BASIC AERODYNAMICS – Semester 1

1 Write the properties of the following:

a) High lift aerofoil

b) General purpose aerofoil
c) High speed aerofoil

a) High Lift Aerofoil:

High lift aerofoils are sections employing a high thickness/chord ratio, a pronounced camber and
a well-rounded leading edge. Their maximum thickness is at about 25% to 30%of the chord aft of the
leading edge. The greater the camber more the range of movement of the center of pressure. The
movement is greatly decreased by reflexing upwards the trailing edge of the wing. Sections of the type
are used mainly on sail planes and other aircrafts where a high CL is all important and a speed a
secondary consideration.

b) General purpose aerofoil:

General purpose aerofoils are sections employing a lower thickness/chord ratio, less camber and sharper
leading edge than those of high lift types. This lower T/C ratio results in less drag and a lower CL than
those of high lift aerofoil. These sections are used when required speeds required is higher than that of
high lift type.

c) High speed aerofoil:

High speed aerofoils have very low T/C ratio, no camber and a sharp leading edge. The maximum
thickness is at about 50% of the chord and most of the sections have 5-10% T/C ratio. These are
symmetrical about the chord length.

2. What is the effect of wind on the glide of an airplane?

Starting from a given height, a glide into wind at the optimum airspeed covers less distance over
the ground than glide down the wind. Since in both the cases, the rate of descent that is the time taken to
loose 1000 ft. is the same. The angle as seen by a ground observer is governed only by the ground speed.
The effect of wind therefore is to decrease the range when gliding with a head wind component and to
increase it when gliding down. The endurance of glide is unaffected while the range is affected.

3. What is the effect of weight on the glide of an airplane?

Variation in weight does not affect the gliding angle provided that a speed is adjusted to fit the
weight. The best indicated airspeed varies as the square of the weight. Increase in weight requires an
increase in speed and vice-versa. Since the gliding angle is unaffected by the weight, the range is also
unchanged.

4. What is the effect of weight on endurance of an airplane on glide?

Although the range is not affected by changes in weight, the endurance decreases with the
increase of weight ans vice versa. If two aircrafts having the same lift/drag ratio, but with different
weights start to glide from the same height,then the heavier aircraft gliding at heigher indicated airspeed
will cover the distance between the strating point and touch down in a shorter time.Therefore the
endurance of the heavier aircraft is less.
5. What is stability? Explain about longitudinal,lateral and directional stability.

Stability of an aircraft means its ability to return to some particular condition of flight, after
having been slightly disturbed from that condition without any efforts from the part of the pilot.
There are two types of stability:

Longitudinal Stability:
If the aircraft is stable about the lateral axis(along longitudinal axis), it is said to be longitudinally stable.

Lateral Stability:
Stability of an aircraft about its longitudinal axis(from rolling movement) is known as Lateral stability.

Directional Stability:
Stability of the aircraft about its normal axis(about yawing movement) is known as directional stability.

6. Write terminology of an aerofoil with a neat diagram.

Draw the diagram and explanation each term of an aerofoil.

7. Differentiate CP and CG.

CP: The point on the chord line at which the total aerodynamic force of a section of an aerofoil is
considered to act.

CG: The point at which the total weight is considered to act irrespective of the position of the body
considered.

8. What is wing tip vortices and explain methods of preventing.

The pressure difference between the upper and lower surface of the wing tip causes air to spill around the
tips from the high pressure region below the wing to the low pressure region above. Because the main
airflow is moving past the tips, the overall effect is the formation of a spiral flow or vortex from each tip
and the direction of the rotation of the vortices being inwards the fuselage. The net direction of the
airflow on the wing is tilted downwards and the lift component is also tilted back producing a horizonal
component of its own called the induced drag. Method of prevention of Wing tip vortices is to reduce
spanwise flow and by avoiding meeting of airflow from upper and lower surface at wing tips. Different
methods are one or more of the following :

a) Wing fences
b) External fuel tanks at the tips
c) Endplate
d) Winglets
e) Drooped wing tips

9. Write the factors influencing lateral stability of the aircraft.

When an aircraft is disturbed laterally, the total lift from the wings tilts towards the low going
wing and the horizontal component of it causes a slide slip towards the lowering wing. If after an initial
disturbance the aircraft regains lateral level ,it is then said to be laterally stable.

The factors influencing lateral stability are:

Dihedral Angle
Sweep back of the wings
Placing most of keel surface above the CG
Using a high wing an low CG position

Dihedral Angle: The dyhedral angle causes the airflow to meet the lower wing at a large angle of
attack than the higher wing thereby increasing the lift on the lower wing setting up a restoring moment.

Sweep back of the wings: The changed direction of the airflow over the lower swept back wing
passing over a short effective chord with a greater effective camber than that of the raised wing.The result
is a relatively greater amount of lift from the lower wing which restores lateral level.

High keel surface: During a side slip considerable force is exerted on the side surface(keel surface)
on an aircraft and a turning moment above the CG produces a greater moment than that below it resulting
a corrective moment laterally.

High wing and low CG: With the wings in comparitively higher position in relation to CG, a
pendulous effect arises when the aircraft sideslips and is disturbed about longitudinal axis. The movement
of center of pressure to one side of CG will cause a correcting moment to help put the aircraft laterally
level.

10. How lift is produced by an aerofoil and the factors affecting it?

By the application of Bernoulli’s theorem with the Venturi Tube principle, the flow of air passed
an aerofoil section can be well imagined. The streamline flow over the top surface of the aerofoil gives a
decrease of pressure due to increase of velocity. So the total energy is constant and while at the bottom
surface is an increase of pressure with a decrease in velocity. The decrease in pressure on the top creates a
partial vaccum providing a suction effect and the increase of pressure at the bottom surface provides an
upward push on an aerofoil. These effects are increased when the aerofoil is set at a small angle to the
airflow which is known as the ‘angle of attack.

Lift of an aerofoil depends upon the following:

Shape of an aerofoil
The plan area of the wing
The square of the velocity
Density of the air
Angle of attack

11. Write short note on:

Layers of atmosphere
ISA
Pressure
Density

i) Layers of Atmosphere:

The atmosphere surrounding the earth is composed of 75% Nitrogen and just less than 21% Oxygen, a
small amount remaining is Carbon Dioxide and other gas. It has four layers:

Troposphere: The layer closest to the earth’s surface extending up to about 10 to 15 kms. It contains
75% of atmosphere’s mass.

Stratosphere: The layer directly above the troposphere and from about 15 to 50 kms above the earth’s
surface. The temperature in this layer increases with altitude because of absorption of sunlight by ozone.

Mesosphere: Layer above stratosphere and extend from 50 to 80 kms above the earth’s surface.
Temperature here decreases with increase in altitude.

Thermosphere: It extends from 80 kms above the earth’s surface to outer space.

ii) ISA(International Standard Atmosphere) :

There is considerable variation in the properties of atmosphere with which flying is concerned
namely temperature, pressure and density. Since the performance of engine, propellers and airplane is
dependent on these factors, actual performance of an aircraft does not give a true basis of comparison
with other airplanes. For this reason ISA has been adopted.

The air of the standard atmosphere is assumed to be dry. The pressure at sea level will be 1013.25
millibars at a temperature of 15° and a temperature lapse rate will be 1.98° per 1000 feet up to a height of
36000 feet above which the temperature will remain constant at -56.5° to 65800 feet.

iii) Pressure:

The weight of air above any surface produces a pressure at that surface. The atmospheric pressure
starts at 1013.25 mb(14.7 PSI) at sea level and fall at a non-linear rate with altitude. At about 18000 feet
the pressure is halved to 506 mb.

iv) Density:
 Density is weight per unit of volume. Since air is mixture of gases, it can be compressed.. The
density of gas is governed by the following rule:
Density varies direct proportion with pressure
Density varies inversely with the temperature

12. a) Explain Bernoulli’s Principle with a neat diagram.

b) Magnus effect

a) Bernoulli’s Principle:

Bernoulli’s Principle states that in an incompressible fluid flow the sum of potential energy, kinetic
energy and pressure is constant.
When a fluid (air) flowing through a tube
reaches a constriction or narrowing of the tube, the
speed of the fluid flowing through the constriction is
increased and the pressure is decreased. The cambered
surface of an aerofoil(wing) affects the airflow exactly
as a constriction in a tube affects the airflow.

b) Magnus Effect:

When a rotating cylinder is placed in an airstream in such a way that the top surface area is
rotating in the same direction as the airflow, the local velocity is high in top and low in bottom. As shown
in the figure at Point A, a stagnation point exists where the line
of airstream impinges on the surface splits, some air goes
over and some under.
Another stagnation point exists at Point B where two
airstreams rejoin and resume the identical velocities. We
now have up wash ahead of rotating cylinder and downwash
at the rear. The difference in surface velocity accounts for a
difference in pressure being lower on the top and higher
on the bottom. This produces an upward force known as
‘Mag nus effect’.

13. Write short notes on Form Drag and Skin friction Drag.

Form Drag: Also

known as Pressure
Drag or Profile Drag
is caused by flow
separation from a
surface and the low
pressure make that is
created by that
separation. It is
primarily dependant
on the shape of the
object. The flat plate
in Fig A has a leading edge stagnation point at the front with a very high static pressure. There is also a
very low static pressure wake area behind the plate. This pressure differential pulls plate backward and
retards forward motion. Conversely streamlines flow smoothly over a smooth shape (Fig B and C) and
less form drag is developed. To reduce form drag the fuselage and other surfaces exposed to the
airstream are streamlined.
Skin Friction Drag:

It is the part of profile drag and is associated with boundary layer. When air passes over a body,
the molecules closest to the surface stick to it. The next layer passes over the first layer but slowly. The
next layer passes over the second layer little faster. This goes on layer by layer until it reaches free stream
flow. This boundary layer with low energy levels advisedly affects flying control surfaces, performance
of aerofoil and engines if it gets into air intakes.

They are controlled by vortex generators, bleeding of air intake or by suction method. They can
be reduced by highly smoothed finished wings, fuselage, tail and flying controls.

14. Discuss in brief about stagnation points.

A minute area in front of the leading edge of an aerofoil where the airflow is brought to rest and
has zero velocity in relation to aerofoil. Ti is said that a particle of air stays at this point for the duration of
the flight. As the aerofoil changes, the angle of attack it does not. So if the angle of attack increases the
stagnations point moves down relative to aerofoil leading edge and vice versa.

15. a) What do you mean by the term stall?

b) Discuss in brief about symmetrical and non-symmetrical aerofoil.

a) Stall:

As the angle of attack increases the airflow has more difficulty to remain laminar on the top surface.
There is often a transition point on the top of the aerofoil where the airflow changes from laminar to
turbulent, and this may be the case for the whole speed range of flight. As the angle of attack increases
this point moves forward. At about 15 degree AOA, the airflow can no longer remain laminar on the top
surface and will break away and become turbulent. This will destroy the lift in this area and the drag will
increase sharply. At this point aerofoil said to stall. The aerofoil is no longer able to support the aircraft
weight and it will lose weight rapidly.

b) Symmetrical and Non-Symmetrical aerofoil:

The symmetrical aerofoil is distinguished by having identical upper and lower surface designs,
the mean camber line and chord line being co-incident and producing zero lift at zero angle of attack. The
advantage of using the aerofoil is the reduction of twisting forced exerted on the aerofoil as the center of
pressure remains relatively constant at varying AOA. Another advantage is the ease of construction and
reduced cost.
Non-symmetrical aerofoil have different upper and lower surface designs, with a greater curvature above
the chord line than below. This type of aerofoil produces useful lift even at negative angle of attack.
Advantages: More lift production at a given angle of attack, improved lift to drag ratio and better stall
characteristics.
Disadvantages: Center of pressure travel can move up to 20% of the chord line creating undesirable
torque on the aerofoil structure and greater product cost.

16. Write short notes on:

a) Laminar Flow and Turbulent flow b) Aerofoil Contamination

c) Anti icing and Deicing d) Rime ice and Glaze ice

a) Laminar flow: The type of streamline flow in which the flow in the boundary layer moves in
very thin successive strong part each other. It has a tendency to get separated from the aerofoil as the
angle of attack increases to a certain value to cause stall.
 Turbulent flow: The flow of fluid not laminar is the flow of streamlines interferes with each
other. When streamline interfere the flow becomes turbulent and lift reduces and drag increases.

b) Aerofoil Contamination:

Under certain atmospheric conditions ice can build up rapidly on aerofoil and air inlets. Ice may
be expected to form whenever there is visible moisture in the air and the temperature is below or near
freezing. The formation of ice on the aerofoil destructs all the aerodynamic properties of it and hence
aerofoil contamination is avoided or prevented. There are various methods to control icing such as
thermal, mechanical, chemical etc.

c) Anti Icing and Deicing:

Anti icing is the method of prevention of icing on the aircraft and de-icing is the process of eliminating
the ice that has formed. The methods vary with the aircraft make and model. The general methods are:

Heating surfaces using hot air

Heating by electrical elements
Breaking up ice formations
Alcohol spray
Ice prevention or elimination system ensures safety of flight when icing conditions exists.

d) Rime ice and Glaze ice:

Rime ice forms rough surface on the aircraft leading edges. It is rough because the temparature is very
low and freezes the water before it has time to spread.

Glaze ice forms a smooth, thick coating over the leading edges of the aircraft as the temparature is
slightly below the freezing water has mere time to flow before it freezes.

17. What do you mean by drag? Discuss with its types.

Drag is a backward deterrent force and is caused by the disruption of the airflow by the wings, fuselage
and protruding objects. The drag can be divided into:
profile drag
induced drag

Profile Drag: There are three types of profile drags. They are associated with the whole aircraft moving
through the air and increases as the square of speed.

a) Parasite Drag: This is the drag generated by all the non-lifting parts of the aircraft such as
Fuselage, fin, undercarriage etc.

b) Form Drag: This part of drag is related to the shape of the body. A flat plate produces more
disturbances to the airflow, while streamline shape tends to keep the airflow around the body in a laminar
condition.

c) Skin Friction: Skin friction is caused by the boundary layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity
of boundary surface. This affects the performance of the aircraft. The boundary layer is controlled by
smoothening the surface and bleeding away the boundary layer.

Induced Drag: Induced drag is associated with the production of lift unlike profile drag. Induced drag
decreases with the square of speed. Due to difference in pressure over and under the using surface a span
wise movement of air causes air under the wing to spill over creating wing tip vertices. As the speed
increases the airflow does not get time to move span wise and wing tip vortices are avoided. Reduction in
AOA reduces the induced drag. The use of winglets prevent spill over airflow and prevents vortices. The
use of wing fences doesn’t allow span wise flow of air preventing wing tip vortices.

18. What are the lift augmenting devices and explain with a neat diagram.

Aerodynamic lift is determined by the shape and size of the main lifting surfaces (wings) of the
aircraft and its cruise speed. At lower speeds, during take-off and landing lift generated by the wings is
insufficient to support weight of the aircraft. So the lift augmentation at these occasions is usually
achieved by changing the shape of the aerofoil and by delaying the separation . The devices commonly
used are flaps, slats and slots, and boundary layer controls.

Leading Edge Devices:

a) Slats & Slots, and Krueger flap:

Slats are small highly cambered aerofoil sections attached along a portion of the leading edge.
They increase the critical AOA enables a higher angle of attack to be maintained by airplane without
stalling and control the air passing over the top of the wing at slow speeds. Some slats/slots systems have
the effect of increasing wing area.

They are fixed, movable or automatic.

A Slot is a suitably shaped aperture built into the wing structure near the leading edge. They
accelerate the air from below the wing and discharge it over the upper surface to re-energize the existing
airflow sweeping the turbulence. They increase the lift by 40% and stalling angle to 20°.

Krueger Flaps:

Leading edge flaps when extended increase the camber of the wing to increase the lift by 50%
and stalling angle to 25°.

b) Trailing Edge flap:

They are located at the inboard of the trailing edge of the wings. When extended they increase the
curvature of wings increasing lift and drag. The types of trailing edge flaps are:
Plain
Split
Fowler
Double-slotted fowler flaps etc

19. What do you mean by Lateral stability? Name the various factors affecting lateral stability.

Ans) Stability of an aircraft about its longitudinal axis (from rolling movement) is known as Lateral
stability.

Factors affecting Lateral stability:

The effects of lateral and directional stability are so closely interlinked that it is difficult to separate them.
A disturbance which initially involves only lateral stability will involve directional stability at the same
time when the aircraft reacts.

Lateral stability is obtained by one or more of the following:

Dihedral Angle

When an aircraft with dihedral angle is banked, the tilted lift vector through its horizontal
component sets up a side slipping velocity towards the lower wing tip. The effect of the dihedral angle is
to cause the airflow to meet the lower wing at a large angle of attack than the higher wing increasing the
lift on the lower wing setting up a restoring moment to correct the position of the aircraft. This effect is
aided by the fuselage shielding the up going wing.

Sweep back of the wings

When the aircraft with a swept bag wing banked by a disturbance, the changed direction of the
airflow over the lower wing passing over a shorter effective chord with a greater effective camber than
that of the raised wing. As with dihedral, the upper wing may also suffer through being shielded. The
result is relatively greater amount of lift from the lower wing which restores lateral level.

Placing most of keel surface above the CG

 During a slide slip considerable force is exerted on the side surface (keel surface) on an aircraft
and a turning moment above the CG produces a greater moment than that below it. The result will be a
corrective moment which will assist in restoring lateral level.

Using a high wing and low CG position

With the wing comparatively higher position in relation to the CG, a pendulous effect arises when
the aircraft sideslips. During sideslip the drag of the wing acting above the CG allows it to swing down
until it is once more vertically below the lift and the aircraft is laterally level.

20. What do you mean by longitudinal stability? Name the various factors affecting
longitudinal stability.

If the aircraft is stable about the lateral axis (along longitudinal axis), it is said to be
longitudinally stable. It is desirable that an aircraft should be stable in the pitching plane throughout its
speed range. The three main factors which influence longitudinal stability are:

a) Position of the CG

The forward limit of the CG is that at which the aircraft is more stable. If a stable aircraft is
trimmed in level flight at this CG position, and then disturbed, it will return quickly to its trimmed
position. If the forward position is exceeded, the aircraft may become difficult to manoeuvre due to its
high stability. As the CG is moved aft the degree of stability decreases and when disturbed from a
trimmed position with the CG further aft the aircraft returns less quickly to its trimmed flight. Eventually
the CG position is reached at which the aircraft remain in the disturbed position with no tendency to
regain the trimmed position. This is known as the neutral point of the CG at which neutral stability
prevails. Any movement of the CG further aft produces instability and on disturbance the aircraft will
diverge further from the original position unless stopped by pilot.

b) Movement of center of Pressure

This varies with the angle of attack tending to move forward as the angle of attack increases and
vice versa. Most symmetrical sections have little or no movement of the CP. The CP may be disturbed by
lowering the under carriage or flaps. If the CP movement is lesser more is the longitudinal stability of the
aircraft and vice versa.

c) Design of the tail plane and elevator

The function of the tail plane is to provide a countering force to any residual out of balance
couples existing between the four main forces. If the angle of attack is increased by a disturbance the
wing lift is increased resulting change of the state of balance. The tail plane has been subjected to the
same increase in the angle of attack. The moment created by the lift generated by tail plane is sufficient to
counter act the lift generated by the wing since the tail plane is located at a greater distance from the
position of CG.

21. Define the following terms:

a) Aspect Ratio b) Fineness Ratio

c) Glide Ratio d) Taper Ratio

a) Aspect Ratio: Span of an aircraft divided by the average chord.

b) Fineness Ratio : It is the ratio between the average chord and the thickness of the aerofoil
c) Glide Ratio: This is the ratio of the horizontal distance travelled to the height lost.
d) Taper Ratio: The taper ratio is the ratio of the tip-chord to the root-chord.
22. What do you mean by Geometric twist and Aerodynamic twist?

Geometric Twist: A reduction in the angle of incidence of an aerofoil from the wing root to the
wing tip is known as Geometric twist of an aerofoil. This is also known as washout.

Aerodynamic Twist: The decrease in camber from wing root to wing tip is known as aerodynamic
twist.

23. Write short notes Cambered aerofoil.

High lift aerofoil is sections employing a high thickness to chord ratio and pronounced camber
and well rounded leading edge. Their maximum thickness is at about 25 to 30% of the chord aft of the
leading edge. The greater the camber more the range of movement of CP. Sections of this type are used
mainly on sail planes and other aircraft where a high CL is all important and speed a secondary
consideration.

24. Write few lines about span wise flow and chord wise flow.

Span wise flow: It is the airflow that travels along the span of the wing normally from the root to
the tip. This occurs considerably on the swept back wings. Span wise flow causes the generation of
wingtip vortices.

Chord wise flow: It is the airflow that flows at right angles to the leading edge of an aerofoil and
pass over to the trailing edge. This occurs on straight wings or rectangular wings. The pressure difference
on the upper and lower surface causes trailing edge vortices when these air flows meet at an angle at the
trailing edge.

25. Differentiate between Dihedral and Longitudinal dihedral.

Dihedral Angle: Dihedral angle is the upward inclination of wings towards the wing tip. This
helps to achieve the lateral stability of the aircraft.

Longitudinal dihedral: The difference in the angles of incidence to which the main plane and tail
plane are set in the rigged position is known as longitudinal dihedral. This helps to achieve longitudinal
stability of the aircraft.

26. What is wing tip stalling? Write the methods to prevent wing tip stalling.

The stall does not occur simultaneously over the entire wing, one section usually the tip, stalling
earlier than another. This unequal stalling causes a local reduction in the lift co-efficient over the affected
section. The remainder of the wing being unaffected the result is a tendency to roll towards the stalled
wing.

Methods of preventing tip stalling are:

Tapered wings in elevation and in plan with different shape of the wing tips such as squared, rounded and
raked tips.

Reducing the angle of incidence over the outer portion of the wing which is known as wash out ensures
the inner portion of the wing reaches stalling angle of attack before the wing tips.

Using an aerofoil section at wing tip that stalls gradually cambered sections are better than the
symmetrical sections at wing tip.
Leading edge spoilers(stall strips) on low speed aircraft makes the inboard portion of the wing to stall
first before the tip reaches the stalling angle.

Using devices which increases the stalling angle on the outer part of the wing.