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shoulclcrs rhc p.rrt of drc glllrncl sLrir-oun.1inq clsket. Io citircr sitle oi rhe prince lrrri lbovr: thc g:rrl:rrrcl. l-rgrrrcs :rlc LhoughL Lrcthe divurc 1o lttr-rldrnts lncl solrr: ruil lLrrr:rr J.-iries.Miiro enri Meo,, orc- oi rLhorrrpl,rccs r",.rcudr thc .r on liclcl oi thc Kusrurr princcll ,qurc vhil.: rhc other-cirrr-ics \\'re.uh in hL liqlrr hrnr1. Thc ir ot p1:rccmcnt tlr,.:u-rcrth on thc Lcr.l ,rt th.r p r i t r c c L t r g u r c i s r s r r r r b o lo f r l i v i n c l i i q J r i p v r n ( l s L r g q { stth . r t t : l i r n r . n to i - r r r s l i c . l r i r l ( r . \ . \ ]
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(of Krniske?) is shol'n trlrrsccir.iurg rlrr: orLruclanc rcllrrr l1r(l cllLcrilrq into thc re:iltrr ol rhc tlivinc. Ihc LrrclLrlering lin.: oi the grrrlrurd clcrrll' 5qp11111'5 divinc fiqurcs of thc tllcc thc Iluclclhls, lnrlre, 13rehnri. Miilo,:rnrl M.ro |-,rrn thc munclanc lcvcl bclorv conreininq thc rorrl lirgurc and thc erotcs. Ciccsc. sunbolic of rlrc trlrisccl.lcnt lcllm :111!l morii l-oLrlrrl ln(lic a ln xrt xf lcasf silrcc MrLdvr tirrrc\, plocca.l ilt x cloctl isc dircoion rr:ould thc c.rsLct1id holilinq 1!fcrths. Most oi thc rurviving scLril'tLrlcs lrom the northlvcst rcgrorr clltinq iionr rh,:1-{LLsrnr pcriod 'lhc arc nradc oi stonc. r-.tst rlrxjofit\' ol thrse lvcrc 1nx(lc in thc scrvici oi rhc llucldhist r, : , |l. M r\. | ,.,.. "'r '', ^i f", bclorqccl to corrrplcx iconoqrlphic scir,.nrcs, somctiorcs :rsprrt of lf.:hitccttrr:Lldccorltion b!t oftcn rs prrt ol slrlinc -riroufiir.qs. thc nrLjorinIn of c:rsr:s, bo'"r'cr'cr.thc origin:rl conic\ts ol thc\c rr,ork\ hlvc Lccu 1ost. lcevirr-9 e firrlnicntcLl ovcrvicu' of thc icorroqr:rp1rr oi rLc pcrio,,1 sccn Irrqclv throuqh -,rh;rr erc ro..r isolercd ari:uIPle!, Strrrcling llLrt|lhe iluqcs llc ouc of [hc nrosL colurorl sllbjccts rlcpicrcrl in lJ:rctro (horilrur :1r'tol rlic Kusine pcriocl. Mln1. Lri rhc fiqurrs shou e rcnrrrkrblc colrforlrit\ ir 1.o5".aurru,rta, ttdtn, la[!dl1ns. lrrc] othcr chroctcrisr:ics. A tvpic.rl crlrnplc slrol,s e BLrdrihe surniling, b:rrc'foot, lncl lrith onc lr-rl sli-rqlrr1r bcni btiL othcrlrisc in ;r gcrrcrrllr. fiontt1 nrlr-nct iliq. S.ro).lIc scers :r rrlhcl hcilly robc thet covcr: borh shoukl.'rs. His lcft lrenrL is Jon-n .rnd t s c c r r sr o l l r l d l u l t o i h i s g i r f r ) ) c n \ \ h i l c h i r f i q h t henri. nol lrrof,cl. ;Lpprrcntll ciispL.lL:rl,:l/ra1o rrirdrr. Arol) his lrcecl is ltis rr-srrt-r,r. ri clrs no ile . o r - o t i r c r f r i l l a c l v ( ) i n r n r . 1 r r sH o l c , , c r , -jcuchl
S i : , r J i : , gi l L r d L l h .F . ' , : l ] r . r r ( , ( ; i u , ( i l , i , r , , , g : . n . rr I i r i r : r r i r K n i r J r : r ' . r i , , J ! . l r i ' f . l l : c . r . r ; o c r r r .L r h o r - ' t \ l 1 r r c , , , , rI.- r h o r . r ti

r:6

pruoo

oF THE EARrY DYNASTIES

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Buddha. FrornBactro-Gandhara region, 8.rr. Standing period.Schist. ca.55 crn. Indian Pakistan. Kusana H: Museunr, Calcutta, 8.r2. Seated Buddha.From Loriyan Tangai,Pakistan. Kultqa pe od. Schist. ca.6o crn. Indian Museum, H: Calcutta. his elongated ear lobes are a remnant of a forrner or earlier phaseofexistence asa bodhisattva, when healy ornaments would have been worn. As a symbol of renunciation of the material world, the elongated ear lobcs are an almost universal feature of Buddha images. Behind his head is a halo. and others, can be seen These characteristics, with great regularity arnong the Buddha images of the Kupqa period from the Indic northwest. Yet it is unlikely that all thesefigures are rePlesentations of the same individual or the same event. A number of specificBuddhas are named in Buddhist texts that were current dudng Kusdna times, but unlessthere are interpretable idenriFyingfeatureson tlte images. it is impossible to be certain which Buddha is being shown.ro Such uniformity, indeed, rnight be expected in the depiitions of beings who symbolize the attainment of a nondifferentiated state of perfection. Yet an understandingof the individual identities is important to properly interpret the Buddhological message. Such meanings might have been provided by the original contexts of the images. Sometimes, scenes sculpted figures or symbols are carved of onto the pedestalupon which the figure stands, and these may provide clues to the identity of the Buddha. In this example, a number of devotees worship rat a shrine that appears to contain an incenseoffering. But irs meaning. orher thrn as a generalacr o[ devorion.is uncertain in relationship to the Buddha image. Despite the relative iconographic conformity of the Buddha figures, Bactro-Gandharaimages display a great variety of stylistic characteristics. This carving, for example, displays a significant debt to the classicistictradition of Hellenistic and Roman art, though whether it is the result ofthe generalwestern Asiatic cultural rnilieu or a new infusion from the Mediterranean world is unknown. Classicisticfeatures include the heavy, three-dimensional folds of the drapery, which contrast strongly to the more diaphanous,clinging styles of the Indic regions. Mediterranean models might also have been a

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NORTHERN REGIONSUNDBR THE EUIANAS

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8.r3. SeatedBud<lha. From Loriyan Tangai, Pakistan. Kugelre period. Schist. H: ca. 60 cm. IncLan Museum, Calcutta,

Buddha.From Bactro-Gandhtra region, 8.r4. Seated period. Schist.H: ca. 75 cm, Lahore Palistan.Kuga4a Museum,Lahore.

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for source the regular,well-defrnedfacialGatures and warry hair style. The bent-leg posturer a feature found widely throughout the BactroGandherarealrns,might be ultimately traceable contrapposto. to the classical A secondexample, while yirtually identical in format and the depiction of the Budclha figure, is strikingly differentin style (Fig. 8.rr)' The most noticeabledif,erenceis that this 6gure is much shorter and stockier in build tban the other. The "four-headshigh" proportions,when studied in light of the stylistic evolution in the and Mediterranean relatedworlds, would suggest late Roman models and a significant distance in time from the imperial Roman styles. In addition, the hair is shown as a seriesof striationsrather than curls, anothervery Buddha representations, Seated popular mode of depiction during Ku9a4a as times, also show similar sry)isticvariations, demonstratedby three strikingly distinct examples(Figs.8.rz-r4). Although there are differences hand positions,sincethe first examPle in

is represented in dharmacakramuha, t teaching gesture, and the other two are in variants of dhyana nufun, a meditative gesture, this does not negate the differencesin style. Figure 8.rz in is decidedly classicistic type, especiallyin the treatment of the facial features and the warry hair style. A muscularbody, in keeping with the norm, is indicated by the bared right classicistic arm and the torso beneath the drapery. (The garrnent, which leaves one shoulder bare, though less common than that that covers both shoulders, is widely found in Bactro-Gandhara sculpture; its origin is not known and it is possible that sectarian distinctions were indicated by the different ways of wearing the monks' robe.) Figure 8.r3 has a fuller, fleshier face, a curled hair style instead of the waves, and somewhat more regularized and shallow folds to his gatment. The third example(Fig.8.14)is yet another variant in terms of the rendering of the drapery (hereshown in very finely pleatedfolds), in facial type, with Iranian-style mustache and rather full ears,and in hair style depictedin wary lines

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thlt cntl in rhe clustcr of curls ol' thLr l-{ris.7. Whilc such dilTe'r'enccs stvlc lrc crsily obin . c r v . . l . t . ' . . r r r . . .r . . l i F r , , . ltr' i r r . r p r , t r r l r , l l ; l . . . " " . , . r L , , ^ "I . r " . r . i , . r i h r ' - . ,.r, 1 . . thet comprises rcgion iu1r1 llctcrogcllcoLrs thc its , . ' r l t l r l r r , r i . q , . . r r . . l r l t ' r . . r l, r r ' . s r, . r l , . ' rnriilc.l stylc coul.l hrve i:xisted.Tn etldirior, r,vhilcir is conurloll prilcticL- lrt historirins for to rs\ign tlle m:5olity oi rvorks ti-oru this rcgion end lpploxirnatc pcrio,:1 qencr:rl.lite of the l sccondto thc thirclccrturicsA.r).,it is lilcl\.dr.t vcr)' spccitlc cirronoloqicll .lcvelopmcntsoc. . .. r . . : ,r . . . . a , i . t r . , r k r. . [ . _ nrorrll. essiqrrccl tilc I(os:ln:lpcriocl milt-in to {ict luvc bccn protluctsof Srkr-Parthi:irr tinlcs, rvhile othcrs undoubtcdlv rc cct tuclitiorrs prcvrlcnt:rftc.rthe Klrslrnl empirc rvescclipsed. Other lectors,suches rcligiousscctlrirnisln:rnd rhe l-Leutl individual artists, of rnsy .1so:rccollrlt for somc of thc dillilences in artistic stylcs. Thcrcforc. rvhilc onc cil1l irlclcL.d distinguish $,'orks of art fi on1 the Kus;rnl pcriocl in the Inrlic noltltl'est lrorr rvorks pro,:lLcccl clscrvhcrc irL South Asil. virri:Lti(n\rvithin thc bro.idlv defln.-clschool occur. Thcsc nrrv bc visible r ( c o . . l .^ f t l r c l r ' . t n r y r l ' . . . l . ' rd . . ' . ' . k i r r : "f the adventoincr,v pcoplcs ilto thc rcqion or thc prcsclvittiolrof lllcedv .'steblished treditions. Yct ir srili [c1li.]ins tr.cc suchinllucnccs. to llocLhislttvas courprisc lnothcr importent rubjcct in I).rctro-Gurrclhan sculfturc. Aldrough orl thc sinrplcst lcvcl, hv dcvotccs nl:rv bcconrcbo.llisrttv.rsbl' r.rkinq i1\'o\'. thc boclhisrrrvrs sholvn in :rrt lre rrra/rasaftla bodhisettvls end rcprcsclrt d1c iultillnrcDt. rrot thc bcqillrlil1g strse. oi bodhisrttvehood. IiLc lJLr.1clh.rs. thcs,:: nul.'fi.qr,ucs n1i1l_bc sho\1:n srrl.lirrg or sclrccl. 'fhe mosrpopul:rrbodhisern'r s]ro\.nin Kus:ineis pcriorlrrr of lhc nor-tltr'.:st Mritrcl'1, thc pcrsonitrcrrionof lovc. AlLhoLrgh boclhis.rrLvrs ,rll lrc by .lcfirition futurc lludtlh:rs, Mritrcle's ir to Ilrrclclh:rhooJ consiclcr-ecl bc inlmirlcnt. ti)r' (ekylnrLuri is lhc 1rc-\tlrortxl hc is ro sncccccL (n;rrrisi) Rurldha. Ilcceusc o{ his impcndirrg llLrdrlh.rhooJ. Mlitrcl.r is sonlctinlcsshorvn in or. ir tronl lrt es ,r RLr.l.lhe, i1s l r(-pr:cs!'nti1!iol1 Trkht i-l3rhi (Fig. s.r5). jn thc tornr of l bodhisuttv.r.i-ikc rn;1ry othcr boclhisrrnrr fr_omrhc nortlr\\r'sl r-..-qion gcnclxl. the trgurc tc.rrs lt in

Iri. Bo.lhLsxrtv.r \1:ritrcr'r.Fron) lrkhr-i-]lxhi, PrkF \flr. KLr\aDr pcriod. Sdrirt. H: 2oS\ .rir. Lrhore \4u-

r//ror;-likc lou.cr qarlrlcnt. His torso ls brrc.rithough hc- *'crrs e shetlliki' lenqth oi cloth ovcl lris shoulclcr. His .j.\'clf)' bc{its bis rcgal strtiolr xs e boclliisirllva 1lllclinclucLcs ncckleccs, ciuririq!. rrrrrb.lD(ls. :rncl luir omenlcrlts. In qcncul, bocLirislrn-es ]r;rve uoLc cllboratc lrliir snlcs th,rn Llud.lhes, oltcn cher;rctcrizcd in this rlorth\restcn lcgion br, loclis of hrir falling :LronntLdrc shoul.lcrs. rs s.cn hcrc. As higliy pcrli'ctcd bcllgs, borlhisrrtvrs disph,v nr;rny of thc /al-vao-, elrl othcl spcci:rl ch:rracrcristics of BLrrldhls. This fr-qLrre, 1ir c-.lnrplc, hls al riraa ,utl s']ut rn:rt_bcan risrrt-rrr rvell :rse lurlo. ls rulr.bc sharccl b,l' Whilc rhcsc chelectcr-istics rlilli'rent boclhisettves ,rncl eppcer *idcly in

NORTHERN REGTONS UNDER THr KU|ANAS

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surviving images, bodhisattvas also have individual idcntitics that are important to an understandingof their Buddhological meanings. Distinct bodhisattvas might be recognizable becauseof symbols that appear in their headdresses, attributes that are held in their hands, and sometimes other charactcristics.These distinguishing fcaturcs became incrcasingly codified asthe Briddl.rist religion developed,although during thc Kusana period, the use of what appear to be generic synbols makes it difficult to identify the figures in every case.The vase held in Maitreya's left hand, for example, is almost exclusivcly characteristicof hin; however, the abhaya uudra of the now broken right hand is also characteristicof many of the bodlisattvas shown in Kuga4a-periodart. The style of this image is strongly classicistic, reflecting the cultural heritage of the Gandhara region in particular. This is especiallyvisible in the musculartorso, a Gature that suggcsts strong affnities with thc Graeco-Roman tradition. The figrrre stands with one leg benr in a rortrapposto-hke pose and his heavy drapery also 8.16.Bodhisattva Avalokiteivara (Padmapani). From suggests ties to the late Hellenistic world. Likc Loriyan Tangai,Pakistrn.Kust+aperiod.Schisc. H: Buddha images and other subjects, however, ca-66 cm. IndianMuscum, Calcutta. imagesof bodhisattvasdisplay a great variety of stylistic types that are the result of a number of factors, including the speci{ic school of the Mediterranean, Iranian, or other non-Indic region where they werc rnade and thcir period aspectsof western Asiatic culture. of production. Another feature of inrerest in this image is Another important Mhasaftra bodhisattva the position in which the bodhisattva sits. in Kusana-period art and, indeed, the urost Postureslike this one and others in rvhich one or popular in all of Buddhist art, is Avalokite(vara, both lcgs are pendant arc generally thought the personification of compassion.This bodhito denote royal ease.ln this way, they may be sattva has rDany names and takes nunerous contrasted to the more forrnal, urcditative leg forms. He is often shown asPadmapani,"Bearer positions in which the legs are foldcd up in one of the Lotus," asin an image fromLoriyan Tangai ofa number ofways. Furthermorc, the pendent in which he holds his characteristiclotus in his leg posturesare usually associated with western, left hand (Fig. 8.16). Thc figure is dressed in or perhaps western Asiatic, radler than Indic typical bodhisattva garb. His turban is a sign traditions. It is possible that the pendent leg of his royal nature, for like crowns, diaden.rs, and positions arc rclated to royal imagery brought othcr headdresses, turbans are widcly usedin the in with the Kusdnas, such as thar seen in the garb of princeiy figures. Like many bodhisartvas statue that may representVima (Fig. 8.2). depicted in Bactro-Gandhara imagery, the figThc preeminent Buddhist personage in the ure wears sandalsand has a mustache.Neither Kusdna art of the northwest is Sakyamuni, who of thcse featuresis characteristicof Indic art in is depicted in both his bodhisattva and Buddha general. Their popularity in Kr.rsana-period art stages.His bodhisattvahood may be de{ined as . of the northrvest is generally attributed to having thrcc stages. Thc first occurrcd over

'4O

PXRIOD THE EARLYDYNASTIES OF

many lifetimes and is rccorded in the jatuka tales. This stage dcmonstratcshis perfection of merit, which prepared hirn for eventual Buddhahood. The sccond stage is defined by his life in Tupita heaven,where he dwelleclas a fully petfectcd nahdsattrrabodhisattva, awaiting his {inal birth. The third stage occurred during his last life and includes all of his preenlightenment activities. Tlis stage is viewed by Buddhists as signi{icantly beyond the first trvo stages,since it n.rarksthe {inal preparation for Buddhahood. During this third stage, he is known by his princcly name,, Siddhartha, prior to the enlightenment, and Sakyamuni (Sage of the Sakyas) only after he had achicved Buddhahood. A few Ku9a4a-periodirnagesfrom the northwest depict the jatukd and Tusita phases of Sakyamuni's life cycle. However, by far the greatestemphasisis placed on the last life during both the preenlightenment and postenlightenment phases.In general, such life sceneswere part ofcycles of reliefsthat together revealedthe message Sakyamuni'slife, which was beyond of the significanceof any individual event. Today, however, most of the carvings are known only out of context and as isolated examples. The episodes depicted may be basedon the Diuyauadana, the Lalita stara, ot other canonical Buddhist texts current at the time that record portions of the last lile of Sakyarnuni. Other, noncanonical texts on the life of the Buddha, such as the Bud,lhacaritaar'd the SawtdaraNanda, both courposedby Aivaglroga, who lived in the northwest around a.p. roo, refect the great interest in the subject in western Asiatic Buddhism and may also have served as secondary sources for the art. It r.uay be suggestedthat tlrc emplrasis Sekyamuni as a personage in on this region rnay be related to the Act that the inhabitantsofthe northwest were not necessarily inhcrently predisposed to many of the broad philosophical presuppositions of Indic society. In the Indic context, the existenceof Sakyamuni and the cyclcs of births he underwent were seen as only one rnaniGstation of the csscntial order of the universeand its inevitable processes. In the hcterogcneoussociety of the northwest, with its n.ixed religious milieu, the life of Sakyanuni itself may have served as the most

I I

(Sekyamuni Buddha). 8.r2.Birrh ofSiddh.rtha Possibly from Guides Mess, Mardan,Pakistan. Kuger.ra pedod. H: Karachi. Schist. 66 cln. NationalMuseurn,

eloquent demonstrationof the Buddhist dharna.L\ , Along with the expected major events in Sakyamuni's liG, numerous lesser events are depicted in the art, suggesting that narrative completeness was a major concem of the creators. A remarkable standardization in terms of composition, pose of figures, and other details for each incident in the Buddha's liG, sr.rggests that the iconography of dre individual subjects was established early in the liistory of such depictions, perhaps even prior to the stoneworking stage. In spite of their iconographic similarity, however, these scenesshow a wide variety of srylistic traits, like other sculptures from the northwest. A typical representationof the birth of Siddhartha shows his mother, Queen Maya, grasping a ial tree, with the child emerging from her right side (Fig. 8.r7). Indra, nimbused and in princely garb, receives the child as it is born, while other attendants witness the scene. A secondary event, the taking of the seven steps by the newborn child, symbolizing his supremacy over the world, is indicated by the presence of the small, naked child, replete with halo, standingjust next to Indra's knees.Maya's pose, as she grasps the tree and stands in a rather relaxed posture, is reminiscent of tlb;adevata

NORTHIRN REGIONS UNDXR THE KUIANAS

]4]

8.r8. First Mcditxriorl of Siddhrtha (Sak-r,'arnuni Buddha). Fror]1Mound C, Sahri-Bahlol, Pakistltll.Kui.4a pcriod- Schist.H: 68.j cnl. Pcsh,war Muscum, Pcsht-

8.r9. Grcat Dcprrnrrc of Siddhardra(Srkyanuni Buddha). From Loriyxn Tangai, Pakistan.Kusana pcriod. Schisr. H:,18.j cn1.Lldiar MuseLrm, Calcutta.

{igures in Indic art and it is likely that son.re overlap in neaning is inhcrent. As in thc casc of many Buddhist subjects, :r symbolic levcl, bcyond thc narative or descriptivc level, is intended by thc birth incident. Tirus, M-ya, whosc n.ne is identical with thc pliiosophical concept of the illusory nattre of thc physical rvorld, as the mother of the potential Buddha, to seems be a deliberatercfcrcnceto the causation of all birth ancl thc rcalm of sath:;atu. The narrative seclucnccs thc art of drc in northwcst are often very dctailcd and scenes suciras the visit to thc fortune teller sirortly aftcr thc birth of the bodhisattva ancl otl.rer sccncs from his childhood are comrnonly represented. Onc important event was thc boclhisattva's first neditation (Fig. r.ri). While still a young man living at his fathcr's palacc, he rvas brought to sit tncler a rosc applc (janbu) ttee, wl-rerehe was to witoess a ploughirLg conrcsr as r c p r c . c n t a r i v [ o r r l ' e k i n g . W I r i l c s i t r i n g .l r c c practiccd yogic breathing and attained his first trancc. Whcn his attendantsrctumccl some timc later, thcy noticcd tl.Lat the shadowsof the other trees nearby had movcd, but tJrat of thc jarrrlr tree had remaincd statiolary over thc mcditatilg prince. When l.is fathcr was toid of d.ris, paid he reverenceto his son. In this rcprcscntation, tiris specific nrcditation is indicatcd by thc janfuu tree abovc thc hcad of thc bodhisattva and the ploughing scene at the lowcr right. The maiu figurc is dressed typical bodhisattva garb and in i ' J c p i c t e di n t J r , l r i g l r l yc l r . ' i c i . r i c. t y l c , l r . . r , r c t c r i . r i o f r n r r c ho f r l L el o r r l r u c . t r e g i o n . r . c seenin the musculartorso and heavy drapery. His act of lncditation is indicatcd by thc r{hyana ntdra of his lranclsand thc uajraparyaikasana of his Iegs. v A n o r h e ri n r p o r t . r np r L c n l i g i r f e r I l r e(n rc n t i s t thc Great l)eparttrrc (n ahaLhni skr n ano), wltcn i a the bodlisattva left the palace after having resolvcd to seek truth and knowledgc (Fig. 8.r9). Tlis decisioncamc about after he had seen on four clilTereutoccasionsa sick man, an olcl man, a dead n-ran,and an ascctic.Thesefour visiotrsare usually refcrred to colJectivcly as the Four Sights. The {irst thrcc "siglrts" causcd thc bodhisattva to rccognize the transicnt and frail condition of lifc, rvhile the fourth set out a

1,72

lllRlOD

Or TIIL lr\ItlY

l)YNASTIIS

sccl)r t() llillc Lrccn iL]lportent rDtinly iD the r " r r r\ \ , r . l r , ' . r r . , r . , . r . r . . t r i . r \ 1 1 \ \ . . \ trlrsnrittccl to Irst Asil. I{cr-c-.r]ic prcclilcctiou tolards classicisticrcxlisln \o prcvelcnt itr thc ert of rhc Dorth\\:estcrtr Kus:rna rce]nrs rclcls Jrilln:r to rhc cxcrculion of thc- ck:teils of thc skc]ctoir. tllc strLlctLrlc of thc ncck. enrl the rvrsred 1lc-sh tirc borlv. T]ris dcrriilccl. elbcit oI curpiricri. knorvlctlgc of erliitornv contril)urcs -,r r'r,.,rl r. l rr.s.. lrL(.pln,. 1,,rr:. ot visiblc drrough rhc sunkcn ebdorrrcrr, presuru.,'l .. . . ( J - . I I i , r , , , . l l , r . . r r v . .u ,r . r ' r r l \ r i o n . of nrcrclv one gr.rin of ricc pcr clav clLrrin{rthis sragc of his spiritual clcvclopncnt, is il ltltur. tlur is dcscribccliu BLrJtlhist rcxrs. Thc prescncc of I bear,:l sLrggests rhc clcrp lbsorption of tl-rc boclhisrrttve artl thc rcsult:rnt borlili, ncvlcct. Also n'picr1lv Dorth\\.cstcm iu stvlc arc the fecill fc.rturcs antl l1air rteatDlcnt. \ r ' . . . . r . r' . r p ^ r r . . I r. r\ j 1 . r r r l , . l i r , 5.,().* "rnuni f rcqLrcntll'dcpictcclin llactro,Gilndirara art is thc 14dra jaya (Vict,r'1. 61',31 Mrra), elso crllcd thc tcxrpterioil sccnc (Fir. 8.:r). Oftcn nristlkcnlv idcrrLificd as thc crlighr,-:rrrrrcnt, this : ( ( l c i t r r ' \ r ' |,l r l ) . . . \ . r l l . ..r l.rior r^ 1lt. ollighrennrcut. rvhcn Mirr. the pcrsonilication oi evil. ofi:rcrl thc boclhisrrtn'r $,orlrllr' richcs . r I l . r r i , . r . , r .r ' i r r r l ( ( , n , , , t I . r , o \ ' 1 , tlauglrtcrs !o tcnpt hiln lrver' fi-onr his rcsolvc. Whcn thcsc u crr: r'cfirscJ b1. thc boclhisrtv:r, Mrrr scrr! his ernti,:s (pcrsolificetions ol pxssiotrs encl cvil rnrpulscs rLrch es lust. crlt\'i1lq. xnd hvpocrisv) l'hosc t'eepons, horvcvcr- turncd ro 1lo\vcr! irs t]rcv tottclta(l thc nrctlitatrng figLrrc. Tlius fbilcd, thr: ir-rrsrr:rtcd M:rrr rskccLthc bodhis:rLtv.rt,:r provc his right to ilrtiin eniiqhtcnrlrcnt. \rhcrcupon rhc bo.lhisettvl touchccL thc. c..th (l/riil,rLy.iria rluirir) lrtd thc c:rrth goclclcss, l'ho is celicd eidrcr l)rthvi or J3hfrnrit1evi, c:ruic lirth to st:rte th:1t she wls rviuicss ro his right. Marr, clciclrcrl, retreitccl. Witll thc l:rst obstacle rcDrovc'.l. thc bodltisittve cntclc.l lrrto thc nrdlit.ltion t-har rcsultcrl in his clli-qhtcnrnent enti thcrc lc his lJLrdrlhrLhoorl.th.- Jcfcrt of Marl svnrbolizt-s the Burlcllu's overcoming oi dceth (1r,1:lrr litcr:Lllr. nrcrus "clc.rdr") end rhc bodhis:rttv:r'srelclsc lionr thc cr,cic o1- -vrir-irra (thc r:heirL rrf ceusrtiorr). ln rcprcscnretions o[' this cvc11t.S-kvrnrrrrri is inv:rrirbly shorvrr ls a

possiblc !rrth \vhcrebl' thc rrn!icncc of ihrrrnivc-rsc lrlight bc ovcrcoruc.Lr rha dcfxrturLl sccrrr-,thc boclhis.rtn'e sho\,n ritlinq his is lavoritc horsc, rvhosc hcrovcs rrrc bcing bornc eloft bv r/r'r,,rs silcncerhcir noisc so tlrlrt thc to clepllturc lou]rl not be clcrcctcJ.I Ic is rt tcndcdbr-Irr,:1rl (rvho holdse r,,r7ra st;rnrls rnd to thc icfi of tltc horsc),l3r;rhrll (strrrclirrg thc ro lcfi of Indr:r).:rnclothcr hcevcniv dcvotccs. A\ sLich.thc clt-piction cottrilstsstro[gl\.wit]r thc "rccnlc!Drctrt" sccnc oIl thc f(rl.drat Sxrrc1 it ( F i s . 6 . r o .L L p p c r ) . Otrc ol thc nlost clrxllrirtic visuelcontribntions of thc [ortllvcstcrn ert sc]rools ljudclhistart to is thc dcpiction of rhc b,rrlhis.rtrr'.r ilrrririq rhc pcriod of his crtrcnrc rsccrici!nr (Fiq. S.:o). This occullc.l prior ro his cnliglrtcnmcnrend ]crl to his dccisionto c\pollscthc rloctlinc oi thc Middlc W.rv, l peth bL'ts'ccnlLrrLrlions inrlLrl' , t \ ' r r . f . r r r..\l . l ) ) ( . i D U l t r, . r r r . . rR . I ' t . . 1 , . r i , , r . . oi tlLc bo.lhisettv.r i1s ;rn curilci.ltc(r :1sc:('rlc irrc l | . r r l i ' . n l i r r t r , l r l r . p r . r . . r r q , r r ,r . , . . I t r

NORTHERN REGIONSUNDER THE KUIANAS

]4'

8.2r. Sakyamuni's victory over Mira. Frorn Bacro-Gandhara rcgion, Pakistan.Kuganaperiod. Schist.H: 67 cm. Freer Gallery of Art, SmithsonianInstitution, lVashington, D.C.

Buddha, not a bodhisattva, for though it occurcd prior to the enlightenment in a technical sensc,his Buddhahood was inevitable and imminent at that time.12 In this relief, which in the fact is part of a set of four life scenes, ccntral figure is nuch larger than the others. Thc lorlli tree above his head and hls bhiukparia uuha in are key elen.rents identifying the scene,as arc rhe attacking armies of Mara in the upper half of the composition. The first preaching of the fully enlightened Buddha took placeat the deer park near Varenasi at Sernath.Dcpictions ofthis subjectbecameone of the most important image types in Buddhism. In this sermon, the Buddha prcachedhis method of overcoming deadr by following the Middlc Way, which was comprised of the Four Noble t P l r u t h sa n dr l r eE i g h t f o l d a r h . l t ep r i n r r r yc o n r 'l ponent. of his docrrine.rs lrc forrr Noble all iife is sufering; suffering is causcd T.uth, "re: by desirer rhe ce'sarionof suffering may be .,chrcvcdby rhe cc.sarion6[ iqrirc: to cease

desirc, one nust follow thc eightfold path, which consistsof right views, right intcntion, right spcech, right action, right livelihood, right cfort, rigl.rt mindfulncss, and right concentration. In Kusena-period art of the northwest, thc subjcct is generally indicated by a figurc of the now enlightcncd Buddha seatcd on a throne, attended by various listcncrs, including the {ive companions fron his ascctic days who had previously dcnounced hin.r whcn in he ab:ndoned self-mortification practiccs favor of the Middle Way (Fig. 8.zz).In suchdepictions, the right hand of the Buddha is gencrally in the abhaya nufua, signifying that hc is in the act of teaching, rvhile bencath his throne, two deer thc Ilank a whcel. Thc wl.reelsyn.rbolizes whccl which thc Buddha is of tlrc law (dharnacakra), said to have set into motion with this scrmon. The dccr suggestthe dccr park whcrc the setmon took place, but on an esoteric level, rcprcscnt thc overcorrinq of the fear of death.14 Thc finai pasiing away of SakyauruniBuddha,

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NORTHERN RTGIONSUNDIR THE KUIANAS

145

his parinbva4a, is generally included in a cycle of life scenes,for it is the culmination of his attainment. The subject is usually shown with the Buddha reclining on his right side, surrounded by followers and mourners (Fig. 8.23). His death, which representsthe attainment of niuatla rnd the snu6rrg out of individual event. Yet those who existence,is a remorseless have less than perfect understanding of this, or who are still tied to the material and physical u orld. are subjcctto griel ln this representation, only the rnonl seatedin meditation in front of the Buddha seemsto have achieved the detachment required to sustain profound tranquility in the face of this awesorneevent. of On the whole, life scenes Sakyamuni in the art of the northwest are rather simple compositions, created largely by the positioning of figures and a Gw key elements.Pictorial space is generally implied by the volume of the figures or other forms and their relationship to one another rather than by deliberate linear, architectural, or atmospheric dcvices. In this way, the compositions are quite similar to the reliefs of earlier Indic art schools.Perhaps as a result of the Mediterranean heritage of the art of this region, howevcr, there is generally an attempt to show the figurcs in naturalistic posesand scale,At the same time, care is taken throughcomto emphasizeimportantPersonages positional rneans.ln the birth scene(Fig. 8.r7), for example, Maya is placed in the center of the relief and is clearly the most imPortant figure in the composition. At {irst glance, she appears to be larger than the others, though in fact hierarchic scaling has not been used. Instead, her apparent size is a visual cffcct createdby having thc male figure to her proper right posed in a crouching position and her female 2ttcndants on thc opposite side made only slightly smaller than her in actual size, but stiil within thc Partly asa consequencc parametelsofnaturalisr-n. of this essentiallynaturalistic scaling, thc small newborn bodhisattva standing next to the foot of his mother scarcely attracts the viewer's attentl0n. As a young man, the bodhisattva is generally shown on the sarnescaleas other adult figures in a composition, although again cornpositional

tcachingFroDlMoBuddha 8.24. Amitabha/Anitdyus Kulttra period. Schist.H: harnmedNari, Pakisran. Lahorc. rr7 cm. LahoreMuscurn,

deviccs may be used to empl.nsizchim. In the depiction of the Great Departure (Fig. 8.r9), the glanccsof most of tl.refigures for exan.rple, are directed toward him. As a fully in the relief enlightened Buddha, Sakyanuni is generally shown as a much largcr figure than others so him (Figs. 8.22,8.23), that regardsurrounding lessof compositional emphasison him, he is a commanding and dominant focus of the scene, The increased scaleofthe Buddha is not a departure from the concept of naturalistic scalc, however, nor is it merely an artistic device intended to focus attention on him. Instead, it is apparently an attcmpt to depict thc Buddha Mahasa ua ashe is describedin Buddhist texts.15 bodhisattvas are also describcd as larger than ordinary mortals but smaller than Buddhas, a feature that is oftcn seen in sculpture as well. This hierarchy of scaling is based solcly on spiritual achievement, which is described in terms of physical form but is not meant as an actual record of thc physical world. Thc discrepancy i4 size between Buddhas

r40

?ERroD oF THX XARLY DYNASTTES

and other figures is even rnore clearly seen in an impressive and perGctiy preserved stelefrom Moharnmed Nari (Fig. 8.24). Here rhe central Buddha is not Sekyamuni but Amitabha/ Amitayus, who is depicted presiding over his paradise,that of the western quarter, Sukhavati (Full ofJoy). Textual descriptionsof this Buddha from this period reGr to fus vast size, which is said to be unlimited and incomprehensible to the ordinary mind.le While a literal representation ofthis size,would, of course,be impossible, the Buddha is shown on a rcale vasrly greater than the inhabitants of his paradise and other figures who surround him. This complex relief illusrrates imporrant an aspectof Mahayana Buddhism known to have been presentin the northwest during the Kugar.ra period, that is, the emphasis various paradises. on Often called "Paradise Cult" Buddhism, the movement was at this time probably not a defined cult but rather an undercurrent of Mahayanism. From this region, the paradise systems were transnitted to China and ultimately to Japan, where they became extremely popular and clearly definedas separate secradan movements.lT The belief in oaradises was not a new Gature of Buddhism during the Kusana period, though many aspecrs of paradisaical thought underwent development then.l8 In paradiseBuddhisrn, the goal of every devoteeis to be reborn into paradise,where the individual will reside without further transmiEration until he has reached rhe perfect alainme-nt necessary to achieve xirua1a- Sakyamuni, for example, was reborn in the Tugita Paradise, where he awairedthe final birth that led cohisnirvana. To enter Sukhavati, the paradisedepictedhere, the devoteemust have accurnulatedconsiderable perfection of rnerit (pupyaparamita)and have expressed a desire to be bom there.le This paradisehas every facility to assistthe spiritual development of those who dwell there, and inhabitants have the opportunity to hear the B:uddllust dharna preached to them ar any ume. While Buddhas,bodhisattvas, and other residents of Sukhavarr.including the birds. can preach the dharma, this relief shows the presiding Buddha, Amitabha/Amitayus, preaching to his devotees,as indicated by his hands, which are

in a variant of the dhamucakrd nu&a. 'fhe . paradisaicalnature of the sceneis indicated by the lotus lake below, replete with fish and waterfowl, which is frequently mentioned in texts asthe "land" of paradise.Amitabha/Amitayus, sits atop a lotus that risesout of the water and each of the inlabitants of his paradise, who are reborn upon lotuses in the paradise, is also borne aloft by a lotus pedestal.zo In costnme,pose,hau style,lak5a4as, other and. features,the central Buddha is indistinguishable frgm many other Buddhas depicted in the sryle of the northwest. If isolated from the context of this composition, it would be virtually impossible to determine whether he was any one of a number of Buddhas. He is called both Amitabha (EndlessLight) and Amitayus (Endles Life) in Sukhavati texts,zl although thesenames are also usedin other contexts to reGr to distinct forms of a single being. The garland or wreath being held aloft above the head of Amitabhaf Amitayus signifieshis transcendentstate and his transcendent knowledge. The concept of the garland may have been derived fron the Hellenistic world, where such items were used as symbols of mystical victory. Such wreaths were known in the northwest region at least since Saka-Parthiantimes (Fig. 7.9). One feature of considerable artistic inrerest on the Mohammed Nari stele is the pair of bannersbeing held aloft by two figures llanking the central Buddha. Such bannersare no[ conmonly seenin artistic depictions fron the Indic world in general, yet they may document a type of painted cloth banner known from literary sources to have been in widespread usagefrom early times. Such bannersmay find their descendents the patas of Nepal or the tn thang-kasof Tibet. The function of these rwo smrll pictures within rhe mein composirion, however, is unclear. Although Buddhas and bodhisattvas are the most commonly porrrayed subjects in tJre Ku9a4a art of the northwest, a great variety of other personages also included in the artistic is repertoire, Like all sculptures from this vast region, they exhibit considerablestylistic variation. Two important individuals depicted rather fiequently are Pancika (Fig. 8.25)22 and his

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NORTHIRN REGIONSUNDER THE KUIANAS

I47

8.2j. Paflcika. FrornTackal(nearPeshawar), Pakistan. 8.26. Heriti. From Sikri, Pakistrn. Kusina period. Kusina peaiod.Schist. r8o crn. LahoreMuseun, Schist.H: 9r crn. Lahore Museum, Lahorc. H: Lahore.

consort, Heriti (Fig. 8.26). As wealth gods, Pencika and Heriti derive fron.r the ancient Indic ydksa arLd.I4&ricults; Pancika is believed to be a 1a&saking. He is often shown as a corpulent individual, a characteristic that suggests the wealth and abundance he symbolizcs. In this examplc, he wcars princely garb and holds a spear,but in later art, he may be shown holding a brg of richcsor a mongoose spcwinggems in his left hand. Hariti is a protectrcssof children and is usually shown with five small children surrounding her, symbolic of her own five hLrndredchildrcn (in rhis reprcsenrarion. two figures are missing). I-tsing, a Chinese traveler who visited India in the seventh century, nar-

lated a story then popular about her that cxplains that in a forrncr birth, Hariti had vowed to eat all the babiesin R.jgir city.z3On hearing complaints from the inhabitants of Rajgir, Sakyamuni Buddha hid one of her own fivc hundred childrcn. As a result, thc grief-stricken Hariti understood the suffering she had caused others, mendcd her ways, and converted to Buddhism. Representations Hariti arc comof rnonly found in Buddhist refectories, and the donor ofa meal is obligated to offer food to her. Her presenceis thercfore a daily reminder of the need for empathy and its result in compassion. As a pair. Pancika.lnd Hdriri reprcscnr an expressionof the desire of the monkhood for

t46

/ F R l o Do l r H r F A R \ D \ \ A \ | l F . r

Frorn Sehri-Ilahlol, Pakistrn. Kulanr 8 . 2 7 .H t r i r i . pcriod. Schist. H: r22 .ln. Iresh.wxr Mu\cum, Pcdr,-

thc rratcrial rvcll-being lhrt :rllolvs thcnl to I i P u r \ . r cl s i r r c l i 3 i . , L r ' .r,rl r r r P c r . . ln additionto thr:popularsrorics aboutPtncik:r and H:rriti told to thc Clincsc pilglim or otherwiscappearingrn Bucllhist litcraturc, thc trvo rlivinities luvc au esotcric svnrbolisrl. Pancika is thc kccpcr of thc rvcaldror trcisllrc rvhilc Hariti is thc cnboclilncnt of cnliqhtcnr.ncnt (Moficr of Burltlh'rs) end of thc BrLddhanntrAa l l i s i , l c n r i , . , " r h , h o j n a y t , n , r r rr.,.rrr . , . l r i , r '1hus, arc held to bc RrLddhanatrki itscl[.2] it is easy to scc in thcsc trvo sclrlpturcsthc two t . l c v . l s . L l ' . p r p L r. . r . r r ) , 1 t , c . . r r r i c . p r , ' c t t L i t r rnarrv inlgcs. Thesc tn'o figurcs, rvith thcir hcavv dr'rpery, traturxlisticposcs, and heft,v

bodics, rcflccr thc chssicelheritrge of BactroCandharaart. Another imagc, lrom Sahri-Bahlol, elso dcpictsHariti, birt irr a strikinaly dillcrent lorm (Fig. f.:7). Thc fisurc has ttrsklikelangs pro. . , . 1 ' , . 'r . r n r l r . , r j d n,,r:'l. ;, r nlav replescntrn early eramplc of thc engry forrl of Ilariti ucncrellvthought to cxist onlv . r r r t r ' r t],t l t , r , r . ' r , t r I r r ' c rA . , . r ri r , ' . , . ' " , i.' Such:rrgrv ftrlms in lercr BLrcldlism end Llinrlur . n l . r i . r ., , i . ' r , , 1 r r r i rL r r , r r r r . . rj . r c r i , ( t ' r .r r,rsedto cncomp:rssi1 broxcl rrnge of rcliqious ancl ;,hilosophcal clcvclopnctts. Thc figure has four errus.e rare fcatrrrc I(rrsita ert, elthough in thc use of mr,rltiple botly parts. cspccirllyamrs encl hcacls, bccoucs commolr in lluddhisr and Hildu lrt of succecdinq pcriocLs. Mrrltiarmcd l l . r r r . c r ' , r n r r \ o l r , , ' a r r r -. ^ i l \ c f K u j . l r . l kirrgs,notably, the image of Siva on the coins of Vasudeva, suchlorms mav lcllcct clcscripend tiors in ancicrrt tcxts th.t rcibr to rlanifold pol.crs and charactcristics diilcrcnt dcitics.26 of Atttibutcs hcLl in thc hencls Hariti syu.Lbolizc ol such treits. lntl it night be sr-rg9cst.-d tirc tlr:rt $,i11c cul dcnotcsthe l)ionvsiecst:rtcs ikcrc.l of con\ciou$esstliirt \rctc part of cuirs prcvalcnt in thc Bectro-Gendhare rcgion; thc tridcnt, lrtr arlulct urtcrrclcdto rvard oll:ittlchn-rert or othcr mnilcstations of cvil; the r':rsc, rvhich is of the y.,rrrro3lrald t1pr. frospcrjty aird rvcllbcirq; end the snall child, en urdicetioo oli Heliri's rolc rs thc "nrothcr" (of lludclhas). This lrttcr lttributc is rhc pliuurv clcnrcnt of thc scLrlptLrrc sugtcststh:rt rhc fiqurc is tcr that bc irLcntificcl :r lbrru of Hariti. rs Lr edrlition to nrctel erd stonc sculpturcs, \rorks ltr othcr mcdiil irc also knorvn to hlve' otistcd rn tlic rrortlrr',cstcluring thc I{usaln pcriorl. Sonrc of tfrc ivorir's 6'onr thc Bcgrerl holr.l. for cremplc. nrnst heve becn clrvcri rt this riurc. Aurolq rhc ruost sfcctrclrl:rrpieccs h-orl llcqrarrr xrc thc fr:lgrnclitsof e chcsr ol co1l.:1. Thc top of thc bor corrsisrs at lcest of to sir sl.rbs ivorl' th.rt l.c'rc -joincd tolicthcrof make r, singicsurfacc(Fi.q.8.:S). Th.: dcsicuof thc covcr inclurlcs chboriltc borrlcrsurroun.lan ing a cornposition oifour l'omcn, tl'o ofsionr :Lrcpleying lith r bircl. uhilc thc othcr pair is crrg:rgcrlin toilct prcplrltiorrs. Dcspirc the

NORTHERN REGIONSUNDER THE KUSANAS

I4O

8.28. Coffer top. From Bcgran-r,Afghanistan.Kustna period. Ca. secondcentury. Ivory. 29 X 46.J cn. Kabul Museum, Kabul.

visually harmonious appearanceof the cover, the composition employs motifs that have highly disparateorigins. The border is made of an outer band of a bead-and-reel motif, a foliate acanthus-vine scroll, and an inner fret motif. All three of these elements have origins in the Graeco-Roman world, though thcy were undoubtedly already well established in the artistic repertoire of western Asia by thc Kusana period. In contrast to these Mediterranean motiG, thc voluptuous womcn, who appear unclothed except for their jewelry, are strikingly Indic in concept and form. Their full-hipped, full-breasted bodies combined with narrow waists and tapering limbs relate stylistically to female figures depictedin thc Indic subcontinent proper around the secondcentury a.o. and may be compared to cxanples fiom Mathura, Karli, and Amardvati from that approximate datc. Their rcscmblancc is so strong to Indic works

of about the secondcentury A.D. that it may bc suggestedthat this ivory was a product of thc same period. The combination of classicistic elementswit-h ones of srricrlyTndicorigin into such a highly integrated composition is indicative of a nixed cultural heritage alrcady generations old, Howcvcr, it is unccrtain whcther the work was produccd in thc Indic subcontinent proper and latcr transportcd to tl-rc northwest where it was found at Begram or whether it was createdin the northwest, perhaps even at Begram or in the Kapi(a region. The highly skilled carving of the relief suggests that, in cithcr casc,thc work was the product of a s m a r t c r c r a f t r m a n .H i s . r c c o n r p l i s h n r ei n t e . pccially visible in the intaglio carving of tlc central figurcs, for thcy arc rcccsscdbelorv thc surface of the ivory while being very subtly nodeled with rounded forms that give a sense of volume to their bodies.

IJO

I'IRIOD Of THE IARLY DYNASTIFS

N o R T H E n N I \ r ) r A : M A T H U R AA r r Tirc sotrrhcrn cepitel of thc l(usines rves et MathLrri, rvhcrc artistic pr-olluctloD nr storrc burgconecl .luring thc pcriod of tlicir rulc. B-v Kus-ni rilues, Matlrrra cit,v nnrl tts cuvtrons constitutcclx kil1d ofcLrlturrl unit, lpprorimatcly cquivalcnt ro somc of thosc in rhc noltlrwcst, S\rat, ^nd Kapi(e. It u'ls b,v such as G:rrrclhare, e no 11'lcans singlc sitc. but rathcr e vrst collr|lcx focusinq around t]rc motlcrtr tou'u of Mlthura and surronnding it for e r:rdiLrsof about thirty kilorueters. Numcrorts sjrcs in thc rcgion. such n'hcrc the Kusan:r royi] shrirlc \1as locetccl, rvcrc irupottltrr end distiuct fc,cuscsof religious or politic:ii lift. Thc region, l4rilc pcrhaps insignific:rnt iD term! of u-rodcru trenspoltxtiolr, l.as jn encicnt timcs rrtLcr siz,rblc and coulcl rlot be covcrccl in a dev's rvrll' frour onc cnd to thc othcr. It is lil,cly that ivithin its ls Mlt, boundarics thcrc rverc a nonrber of scparatc in rvorkshops drat procluccd sculptLtrcs tlic local Sikri s;rntlstonc rtsccl so cottrnrotrlv et rcddish Mathuri r[rring thc l{irsa]ra period. Thc art oi Mxthr.rra, thcn, shoulcl not be vicrvccl rs nlonolithic. :rs it $'xs probibl,v subject to rrrrny of thc slrnc vlriltious visibic in thc' lrr of .rn1' otllrr' nrsjot- complc\. Il.cxosc thc Mrrlrtrri rcgioll \vl\ \:lckc(i iit varioLrs timcs in historv inJ hls ncvrl bccrL thororrqhll'cxcrviltc(l, sucll rlistirrctions erc bt-,r'oud plcsent scholership, horvevcr. Nt_jtrc of tlic m:rjor it1-chitcctur:tl nlorlumcllts hlr,-c sLrvivccl itrr.icr, url thc cliscussion of the :rlr of M:rthura nrlrst thclcfofc bc fr:egructrts. elrl lrchitcctLu.rL coufint'd to sculptLrrc as Asirlc from its import:l11cc rn xrt pro.Luctiotl ccnter. M.thlrra servcclls l Lilcl of fbtrnt:rinhced for othcr nortlr Indien rrt schools of thc l{trsan.r oi pcrio,:1.Sc,-rlptLrrcs Mrthura origirl hxvc bc.lr locatious. founcl at a numbcr of ri'i,lclv clispcrsc-tL irrcltrcling Sailci, Sernath, xn(l thc nortll\\'.rst. c-\portar ol This suqgcsrstlltt Milthtrr'a \1:ls :Lr1 lorks of art ;rnd tlrllt rt,lut tler b,: looscly tcrrnc..l t]rc "Mlt]rttra st1'1,:"scrvcrl rs e rno.lcl fbr lrtists lrt other sitcs. Works of ;rrt itr st,l'Jcs vcrv closcly rclatc.l to thosc of Medrurar. for el:,inrplc. ir"v" bccn founcl et Ahicchettra. I(lu(anrbi, Slrnath, end othcr sitcs in nortlt India rncl :rsIer eastls Mrhesthatgarh in [3angle

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NORTHTRN RIGIONS UNDER THE KU$ANAS

15'

8Jo. Chatlft of "Bhi[s, Bala's Bodhieftva." Fron Sarnath, Unar Pradesh, India. Kugar1a period. Year 3 Kanigka'sreign (ca. r..o. rz3). Reddishsandstone. D: 3oj cm. Strnath Site Museum,

desh. Such works are much morc limited in number than those fion.r MathLua, suggesting that Mathur- retained artistic prominence while other atelicrs were to some extcnt rcfections of the main ccnter at the Ku;aqa capital. Mathura school sculptures often share iconographic features with their Kusana-period counterparts in the northwest. But, for the most part, they reveal a purcly Indic stylistic heritage that must havc cvolved independcntly. One of the most famous examples of the Mathura style is the so-called "B,4lftsa Bala's Bodhisattva" (Fig. 8.29). Although this image was found at Sarnath,not Mathure, it is clearly refective of the iconographic and stylistic modes cunent in the Mathura region. Indeed, it is likely that the work was a product of a MathurS ateiier sinceit is carved of the reddish colored sandstone so popularly used there. Inscriptions on both the sculpture and the stone post that supported a huge stonc o,rnbrella(chattra; Fig. 8.3o) over the head of the figure reve^l that it was dedicatedin the third year ofKaniska's

reign (ca- a.o. rz3) and was the gift of one bliftsa (rnonl) named Bala, who is described asa mastcr ofthe Tipitaka,z? the "tlvee baskets" or collections of Buddhist canonicalliteraturc.zs The inscription identifies the figure portrayed as "thc bodhisattva," but the sculptureis clearly of a Buddha, as indicated by the costume and absence of jewelry or other ornanentation. Tl.re lion between the Get of the figure suggeststhxt the image is a representation Sakyaof muni, since the lion is the symbol of the Sakya clan into which he was born and since he is ,| ,:, " often calledSakyasirhha, Lion oI rhe Sakya.. rhe It may therefore be inferred that thc term bodhisattva in this context (and on a few similar imagcs from this approxirnate period) had a specificmeaning that did not cxclude its use for Buddha figures.2e The figure standsin a strictly fiontal position with no bend or flexion to the body at all. In this way, as well as in the huge scale of the work, hc resemblesthe.yak5a figures and carri bearers Maurya- and Suiga-period art. Indeed, of

I t2 .r., ,

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focus of Coorruresrvlrly"sthcsisthet itnlges of I}ucltlhes*ere dcrivcd frorl a strictly Indic sourcc.3O The llesl.Lv bodv end husky ph,vsique :rlso sccDlto clt'rivc ftoru thc car'licr hrdic trgrlrc t . . .r . l , r , r t r . ' . . r r r , t | ' l ' r i r l , t l ' c n ' r r . ' r ' ' r , t athlctic-lookinq nralc fisurcs fonncl in thc sculpturcof thc rlorth.wcst, rvho :rrcolicn poscd in cl:Lssicistic contralposto fositions.The garlrent js sinrilrr in t,vpc to tbc princcly garb of rlelc fiqLrrcs c:Lrlier in Inclic sculpturcand colrsists of e r/lrotl-likc los'cr glrrncnt ,rrr.l :r sash et the rvrist. Furcly inciscd lines suqllestthc fol.1sol tirc vcry tlirplurLous, tlin cloth rnd the lbrms o f t r , ' b o , i . r c , l c - l . v i i L l . r J ' r " L r s lr l , . clinginq rlrrpcry. As r ruic. lludclha frgurcs arc not sbo\4;11 $'ith complctcly bere torsosan.l thus. in contrast to soluc of thc rnalc figurcs a1rcat1y cncoLinter-erlin thc hrtlic tr:Lrlition, this figtrrc has a lcrrgth of dr:Lper,vrhat goes acrosshis lcft shoLrlclcr ancl hangs ovcr iris am irr . ri.. ,'f ',.. f"', i'l ',. I l, .!\l. ^f,l);. gxrncnt is stendlrd llthouqh not rurivcrsal lor Methun lhr.ldha imagcs ancl rulv rcflcct thc r r , . i l r g l b . . , l . . n i , . . 1 . ,. ! r f o r r r . - l . , r Mathula:rt thc tirrc. Altholrgh mrrch clarlaqccl, thc f:rcc too rcvcels tics to thc Indic tradition ancl is cher':rctelizecl the rlther stilf sruilc, bru \ - r . r . / ( i . , t . . . . , r ' , 1 ' ' . r ' " r r d . l r , . ,v ' l r . r p . L r faceirsclf.His shavccl of drc hc.rd.likc th:rr of ,r nronk. contrasts u,itfr the coillirrcs of llLrcl,:lha imeqcsfrorrr thc riortllr.cst.l,rlsarta.,rnc]uclurq xrI rJ-riii-n7. \\'crc prcscnt. es rvele clong:rted ,rl] cerlobcs. of s.hich rvcrc :rpp.lrcntlv sr:rnclxrd rttributcs of Brrrl.lli. fieLrrcsrcqerJicssof thc scLr)ptLrr.r1 tlaclition.The riqht lrnr \fls orlqurllly lrcld irr ahlnyd 1111fir6, is kno*n lrorn es ' r ' . . r , r r ' l . ' . 1 ' , . ' r 1 r ,. . . , r ' . , .I l r . r]. most con1n1ollqcsf.uc of MathurlL-schoo]Br,rlcliu fiqLrr:cs drc Kusitrr pcliod. Thc lcft hend oi firlms e tight fist uc1 is hcld,rgrilst tlic 1iip. A halo. nou, lost. rvrs ;'hccJ bc'lln.l thc heed. Tlrc lrrqc clttlttttl at\cc supportcd abovc thc ' " , . 1. 4 , 1 , . | 5 ." ," " ' . ',5o ", ", i r ' .' . i ,' I '....'- ' , " "l
encl scrvcs as :r sl.rnbol of rhc transccnclcntvici"ir..,,1 - .' .'ltr rrr'JcL'id. ,...rr, I r'irl. .,n ^pcr orr. r''r t. r'.rlrc.rl bcests,and othcr nlotifi, incluclirrg thc rrrrlrrgala, o r . , ' r . 1. i o . ' . v r b o l . , f R . , l d r r n l i

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' i i r r r . q . r , . . r I t . l ( t ) i r ) P " r l . , r l rr t i r ' i o \ \ r ' l i n ) , . . r . i r | . . , r r . ll , r t " . z , ^ l r l r c l ' g r r r c , , ,I t,,,,,,.I i. cortilrilcd iDto lxter centurics. It rvas louncl irr associxtiorl r,vith e teDth- or elcvcnth ceDtury platfbrrn, suugcsting that it rv:rs an objcct of clcvotiori nt lcasr until thxt tiD1e. A pcrfcctly prcscrvcd cxxnlple of a seated BtLcldha inrlgc l'as founcl it Ketra in thc M:ltlrrra cornplcx (liu. ll.3r). Its inscription rccorcLs thrt it rvrs rlc.liceted bv Anloht-,rsi, a llucldliist nrur. "for thc wcllirc aud happincss of ell scnticnt bcings."tl In this gcncrous rvish, the strtclrent clcarly crpresses a Meharvarnist sctrtircilr.o,r. rl 'r 'rrrd.l, rrr.ri, t'c.ir'.r"vr:n5 Marhura cpigraphs, inclucling thc "Brla lodhiIt s.ttv." in.rgc jrrst discussecl. is based or-i thc belief tlrrt Ne t (/n)tn) ncccl not bc carnccl by :rn in.lividuel but c:rrr be trensflrred to him bv xnothcr who hlcl g;:riucclit through variorrs

NORTHERN REGIONSUNDER THE KUIAI'-IAS

IJt

on the right raising his arm in a gsture of respct. Serving as attendants,the bodhisattvas are smaller in scale than the Buddha and each holds a cauri in his dght hand. As in the northwest, bodhisattvas at Mathura are shown as princely types, adorned with jewelry and headAlthough the identification of the two dresses. figures is not certain, they are diferentiated by their necklaces and turban ornaments. Better preservedthan the Bhik;u Bala image, it exhibits the crisolv carved facial features and other details that demonstrate the high quality of craftsmanship of the Mathura workshops during the Ku:e+a period, though the images are srylistically very close. The Katra figure has a shaved head with an u5ryt5athat resembles the kaparda(a type of sea shell). Becauseof this, some scholarshave referred to this and similar images as being of the kapadix type.3z A second well-preserved image of a seated Buddha was found at Ahicchattre but is made of the reddish sandstoneused at Mathura and is tllerefore probably a product of a Mathura workshop (Fig. 8.32). Its inscription revealsthat ljtlar Ptadesh, it was the gift of the Bli&pi Virar.ra for the FromAhicchattra, image. 8.32. Buddha era period.Year 32, possiblyKaniska India. Kuse4e benedt and happinessof "all teacherstogether H: (ca. sandstone. 67.3cm. A.D.rJ2).Motded reddish with elderly irawayas and disciples,"33a less New Delhi. NationalMuseurn, universal wish than that of the Amoha-asi inscription, but still Mahayanist. The inscription (and is dated in the year thirty-two of what is prerneans. Indeed, the acquisition of merit have been a major sumed to be the Kaniska era. Since Kaniqka the redistribution of it) rnay ruled for only twenty-six years, this date falls goal of the donors and patrons who were Huviska, and within the reign of his successor, responsible for the creation of works of art to around a,o. r5z. is probably equivalent throughout the history of Mahayana Buddhism. The image is similar in sryle and format to Although the inscription is undatep, the image the Amoha-asi sculpture, though the pieces is generally thought to have been made during are clearly not identical. A difference in Budthe second century A.D. by is dhological message suggested the presence The format of the sculpture is of a type that ofa scene, perhapsthe worship ofa tree, beneatJr became standard in Kusala and post-Kuqa4a the seatedBuddha. Furthermore, here the two Buddhist art. A central, large Buddha sits on a bodhisatwas attending the central Buddha are sithhasana(lion throne) with his feet in vajraparclearly identifiable as two bodhisattvas who yaibasara and his right har'd in abheya uudra. appear extensively in Buddhist art, VajraPaqi, Behind his head is a large halo with scalloped to the Buddha's right, and Avalokite{vara, in edges represcnting fame or light and above form, to his left. Each is recoghis Padmapar.ri this is a portion of a precisely rendered ptpal nized by the attribute held in his right hand, figure are two standing tree. Flanling the seated bodhisattvas,while above, a pair of vidyadharas a rajra in the caseof Vajrapani (Bearer of the Vajra) and a padna (lotus) in the case of Padfly towards the center of the stele, the one to mapani (Bearer of the Lotus). Vajrapaqi is the left carrying a bowl of gems and the one

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drcsscd xn ascctic! iis rr'ith l short kilt entl rvhet rlrrrchnlorc rcccntbtlt corrHictitqrrsegcs. one In ippcxrs to bc an lnimll sliiD riccl lbout his larcr tr:Ltlitionthc lrryrnsr mbolizcs2raliiaancl sl.Loulde On his hc,rJ is r u rerdr, thc Hclrs. rhc lotLrscl,-'rrotcs lrrrrlr;i, rvhilc in enothcr,the lenisticsr.mbol ofvictor),. tunci t.idc1,v the in prrrlrrrrr r'quivelc\1tto fniitj lntl thc r,ryrn rs art of the northwcst .lthougli rilre 1n uorthrcprc\cntsthc skilllirl n1c:iD\ (,lrl.7) of implcccntral:rnLlnorlhcrlr Irr(lir et rhis timc. Peclnre- lrrcrtting [,]r"rr.iil Prcrcur Lno\,lc11gcabout pati is gerbc,1rs rn In.lic princc. cllbor:rtcl1 Inclic Meharyane tsLrdclhisnr cluring thc I(ns-nl , u r e pcriod nrllics it impossiblcto csr:rblislr l . ' . r , j , d . ' r r . r r r r ' L r r r 'l. I r ' r ' , r ( . , r r ' . l . lfiich r l r . . r l . . r , r l r d i , r . r . . r rr l r , \ j . r r r r . . , . . r , r . . oi thc-sc urclninqs is prescnt, or rvhcthcl the is nonrrellv PlrLllplni rvho is sholrr ls thc collflqulxtioll it thc Ahicch:rttrarstclc cotlvc_vs lr ilscctic xnLlVejrapllli rs thc princc. r ] . . ' t " t r .r ' , . r . r r r . ' r rl . , I r r r i , L J r r . l , r i , , \rajrapini is tht- pcrsonihcetionof l'isdonr lhich is bclievcd ro heve ha.l origins et lc:rst (proyra),rvhich is corrc.-ivcclof ,rs onc hrlf of xs cuh,:is the KLrsenl pcriod, thc lofra also thc st:Ltt- llo.l,.l]rehoorl. of Pldureptnr.lJ l rn:rlrsvubolizcs thc nelc nrcnrLrcr', l.hich mrrst bc festltior of Avalol<itcir'.rrl.pclsonifies conrcombincd rvith tbe firnrlc mcrnbcr. thc lotrrs, (Aorrrrrn), othcr helf oi IlLrcLrlhehoocl. in orclcrto errriu thc finel relliz:rtiorr. thc passion Through the ruc,:Lit:rtionll crpcricnce o{ thc The pilttcrn of lrevirrqonc of rhc boclhisetn'ls rnily of tirr'sc t\r'o conrpoDcnts. sr:lte L'D- llanLirrq e Burltlha clcpictctlas :r xsceticlld thc of helrtcnrncnt (1.,01/ri).RLrddhrh.oorl.rchicvccl. thc othcr as I rovrl plincc (r-ilrrrrr-r)bccorrrcs or is Tlrc er:rct rncilnillg of thc lc1ra encl ?dlutt ,1tstendarcl Mehat'arrellLrrlLlhisr flon thc in rrt ' r . L r c . l r ,I I I r r r . L ' ' ' . | I ' . ' L r \ r | . . l r o h n r . .. . Kus-ne periocl on. Solrictirlcs it is tliiicLrlt to :rsiillv illtcrprctxtions nlust bc c\trapolut(]d liont dctcrminc whcthcr' thcsc ligulcs arc botlhi-

NORTHERN REGIONSUNDTR THE KUSANAS

I (5

sattvas or the two Brahnanical gods, Indra, who is usually shown as a royal figure, and Brahma, who is gcncrally depicted as an ascetic, and who also flank Buddha figures (P1.4, Fig. 7.rr). It is likely that a deliberate overlapping of meaning is intended, for uahasattuabodhisattvasreside as kings of heaven prior to their final incarnations, and Indra and Brahma are also kings of heaven. Furthermore, it is likely that the dual gods, Indra and Brahn.re, served as partial protofypes for the paired nahdsattua hcre. bodhisrttv.rpattem evidenced As in the no.rthwestduring the Ku;apa period, liG scenes Sakyamuni Buddha were depicted of at Mathura during the secondand third centuries, although in much rnote limitcd numbers. At Mathura, the events are generally shown in highJy abbrcviared fashionand the repertoireis usually limited to major events rather than the narative treatment that ocmore comprehensive curred in the northwcst. Thesefeaturesare clearly visible in a relief found at Rajghat, Mathura, which includes {ive major events in the life of , S a k y a m u n i( F i g . 8 . 3 3 ) . t h c s c e n e so r r a n g e d acrossthe upper half of the slab and from right to left, include the birth, the Marcuijaya, the descentfrom Trsyastrirh(a heaven, a preaching scene, and tlrc pari irfira. Bclow each scene, subsidiary elements related to the events are depicted. Curiously, these sccm to be given great emphasis in the composition since they occupy nearly thc whole lower half of the relief, though this may have been a result of thc formar of the relief rnd rhc intenrion to include all five subjectsin a single row. Each of the scenes has fewer participants in it than are generally included in approximately contemporaneous dcpictions from the northwcst (Figs. 8.r7,82r-4). A number of specific bodhisattvasarc idcntifiable in the art of the Mathura school. In addition to PadrrapSni and Vajrapani, who may appear il scparatesculptures or as attcndants to Buddha {igures, as in the stele from Ahicchattra (Fig. 8.32), Maitreya, the Buddha of the next age, appearsin chc Mathura repcrtoire. One representation,which was found at Ahicchrtrra.is idcnri{icd Mritreya by ir. inscription as (Fig. 8.3a).s Though Maitreya may be shown

Uttar Maitreya.From Ahicchattra, 8.34.Bodhisxttva period. Ca- secondcentury. India. Ku9e4a Pradcsh, Rcddishsandstone. 67.J cm. NationalMuseun, H: New Delhi.

strictly as a bodhisattva (Fig. 8.i5), or as a Buddha, in this example he seemsto combine aspects of both. The snail-shell-like curls on his head are a featurc found on many Mathuraschool Buddhas and rnay bc an indication of his imminent Buddhahood. The absenceof a turban or crown may be further indications of his Brrddha-nature. However, his attire, in-

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.o1rlbi11rrri.r1 .111.1 pLirposc ,rn.L rur',rrrillq ol rhc - ri'r ,l . , . i.. ,, ,1 nrcir: hr!c !re\'ar Lraar s.Lri\f :Lcroril c-rf l rlinc(1. ! 1 ) o s s i b i r ' r l r r ' i o . , i r q c o , . r p l c .e b o v c s v n r b o l i z e . 1,jil/rrr!r)Lhc .olrcrepi ol Lrrrioubcl\vrcrr thc rurl.: rn(l t,rnrll. lrin(lflcs. crlLrivrlclrr to (no\-!icdgc ,Ln.i corrrir,rssion llLrri.lhist tlLoirglrt. l-hi1c rhc in iinelc iiqLu.'s rlorrc rliglrt bc "olli'rcci" rs thc o t l r t - ti r i l f o i d r c L l D i t \ ' . o t h e r l c l o t c t . A l t i r o u q h \\.it]r i]rcrc tr onrcl -ilc clc:Lfl\. lrot .rsso.::il1c(i tlcc\, lha! rr'a renrin;sccrt rrl_ rhc 1,alr-Lis lnri 1,vl-!.1,/11,,r1,r-r .ilrl)c.1r'ir)g on c;rrlicI llLrrlclhist nla!rLlrn.11ts. rrith rhcir bro.rd hips. llrgc roLrril .,.1 . .. L ,,1 ,t.r,r .,., ol lLirnrl:rrrr:c.r1r(lILritilrLllcss.!lech srenrlsin e rliFlrcnr l,orc rLnrlis cnqrrgcrl1r1 iur.rcti\.i!-\', sLrdl .r .rs .rLijLrstinq ncc[]rcc or pl.rvirq rrjtlr ;r bir',ri. T h c l i E u r t r \ \ . l r v i r t L r r l i \ :n o c l o t h i r l q b L r r i r r c .1(l()rn!'.1 \1ith hc:rvr, qirrllcs. rlccklrccs- rnklct\. .rn,l bllceletr.

i n a l l i , t ) , , i , ' r t t , i . r l r l r l , s c r l l o I c dl r r l . r l i r r t h c r ri,
rc|rta iire \.,arfl n) IiLt!.tlt.1 1)cri.'ii .\trllPl!-s l l r o n r l \ 1 . r r h L r rl'n r l r c L . r r c ,s i t c s . . Nurrcr',,r1. otlicr sLii-.jcctrL,csi,1,'rllLrrL.llns Lri:rr|rrra .rfc (li'l)ii:1..1 iI ;Ll|(, |.rlllts.l!i!rj s.uLLrtlirf ol ihr: liLrirD.r ffrioLL. At iJlilrLri,,.err. r ) c , r r M . L l h L r i i l. l l \ . . l f i a h l ) ' J e c ( r r r t , ' . i s t o t l e 1\ r.ri.irLg rrrr fir- rrl i[ .rsroci.rrio]r illl l!_.1-qlucrll\
l.rl:'l saDirtiolr\ ol_ r'oirrltrtc,its 11()llrall ill c.lrLlilL

rtop J\\.rrllil. iisurcs ri lrilc posfs sf.'.ir(liirq ,-,l.,rlc ,1rr!)rr)Lrs .ouIrl('s.1.rl,rirr brlr,,ttic-. iFig-.. oi l'.j S. li.jOi. (lrr rh,: l.'r'lr-s.r tlrc l)(r\ts,ltti/i,1

THE KUSANAS 157 NORTHE]INREG]ONS UNDXIT

.;.r9.

li
l,

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- ---1:

11.37. Rcvcrsc sidc of strparailing. FrorDBhiitcivara, per.iod. Ca. Mathura,Urtar Predesh, India. Ku5a4a sccond ccnlury.Rcddish sendstone- r5I cr)r.Lrdiar H: Muscurrr, Calcutta.

A number of sculpturcd supports for large stone bowls havc bccn found at Mathuri. As a type of object, they have been little studied; however, imagcs supporting bowls are known at least since the Sunga pcriod, such as the dwarf from Pitalkhora(Fig. :.1:), although the

practicc of uraking thcsc objccts sccms to have died out by thc cncl of thc Ktsana period. Pcrl-Laps boq'ls u'crc uscd to rcceive donathc tions fronr visitors to Buddhist cstablisl.Lnrents, but since nonc of these has bccn lorurcl in conrext, thcir purposc can oniy be surmisccl.Thcsc b o b J C c t.s c g c n r r ' l 1 1ry o r r t . , r r r e L cn r l r ,i s i r r r r and, if not raiscd on a platforn.L, rvoulcl be at an appropriate level for an alms borvl. Trvo basic formats for such bowi supports arc found at . f M , t l r r r r : r r h c l r r s rl L . , r i n g r . r r r q l e i g r r r .c i t l r c r . frcc-standing or backed by a cohrlnn and supportiDg x bowl on thc hcad (Fig. 8.38)and the secondsl-rolvinggroups of figurcs in tr,vo rclicft forming a front and back to thc objcct (Fig. 8.3 ). e Thc rvoman in Figure 8.38 is generally identificcl as Sri Laksm, thc soddcss of rvcalth and prosperity. Indeed, abr-rnclance fertility are ancl clearly suggesteclin thc scnlpture. However, ties to Laksmi arc opcn to qucstion. Thc wonan

IJ6

IIRIOD O| TI]I IARL\

1]YNASTIES

l {];

s . : S . L J o \ 1 1 u t f . ( ! t i n r L , r r r r f L c n I l t i l : : L r r r .l r r u r , r n d b , r c k r i c r i s r l - r , r r 1 I l i r h L , f r , r I L L I l ' j r . r L l L , hL r d i , r . l i , r . r r r . r p c L i o d . C . r . * . c o r d . . L ' n t L r r ! l , 1 o ( l c , : l , L . J c l i J r: : n , L l r t r , , r c l : L . i , r . \ r r i L r , . r l \ . 1 u s c u , r , l Ncr l)clhi.

st.rnds t$'o lotus buclsth:rt risc oLrlol .r r.lsc or1 oi lrldlty \pnrnqlnta). Hcr rpp.rrcrt iccundirr. is indicrtcd br' hcr riqlrt h.rncl.thicli hol.ls e tvfc oi ffuit .r1r.l poillts rlirccrlr.to hcI qc0irll : r r c r .r r l i l L ' h c r l e f t l i l l n d h o l J s h c r b r c , r s r , ris i to olli'r milk. Shc thLrsbeconres sr rnbol oi l
.r, I.r.1.t,, ,,t l. yt. . rr o[ ]otLrs blossorDs umi.l lclvcs l n c l l - . L r . 1. r r i s i r r q s

oLrr ol rlic r..rsc(Fiq. l.3ii. bick) suggtsts ilbLLrL,{lnc,:. rnd probrblv is elro l rcli.rclcc to rcbirih rn,.l thc trrusccrrclr-rrt st:rtc.llj I)erc-_ocks trhibitinll t h c l o r u s r , i n c s s v n r b o l i z ci t u n o r t r l i t v , . r n : r s socirti()n srLqq('stcrl c:rrlv rs the protohistoric us b\ tlr.ir lrcscrlcar orr ltr[crerv oLrjccrsi]? pcrio(l rn.1 possiblv rfhicd to rll' ctrlt of Arnitrbhe/ 1\nrit.rvrrr. sirrce the pc;rcock is thc la/rorra of

NORTHTRN RXGIONSUNDER TIIT KUSANAS

.r 50

8.39.Bowl suppor. in form ofdouble-sidcd rclicl From Palikhert, India. Kustna period. Ca. secondcentury. Mathura, Uttar Pradcsh, H: 106 cm. Marhura Muscum. MaMottled rcddish sandstonc.

this Buddha, who represents immortality in India by dre first century a.o. (or earlier), as Buddhist thought. evidenced in art, and it has continued in some The double-sided bowl support frorn Pehkcults to the present day. Its use was not limited hega, Mathura, shows the 1a&scKubera being to Buddhism, but is found also in Saivite and served wine (specifically,grape wine, indicated other religious sects. Since consumption of by the grapes held by the figure at the left) by is inebriating beverages mcntioned in the Vcdas, figures in Hellenistic garb on one side (Fig. it is possiblethat the Dionysiac imagery brought 8.39, lef$, while on the other, an apparently into thc Indic rcgion from thc wcst during thc inebriated Kubera is supported by attendants pre-Kugana and Ku5a4a periods might have (Fig. 8.39, right). Although early scholarsfound only reinforced certain developmentsthat were it difiicult to accept the consumption of wine already visible in certain segn.rcnts ofthe socicty. in what may be a Buddhist relief, the GrcckKubera (Fig. 8.39, left) sits in a posture of royal style garments suggestinfluence from the wcst easc(lalitasau) and is fittingly corpulcnt. Aland the presenceof Dionysiac rites in which though his attendantsare clad in foreign garb, the transformationof the tclf into an ecst.rric they are clearly within the Mathura stylistic state brought on by winc was a major element idiom, as is seen especially in the method of in achieving transcendcnt realization. Ritual incising drapery folds and in the facial fbatures. drinking of wine becameiurporrant in ancient

N o r . r - B u o o H t s r S c u l p r r -R EA T M A T H U R A Whilc Buddhist sculptures prcdon.fnate within tl.re material from Mathura, Hindu and Jain irnages are found as well. An image of Karttikeya, asidentified by inscription, also known as Skanda Saktidhara(Skanda,Bearer of the 3atri, or Spear) from Kankali Til-, Mathura, is dated in the ycar elcven of what is presumed to be the Kaniska era (Fig. 8.4o).38 style, clothing, In jewclry, and stance, it is virtually identical to typical bodhisattva figures fiom Mathura of

roJ

l , t : t U u l r[ ] l l ] l t | \ R 1 \

Lr\\f\l

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that Sivr .rll.cers Iopul.ulv ou Kns;rrn coins. F L r r t h c rb y t h . r ti i u r . - .r l e r t o f t h c n r . r i nc l c n r e n t s . of his rconoqlrpht l'r'r-,r eir'.:,11-r u'ill cstr[,lis]rc.l in ert. inclLrrlirrq llrl.tasyrrrbolisnr.Ir l het l.otLlcl L:Lvc bct:u tirc ccutcr oi thc lirqrrrcrrr l'hor rr}olc i-. e .ri1J,dc(u(i\tinq of .rr crcct phrllrrs trrl(LcrI rr{rc. both oir rr'hii:h rr., sL,r'l,runclcJ br. e rlr/i|a. Attcn.lirq dris shrinr: is l qroLrp of lrLnrrerrtorsoccl lcogLvphs thet brinq grrllrnclsdoNc|s- u]lc]pl:Lttcrsoi olli'r ilus. 1'his prrrriculllt t1'pc ol r:onrpc'srrcIqLrrc is ulrirrr:Ltcll dclivcrl q.l.' . lr.,r.r 1t ," i rll nrcnicl 9crio11, bLrr br-rbc l(rrs:Lll pcriorl. rhL:r' l crc r1r'ctci1'rtr irrtcgrll 1,.Lrr oithi: ItitLici(Lio1n. Fulthcr jnllur:ncL:llool fhc rrortir!\'c\r rcglons is scL:u e r.frcscntrrior ol- Srrrvn. thc sLrnqocL, irr florr Iiri.rLali lila, Mrthura (Fiq. 8.1:). WIi1c: thc icoroqr:rp1tv oi SrlLl.r is llor n.\\' tr this tinrc. fot Siilr.r is krrorirr in lifcrlrurc sincr:tir, V,.rlls lttcl occrls irr prc-Iiusenlr aft. ihis i1l_r.irlc l1litstr-lr.-sthc colrrriirqlilrg o1_e conrplc.i s.:rics ''l'.rri:i'.ll teclrc. cuii:rn. boots ol th,' luriru sn1c, :urcl rrcPrc\cnt]liol1 oi riI lr:Lnirn-n'|.: Irc rkar' clrrccl in lol- rclicf on thc soclc clcrrlr. br-trrv JLuujrr soLrLr:cs. cLorrblc(ro11r (:or1si\Lirrq -t\ of tLc- irTlct -sulrrr,-rturtccL :r n lcerh ol lictor\. is bt. _,....1.,,,..r1r,r..
S . 1 o .K r f r t j k c \ r . F r o r r K i r k a L ' 1 r l a . i \ 1 x t h l r r a U l l i l r , l ' r . r d c s h ,1 n J r . r . u s r n : r l ) . r ' . d . Y ! . t r r r : p o r s i L , l rI ( r n i s k . r K c r r ( . : l . r . r ) . i l r ) . , \ 1 o f t 1 . . 1r e d d i s h s , r n . 1 s r , r c . l l : f i 3 crf . \ Llruri itlL:scLrur. l.rthur.r. N

-.

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th.rt ur,loLrbrcclh' \\'r.ra i[:Lrrinriftcd to .lr1cic1]t I u d l r L t h l o u g h I r r r i : u r i c o r r o g r - r L I l r i co i r l L c s Prrrhiln pcliocl.'lno lrorsesonc to citbcr siclc . o i S r i r v r ' s t . c t , s \ ' r r l b o i i . r i l \ 'f . L r L r j \ c h x f i o r o r l ll l i s L | i 1 r . m o n t h l v , : r n c lr r - . u l l j o u n r c r s r h r - o u q h t[e hcrrvcns. Tll croLrclrirs p,r'ition oi ihrcLc-itv ruqgcsts rh.ri hc is irLrlccdscercr[]n hir sLrrr L:herioL. Sculpturelll, thc inuge l:t1ls r:1,:erl1-

,l

rborrt tliL: sunrc time. Thouqh liirttil,cr,a ',,,as ( . ! ' r ' . r r , . - p . r , 1 . ' r i r. r i 1 1 ; 1 . . ' r r r ' . , , 1 :l\ I soiL of Sivl. hc rrrlt' iuvc hrLcll srlrlrlfc cLLIL r,his .1etc. pcrlreps rclated to l,rli.nl \\'or rt

t irhirr rhc scopc of Kus.rll-pcr iorl irfLiLfMxfLur-i. rraL .1 sLr(riq r!scltlblxucL-to thc rolei Iorrr.rirs
l rI lVl.L \irr l rr l5 L \ lllLltl

ship.
Arr rfclitLrc:tLlrirlurqrrr.:lt fi:om lJlu-iteivere, Mrthurl, olli:s itLn docunrr:ntriion c,f phlllrLs (lirga) rvorsliip. .u1rl illLlsLrltc\ l surcrctisnr oi \l.cstcfr1 Asixti(- lrlcrtili rrrrl lrr.lic rcligious i h o u g h t ( F i g . S . 4 r ) . S i n r : ep h , r l l i cc u l t s i u S o u t h A,i.r .' irl siL ir . - r'r . lik.l r .r ,' r. .l. r i r'r. ) 'r " r. r, l 'l givcrr to Sivl rlLrrirrgthc Kusaril pct:LDca 1vls rirxl. Tliis \Lrqgc\tior is rcinl-orccclby t|c lir:t

(lotisi,ir:rrbl,.'cr,irlcrtcc6i rtrorq J:Lirr'cligioLis :rclititf ilt Mlthrrlri ,:lLrlilg t]rc 1(Lrq:rne pcriori is iourrl in scLrlprLrr.rl arlrLi ir.!gmlnr:rf\'' irfaliitcaturel rL'nr;rirs. TlLc li,rnkr.rlr Iilrr tir p:rtriculrr sccrls tLr hn'r' bc.rr rrcrctl to thc J.rins .rs crid c n c c r iL r r t l l c n r r t ( r r i i L ltsr u t l r . r v cc o n r c t o l i g l r t i rhcrc, rltlronqh Jliu oLrycctrlnlc b,:cn firrLrriL t l r o L r q h o L r t i r r :M a r h L r r t r c q i o n . A - J l i n s c L r l p r u t , r (1i1tc.l tlr(j t]rirrr-fift1r ,.,clr ol r.,lr:rtis belicv.:ci l) to ba lr sccold KLrsanlcL.r.givilg r rierc oi.rboLrt

NOR'IIILIIN RLC]ONS LTNI)]]ItIIIL I{L'S,{NAS

16I

, \ . . r r .A r c h i t c c t L r r : r1 rx g n r c n t s b o \ \ ' i n q c f \ h r i n c . L l i r : { . r .F r o , r 1 l 1 , L r L . i 1 lara. MrthLrrr. LLrur Irirdcsh, lldir. I(usrnr fcri(id. Clr. \.c(!rL1 c c n t u n . I l c d d r s h r l r t l s L r r r r - .r j , . 7 7 ( r l . \ l . 1 t t r L u r N l L r ' c u u r , \ 1 : r

:,:.

$:

s..1r. Siirrr. Fro,r Krnk.h lr1:r. N1:tLhLrll1, UtLrr Prrdcsh, Inrlir. Ku\rrir tcriod. (l;r. scconrlccnnrrvi\4irltcddi-dr srrdstolc. ll: .j7 fnr. Nliihur. i\'lu\c1rr), thrLfu.

A.D. f,Jj lirr thc rnraqc.!!) shows iolrr st.ndinq tlttlrdlil:dnt!(Tirias)olc ou e.rch siLlcof :L ccillrrl (Iiiq. s.'13). lhc clorirrg lrtrc of rhc irrscri|g.i11.rL lirr tiorr inrlicltr:s th,rt tlis rtork ues clctlic'rrc,L thc happiness etcl uclilt.: of eJl crr:rturts, thLts ilclicatirrq i1 v('Iv closc p.rr:illcl ir1 theolcticll dr:vclopnrr:rrt,. b,-:twccn lluddlrisrn :rrrr1 -l:rittisur. Nudc, iu cllrrtrilsr to thc :rlrrels q,rrbcrl llLrclcllrisL 1rgnrc,q, thc ttrthoikarts rrc cli-rrur8.+r. l'jrlhr niLh sr.rnriingriirld,llrf.r-r. lr(i,,, I{irnkrl, 'lrll. \ ' 1 . r i h L r r a ,U r t i r f l ' j r r d . \ l r , I r . i i r . K u \ a r : r p r n o , i . Yc:rr 3r (oi sccondI{urrnr cr:r? of tr. r.r). r\j:) Ilcddi,h srnd.t,,rr II: :;-.; c,,r N1:rdn,r \1,ri.rur)t, \lrrlrnrr.

I62

I,IITIOD OIi TIII

FAIII.Y D\.NASTIES

BLrclclhas), \1.hoscxnns ,rrc s.tpposc.lto rcach to thcir knccs. Likc Rnclclhas, havcrlistcnded l/rtas cerlobcs,meY hxvc trrr-s :rnrl othcr distinctive Altholreh thc liqurcs ttrxrks or cheractcristics. thcy too f^ll arc !omc\\:hxt still-end elvkrvarcl, ,rf l(usatra ert of Metlrr ra. rvirhir-r thc splr.t. 1'ossibll. tlic sDrooth contours of thc bocl,v anticiprltc dcvclopmcnts of thc carly Cupta
l, , .', ,, rl i'. r ( r r U r \ . i . , 1 .. l : r L L . t \ . r t r " r . i -

3.,14. Jiirl tifl,,?rlA,ir,1- Fronl Nlxlhurx resic!), Ullllr I']rrdcsh, Lrrlir. KLrsrna pcdod Cr. drird cctltr.rr\,. lvlotrlcd rcdclsh s.lrdsrorc. H: r; c,r. NlrdrLrrr iluscunr,

guishedprimarily by tire cmbli:ms tllrt appc.rr orr thcir chcsts.Each frirure stands stiifly, rvidr arnrs xt his sitl:s. lhc o\,crrlollgilrDrs arc xlr iconographic icaturc of thc jirras (es rvcll es

tior:rl phescbct*ccu thc nrrin Kusanxclcvclopn-rcrrts thoseofthc Gupta pcriod. lltl A scarcdirgurc of :r .]:rin ttlltaikara shorvsthc closc'rclatiorrslripbcnvr:cn l'iuddhist anrl Jrin (Fiq. 8.aa).Esccpr for tlie nr.rditl lor-rnLrietiors r-riclthc crublcn that lppcars oir his chcst, dris " Bi'ldlr,. l]rc l r ' ' r r . r ' i g l I L , n . i \ r . . k , rt r r liotr tluone, urtl dcvotci'sbclorl posturc,rrrrrrlr-, inugc. rll nrjght occur in the cascof a lSuclclhist The closc plr:rllclism scen in thc cloctrincs, livcs, lnci rcligions of thc t$o colrfclrporlics, \ . , 1r . r t r r . .. . 1I M r l r v r r . . ( . r l \ l , r ^ r r t r r , r ' . r i ' r l . r ,r ^ l r , r .r r ' ' r ' 1 , r . . p . . t r r . r , ' i v i ^ r r . Possiblv elsorleti[g Ii-oni rncl thcir':rlr tre.litions. thc thirtl ccntrrry, this inugc sholvs thc s.nrc cxlnrplcerrcl of stiffircss rngul:rrit-v thc prcct:cling WlLile this is in part a rcflcction of stylistic a of considcretions thc tirrc, rt bccourcs cherTil thc postectcristicoiJein iirt rn pltrtrcular. U r i t 1 ' r r ' ' r . J t t ti t r . r 3 ". , l t q rl r ' ' ' , .' s c o l r ' i , siuiplicitt en.l en ebstrlctiotrmtrch grcrtcr th.in rhrr sccoir tirc :rrt of orhr-rscctsin Soutb Asil.

Coxcr-usroi.r 'Ihc rcliqior.rs encl artisric.lcvclopmcnts the of KuslnrL period, richlv rurtrLlcd by Inclic and non-hrclictreclitiols, tredc a llsLiriq uulli on thc di:vcloprrcnt of SoLrth Asietr crlltule. A qrclt vxrict,v of iconogr:rphictbrmulltions rrs \,1 .r. .l\ t.tr. c..li: l.rl. l. .rr. prr, r'r ir thc untlclst:rnclitrq thcscr ol Kusenl art. elrhorrgh
J c r c l o p r l c n t s i s s t i l l i n i t t i n f r t r c v .Y c t . i t c e n n o t bc ,lcniL-'cl thrt both iconogrephr rud stvle ot' r .t' p r^ol Lr ' tl . I r r ,r i ' 1 . , rr . I r ' , r ' , f f oi thc l(Lrsine llrit.rgc. ls ccftilirl pittarrn\ xf\\'hilcr p.rfcrlt fiom th:Lt tirtc tctD:ritictl st.itrcl.rr',.1 otllr'fs servecl rs thc sturLitrq poitrt firr' rvhet *oL,ld br:comc e rich encl vericd rrlrlition.

.
CIIAPTER NINE

i I

Regional Developments in the Deccan (ca. Secondand Third Centuries)

Tne WrsrrnN Drccew Cavrs

The important artistic developrnents that occurred under the aegis of the Kusenas in the Bactro-Gandhara and Mathura regions were paralleled by contemporary traditions in other parts of the South Asian subcontinent. In the wcstern Deccan,cavernonumentsof considcrable complcxity and scalewere cxcavated,rcprcscnting a continuation of earlier Indic devclopn.rents while adapting new rcligious concepts.Historically, the period is characterizcd by rivalry between the Setavthanas(who had recn.rcrged aftcr a hiatus of scvcral gcnerations following the reign of Satakar4i I) and the Ksaharatas (also caled the Ksatrapas), branch of the Sakas a that had extended its rule deep into the subcontinent. In spite of thc forcign incursion by the Sakas,however, the monuments associated with the Satavdhana-Ksaharata period show little infuencc of non-Indic anistic tradirions. Many of the architectural and sculptural forms seen at Bedst (Figs. 6.t3 zz) came to fruition in the caityahall at Kerli (Figs. 9.r-6). An inscription carved on the conplcted facade refers to Nahapana,one of the Ksahar-tas,who is called a satrap in the inscription.r It is likely that the epigraph dates from about .a.o. rzo; this date is arrived at by comparison to a similar dedication at the site of Nasik, dated the ycar 4z of the Sakn er", *hich is eqrivalent to A.D. rzo.2 Othcr inscriptions inside the hall citing donations of pillars by satrapswho were foilowers of Nahapana corroborate a date of about rzo for the dedication ofthe cavc. It is difiicult to gct an overall impression of the original appcaranceof the exterior of the caitya hall at Kerli, sincc a modcm shrine obscures it and the original facadc has partially fallen away; tl.rcform of the caveis perhapsbest

164

PIRIOD OF THE EARLY DYNASTIES

g.r: Pl?.nof coityahall. Karli, Maharaglra,India. KpaharataSaka period. Ca. A.D. r2o.

studied from a ground plan (Fig. 9.r). The entrance to the cave is set back into the side of the mountain and is shieldedby a stonescreen.Holes in this screen clearly iirdicate that considerable wooden architecture was intended to complete the structure of the facade, although none has survived and it is therefore impossible to determine the original appearance.Above the solid wall of the screen is the remains of a row of pillars that would have allowed light and air into the veranda and the hall itsele but this too is in a ruined condition. In concept, the screen relates to the pillared veranda and stone passageway that precede the entrance to the Bedsa cdityahall (Figs. 6.13, 6.14). A pillar to the left of the entrance is carved from the same matrix as the cave and is reminiscent of the Maurya lion pillars at Serneth (Fig. 4.5) and Sefrci, although the heavy, thick forms of the column and the lions are far removed from the graceful Maurya prototypes. The plan also shows the

hall.Kdrli, Maharaglla, 9.2.Endwall ofverand^,.ditya India.K$harata Saka period. A.D.r2o. Ca.

R l c I o N r L D r v r L o p M f N T sN T I I | D E C C A N 1 6 5 I large scelc of thc raitya hall aud verrnch (the I(arh cavc is olc of thc lergcst lluclclhist cxcavations all of South Asie).Thc nrerl1 in hall cncloscs r"tlld, thc ccntralobjcct ofvcncr:rtion, a ud, es in eulier lulls, has r rorv o1i pillars p:rr:illciing thc slupc of thc c:rvc itsclf encl separ':rtills the irlterior spaceirlto a ceDtl]l xlcx :rnd an aislcthat surrouncls ccntrxl spacc. thc Within thc vcrend:r, firrtl.ier perrl1e1s rnay bc rlrervn to thc Bcclseclvc, alrhorLghthe scale and sculpturel conception rt K-rli xrc nrilch nrorc .urlbitious. The end l'ell of the verantla [ q r - . i ; r ' r r r r - . r . J r i r ' ' ' r r r r . r l . i r c l t r] r ' r : I clrorl.ey arrcl balcon,v lorrns (I'ig. 9.2), lrn "nd ogec-sh:rpccl lrch ovet the main cntrlrlcc to the cavc (visiblclt the lighr in Fiu. 9.2) is .rg.rin thc domilant nlotil Howcvcr, in contrest ro thc Bcdsa vcrancl:r, rol. of approrirnrtcly a life-sizc clcphantsis c:uvccl :rs if supporrine thc cntile supcrstrrlctruc thc two encllr,allsin rr on r r . ' n r r crrc n r i l i . c ,r r , ' f r l r ' c ' . 1 ' l r r r r rJ rr r l r . r r p llitalkhora(Figs.5.32.J.33).Thc rvall scprrrting thc intcrior apsicl:rlhail fronr thc vcrancle is brokcn by:r ccntrxl cloor'\\::ry and nvo sicle doorlvavs. inclic:rting x grcrtcr- sv1rr1[ctry tha]l :rt llcdsa.Frlfther,rvhilc thc lerlsl rvrll n'rs un(althorsh possiblvoriqirull,v paintcd), sculptccl et Karli lxrge r,,ltlr/rin couplcs fllnk thc doorrvlvs (Figs. 9.3, 9.+). (lt shoLrldbc notcd th:rt thc rcprcscllt:ltior1soi lJudclhls lr-Lcl bodhis:rttves or1this \\':1lllnd the fir.o cn.1 $'tls \'erc cervccr in thc letc lLfth ccrrtury,rvhcn the icorroerlphic proqllm of thc cevc q,asnLo.lifretl.) Thonglr larger tiun thc nsurl rtitlttnas a,-IotniDq rhc cloorrv;rvsto rcligious rronl ltcnts, tlreir purposcis probrblv the s:rorc. synrbols As of urriorr, tltc rnitlwnu reprL-scnt notion of thc inclivicluel rcirtcgrltiorr rvith the Univcrsll priuciplc, cxprcsscclthrough thcir :rfic.ctionate E:Lch peir is sesturcsrncl irr.rplicitscxLrality. f r F i , ' r r i . r 'I b y l ' . r d L 1 v . , rr r i ^ r ' i n i costuDre ind gcsturcs. Yct it is clcu dt:rt thc

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,60

IIIRIOD OF TTIT EAIII-Y 1)YNAS]]FS

9.4 Mithunn couplc. vcrard'r l1all lcadnrg, inlo idlrld K l l l . r l l . ) r l j v l - l r r r L r . . I r a l : . .K - l l . r . , . \ . 1 . 1 l : r . i . l . Cu, A.D, r2o.

artists hrvc not ettcnrPtccl to iDdrviduelizc thc igLrrcs by cletails pirvsioquoury,lust;Ls of herl becn tmc:1t Sailci en.l othcr earlv sitcs. arc voluptrous In gcnerll, thc lcnralc figur-es in thcir amplc proportiorls, rvith v'icLc hips, full thiglis, rncl rouncl, hcevy brc;Lsts.Th.:it: rveistsarc srnali encl thcir liurbs tepcred.Thcv rppcer virrually nudc r-ith thcir jcrr,clt,vcou Uttloltbtcdlt. stitutinc their m.lin a(lor-nnrcnts. tltcsc Nomcn clcrivc fiour tlc fenitrinc iclcll . u L ni r , ( . r ri . r . c . . 1 r r r . r . r r l L . - . .r l , , r , , r ' , . b have bccorucniorc liii:likc incl spontucoos,fi)r mrkc en.l their smilinq e\pressions rclercd poscs tl-rcm sccrn to havc bccri c:rrLglttutten'lrc- :ts trr a cenclicl prcturc, by thc :rrrisr.Thc nulcs llc rlso gcncrousll'proportiorlcd, tlLcirHcsb bodics l' revcllcclby thc ucarlv tioncxisturtd/rolis. bo1dly tlcav-v lolds c,f clotli bctrvcctr the leqs rn,:l

aroun.lthc hips,tLrrbarrs, earrings ind distinguish thcir costurrics.Ihc turbans have a peculiar shepcrvith a higir. nrusiuoorrrliLcportion it thc front. Stllistically. Lhc fisurcs (cspcciailvthc y \\omc11)sharcr gtcat dcxl \'_ith (o'lerrpor lLr cxrvinq\ :rt Mitlrrra (liqs. 8.q5, 8.36) rnd Andhe l'rrdesh, indicrtinir the prcsetrceof pln-lncLic t.cu.tls th.oughout thc subcontincnt llonq s.ith the rcgion:rl clcvcloplrcnts. Thc irrtcr:ior: drc Kar]i cai4,ahell i. tluly oh (FiS. C.i), lor thc stark sirDplicit,v of spL-cricrlxr hns norv bccr transformcd into rhc clr'licr l-r:rils r belarrcccl ilrrillr!lenlcnt of sculptural aml erchitccturl]lirrrns on l lerqc scalc-InsrcacL of thc plain 1:rcctcclshafts without capit;rls rnd bescsseen1n thc llcclsx caityah I (Fig. 6.r9), it l(xrli, ftc sctlftors hrvc incolpor.tc(l thc t,vg,coh pilllr: Lrsecl thc llecls:r vcrandl urto ou rhc schcrncof tlre hail's intcrior. 1hc pill:rrs consist of lrrgc. thick shefts rising verticellv to fto:r atndglnLat)pc va\cso1r stcppcdbascs sLipporr lotos-bcllcxpitrls sllrrior.ultcdby hotiancl an zolltll nlenrbcrs.boxccl ribbccl cliscs, (Fiq. 9.6), esscnrblvof fiq,-rrcs riclirig eninuls u,hich:rrl(drli arc cxclrrsivclv clcph:rnts. Usurlly, a nelc:Ln.l tilulc prir riLlc on e;rchelephrnt, nvo .ilthorighocc;rsionelly fi'nllcs .cconrpiurva thc srnqlenu1c.Thc pillerstlirect]vsurrouncling Jfr2d xt thc cnd of thc 1ul1hevc plail octaqonal llthoLrth tlrc slu{is rrll no llilscsor cepit:rls. rclsdl lirr rhisis uuknor.n. Scvcr:ilarchitccturel clungcs hevc trkcn piaccsinccthc cerlicr c,rirla lulls. \)ilhilc thc loof ovcr thc ccntrrl spaceis stilLv.rLrftcd hxsrroodcll ribs rrching ebovc, l1.l as thc sidc lislcs h,rvc llet roof.s, opposcdto thc hrlflr nrlrccl r-\'peirr licJse (Fig. 6.:o). Lr :rdditior. th,: pllllrs irrc strictly vcrticrl. in coDtrilst pcliod (Fiq. fo thc bxttcrcd ones of thc SLrirqr \Vhcther thcsc clunqcs rcHrct lloclillcr5.:,r). or tions in roodcn lrchitccturcr,,fthc pcriocl arc oniv to c\crvatcd cxlmplcs is .r shili eppliceLrlc [ot ccrt.1in.but 1i-onrthis tiDre forrl.rrcl. thc blttcrcrL pillll ccrsesto bc Lrscdin tock-cLrt lrc]ritccnrre. Sli.qhrl,v ltlrcf jn rletc thdr the Karli caitya . h e l l i s V i l i l r r l l l i r t N i s i k ( F i g . 9 . 7 )T l t i t ",.c,rv" 'GlLrtlrmipurrr" crvc bcclttsc the tion is c.rlleLl irrscriptions rhc vc:rrsr4 en.l 2,1, of it conteins of lccolding qrlnts bl Ci:urtemiputru thc Sartl-

RXGIONAI DEWIOPMENTS IN THE DECCAN 9.j. Interior of caitla hell. Ketli, Maharaslra,India. Kpaharata Saka period. Ca. A.D. r2o.

167

9.6. Pillars in caityd h^17.K:^rli, Maharaslra,Iodia. KsaharSta Saka period. C.. A.D. r2o.

!15 fe

vdhana d1.nasty.3 This king is known to have defeated the Kgaharata Nahapana in about a.o. rz4,a thercby extinguishing the Saka control of strategic passes (such as those in which Nasik and Kerli were located), connecting important trade centers of the Deccan with coastal ports and reestablishing the Satavahana power that had been eclipsed since the reign of Sataka4i I. It is likely that the cave was excavated nor long after Gautamiputra's victory, for it shares many features with another cave at Nasik, the so-called Nahapena zilrara (Cave X), which dates lrom around r20. In plan, Vihara III shows greaterregularization and symmetry in the organization of the uihara (Fig.9.8) tban is apparent in the earlier forms, as at Bheja (Fig. 5.2,f). Iighteen nearly identical cells radiate out from a central squarehall and two more open offfiom the veranda. (The one opening off from the veranda at the left is, oddly, not at the end but aligned with those along the left side of the cave.) Preceding the main hall, the pillared veranda extends ap-

r68

PrlIoD

()f THt tAl(f f D\NASTll.S

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" 9 . 7 . V i h a r r I I I ( " a l x u r r r 1 1 i p L r 1 r xc . \ ' e ) N i s i k . l \ 4 r h x r r s t r a , I n d i r . S l l a v a h r l l : l d , v n l s t - r "A f t c r ^ D . 1 ; + ( c r ' r2J I o).

pro\i1n.rcl)' the *'iclth of thc crr.c (FiS. q.t). The llcarlc of the "Gltttemtputrx" crlvc is intriguirrqlnd lpp:Lrcntlvuniquc. Thc vcrlndl is up ofsLcpslcrdir.rg .pproachc,lby r short l1ig1rt to tl-rcporch, and thc liotL of thc porch har a . t r 1' . r , r ' ' b v . ' r . . ' r r 1 - " 1 , . 1,.' s.'ll rl.,r . fiqures bclorv. ThL' lorv r.:Lll is of itrtcrcsr ir beclrusc appclr-sto heve lucl l very tluccor tlimcusionrllycrrvcd prittcllrofbosscs tucdellions on it, ni:rkinq it strikiuglv simil,tr to the r r . . r | \ ' 1 t " f r ' 1 i l n . I r l , " r l . r ' I _ . ' r r' ' r l r , . r . , l rcqiou. liour thc A[t]hr;r Prerlcsh reprcscDtrtion\ Pillers rise ii-orn this t'rll, rvirh drcir thicl.-, siurilel to thosc.r l(elli. Thc s]rafts octagon.rL rclcltcs irs frnel fbrnr cx bcll crpital lol trcllrcly ror.rlrclitr eppc:rlenccrtrd sclttetr:rth.:l| i !' ,.'l than high encl springy, echicvitrg.ilurost tbc (Fig. r3.1). "cushiou" slupe c,f drc sixth ccntr.rry 9.S.Phn of Vihrrr III ("Grutrmipurr;r"crve).Nasik, r'ibbcddisc tith Abovc the bcll rs an cnclosccl Xfuhtrxsrr:r. trriia. Sarr\all;rlr d)rr;trr\. Atier A.r).I2.t soL-tno,.rtrlcd ( . x . 1 2 i I o ) . etllntirl-typc fiqureset thc r:oLncrs-

RXGIONAT DEVELOPMTNTS IN THE DECCAN

lOO

9.9. Sculptedtorafaon entranccto Vihara III ("GautamlpuEa" cave). Nasik, Maharastra, India. Satavahana dynasty. After l.o. rz4 (ca. rz5 3o).

r flankingentrance 9.ro. Figure,possibly bodhisattva, to Vihara ("Gautamiputra" III cave). Nesik,Maherasha, India.S,tav,hana dynasty. Afcera.o. r24(c . r21-3o).

by ascending levels and capped by recumbent animals, including lions, elephants, and bulls with riders. kr contrast to many of the earlier rock-cut monuments, thc decoration of the facade does not consist of repeating archesand vedika patterns, yet the appearance is highly elaborate. The entrance to the cave is also remarkable (Figs. 9.9, 9.ro), for it consistsof a sculpted lora4a surrounding the doorway (dudratorana) through which one must passto enter the cave. The uprights of the torct1a are divided into five rectangular panels beneath which are figures of go4as, The panels are scparatedfrom each other by imitation railings and each panel contains a ithtfla, a urk5adeuatT, similar or subject,s Lion brackets serve as a transition between the verticals and the lower architrave of tlle toralla, which is sculpted with a floral, garland-type motif. The upper architrave is also caryed with a nonfigruative design but between the two are figures worshiping a stipa, a whee| and a tree. The spiral etrds of the architraves

seen at Sanci are here modilied into a curving form. Flanking the door on either side is a male figure, in cach casestanding with his left hand on his hip and his right cxtended upward and holding a bunch of fowers (Figure 9.ro). Traditionally, these figures have been assumed to represcnt door guardians, but as was noted in the case of the {igures on the tordral of Senci Stnpa I (Fig. 6.7), the gestures and peaceful atttibutes contrast with the usual weapons of guardiansand suggest another symbolism. Since, by this timc, the bodhisattva doctrine was well known in Kusd4a art, there is little reason to doubt that these too are bodhisattvas,although their specific identities are not known, Their positions flanling a torarle are exactly comparable to the Saffci scheme. In stylc, thcse figures relate both to the earlier Sano type and the figurc style at Karli, although theseare perhaps stiffer and more awkward than the Karli examples. The feshy bodies, heavily emphasized sashes, turbans, and other details of the costume are strictly within the Indic tradition.

t70

l,FRlOD OI THI tr\Rll

DYN,\ST]l:S

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(rfc) Nilsik' N1lhi il.rr. hlrerior ol Vihir,t lll ( LirLrtr:rrrpLrtrr' t zs 3o1 t n c | . r . S r t , 1 \ ' 1 h r n ..rL \ L l ] \ i \ ' A l i c r r ' r r ' r : ] 4 i c e ' rastm,

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1[c iurcrior of t|c c'rvc (fig.9.II) is stukl,v p1.rin. irr coutlest to the hcevilv orn.rl]lclltc(L crtcrior'. in thc cctrtct of thc lcrr u'.rll. e l':rnc'l 1us b.-cr sculptcci ro sho* thc :rrlor'rtion of rL fhc iIt|,i, u'hich rs obviouslr' rlrcrlllt t() scive 11s objccL (Fiq. 9 r-2). St\ltstic:r1l\'. tllc nreirr cLrlt ,rnrpll' fiqrrrecl icnr,rlc *orsllipcrs rusL'rriblcthc rt .r'or,,.,t, .Lc1,i.r.-r1 l(ir'li. Merlrttre. enrl othcr iirt virtrr.rlll contcrtrPor:rncoLts cc lcl_s. of r]lc rhcnrc of thc -rttiPnrs An chbor,ition in thc llLur oblccf ol r'cncrltiou. :LlthoLtqh tlrrcciil thc sifc ol Klrcll in .liincnsiotr.rllorur. occurs Crvc VI (lig. 9.1-l). Bccilusc of tlris. thc c;rvc is rrsLrellt' cr11cc1r r,rity,r h.rll, llthoLrqh it .litli-rs ftorn thc ru:rjorit" oi s ch c:Llcs ln thxt tllln :rlsidrl tu shepc'' it is rcct.rtrqulrr 1-rthcrErccpt ior thc flct th:rt it l:rckscclls surLouurltnq
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ciprtc Nl,rhrvrnl lJtLLl.lhisrcrvc's oi thc tlith ccutitrr'. uhich conrbill,' rspccts ()l lhc rcctillrq u l r r t i / r a r , t - r v p cp l r n r v i t h i c l t ' t r c s o 1 - l l l r t ().1r. -Srt!4 piur.l (nl rcirr\\'rll' \'lhrLr IIl ( CrLLLLntrtt;LtSir'rr'h.trll !i\ci.rrL. rlo.ship 1i:tlls Alr,lthcr LrrlnsLt'rL tn' ,.,r0. -''f;l,lt. \ftlI.1rr{r'r. Lrdi:r' "rc fc,rturc r,i this crlvc is thc prcsencc of I stcp or nesti. Aticr r.rr. Itr4(.:r' rtri lo)

REGIONAI- DEVEI-OPMINTS IN TH DNCCAN

17J

ir ,.,i

9.11. Plan of Ceve VL Kuda, M:rharalfra, hclia. E;rrly

9.r4. Mithuna couple on $al] preccdinli crlnnce t(' caitya $ea, Cave VI. Kuda, Maharailra, India. Early

g.Ij.

lnterior of Cavc VI, rig:ht rear comer of l:rrge l r r l l .K L r d . V a h r r r r L r o . r J r r .L - r l y ' c c " n d ' c n r u r ) . r L

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rl:lrrow pletform rrnlning around thc large rcctirnsularlrall (Figs.9.r3, 9.rJ). Pairso{ nithuxas danking thc cntrance to thc antechambcr prccedingthe strlpachanber (Fies.9.r4, 9.r5) are closcly rclatecl in style anLl costume to thc

Kdrli veranclafigurcs and suggesta con-rparablc clate in the elrly sccond ccntury A.D. As at Karli, inagcs of Buddh:rs rppearingat the cavc erc latcr additions ancl .lo not rcflcct the original schcnrc (Fig. o.r s).

172

PERJODOT THE EARIY DYNASTIIS

At Kanheri, a large caitya hall clearly indebted to that at nearby Kerli was excavated around the last quarter of the secondcentury ,r.o. Two inscriptions at the cave indicate that it was dedicatedduring the reign ofYajnairi Satakarr.ri, the last great Satavehanaruler, who reigned from about 17+ to 203.7In plan (Fig. 9.16), the cave is similar to the Karli caityahalI, consisting of a large apsidal hall (though not so large as that at Karli) and a veranda, but in this case, the elements of the facade and courtyard are better preserved (Fig. 9.r7). A low rock-cut railing screens off the courtyard, which is approached by a short flight of steps. In form, the railing is sirnilar to that at Nasik Vihara III in the presence roundel morifs (Fig. 9.7), alof though here they are wcll preserved and are clearly foral designs. Again, a relationship to contemporaneous railing pattems in Andhra Pradeshmight be noted (Fig. 9.zr). Flan-kingthe entranceway to the courtyard are standing male figures, again reniniscent of the pair at Nasik

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9.r7. Exterior of caitya hall- Kanheri, Mahele$tta, India. Satavahana dynasty,reign of Yajiairi Sttakar+i. Ca. Iastquartersecond century.

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REGIONAI DEVELOPMENTS THE DECCAN IN

1Z'

(Fig. 9.ro). While damaged, these roo seem to hold offerings or symbols in their right hands. The figure sryleis berrerseenin the i.pr.r.nt"von of a nagar-aja a niche ro rhe righr of the in railing (Figs. g.r7. g.r8). The squarishbody, fleshybut welL-defined musculaturiofrhe rorso, full arms, and taut legs reveal ties to earlier Indic styles, but relate strongly to figurative conventions at Mathurt of approximately the same period, An overall flattening of the forms as seen here dlso appears in many Mathurd images of this date, indicating a rather widespread stylistic preference. 'are two large rock-cut _\Vithin the courtyard pillats (stambha), each carved with a different arrangement of figures and sculpted elements (Fig. 9. r7). The piliar at the righi of Lhecourtyard is ofparticular interest, for it bearsa carved figure ofa Buddha fanked by two bodhisattvas near the bottom (Fig. 9.i9) and four Buddhas above. There is no doubt that these represenra9.r8. NujarrJ'a flanking erltlance to cowrtyatd. of caityd tions were part of the original scheme of the hall. Kan}eri, Maherasrra, India. Sitavahana dynasLy. cave and belong to the second cen[ury excavation, for not only are the flattened forrns, squarish bodies, and orher features stylisdcallv closero the figurariveidioms on rhe railing and the resrofthe starzlfia, they were carvJ out bur of matdx that had to have been left for them in the.original planaing ofthe pillar. Their presence rndrcatesthat stone representationsof Buddhas and bodhisattvaswere not the sole Dreserveof Kusdna arrisrs or those in Andhra pradesh (Fig. 9.zj) during the second century, but that such images, or particularly simi]ar ones made in other matedalssuch aswood, must have been widespread. It is also important to note tlat without this figure group, the cave would normally be inrerprered as being aniconic, since the veranda and interior do not bear imaees of Buddhas. (Some were carved into rhe veianda during the late fifth century, but these were not of the original phase.) However, as has been suggestedin previous discussions, the presence or absence ofa Buddha image is a u.iy .o-plicated problem thar needs tio be .einterpreted in terms of its religious implications, and here it is apparent rhat rhe presenceof a Buddha is not incomparible with an iconographic scheme 9.r9. Piflar in courryard ol cairyahall. Kanheri, Ma_ h,ira!!ra..India.. Saia\ahana dynasty.r<ign of yajriairi tnat lrrruts rts use_ )araxarll, Ua. lastquarter
secondcehtury.

lz4

PFIIOT) a)F l11r |lRLy

DyNAS',ltils fl

uI

couples, vcranda 9.1o. l,lilhrta \ r i r l l l ! ' i c L n : rj u t o . d i r t d h a l l . K r 1 1 h c f i , , \ 4 a h a r a , t f r , I L r d i r .S a r r r a harr;t dvn:rrtv, rcig,r of YJjn.rln S r t r k r r i . C r . h s L t l L r a r t c rs e c o n d

As rt Kirl1, rlr.rlc-fcrrllepeirs H:nk tll: entrlrncclvrys :into rhc hell (Fig. o.:o). WlLile stylisticeliv thcl' sharcccrteiuclllr:rctcrisrics \.ith rl:, Kr. , ' r,r,l. /l -. ',.+1. rl . rr.rrr lr'r fi'renccs,rrc llso visible.In plrticulrr. e gtcetcr hcevincss secnin rfrc Lodics ofbodr thc mct is ln.1 thc rvomc-t, rvho secur Lo bc simply tlr r:ithcr Lhln lerlslrous. This thickncssof body I I i'rr' ., r ', r' r. r.,il t..r !, ,,- rLrlr l)cccrn frgural scnlprurcin llLcr pcrrocls, contr';rstirq, e\lnlplc- u,itir rhc slcnclcr ior bo.11'rvpc tlut prcrlolnirlates thc i:rsrcrnl)eccan rcgLoDs in of lrrrli.r. Thc lr:rlc lLer.lclrcsscs rlso clifirrcrrt arc fiorrr r]re tnrbens:rrl(lrlr. lnd crclr xt Kalrhcri cle.rl rliflcrcutietioll c\i\rs i;om olrc c\urrrprc to tllc r1L'\t. Thc inrcrior oi thc h:rll elsobc'ars corrprn\on q'ith th:rt et Kerli, rrltlioLrqh olre rs Less dris \rclt prcscrved. Ilo m;1or clitlircrrccs rlrry bc llorcJ.

horievcr. At l{inhi.ri ruuch qrcltcr variatioD is qir'ctr to thc piihr'folnrs, siucc sorrreheve pl:rin, licetccl shelis rvith no cepitrls ol bxlcs; otllers hlvc c:rpitalsbut no b;rsr:s; lrrcl still othcr-sh:rvc brscs and cepitels sinrilrr to thosr: at Karli. Frrrthcr, thc cepitll rnotils fcvcxl rlLrch qrcxtcr n)Llivi.LLnlit)', containilg scclcs rvith anirnals, fiqurcs. :rlc1 rcprcsentxtiolrs of devotion to -rltl,r-!.At this Ioint, it is inrpossiLrlr: s;il'ri,heL to xccouuts lbr- sLrch viuiltion, :rlthotrgh it is unlilrclv rhrrLiL irrrlicetesrlrorc rh.ilr onc pcriod ol rffisfic .ctivit\ xt the lienhcri rarri,,r hr1l. M.lrv of thc cervings (cspccirllv the sccncs orr Lhc cepitrls) shol e rethcr shoJclv typc of l'orkrrr:rnslrip lntl it hls bccn srrqqcstccltlut siricc Yljiieirr Sitlk:rrni was thc last srr.olrg S:Ltur'arlurrr:L rLrlcr. politicll prcssLr-cslncl dr.: inpcn,rlirq rlisitrtcgrrtion of tirc cnrpirc took tlrcir roll ir tLc ert.

Ls r I a s r r , l N l l l c c , t r . ; : T H r A N l u R r \ l ) l r u r s u l l l c t r o x Uxott rtrl L,\TER :iAlAV,\trnNAs .{\ll IKSva\KLs No onc is ccrLrin *hethcr- lrt prodLrction in rhc, (xstar'r1Daccln. col1lur,.rerlu]liritarrLij)tc(l frorl rhc cerlicst ph,rsc urrtil the hcqinninq ol thc scclmd cL']ltLrrv.\.D., \\.hcn Satevihrne rtrlc irr lhc rcqion saclrs t() l1r1\1' stirrrrrletcdcxLcrrsivc ffcirlrction. Prob.rbh-, solnc lrt \\ ork! contiuucJ to bc nredc rlurirrg thc tllst ccnrLLrt.,t.u.- ei thrrrr-qlrrhc' f.LIiLrlrctcrsof this "nri11cllc" plurc

REGIONAL DIVEIOPMTNTS IN THT DECCAN

I7J

have yet to be fully defined. Evidence from the Puranas as well as inscriptions indicates that from the time of Vesi$thiputra Pulamavi (ca. r3o-rj9), the son and successor Gautamiputra of Setakar+i, until the reign of Yajfia6ri Setakarni (ca. t74-zq), a large portion of Andhra Pradesh was under the sway of the Satavahana family, who made it their capital during this period. Thus, it is not surprising that the artistic styles, while having a distinctive regional flavor, are clearly related to those of the western Deccan, at sitessuch asKarli. Nasik. and Kanled. During the second century, the period of Satavehana forescence, the Great Stupa at Amaravatr achieved its final form, for it was given a veneer of sculpted stone slabs and a higlrly ornate stone uediha. It is likely that this project took place over some period of time, since donative inscrirtions on the monumenr

range from the reign of Vasislhiputra Pulamavi through that of YajnaSri Setakar{ri.The appearance of the stupa at the completion of this phase is suggested from the carvings on numerous that originally decoratedthe stupa,that stoneslabs have beenfound at the site,and tllat depict stupls (Fig. 9.zi), and by archacological evidence. A huge stone uedika,lavtshly carved with bosslike roundels similar to those seen at Nasik and Kanheri surrounded, the stupa. In contrast to the pattern seen at Stnci Stupa I, the entrances it the uedika did not have toro1as, nor dld they form a svastika plan. Instead,each opening projected ourward fiom the railing and provided an uninterrupted view of a niche on the side of the stipo cottairing an image of a Buddha or some other Buddhist subject. Atop the four entranceway railings were large sculpted representationsof lions, The drum of the st pa utas

India. 9.2r. Slabshowing rttpa. From Arnaravati, Andhra Pradesh, Sehvehanaperiod. Ca. secorrd century. White rrarble. H: r9o cm. Madras Government Museum. Madras.

,76

TLRIOD or 1r]L l,ARLy r)\'N.1srrfs

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'hot;ng dclotior io 9.-r:. ll:rilirlqprll.rllith r',r:rndci rhc |o,lliltrcc rnLli,rri,iJc,rd D,rd,1 irr cr\r. l'ronr Arn.rI:d,,1.S.n\rIlrIlr p.rio.l. (}. x\rri. Arr.Lirr Pr.l1.'\l). seconcl cenlr\. \!hltc ,,,r:l.lc. Ur: s7 .r)). Brirish NluscLun, l,ondon.

.lpp:rrcntl\ x 1)roirin(int pxrt of tjtc tf.ltitcctr[ll contfi L1.tion. rnLl iiour it c,l|--lcir ()1-th. li)Llr siclcs oi thc nronLrl(rrt !r,:rs;1 p!r)jcction. 1llll so c:rllc(1 ayrl,l plltiortr surrlorirtcrl bv ilvL. stolc pillers. Ihc -vrl1,aploii.r \1'rls dccr.r,iti:11 lvitir nuircrou! si:Lrl1.ti:d sl,rbs, lrlrl of lhiclr del.ictccl sccrcs 1,.r,,, thc ljli' ot- (rl-r-rrrLrri

bi.tlLc second ccrtnr)' A.D. hrllucrrcc fror,r thc \\cslcnr I)cccln :rrt schools, mrlniicstcd i11 t]rc c-\cl\'.rrio11\:rt Karlr. Nasik. enrl I{aDhcri, riccoLrnfsior sonlc of flis clcvcloprncnt. It is also liki:ll rbrt corlfr.t vith Roman tllclitq colonics rhrt .\i\tccl rlolrg thc Lr:rst corst of hrJi:r lionr thr- lilst ccutur y ,t.1. hecl somc imprct on thc rrt :ls !r(ill. Most lirnrous ol thcsc colonics rrc Arikerrc.lu enrl Meisolie. lnd. in perticLrler, rf:r(lc xssociiltcLl rvith Meisolil xccorrntcd fbr. Ielqc sh,uc of tbc ncrlth oi thc rcqion, lhich

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auci ,r1,1l,rr,:rrtlt rqrinsr tlrc si(LLioi tllc jrirli.r itscli en o\cct oi !cncf.rtiorr t',rr p1ece.i. In t h i s c x e r u p l , -( F i g . 9 . : r ) . . . , i b , r i s i r , : i n q p : r i d lronr,rqc by e nilrircr ol (lavolaes.

c|Jrrtriburcd to thc frrronxqc of RLrrlcLhist Nurlctous r'liengcserc virrLrL:il tlrc scLrlptLrr':rl lror1ir.!tcrirset NigirlulrLkonclrr, :rnc1probrblv stvlc ol this fcrio(1. conrl)i1f.(L \r'iLh e.uli.r Arurrli\'rli as \1-cll. Although lullv intcgrerccL rcllLliirs ll'onr tlrr' r'cgioD. iI lcir.:rri], thc det. inro rhr: Irrclic colrtc-\f. l{o1uru svstLrllls ol linc,u, sirnplc c.Lrvlllq! ot tlrc rist c.:ntLrll_ Lc. L. '..' rr'r R.rr r .rt I r.1 r bv riccpiv c.rlv,:d. clo1\_.lcci. scrnl lo ha\'a h.id l rLircct infl,.rcncc o rltc urt wcrc sr.rPcIscdc.i \rork\ oi An,:1lrral'r.rc1.:slr eclivc. rn.L rn()rc nraLrrxli\ti. ll)f.xlinq

REGIONAI DEVII-OPMENTS THE DECCAN 177 rN is also a more unificd pcrspcctivc thxt creates the illusion that the figures cxist in spaceand not in the artificial, airlcssgroupings of carlicr reliefs. Each figure has becomc an animatcd form, with an active posture and, indecd, one of the overriding characteristicsof this phase of Andhra art is the vitality and sense moveof ment in thc rcliefs. All elements of the scenc are in rclativcly naturalistic proportions, further contributing to a scnsc of actuality. Thc slirn body type, especiallyevident in the limbs, is characteristic of the Andhra style, but the an.rplyendowed women suggestparallelsto coutemporary carvingsfrom Karli and Mathura. A drum slab from this period shows four scenes from thc lifc of Sakyamuni Buddha separated fiom each othcr by architectural forms (Fig. 9.23). Maya's dream of hcr conccption and the dream's interpretation are shown in the top right and left scctions, respectively,and thc birdr of the prince and the prcscntationof the child to a tutelary yaksaof the Sekyasoccur in the lower right and left panels. Again, the figures appear in lively poses and are deeply carvcd, and the various e]ements are harmonized into a believable (although not overwhclmingly illusionistic)sccne.Considcrabledepth is createdby the architectural elements that divide the relief into its four componcnts and in the platforn beneath the yak1a at thc lowcr left, and this emphasis perspectivemay bc derived from on Roman teclu-riques.The convcntional manncr of tlividing thc scenes used here will rcappcar in the paintings of Ajanta, where architcctural fornr. arc u5cd is a deviceto jurr:rpose diverse scencs(P1.ro). In rhc latc :crrlpturcs frorn Anrardvltr.parricularly tirosc that wcrc made during thc final decades Satavahana of rule and thc transition to thc lksvaku pedod at thc cnd of thc secondand the beginning of the third centuriesA.D., rcpresentationsof Buddhas were commonly depicted in various rclicf sccncs (Fig. 9.za) as well as in free-standingvotive imagcs (Fig. l.z:). These do not rcplace symbolic motifs in the Buddhist art of Andhra Pradesh, for symbols, such as the cakn, continucd to bc rcpresentcdin sculptures of even the latest Buddl.rist phasc, sometimes cven in contexts where Buddha inragesare

9.24. Slab showing n|pd, with Buddhas and other figures. From Amarivati, Andhra Pradesh,India. Ca. late secondor early third century. White marble. H: I26.J cm. B tish Museum, London.

A railing pillar, which is virtually covered with sculptural detail, contains a central medallion showing devotion to the lolli tree and the uajfisana, the seat upon which the Buddha achievedenlightenment (Fig. 9.22).Virtually the samesubjectis depictedin an example fiorn the early phase(Fig. 5.37),yet thc two are strikingly diff-ercnt. the later example, the circumfcrence In of thc roundel appearsalmost like a peephole through which the viewer witnesses sceneof the devotion, and the sceneseemsto extend beyond the conlines of the circular format. In earlier relicfs,such asthe Bhirhut roundels,no such implications existed. Here a greater senseof realisrn scernsto prevail. Partially responsiblefor this efect is the increased depth of the actualcarving, which makes the figures stand out in bold relief, detachedfrom the backgrounds,but there

]7d

PERIO]) OF TIIE IARLY DYNASTI]]S

9.1j. Stllllding Buclclhr. Fronr Anrirrtv:rri, Andhr.r Pladcsh, Lrdi.r. Cr. hrc sccolci rrr elrlv drird cerrnrrl. Whitc nnrblc. H: abour r:o cn. \hdras (lovcmnrcut Museunr,M:rdrrs.

9.26. Bodhisettv:r Irad,u:rp.ni? From Goti, Andhrr l'rrdcsh, lndic. Srtrvahanirpcriod. Cr. sccondccltury. \Vhitc nrlblc. H r r j5 c.r_ M:rdras Govcmnrcnt MuscnIlr, ivl:rdr:r\.

dcpictcd(Fig. 9.zr). There is lo clcrrcr cxarnple in South Asial :rrt tlut the use of uiconic synlbols ru.L Buclclha llgurcs is not necesslriiy . r " r . , r c o f " . i t l . - o L ,r r r l r . r l , r \ \ ! r . ) 1 . ( . of rcprcscnr:ltions coulclbc cornpltiblc. St,vlisticaily, thc BLrriclha fisurcs of Andhra Prrdesh hevc rxthcr niLssivcbodies tlurt appcar to be srvathccl heevv clrepcryrvith prornincnr in folcls.A tosalike garlnel1tsonrclirrcsu,oln bv thc llucldhasis suegestivc cont:rct\\'itlr tlle of ll.onrats, although, as in thc llactro-Ganclhtre region, it is ulcertein iI tlris rvas .]r lnclic or loreign style. Anothcr typc of robc', in rvLich is onc siioulclcr left barc (Fig. O.:;), is rlso comnonly sccn.It is intcrcstingto notc thlt \\,hilc ,r t s r 1 , . 1 r[ .-,r r r ,' r ' , r . . t ] r . " . , p , r r . . r l 1, y r . r , d p in thc late sccollcl cc-lrtury art of AncLhra
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Although soruc bo.lhisattvas irave bcen for.urd xt Alralivati, a vcry clelr exanlp]cconlesfioln the -rtu/1.,4 rcnl:rir1s Goii il1 thc Guntur district at of Anrlhra Pradesh (Fiu. 9.26). In this case, thc fiqurc styleis closclvrelated tlut sccnar Nasik to (Fig. S.to) :urd at Mathura dnring the sccond ceirturr' (Fig. 8.4o), ahhough thc format, drorving thc bodhisattvaf,ankcd by amcrrdrnr clu'ervesof the typical Ancllrra tvpc anclbencath . r t t L r r r . bl r ,. 'c . r,r, .d i r r . r n i l i r r r i o n i . r r ,t . . r l 'rr , J n is clistinct.Probably, drc bodhisattva Padnais pini. rccoqtizcclby $'h:it appcars bc a lotus to rn his riglrt hancl. The ru:rin pcriod of ertisticactivity at Anlilravatr $'as probrbly ovcr by drc early part of thc third ccntrrry,lvhcn Sat:rvihena porvcr bcgen to \ralnc. Howcvcr, the eastcnrDcccan tr'edition dicl not rvcaken,for, under rhc lksvlkrr kings, r h , . ' r ' . , I N - 3 r r 1 r r n . , k o .rr^ \,. r , , p r o n l n ( n \ ( . J

thc clcvclopnlents at Mathura and ir Ganclhara.

REGIONAI

DEVEIOPMENTS

IN THE DECCAN

170

9.27. Plan of a Donastic unit. Nigarjunako44a, Andhra Pradesh,India. Ca- third century.

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The Iksvakus came to power when their first king, Vasi;lhiputra Caihtamula, seized control fiom the weakened Satavrhanasin thc second quarter of the third century and establisheda new capital at Vijayapuri (City of Victory) in the Nagarjunakon{a Valley. Although Nagarjunakonda (Hill of Nagarjuna) was not the original name for this region, the great acqryd Negarjuna, the founder of the Madhyamika school of Buddhism and a proponent of the Mahayana doctrine, is believed to have lived there in the 6rst or sccond century a.o., thus accounting for the popular name. Certainly, the site of Nagarj unakonda, which housed more than thirty Buddhist monasteries from the second to fourth centuriesA.D., was the seatof much irurovation in Buddhist practices, belifs, and art forms, From a historical and archaeological viewpoint, it is a tragedy that this remarkable sitc had to be submerged recently during the Dam, though constructionof tlle Nagarjunasagar the govemment of India must be commended for its efforts to excavate the site and erect reconstructions of the monurnents for latcr study. The Buddhist establishmentsat Nagarjunako4da are irnportant to the understanding of both Buddhist art and changeswithin the Buddhist religion that occurred in the third century 4.n., for it is one of the few placesin South Asia where epigraphical and archaeologicalevidence

help define the various sectsand their manner of devotion. Inscriptions found in the valley show that at least forr different Buddhist sccts were represented.8 has been demonstratcd9 It that not only did chronological and workshop developments account for the differences of style and forrn seen at Nagerjunakonda, but sectarian distinctionsas wcll played an ilnportant rolc in detcrmining the forrn of the individual monastic establishnerts and thc arr that was used in the servicc of their religions. However, the full implications of this observationhave not yet been explored. Eacl.rraonastic unit seenx to havc consisted of some conbination of three elements:sttldr, apsid,al caityahalls, and viharcs, or residential units. When all three elemcnts arc presentin a monastic unit, a generalpattem may be discerned(Ftg. 9.27). Often tlrc uihara will be separatedfron the stipa by two uitya halls opposed to each orhcr, one containing an image of a Buddha, the other a -rttpd. This seernsto indicate a kind of equivalency between the two concepts, a feature that will also be seen in fifth-century monun.rentslike those at Aja+te. "fhe stipas vary considerably in plan; some are solid whilc others have a spoked-wheel plan embedded in their structure (fig. 9.zz). In general,in the caseof whcel-plan stupas, the smaller the sfipa, the fewer will be the spokes.The wheel, of course, has Buddhological significance, rcpresenting the Buddhist

i8o

PERIOD OF THE IARlY DYNASTIES

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9.28. Cairya hall from southwest. Chczarla,Andhra Pradesh,India. Ca. third century. Brick.

dharma, and it is possible that this method of construction served both a philosophical and structural purpose. Apparcntly, the spoked plan is structurally more sound than the solid core, since it allows for natural cxpansion and contraction of the strllcturc and creares a more effective systen.rof intemal support. While in gencral, thc wheel-shapcd forms are pan of a latcr development, thc use of the solid core indicate an early date sincc docs not necessarily sonc sectspreferred the rnore ancient forms. Something of thc appearanceof thc apsidal caityahalls may be derived fiom examination of one ofthe few extant cxamplesofa frcc-standing caityahall known in South Asia, the templc at Chczarlain the Guntur district ofAndhraPradesh (Fig. 9.28). This small structure, measuring only about sevcn nretcrs in length, is made entirely of brick and has a vaulted masonry roof built on the corbel principlc. Although the temple was converted to Saivite use at a later date and is oftcn talkcd about as an architectural cxalnple of the Gupta pcriod, it is clcar both from its relationship to damaged monunents at NagS{unakotrda and its geographic location near thc cpiccnter of Iksvaku power that it is a structure of about the third century a.o. Thc sculptural style at Nagerjunako4da, like tlut at Anarevati, is known from the carved

stone slabsthat were part of the veneer of the to:.a:)ot stupas, as well as from free-standing images. By and large, the Nagarjunakonda carvings are closely tied to the latest sculptures fiorn Amaravati in style as well as range of subjects. If anything, the compositions of the reliefsare often more animated,the figures more lithe and slender, and the spatial arrangements more sophisticated. One sculpted slab is of considerableinterest becauseit is dated in the twenty-fourth year of the reign of Ehuvala Carirtamula,l0 who is believed to have ruled around the last quarter of the third century. It shows alternately panels of liG scenes the of Buddha and nithunas, ore unit of which is illustratcd here (Fig. o.zo), and demonstrates that thc Andhra school remained vital throughout the third century. The femalesof the mithunas arc very similar in form and style to the women on tlrc Begram ivory cover (Fig. 8.28) and may be indicative of contact between the two areas, suggested as also by inscriptional evidcnce. Although Buddhism indeed flourished under the Iksvaku dynasty, the kings themselveswere Hindus. (Their wives, however, werc apparently Buddhists, since many of thc rnajor donations at the Buddhist monasteries came fron.r the Gmale membcrs of the line.) A number of Hindu tcmples were erectedat Ntge{unakor.rda

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rtLGio\AL DIVljLOpllrjNrS lN 11r]j ]l|at(jAN 9.19. llctril oi triczc u'i.h Lilc E v c n t s o f S . k y a r n L n ) iB u d d l . r r n d rrrirlrurras. Fronr N.r qt r.jLrirk.in.L, ) Alrclhrr Pr:rdcsh, India. Iksr aku pcriod. Yc:Lr :4 of rcign of Elnrvrla C.rhtrr))Lrh (cr. li\t clu]rtcr tlird ccntur\'). Whjte rnarblc. L: (of rrholc liiczc) :59 cnr. NrerrjLuukorxtr Sitc Nfu\ c r l n l , L \ r j . r r l u n . r [ 1 ,r L ] . r .

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9.ro. I{el'cf u.irh Nrsirhhr and l i v c , l a l c h c r o c s ( p c r h a p sd r c f i v c I'rrLlrve brothcrs). Frorr Kondr. m r m , A r d l r r : r l ' r r c l c s l t ,l t t c L i . tC l . t . l;rtc rhill <:c'ntun.Whitish -.tor)e. H: c:r.46 crn. At Olice of thc I)ircctor for Archacologt, And l r r . r P r . r d c s h ,H v d c r a b r d .

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dLrring rhc lksvaku pcriocl, elthotrgh nonc hrs sLrrvivc(l intxct. It rnlv ltc sllggrstcrl. holvcvur, t1lilt dlcsc llrollLrllrc ts corrstitLrtc !hc crrlicst groLrp o{-Hirrclutcrnplcs thLrr l.rr idcntiflcLl 1r1:rjo. nr Soutll Asiir. l)Lrssiblr', thc inrpctus givr:r to this rc]igion bv rlic lksvlkLr-sw.rs r lr.rjor IiLctor in its subscqucnt p,rpLrLrriry rlurint thc Guprl pcriocl. Onc ilrportlnr docLrrrrrrf, ior cranrplc, elthough unlbrturrerc]V lost, u'its it \\oocicn imege oi ln ciqlrt-rrrrnccllirrur oi Visnrr (ca11cd AstrbhLrjrsv.ilrrlr in en rnscliption) instellecl ur

A - r ) . ? 7 E n r e V l i s n r v i t c t c r t r p l i :e t N r q l r r j r u r l konrll.lr Not drlv (lo..s tirc knol.lcJgc oi this inrl.qe docunrr:nt thc nsc ol \\'f)()dcn forrns rlongsiJc srorr.: :rn,l orhcr mntcriels, bLrL it ,1.,1 ..,,1 r, 1.1J,.'rr li,.r,-'.r. clchnitclr in rctilc Lrsrrt lrr clllr.cleti:. A ' crrrrrkeb]c rclici lirLrncl rt I(on.llrnretu, nor Iilr honr Nriqulrrn:Lkonil]. o11crs furth.:r cr,irlcircr of FlirrrlLr clcrclopnrcrfs (l:ig. 9.lo). ()n s\.lisric sroLrnds. it rrur. Lrc tlrtcrl to thc lrtc thir(l c:cutLrr\'. tira llLnrrln irqLrrcs :rs cspcciellr'

l32

PIRIOD OF THE EA]iiLY DYNASTIES

comp;rre rlell to thoseofnlorc firmly cstablishcd u'orks of that rirlc. A largc scatcclliorr rvidr r r r o r r l . , ' . C . r r ' ( i r ' , l d i L i o r ', o r i . l ^ r r rl , : s ) hokls e ralr'r enrl r rlacc (?) rnd is flanked by figrrrcs of frvc male "hc'roes." perheps tl.re iive Ptrdeve brothcrs of thc l,,loluLlfirata.Although it is rlot possiblcto sry rvhethcl xt tlis tinlc thc rcprcscr-rt:rtiolr ofthc lion is 1l1r inc:rrtutior ofthc gorl Visnu or q,hethcr it is.r tyulta HirrcLLr (crnanrtion),thc llsurc is i clcrr protot),pc{br the later mrtr-lion (N;siLirha) form of thc god. Another intriguing ;rspccrof lksv:rku lrt is thc production of "shadc" pill.:.rs(thaya sta6l1l n ) r , ' , o l r r r ,r r . r . ' r , r l r ' d . . t ' r o f . r r i , ' p o r l . ' r r t The practicc o{ electing such mepcrson:rqe. nlori.l stoncs, (hcrostones), usr.rally callcdrrr,rgals latcr bccanrc r-i,:lcsprcacl throughout thc sor-rth, the Dccc:rn.encl thc rvestern portiqrs of India. These objectsproviclc inrportanr cvidelrccof ir dcsirc to rccorclcvclts in thc tcmporal u,orid in eclclition depictinesubjccts the religious to of sphcrc.Morc thxn tlventl eremplcsluvc becn fbuncl lt Nag:rr.junekonde elonc lrom the l k r r l . p , r r o d . l ' , ' r ' b J 1 .r l r e , . . , r ' o r r p L tions rcvceling thc circumstanccs thcir crccof tion. and often a datc.Thus, asa body of artistic natcri:r1, rrrclrlori:rl pillars (rvhich havc bccn largclv ovcllookeciby schol;rrs) providc inrportant historicll. rttistic, ancl chronoloqicaldata encl miglrt bc Lrscdto hclp rcconstr-uct Icsrcr knorvn espccts uirltin oistylc en.l clevclopnrent the r'r-uinstrcem elt. o{ Onc cxerrple(Fig.9.g shos'slvhet havcbccn r) idcntifrcrles cvcrltsirl thc lifc of thc king Vasis-,,.,, r,i' , . . , u \ \ 1 1k , \ , . l , L r l Lirrg. Thc ilscriptiorr r-ccorrls rh:rtthc pilhr rv.rs rlrotllcrs,ln(] col)sorlsof sct rp bv thc sisrcrs. thc king, lncl is cl:rtccl thc trvcnticrhr.clr of in thc rcigl i,f thc king's ,c,n, Mtdh.rrp,itrr Sri Viriipulisxclxttil.l2:rncl thcrefor .letcs lrorl c aroun.l thc ruiddlc of thc third centur,v.AlthoLrghthc crrving on thc pillrr is vcry rvom, it irrrlicltcsa closc rclltiorrshipto thc rcliqious
'r rl -^'i^l , ' "',. 'l'.. '1. t c rrilt. ,,1

..i,

thc courpositionuc rnorc llatcncd. hr spitc of drc f:rct rhat tlic pcopic clcpictctl in thc rclicls lrc historic:rl thev erc not individupcrsorl.lgcs! r :. r .... r i i n r l r c. . , r of tlic corptrlcntking.

9 tr. llero stonc sfrorving crcDts iD hlc oi VasilthipLu..r C:ir;rtirn[]r. Fronl Nigarjurl]kotdr. Andhra l']radesh, Int1ir., Ik:vrku pctiod. Yert :o of rcisn of Madhariputr:r Srl VirapLrrisadatt:r (cr. midrhird ccntlrr,v). S(nrc. H: ctr. 27j cn,. Nagrrjunekonda Sitc ,uuseLrrn, N. girrjun.!kor4.r.

REGToNAL DEvrropMENTs rN THE DEccAN Concrusror.r

18,

By the end of the third cenrury a.o., various schoolsof Buddhist art were well developedin numerousregionsof South Asia, many of them revealing newly developing iconographic concepts, otlrcrs perpetuating pattems that had been established centuries before. In addition.

inklings of the florescence Hindu art yet to of come were already on the horizon. By tte fourth century e.o., when the Gupta rulers cameto power, the stage wassetfor the burgeoning oflndic art that occurredin the fifth century.

' i-:ii9!hi,l-ndhra

: :eign of :-=da Site

PART III

DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PERIOD