HELICOPTER ENGINEERING

 References-
 1.Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics by John
Seddon and Simon Newman.
 2. Helicopter Theory by Wayne Johnson.
 3. Helicopter Engineering by Lalit Gupta.
 Why H.E:-To understand and acquire a good knowledge and
understanding on vertical flight aircrafts (ROTOR CRAFT), its principles,
aerodynamics, performance and design aspects.
 Till Now you know about fixed wing aircrafts, now you have to learn about
rotary wing aircrafts, the aerodynamics, flight mechanics, propulsion and
structures.
 Really it is very interesting, You will enjoy this Endeavour.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor. GITAM University Hyderabad

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
 INTRODUCTION:-Airplane is governed by the following factors.
 A) Inertia of airplane B) Propulsive force C) Aerodynamic forces and
moments
 Aerodynamic forces and moments acting on the airplane are
function of its speed (V), geometry, attitude with respect to relative
wind and density of medium through which it flies.
 In an unaccelerated flight, the primary forces acting on the aircraft
are lift, drag, weight and thrust. Aircraft is considered to accelerate if
the thrust exceed the drag. Similarly aircraft is considered to
maneuver if the lift is different from weight.
 Thrust from Engine Lift and Drag from Airflow over aircraft.
 Fundamentals of Airfoil Theory:-
 Lift and Drag forces are created due to Pressure forces and Frictional forces.
 The frictional forces arise due to adhesive qualities of the fluid and produce
Drag forces on the body. On the other hand pressure forces produce Lift.
This lift force F=qS Where q= Dynamic pressure1/2 ρ V2 and S is the surface
area of the wing.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

Theory of Lift

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

 BOUNDARY LAYER
 A boundary layer is a thin sheet of retarded fluid immediately
adjacent to the surface of the body immersed in a flowing fluid. Due
to presence of the boundary layer, the effective shape of the body
outside the boundary layer gets modified giving rise to modified
pressure distribution and hence Form Drag or Pressure Drag.
 Reynolds Number:-
 Four Forces are acting in a fluid-:a) Inertia forces or Dynamic
forces b) Viscous Forces c) Static Forces d) Gravitational
Forces Last two forces are low and neglected.
 The Laminar flow results when the viscous forces are large
enough to overcome the dynamic forces ie low Re.
 Turbulence flow Results when dynamic forces become so
large that they overcome the viscous forces thus resulting in
cross flow or turbulence i. e high Re.
 Separation When the fluid flow no longer confirms to the
geometric contour of the body, it is said that the flow has
separated from the body. When separation occurs, the
boundary layer detaches from the surface of the body.
By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor
DRAG
 The resistive force acting in a direction opposite to the direction of the flights is called
aerodynamic Drag. The Drag can be divided in to the following three categories
 a) Parasite Drag b) Induced Drag c) Wave Drag
 Parasite Drag:- This drag is not caused by the lift or the compressibility effects. The sum
of the profile drag and the interference drag is parasite Drag.
 Profile Drag:- It is the measure of the resistance to flight caused by the air on the profile
of the aircraft. The profile drag comprise of the following
 A) Skin Friction Drag:- Is caused by the viscosity of the air and proportional to the shear
stress of the air. This is by wing, Fuselage tail etc.
 A laminar airfoil is generally smooth and the location of the maximum thickness 40-65%
of chord in order to maintain a favorable pressure gradient over a larger distance from
the leading edge. The airfoil must be thin so that the velocity in the boundary layer and
thus the Remains low. Finally, it must be a properly designed leading edge (parabolic).
 B) Pressure Drag:-This drag arises due to overall pressure distribution of an aircraft. It is
difference between the forces caused by the high pressure on the forward portion and
low pressure on the aft portion of the aircraft. Drag caused by the separation is exp of
pressure drag. This drag is many times greater than the Skin friction Drag.
 Interference Drag:- Caused by the region of turbulence and mixing in different area like
wing and fuselage, Fuselage tail plane engine etc.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

INDUCED DRAG
 The Induced drag is the
aerodynamic drag over a finite
airfoil induced by the lift. At zero
lift the total drag is parasite drag.
As soon as the aircraft produces
the lift, the drag increases and
this increase is the induced drag.
By the fig the airfoil shows the
downwards deflection of the
velocity called the downwash. Due
to pressure difference in bottom
and top wing tip vortices are
formed. These wing tip vortices
are the cause for Induced Drag.
 Total Drag = Parasite drag+Induced
Drag+ Wave Drag.
 L/D Ratio;- It Determined the glide,
the cruise and the flame out landing
and indicates performance.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

 Variables Affecting Aerodynamic Coefficients
 PLANFORM:-The lift curve slope and the
behavior of the wing near the stall is
governed by the wing planform. For
Straight wing the stall is sudden whereas
for delta and swept wing the stall is
gradual. The sharp nose or the thin wing
or the further aft position of the maximum
thickness and the camber causes early
separation leading to sudden stall. The
effect of the camber is to increase the
circulation around the wing leading to an
increase in the lift at all incidences.
 Aspect Ratio:- Is defined as the ratio of
square of the wing area to the wing span.
For same AOA ClMAx reduces with
reduction in AR. Reduction in AR results
following.
 Redduced Cl curve slope, Reduced L/D,
Increases stall Angle, drag at every Cl,
Drag at all AOA, Induced drag also
increases.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

Effect of Reynolds Number and Mach Number
 For a given AOA, The max Cl is
obtained at High Re (see Fig). As
the AOA increases the local
velocity in the boundary layer on
the airfoil increases, hence local Re
increases over upper surface, this
causes decrease in pressure, thus
causing a larger adverse pressure
gradient on the aft portion of
airfoil. For any given Re, the drag
increases slowly at low AOA and
rapidly at high AOA.
 The compressibility of air become
significant as M =1, For a given
AOA, as the M is increased, the lift
coefficient also increases. The Cd
is increased at high speed flight.
There is no increase in drag up to
Mcr, then sudden increased in
drag, called drag divergence, this
is caused by shock waves on the
aircraft.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

 HIGH LIFT DEVICES

BOUNDARY LAYER EFFECT OF HIGH LIFT

CONTROL DEVICES

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

 AERODYNAMIC MOMENT
 Aircraft Pitching Moment:- The variables affecting the pressure
distribution are the AOA, the camber, and the thickness of the airfoil. As the
AOA increases, the lift increases and moment arm remains constant hence
total moment increases. The C.P remains stationary at about1/4 of chord for
symmetrical airfoil.
 For cambered airfoils, CP location is not constant but moves forward with
increase AOA and thus affecting the pitching moment by varying the moment
arm between the lift force and the leading edge. For cambered Airfoil at zero
lift angle the pr forces are zero but sum of moments are not zero. For
symmetrical Airfoil no forces and no moments at zero lift AOA.
 The Effect of Camber:-Increasing camber causes increase in negative
moment. The lowering of flap causes increase in camber, creates
more negative moments.
 Compressibility Effect:- At high speeds the air experiences changes in
pressure along with significant changes in density, which is referred to as the
compressibility effects. The convergence of flow causes acceleration of the
incompressible flow but deceleration in compressible flow. Low t/c, Max
thickness well aft, small leading edge radius, symm Airfoil help to increase
Mcr however drag is increased. Sweep back wing tends to stall near the tip
due to high value of local lift coefficient near the tip and out ward drifting of
boundary layer.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

 ROTOR CRAFT: TYPE AND SYSTEM
 A rotorcraft is an aircraft which in all its
usual flight attitudes is supported in the air
wholly or in part by the rotors rotating about
a vertical axis.
 Types;-
 Autogyro:- Is an aircraft driven longitudinally
by a conventional propeller and sustained
vertically by an unpowered main rotor. Not
capable for vertical or hovering flight.
 Gyrodyne:-Is a rotorcraft whose rotors are
normally engine driven for take-off, hovering
and forward flight and whose means of
propulsion is by conventional propeller
independent of the rotor system. Capable of
vertical flight but no hovering.
 Helicopter:- Is a rotorcraft that depends on
its engine driven rotors for lift and
movement. Rotor provides both lift and
propulsion. Capable of vertical and hovering
flight.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS
 AEROFOILS (AIRFOILS) :- The rotor blade, or airfoil, is the structure that makes
flight possible. Its shape produces lift when it passes through the air.
Helicopter blades have airfoil sections designed for a specific set of flight
characteristics. Airfoil sections are of two types symmetrical and non
symmetrical.
 Symmetrical airfoils have identical upper and lower surfaces. They are suited to
rotary-wing applications because they have almost no centre of pressure travel.
Travel remains relatively constant under varying angles of attack, affording the
best lift-drag ratios for the full range of velocities from rotor blade root to tip.
However, the symmetrical airfoil produces less lift than a non symmetrical
airfoil and also has relatively undesirable stall characteristics. The helicopter
blade must adapt to a wide range of airspeeds and angles of attack during each
revolution of the rotor. The symmetrical airfoil delivers acceptable performance
under those alternating conditions. Other benefits are lower cost and ease of
construction as compared to the nonsymmetrical airfoil.
 Nonsymmetrical (cambered) airfoils:-may have a wide variety of upper
and lower surface designs. Advantages of the nonsymmetrical airfoil
are increased lift-drag ratios and more desirable stall characteristics.
Due to movement of CP, a twisting force is exerted, that is why in old
tech NS not used. Recent design processes and new materials used to
manufacture NS Airfoils. CH 47 ,OH-58 , Westland, etc used NS,
However Chetak, Kamove 25 used Symmetrical Airfoils.
By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor
 ROTARY System
 FULLY ARTICULATED Rotor
system :- This types of system
the rotor blades are free to
move in horizontal and vertical
axis.
 SEMI RIGID ;- Do not have a
vertical or horizontal hinge
pins, instead rotor is allowed to
teeter or flap by a trunnion
bearing that connects the yoke
to the mast.
 RIGID;- In this system no
vertical and horizontal
movement of blades takes
place, only feathering is
allowed.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

ANGLE OF ATTACK AND INCIDENCE ANGLE
 AOA:- It is defined as the angle
between the airfoil chord and its
direction of motion relative to the
air (resultant relative velocity). AOA
is is one of the primary factors that
determines amount of lift and drag
produced by an airfoil.
 Angle of Incidence Angle of
incidence is the angle between the
blade chord line and the plane of
rotation of the rotor system. It
 is a mechanical angle rather than
an aerodynamic angle. In the
absence of induced flow or aircraft
speed AOA and incidence angles
are same.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

PRESSURE PATTERNS

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

Centrifugal Force
 It is defined as the force that tends to make rotating bodies move
away from the centre of rotation. The rotating blades of a helicopter
produce very high centrifugal loads on the rotor head and blade
attachment assemblies. As a matter of interest, centrifugal loads
may be from 6 to 12 tons at the blade root of two to four passenger
helicopters. Larger helicopters may develop up to 40 tons of
centrifugal load on each blade root. In rotary-wing aircraft,
centrifugal force is the dominant force affecting the rotor system. All
other forces act to modify this force.
 As the helicopter develops lift during takeoff and flight, the blades
rise above the "straight out "position and assume a coned position.
Amount of coning depends on RPM, gross weight, and G forces
Experienced during flight. If RPM is held constant, coning increases
as gross weight and G force increase. If gross weight and G-forces
are constant, decreasing RPM will cause Increased coning. Excessive
coning can occur if RPM gets too low, gross weight is too high, or if
excessive G-forces are experienced. Excessive coning can cause
undesirable stresses on the blade and a decrease of total lift because
of a decrease in effective disk area:
 Notice that the effective diameter of the rotor disk with increased
coning is less than the diameter of the other disk with less coning. A
By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor
smaller disk diameter has less potential to produce lift.
By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor
Relative Wind
 Relative wind is defined as the
airflow relative to an airfoil: Relative
wind is created by movement of an
airfoil through the air. When the
helicopter is stationary on a no-wind
day, rotational relative wind is
produced by rotation of the rotor
blades. Since the rotor is moving
horizontally, the effect is to displace
some of the air downward.
 The blades travel along the same
path and pass a given point in rapid
succession (a three-bladed system
rotating at 320 revolutions per
minute passes a given point in the
tip-path plane 16 times per second).

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor
 Rotational Velocities

 During hovering, airflow over

the rotor blades is produced by
rotation of the rotor system.
Speed of Blade near the root is
much less than the speed of tip
due to radius at tip is large
comparing to root. An extreme
airspeed differential between
the blade tip and root is the
result. The lift differential
between the blade root and tip
is even larger because lift
varies as the square of the
speed. Therefore, when speed
is doubled, lift is increased four
times.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

 Blade Twist
 Because of the potential lift
differential along the blade
resulting primarily from speed
variation, blades are designed
with a twist. Blade twist
provides a higher pitch angle at
the root where speed is low
and lower pitch angles nearer
the tip where speed is higher.
This design helps distribute the
lift more evenly along the
blade. It increases both the
induced air velocity and the
blade loading near the inboard
section of the blade.
 The Fig 2.35 compares the lift
of a twisted and untwisted
blade
By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor
 HOVERING
 Hovering is the term applied when a
helicopter maintains a constant position at
a selected point, usually a few feet above
the ground.
 Airflow during hovering:- At hover, the
rotor tip vortex reduces the effectiveness of
the outer blade portions. The vortex of
preceding blade severely affect the lift of
the following blades. This continuous
creation of new vortexes and ingestion of
existing vortexes is a primary cause of high
power requirements for hovering. During
hover, the rotor blades move large volumes
of air in a downward direction. This
pumping process uses lots of horsepower
and accelerates the air to relatively high
velocities. Air velocity under the helicopter
may reach 60 to 100 knots, depending on
the size of the rotor and the gross weight
of the helicopter. The air flow pattern of a
hovering helicopter is illustrated here:

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

 GROUND EFFECT
 The high power requirement needed to
hover out of ground effect is reduced
when operating in ground effect.
Ground effect is a condition of
Improved performance encountered
when operating near (within 1/2 rotor
diameter) of the ground. Improvement
in efficiency during ground effect has
two separate reason.
 reduction of the velocity of the induced
airflow. Since ground interrupts the
airflow under the helicopter, this
reduces downward velocity of induced
flow. The result is less induced drag
and more lift vector and hence less
power needed to hover.
 The second phenomena is a reduction
of the rotor tip vortex:

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

In ground and out of ground effect
 When operating in ground effect, the
downward and outward airflow pattern
tends to restrict vortex generation. This
makes the outboard portion of the rotor
blade more efficient and reduces overall
 system turbulence caused by ingestion
and recirculation of the vortex swirls.
 Rotor efficiency is increased by ground
effect up to a height of about one rotor
diameter for most helicopters. This
figure illustrates the percent increase in
rotor thrust experienced at various rotor
heights.
 At one half rotor diameter the thrust
increased 7% at one diameter very small
and 1 ¼ dia its zero. This effect is felt
over smooth paved surface. However
hovering over high grass, rough terrain,
revetment or water ground effect may
seriously reduced is due to breakdown
and cancellation of ground effect and
return of large vortex patterns with
increased downwash angles.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

 Torque / Anti Torque
 In accordance with Newton's law of action and reaction, the helicopter fuselage tends to rotate in
 the direction opposite to the rotor blades. This effect is called torque. Torque must be
counteracted and or controlled before flight is possible. In tandem rotor and coaxial helicopter
designs, the rotors turn in opposite directions to neutralize or eliminate torque effects. In tip-
jet helicopters, power originates at the blade tip and equal and opposite reaction is against
the air; there is no torque between the rotor and the fuselage. However, the torque problem is
especially important in single main rotor helicopters with a fuselage mounted power source.
The torque effect on the fuselage is a direct result of the work/resistance of the main rotor.
Therefore torque is at the geometric center of the main rotor. Torque results from the rotor
being driven by the engine power output. Any change in engine power output brings about a
corresponding change in torque effect. Furthermore, power varies with the flight maneuver
and results in a variable torque effect that must be continually corrected.
 Antitorque Rotor
 Compensation for torque in the single main rotor helicopter is accomplished by means of a
variable pitch antitorque rotor (tail rotor) located on the end of a tail boom extension at the
rear of the fuselage. Driven by the main rotor at a constant ratio, the tail rotor produces thrust
in a horizontal plane opposite to torque reaction developed by the main rotor. Since torque
effect varies during flight when power changes are made, it is necessary to vary the thrust of
the tail rotor. Antitorque pedals enable the pilot to compensate for torque variance. A
significant part of the engine power is required to drive the tail rotor, especially during
operations when maximum power is used. From 5 to 30 percent of the available engine power
may be needed to drive the tail rotor depending on helicopter size and design.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

HEADING CONTROL
 In addition to counteracting torque, the tail rotor and its
control linkage also permit control of the helicopter heading
during flight. Application of more control than is necessary to
counteract torque will cause the nose of the helicopter to
swing in the direction of pedal movement. To maintain a
constant heading at a hover or during takeoff or approach,
the pilot must use antitorque pedals to apply just enough
pitch on the tail rotor to neutralize torque and hold a slip if
necessary. Heading control in forward trimmed flight is
normally accomplished with cyclic control, using a
coordinated bank and turn to the desired heading.
Application of antitorque pedals will be required when power
changes are made. In an autorotation, some degree of right
pedal is required to maintain correct trim. When torque is not
present, mast thrust bearing friction tends to turn the
fuselage in the same direction as main rotor rotation. To
counteract this friction, the tail rotor thrust is applied in an
opposite direction to counter the frictional forces.
By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor
TRANSLATIONAL LIFT
 Improved rotor efficiency resulting from
directional flight is called translational lift.
The following picture Fig 2.46 shows an
airflow pattern at airspeeds between 1-5
knots. Note how the downwind vortex is
beginning to dissipate and induced flow
down through the rear of the rotor disk is
more horizontal than at a hover.
 At 10 to 15 knots,the airflow is much
more horizontal than at hover , the leading
edge of the down wash pattern is being
overruns and is well back under the
helicopter nose. At 16 to 24 knots the
rotor completely overruns the recirculation
of old vortexes, and begins to work in
relatively clean air. As the helicopter speed
increases, translational lift becomes more
effective and causes the nose to rise, or
pitch up.
 For transitional flight TR becomes more
effective because of less turbulent air as
speed increases, this causes the yaw left
so pilot has to correct by right pedal.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

 Transverse Flow Effect
 In forward flight, air passing through
the rear portion of the rotor disk has
a greater downwash angle than air
passing through the forward portion
rotor disk causes a reduced angle of
attack, resulting in less lift. Increased
angle of attack and more lift is
produced at the front portion of the
disk because airflow is more
horizontal. These differences between
the fore and aft parts of the rotor
disk are called transverse flow effect.
They cause unequal drag in the fore
and aft parts of the disk resulting in
vibrations that are easily recognizable
by the pilot. The vibrations are more
noticeable for most helicopters
between 10 and 20 knots.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

 Dissymmetry of Lift
 Dissymmetry of lift is the difference in lift
that exists between the advancing half of
the rotor disk and the retreating half. It is
caused by the fact that in directional flight
the aircraft relative wind is added to the
rotational relative wind on the advancing
blade, and subtracted on the retreating
blade.
 The blade passing the tail and advancing
around the right side of the helicopter has
an increasing airspeed which reaches
maximum at the 3 O'clock position. As the
blade continues, the airspeed reduces to
essentially rotational airspeed over the nose
of the helicopter. Leaving the nose, the
blade airspeed progressively decreases and
reaches minimum airspeed at the 9 O'clock
position. The blade airspeed then increases
progressively and again reaches rotational
airspeed as it passes over the tail.

By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor

Most people think that a helicopter will fall like a rock and
the rotor system will stop once the engine fails. This is a
totally false assumption. A helicopter can continue to fly
without any power from the engine. "Autorotation" is the
term used for "Gliding" a helicopter down after the engine
fails or the throttle is retarded to the idle position.
If you look at a rotor blade from the tip of the blade toward
the root, you will see it will twist laterally. At the tip of the
blade, the leading edge may point down while at the root of
the blade, the leading edge may point up. This allows
different regions of the blade to perform different tasks,
one of which is Autorotation. The outer portion of the
blade, when the collective is lowered all the way to what is
called "Flat Pitch", will drive the rotor system as the aircraft
glides downward, increasing or maintaining the speed of
the rotor system. The rotor system is driven normally by a
centrifugal clutch which is positively engaged while the
engine supplies power, but disengages when power is
removed. The rotor system "Free Wheels", and continues to
spin. The air travelling upward through the rotor system
continues to drive the system and maintain rotor RPM.
By Y D Dwivedi Asst. Professor