4.

AERODYNAMIC FORCES
Introduction
An aerodynamic force has two components that are the lift force and drag force. Lift is
usually thought of as force acting in an upward direction, although lift can, and does, act in any
direction. Lift, however, is the primary support force of an airplane the support which keeps the
aircraft “up.” Quite obviously, a loss of lift under certain conditions could have disastrous
results. Drag is component of aerodynamic force which retards the motion of an aircraft through
the air. A time, this force is hindrance and decrease the performance of the aircraft, but at other
times, it can be used to advantage.

4.1. Airfoil profile and terminology

Definition: An airfoil is technically defined as any surface such as an airplane, aileron, elevator
rudder or wing designed to obtain reaction from the air through which it moves.An airfoil or,
more properly, an airfoil section, is a slice of a wing (See Figure4.1).

Figure 4.1 Cross section of cambered aerofoil

4.2. Airfoil terminology

To understand aerodynamic forces you must understand the terminology associated with
aerofoil. The terminology used to discuss an airfoil shown in Figure 4.2

 Chord line is a straight line connecting the leading edge and the trailing edge of the
airfoil.

 Chord is the length of chord line. All airfoil dimensions are measured in terms of the
chord.
 Figure 4.2 Airfoil terminologies.

 Mean camber line is a line drawn halfway between the upper surface and lower surface.
If the mean camber line coincides with the chord line, the airfoil is said to be
symmetrical. In symmetrical airfoils, the upper and lower surfaces have the same shape
and are equidistant from the chord line.

 Maximum camber is the maximum distance between the mean camber line and the
chord line. The location of maximum camber is important in determining the
aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoil.

 Maximum thickness is the maximum distance between the upper and lower surfaces.
The location of maximum thickness is also important.

 Leading edge radius is a measure of the sharpness of the leading edge. It may vary from
zero, for a knife-edge supersonic airfoil, to about 2% (of the chord) for rather blunt
leading edge airfoils.
4.3. Wing Dimensions

We have to discuss wing dimensions, because airfoil characteristics (C L, CD, CL/CD and CP)
depend upon the proportions of the plan form (determined by its span, chord length, contour of
wing tips, and aspect ratio) and the amount of curvature of the airfoil section.
The wing area S is the plan surface area including the area covered by the fuselage or nacelles.
The wing span b is the distance from tip to tip.

The average chord Cav is the geometric average chord, Span x average chord = wing area (b x
Cav = S).

 The root chord Cr is the chord at the aircraft centerline. The tip chord Ct is the chord
measured at the wing tip.
 Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio of an airfoil of rectangular shape is the ratio of the span to the chord.
However, for aerodynamic reasons, airfoils are hardly ever designed with a rectangular plan
form. The aspect ratio for non-rectangular airfoil is defined as the span squared divided by area.
Thus, a high aspect ratio wing is comparatively long and slender while the low aspect ratio wing
appears short and stubby.

The aspect ratio AR is the span divided by the average chord.

AR = b/cav ; also AR= b2/S.

Where: b- Represents span of the wing (airfoil)

S- Represents plan form area of the wing (airfoil).
 Camber
Camber is defined as the curvature of an airfoil surface or an airfoil section from the leading
edge to the trailing edge. The degree or amount of a camber is expressed as the ratio of the
maximum departure of the curvature from the chord-to-chord length. Camber is positive when
the departure from the straight line is up ward and negative when it down ward.
 Airfoil profiles
An airfoil profile is the outline of an airfoil section. An airfoil section is a cross section of
airfoil parallel to the plane of symmetry or to a specified reference plane.
An airfoil is any surface, such as an airplane wing aileron, or rudder, designed to obtain reaction
from the air through which it moves.
The taper ration λ (lambda) is the ratio of the tip chord to the root chord λ = Ct/Cr. The sweep
angle  (cap lambda) is measured as the angle between the line of 25% chord points and a
perpendicular to the root chord.

Figure 4.3 Wing plan form geometry

4.4. Variables of Geometry of Airfoils

There are four main variables in geometry of an airfoil:

Shape of the mean camber line.

Thickness

Location of maximum thickness

Leading edge radius.

 Aerofoil Airflow

The different flow types of airflow are streamline, laminar, and turbulent flows.

 Streamline flow

To visualize this consider a stream tube as a length of pipe through which air, is passing
(Figure 4.4). There is no flow across the boundary of the pipe, and the boundaries are
represented by the stream lines. Refer to the continuity equation for incompressible flow. As the
cross sectional area of the stream tube decreases the velocity increases and the stream lines
appear closer together.

Figure 4.4 Stream Tube

 Laminar flow

The word laminar is derived from Latin word lamina meaning a thin plate of metal or some
other material. Laminar flow employs the concept that air is flowing in thin sheet or layers close
to the surface of a wing with no disturbance between the layers of air; that is, there is no cross
flow of air particles from one layer of air to another. Also, there is no sideways movement of air
particles with respect to the direction of airflow.
  Turbulent flow

A turbulent flow, to the contrary, may be defined as any part of a fluid flow in which the
velocity at a given point varies more or less rapidly in both direction and magnitude with time.

Figure 4.5 Turbulence caused by a flat plate perpendicular to airstreams.

 Boundary layer

The boundary layer is that layer of air adjacent to the airfoil surface. The air velocity in this layer
varies from zero on the surface of the airfoil to the velocity of the air stream at the outer edge of
the boundary layer. This is illustrated in Figure 4.6.

The cause of boundary layer is due to viscosity property of air and the friction between the
surface of the wing and the air.

Ordinarily the airflow at the leading edge at a smooth- surfaced wing will be laminar, but as
the air moves toward the trailing edge of the wing the boundary layer becomes thicker and
laminar flow diminishes.

Figure 4.6 Velocity profile in boundary layer

4.5. Velocity and Static Pressure Changes about an Airfoil.

The air approaching the leading edge of an airfoil is first slowed down; it then speeds up
again as it passes over or beneath the airfoil. Figure4.7 shows a comparison of two local
velocities with the flight path velocity V1 and V2 with each other.

As the velocity changes, so does the dynamic and static pressures, according to Bernoulli’s
principle. Air near the stagnation point has slowed down, and thus the static pressure in this
region is higher than the ambient static pressure. At a point near maximum thickness,
maximum velocity and minimum static pressure will occur. Because air has viscosity, some of its
energy will be lost to friction and a “wake” of low velocity, turbulent air exists near the trailing
edge, resulting in a small, high-pressure area.

Figure 4.7 Velocity change around an aerofoil

4.6 Aerofoil Pressure Distribution

According to Bernoulli’s equation (Equation 3.7) as velocity increase, dynamic pressure

increases causing static pressure to decrease. Thus, an airfoil reduces static pressure on the upper
surface by increasing the velocity. The static pressure on the upper surface of the aerofoil is less
than the static pressure on the lower surface. It is significant that the static pressure on both
surfaces can be less than atmospheric pressure and still produce lift. The important point here is
the pressure differential which is developed across the aerofoil. Figure 4.8 shows the pressure
differential by using vectors that point away from the surface of the aerofoil to represent pressure
below atmospheric, and using vectors that point toward the aerofoil to represent pressures greater
than atmospheric.

Figure 4.8 pressure distribution across an aerofoil

4.7. Pressure Distribution at Varying Angle of Attack.

Angle of attack (α): is the acute angle between the relative wind and the chord line of airfoil.

Critical angle of attack is the angle of attack at which the flow about the airfoil changes
abruptly, by corresponding abrupt changes in the lift and drag.

The pressure distribution of an airfoil surface changes as the angle of attack changes. For
different angle of attack, the pressure differential is different. It was found that over most of
usual flight range of angles of attack, the relatively low pressure above the airfoil constituted
from 60% to 80% of the lifting force.

Let’s see pressure distribution on a certain airfoil surface at –8, +4, and +10 degrees angles of
attack.

At α = -80 there is an area of positive that acts down on the leading edge, while the remaining
distribution of pressure is such that the resulting for upper and lower surfaces produce a down
load on the front section of the wing and an up load on the rear of the wing.

At α = +40 shows that the negative pressure distributed on the upper surface of the wing and
positive pressure on the leading edge of the lower surface.

At α = +100, shows that an increase of both positive and negative pressure on both surfaces of
the wing.

Figure 4.9 Pressure distributions at varying angle of attack

 General Conclusions
 The pressure is not uniformly distributed either above or below the airfoil.

The greatest pressure both positive and negative, are near the leading edge.

The pressures, both positive and negative, generally decrease

forward the trailing edge.

4.8 Center of pressure and Center of pressure travel

Definition: - Center of pressure is defined as the point at which the resultant aerodynamic
forces act and there will no be pitching moment. The center of pressure is a point on
the chord of an airfoil and that its location and the direction depend up on the shape of the airfoil
section and the angle at which it is set to the air stream. Throughout most of the flight range, that
is, at the usual angles of attack, the center of pressure moves forward as the angle of attack
increases, and moves backward as the angle of attack decreases.

Figure 4.10 Center of pressure and center of pressure travel

It has been found that the center of pressure location moves along the chord line when the
angle of attack changes. This movement makes calculations involving stability and stress
analysis very difficult. In addition, at zero lift, cambered airfoils still have pitching moments.
This means that at zero lift the center of pressure must be located at infinity, which, of course, is
impossible. Therefore, the concept of center of pressure is seldom used today. There is, however,
a point on an airfoil where the pitching moment is a constant, if the velocity is constant. This
means that the pitching moment is unaffected by changes in angle of attack. This point is called
the aerodynamic center.

The aerodynamic center, unlike center of pressure, does not move with changes of angle of
attack, thus simplifying the calculations. It is convenient to consider lift and drag forces acting at
the aerodynamic center. The location of the aerodynamic center varies slightly, depend on an
aerofoil shape. Sub sonically, it is located between 23 and 27% of the chord; supersonically, it
shifts to the 50% chord point.

In summary:

Pitching moment is constant at aerodynamic center (constant velocity)

All changes in lift effectively occur at aerodynamic center.

Aerodynamic center is located near 25% of the chord length for subsonic designed
aerofoil and near 50% for supersonic designed aerofoil.

4.9. Aerodynamics Forces

Aerodynamic force is the resultant static pressures acting on an airfoil in airflow, multiplied
by the plan form area that is affected by the pressure. The line of action of the aerodynamic
force passes through the chord line at a point called center of pressure.

 Lift (L)

It is a component of aerodynamic force that is always perpendicular to the direction of the

relative wind, which tends to sustain the aircraft in flight and it is primarily obtained from the
wing of the aircraft.

Figure 4.11 Components of aerodynamic force

The fundamental equation for lift is:

L= 1 / 2 CL ρV2 S--------------------------------------------4.1

Where: - L - lift in Newton; CL-lift coefficient; ρ- Air density in kg/m3

V- Relative velocity of airstream in m/s and S - Airfoil area in m2.

The fundamental equation for lift may be re-written, as follows:

Coefficient of lift = CL = L ∕ 0.5ρV2S----------------------------4.2

The coefficient of lift is a function of the airfoil shape and the angle of attack.

Solved problem

1. Find the amount of lift, which can be obtained from a missile wing having an area 56m2, at a
velocity of 192 km /hr at air altitude of 7000m with a C L of 0.4 at a 40 angle of attack. At 7000m
altitudes, ρ is 0.5944 kg/m3.

Given S = 56m2 Req. L =?

V= 192km/hr

L = 7000m

CL= 0.4

ρ = 0.5944kg/m3

Soln: L =1/2 CL ρV2S

= 1/ 2x0.4x 0.5944 x (192∕3.6)2 x 56

= 18936.26N

 Drag (D)

It is a component of aerodynamic force that is parallel to the direction of the relative wind,
which opposes the thrust. It caused by the separation of the airflow as it hits the wings, the
fuselage and other object that one protruded in the airflow.

A streamline aircraft creates less drag than an aircraft that is not streamlined. At subsonic
speeds, there are two types of drag induced drag and parasite drag. Shock wave drag is a third
kind of drag; occurring at high speeds, it is discussed in chapter eight.
 The fundamental equation for drag resembles the equation for lift.

D = ½ CD ρV2S----------------------------------------------4.3

Where: - D- drag in Newton’s

CD- drag coefficient

ρ - Air density (Kg/m3)

V – Relative velocity of air stream (m/s)

S – Airfoil area (m2)

Figure 4.12 CL- α and CD - α.

The fundamental equation for drag may be re-written, thus

Coefficient of drag= CD =D ∕ 0.5ρSV2----------------------------4.4

Like the coefficient of lift, the coefficient of drag is a function of the airfoil shape and angle of
attack. Figure 4.10 shows a typical curve for CD plotted against angle of attack (CD-α) and CL – α
for the same airfoil.

 Types of Drag force:

 Induced drag

Induced drag is the least understood type of drag but it is the most important, especially to the
pilot of high performance aircraft. It is often called drag due to lift because it only occurs when
lift is being developed.

Induced drag calculations:

The basic drag equation is drag = coefficient of drag x dynamic pressure x wing area.
The included drag equation simply add subscripts

Di  C D i qS = 1 / 2 C D i V 2 S -------------------------------------4.5

Figure 4.13 Induced drag versus velocity.

 Parasite drag

Parasite drag is easily understood, but difficult to measure. This is because there are several
types of parasite drag and the total parasite drag is not a simple addition of each component. Five
types of parasite drag are discussed here.

 Skin fraction drag is caused by the viscous friction within the boundary layer. The total
area of the aircraft that is exposed to the airstream will be affected by this type of drag.
Skin smoothness also greatly affects this drag. Flush head rivets, waxed and polished
surfaces, and removal of aluminum oxides help reduce skin friction drag.

 Form drag is the portion of the parasite drag that is influenced by the shape or form of
the aircraft. Streamlining the fuselage, engine nacelles and pods, and external stores
helps reduce form drag.

 Interference drag is caused by the interference of boundary layers from different parts
of the airplane. If the drags of two component parts of an airplane are measured
individually and then the components are assembled, the drag of the assembly will be
greater than the drag of the parts. The boundary layer interference is the reason for this.
Smooth fairings at surface junctions reduce this type of drag.
  Leakage drag: is caused by differential pressures inside and outside of an aircraft. Air
flowing from a higher pressure inside of a fuselage through a crack or door seal will
create an airstream, which impinges on the airflow around the aircraft and creates drag.
Flow from the bottom side of a wing through wing attachment cracks to the top of the
wing can also create leakage drag. Door and window sills are often sealed with masking
tape before starting an air race to lessen this drag.

One other kind of parasite drag, of particular interest to helicopter pilots, is called profile drag.
Profile drag is the drag of the moving rotors, and it must be overcome any time the rotors are in
motion. Therefore, this drag can exist even if the aircraft is not in motion or developing lift.

Parasite drags calculations:

The parasite drag equation is simply the basic drag equation 4.3 with added subscripts:

D p  CD p qS = 1 / 2 CD p V 2 S -------------------------------------4.6

Figure 4.14 Parasite drag versus velocity.

 Total drag

Total drag is simply the sum of the induced drag and the parasite

drag:

Dt  Di  DP --------------------------------------------4.7
As we mention earlier, the drag is simply the component of the aerodynamic force that is
parallel to the free stream RW.

It is made up of both the induced drag vector and parasite drag vector, as shown in Figure 4.15.

Figure 4.15 Drag vector diagram.

The total drag curve for aircraft is the sum an induced drag curve and a parasite drag curve
and this is shown in Figure 4.16.

Note that the minimum drag or (L/D) max point occurs at the velocity where the induced drag
and parasite drag curves intersect. Therefore, at this velocity, Di = Dp= ½ Dt

Figure 4.16 Total drag curves

Exercise
2. Find drag force that oppose cruise missile flying 192 km/hr, at an altitude of 9000 m with a CD
of 0.11 and 40 angle of attack. Missile’s wing area is 6m2.

The lift and drag equations depend on several factors, the most important of which are:

Airstream velocity V (m/s)

Airstream density ratio σ(dimensionless).

Plan form area S (m2).

Profile shape of the airfoil.

Viscosity of the air.

Compressibility effects

Angle of attack α (degrees).

The first two factors determine the dynamitic pressure q of the air stream, as per equation 3.8.

1
q= σV2
2

Factors 4, 5 and 6 influence the amount of drag that an airfoil will develop at a certain angle of
attack. It is convenient to express the lift and drag forces in terms of non-dimensional
coefficients that are functions of angle of attack. These are called the coefficient of lift (CL) and
the coefficient of drag (CD).

Lift – to – drag (L/D) ratio

An aircraft’s lift/drag ratio is a measure of its efficiency. An aircraft with high L/D ratio is more
efficient than one with a lower L/D.

The L/D ratio can be found by dividing the values of C L by those of CD, at the same angle of
attack.

L 1 / 2C L V 2 S C L
  ----------------------------------4.8
D 1 // 2C L V 2 S C D
The highest point on the L/D curve is of great importance; It is called ( L / D) max and occurs at

the most efficient Angle of attack. Several aircraft performance items take place at ( L / D) max .
Under 1G flight, the lift of the aircraft equals the weight, So L/D = W/D. If the value of W/D is a
maximum, then the drag must be minimum. Minimum drag is then equal to the weight of the
aircraft divided by the value of (L/D) max.

Example: An aircraft weighs 20,800N and has (L/D) max is 10.4 at 5.20 Angle of attack. Find the
minimum drag.

Given:

W = 20,800N

L/D) max = 10.4 at 5.20 angle of attack

Required Dmin =?

Soln.

W
Dmin  = 20,800∕10.4) = 200N
( L / D ) max