection on site.
Q5 Define ratio error for instrument transformers.
17. Service: It is for metering purpose or
protection purpose. on load current, power
factor transformation ratio of transformers depends
cally measurement
is introduced in the
Review Question n g current. Due to this large
error

called ratio error. The ratio error is defined as,

1. Explain the various ************************

specifications of a P.T. % Ratio error

Kn10o Rated primary current .. For C.T.
Where K = Nominal ratio Rated secondary current
For P.T.
Rated primary voltage
Rated secondary voltage
***a*
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n 8-31
Switchgear and Protection Current and
Actual primary current
Voltage Transformer
Q.12 Define
accuracy limit primary current of C.T,
R =Actual ratio Actual secondary current For C.T value of primary current at
The highest
which the composite
Actual primary voltage s. and transformer will not saturate is called accuracy Himit error is within
Actual secondary voltage .. For P.T limits
Hmit factor for
primary current of C.T.
13 Define accuracy C.T
calculate ratio error for instrument transformers
hers.
Q.6 State the formula to Ans. : The
of accuracy limit primary current to the rated
to calculate ratio
error is, accuracy limit factor. primary current is called
Ans. The formula
R = n + mSinð+Icos the factors affecting selection of C.T.
Q.14 List

Ans.
1. Rated primary
current.
Turns ratio, Secondary current
Where n I2 =

2, Rated short time current rating and its duration.

of exciting current
n Magnetising component
3. Rated output. 4. Accuracy class
Loss or active component of exciting current
5. Accuracy limit factor. 6. Insulation level
8 Angle between secondary induced voltage and I2 ô is positive
=

7. Rated secondary current. 8. Knee

for lagging p.f. and negative for leading p.f. point voltage.
What is phase angle error for instrument transformers ? Q.15 Compare C.T. and P.T,. (Refer section 8.17)
Q.7
Ans.: In the power measurements, it is must that the phase of secondary Q.16 On which factors, the transient errors in C.T. depends ?
be displaced by exactly from that of primary current for C.T. While the
current isto
180 phase of Ans.

secondary voltage is to be displaced by exactly 180° from that of

primary
P.T. But actually it is not so. The error introduced due to this fact is called
voltage, for 1. The Thevenin's equivalent capacitance referred to the secondary voltage level
phase angle 2. The configuration and the value of the burden.
error. It denoted
by angle 0 by which the difference betweenphase primary and
secondary is different from 180°. 3. The point of wave voltage interruption. The effect of transient is worse for the
faults at a
voltage zero crossing.
Q.8 Define ankle point.
.17 State the advantages and disadvantages of instrument transformers.
Ans. The point of magnetization curve of C.T. from which linear relation berween
flux density and current starts is
(Refer section 8.19)
called ankle point.
Q.9 Define Knee polnt.
Ans.: The Knee
a 10 % increase in
point
is defined as the point on the magnetisation curve of . l : where
the flux density causes 50 % increase in the
exciting ampere-tut
Q.10 List the factors
affecting magnetisation characteristics of C.T.
Ans.
1. The nature of
the core material 2. The cross-sectional area of the core
.
Length of the
magnetic path of the core 4. The number of turns in the WI
Q.11 State the factors
affecting errors In C.T.
Ans.: 1.
3.
Magnetising current 2. Effect of saturation
Residual flux in core 4. Power factor of burden.

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