Food Mayonnaise Baby food Bread Buns Meat sausages Meat rolls and loaves Ketchup Soups Snacks

Pizza sauces Sauces Low fat foods Noodles

Beverage Soft drinks Beer Alcohol Coffee Jelly gums High-boiled sweets Jellies Marchmallows Marmalade Jam

Animal Feed Pellets By products

Plastic Biodegradable plastic

Building Mineral fibre Tablets tiles Dusting powder Gypsum board Concrete Gypsum plaster

Pharmacy

Confectionery Agriculture
Seed coating Fertiliser

Textile
Warp Fabrics Yarns

Paper
Corrugated board

Various
Foundries Water treatment

Cardboard Paper Printing paper Packaging material

Coal Detergent Oil drilling Stain remover Glue Foamed starch

Fermentation Non-Wowen
Vinegar Enzymes Hygienic diapers Baby diapers Sanitary napkins

Ice cream
Dairy cream Fruit fillings

FOOD Application Snacks. High amylose cornstarch is also used in extruded and fried snack products to obtain crisp, evenly browned product and hampers penetration of cooking oils. High amylose cornstarch requires higher cooking temperatures, typically 150-170 oC, to gelatinise properly. Tapioca starch exhibits good clarity and bland flavour. It has good film-forming characteristics with resistance to cracking and chipping. It may be used at a concentration of twenty per cent. The film-forming properties of Tapioca dextrins make it effective as a replacement for gum Arabic in the pan coating of confections. This dextrin can be used as a non-tacky glaze for cakes, donuts, fruit, nuts and candies. go to top Baking. High maltose and high conversion syrups improve moisture retension and colour control in final product. Dextrose syrup improve crust and doug properties. High fructose syrups are used in frosting and fillings. Baby food. Maltodextrin and starch is used as a nutrient with low fermentability. Dextrose as an energy source Noodles. Adding potato starch or better a dual esterifed starch with low gelatinisation point and a high peak viscosity to noodles improves their consistency and mouthfeel. The starch will gelatinise and absorb water before the wheat flour takes over and dominate the viscosity profile. Sauces. A pizza sauce gets improved eye appeal and mouthfeel from a cold water swelling pregelatinized starch. A cross-linked instant starch is easy to disperse in cold mixtures or oil and adds a pulpy and richer look to fruit based sauces. Cross-linking imparts the starch with resistance in acid foods and will even allow retorting. Meat products. Modified waxy maize, potato or tapioca starch added at the chopping stage swells during heating and binds in poultry rolls and meat loaves as well as other cooked meats. The final texture will be firm and retained for prolonged periods. Starch may reduce drip during smoking of meats and weeping of vacuum packed foods. Starch is also used as a skim milk in replacer. go to top Low calorie foods. HFSS 90 is used in low calorie food applications, due to its high sweetening power to calorie ratio.

Tapioca based modified starch can be used as a fat mimetic in dairy systems due to its bland flavour. A low-fat product can be prepared with the organoleptic and textural properties of a traditional fat containing product. Beverages Soft drinks. High fructose starch-based syrup (HFSS), although originally introduced in 1967, it was the fructose level increase to 55% in 1978 which resulted in sugars loss of the soft drink market. HFSS can be produced at considerably lower costs than sugar, giving this product a competitive advantage over sugar. High fructose starch-based syrups (HFSS) are used for soft drinks as a sugar replacement with similar sweetness. HFSS 55, is a most concentrated sweetener used primarily in beverages. It is a direct replacement of sugar. HFSS 42, an all-purpose sweetener, does also find uses in beverages. HFSS stabilize the flavour profile. Beer. High maltose syrups find use as wort syrup in beer production. It is an excellent fermentation substrate and fermentation can be controlled by the sugar spectrum of the syrup. Some yeast species are sensitive to high concentrations of glucose but maltose does not have any suppression effect on yeast. Alcohol. Very high DE glucose syrups are used as a fermentation booster in alcohol fermentation. Dextrose syrup has the advantage, that it is completely used up and do not add to by-products and may improve throughput when capacity is exhausted. Instant coffee. Following conventional coffee cleaning and roasting the prepared coffee is ground and extracted in counter current column batteries using split or fraction technique to optimise yields or by using continuos extraction. The extract is concentrated in falling film evaporators or rotary thin film concentrators with final blending to produce a prime quality concentrate. A maltodextrin (low DE glucose syrup) may be added as a carrier or extender. The concentrate is conducted in a co-current nozzle tower and the coffee powder is discharged in cooled free-flowing form ready for packing. Further agglomeration produces a coarser product. go to top Confectionary Ice cream. Starch products are used as crystal and texture controller. High maltose and high conversion syrups control softness and freezing characteristics. Today's ice cream has the following composition: greater than 10% milkfat - usually between 10% and as high as 16% fat in some premium ice creams 9 to 12% milk solids-not-fat: this component contains the proteins (caseins and whey proteins) and carbohydrates (lactose) found in milk 12 to 16% sweeteners: usually a combination of sucrose and glucose syrup 0.2 to 0.5% stabilizers and emulsifiers 55% to 64% water which comes from the milk or other ingredients A sweet ice cream is usually desired by the consumer. As a result, sweetening agents are added to ice cream mix at a rate of usually 12 - 16% by weight. Sweeteners improve the texture and palatability of the ice cream, enhance flavors, and are usually the cheapest source of total solids. In addition, the sugars contribute to a depressed freezing point so that the ice cream has some unfrozen water associated with it at very low temperatures typical of their serving temperatures, -15 to -18 C. Without this unfrozen water, the ice cream would be too hard to scoop. It has become common in the industry to substitute all or a portion of the sucrose content with sweeteners derived from starch syrup. This sweetener is reported to contribute a firmer and more chewy body to the ice cream, is an economical source of solids, and improves the shelf life of the finished product. Starch syrup in either its liquid or dry form is available in varying

dextrose equivalents (DE). As the DE is increased by hydrolysis of the starch, the sweetness of the solids is increased and the average molecular weight is decreased. This results in an increase in the freezing point depression, in such foods as ice cream, by the sweetener. The lower DE starch syrup contains more dextrins which tie up more water in the mix thus supplying greater stabilizing effect against coarse texture. HFSS High fructose starch-based syrup can be used to a much greater extent in sucrose replacement. However, these HFSS further reduce the freezing point producing a very soft ice cream at usual conditions of storage and dipping in the home. A balance is involved between sweetness, total solids, and freezing point. go to top Confectionery. High conversion glucose syrups replase sucrose and imparts products with less hygroscopicity and a better viscosity profile. High maltose syrups controls moisture and texture in soft confections. Candy. High amylose cornstarch contains as much as 70% amylose compared to 25-28% in ordinary cornstarch. This makes it a particular strong gelling agent in the manufacture of fine jelly gum candies. High amylose cornstarch is used in combination with normal fluidity starches (thin boiling starches). Up to half the starch is commonly replaced by high amylose starch to obtain quick setting candy piece with an attractive texture. Tapioca speciality dextrins replaces from 20% to 40% of gum Arabic in some hard gum candies. High-Boiled Sweets. High-boiled sugar confectionery is expected not to be sticky or crystallised when reaching the consumer. The stability with respect to moisture pickup and stickiness depends on its ERH. The ERH of high- boiled sweets is approximately 30%, and since the atmospheric humidity is nearly always above this, there is a tendency to absorb moisture from the atmosphere. Initially this occurs on the surface, with a thin film of a solution of lower solids forming with a lower viscosity. This in turn leads to crystallization of the sucrose (graining). To produce highboiled sweets with a satisfactory shelf life, the final product must contain a minimum amount of residual moisture and the correct balance of sugar and glucose. To obtain a product with satisfactory texture and shelf life, a combination of sucrose and glucose in a 60:40 ratio is generally used. Medium conversion glucose syrup (42DE) is commonly used, which contains a wide range of simple to higher sugars. This is more resistant to water absorption from the atmosphere due to a raised ERH value and is less liable to grain, however, there are some downside effects - such as a higher viscosity, which makes the finished product difficult to crunch; the sweetness level is lower. Some of these can be overcome by the use of more specialized syrups such as High Maltose. The use of invert sugar as a doctor in high-boiled sweets has all but been replaced by glucose syrup. Glucose syrup (42 DE) exhibits a higher relative vapour pressure and at the levels required to prevent sugar crystallization, the invert sugar will cause serious stickiness due to hygroscopicity. go to top Marshmallows. As marshmallows have a soluble solids content of 78-80%, the prevention of crystallization depends on the choice of an effective doctor carbohydrate. The hygroscopic nature of these products is again influenced by the ERH and marshmallows have an ERH range of 65-75%. When considering an appropriate doctor for marshmallow, we find the use of invert sugar, 42DE glucose syrup and 63 DE glucose syrup. When comparing the relative vapour pressure, we find that where invert sugar is used, the relative vapour pressure (73.3%) is lower than when glucose syrups are used and therefore will pickup moisture from the atmosphere. This is important to remember if selling product in high humidity markets.

The use of 42 DE glucose will give lower moisture pickup, but may not deliver the desired sweetness or texture levels. It may be more desirable to use 63 DE glucose. This will retain more moisture and facilitate faster whipping, (due to a lower viscosity) and deliver a higher sweetness level. Marmalade and jam. For proper texture, jellied fruit products require the correct combination of fruit, pectin, acid, and sugar. Sugar serves as a preserving agent, contributes flavor, and aids in gelling. Cane and beet sugar are the usual sources of sugar for jelly or jam. Starch syrup may be used to replace part of the sugar in recipes, but too much will mask the fruit flavor and alter the gel structure. Too little sugar prevents gelling and may allow yeasts and molds to grow. Medium high glucose syrup - 63 DE - replaces sugar in marmalade and jam. To provide good shelf life a high sugar concentration is required and for the purpose a 63 DE syrup is preferred to the traditional 42 De syrup. High conversion syrups and HFS adds more sweetness and increase osmotic pressure (better shelf life). Canning. Maltodextrins and low conversions syrups add body to canned sauces. High conversion syrups add body and sweetness to canned fruit. HFS add seetness. Foundries. Starch is used as a core binder in castings (cast molds). go to top Animal feed. Starch is used as a binder and nutrient in animal feed pellets. Pulp wet as is like roughage or dried. The dried pulp finds some use as a moisture absorber in soft foods for fur animals and fish. Wheat gluten is used as a meat extender or replacer in pet food Potato protein is a valuable protein for fur animals and small pigs. Concrete. Starch finds use as a retarder in concrete. Starch products are used for reducing settime in cement. go to top Oil drilling. Pregelatinized starch is used to increase viscosity of drilling mud and to reduce fluid loss by sealing the walls of boreholes. Cross-linking imparts higher temperature stability. Starch ethers impart tolerance to polyvalent cations and sea water. Read more ... Gypsum & Mineral Fiber. Starch is used as a binder in gypsum plaster, gypsum and mineral fibre board. Nappy / Diaper. Starch is used as an adhesive. Diapers with superabsorbent gelling materials in their core has been developed with gelling materials capable of sequestering 80 times their weight of moisture. Starch based products may substitute high-molecular-weight, cross-linked sodium polyacrylate polymers as the absorbent. go to top Water. Starch products are used as flocculants in many industrial water treatment plants for flocculation purposes. Coal. Briquettes made of coal dust and fines are bound with starch as a binder Detergent. Starch finds use as a redeposition inhibitor of dirt once it has been released from the fabric. Pharmacy. Starch acts as a binder in pharmaceutical tablets and as a disintegrating agent as well. Special starch is used as dusting powder and surgical glove powder. go to top Agriculture. Copolymerizing starch with acrylonitril and alkaline hydrolysis gives a super absorbing polymer, "Super-Slurper" used for coating of seeds to improve presence of water for faster germination and to improve water capacity of soil for potted plants. go to top

Stain remover. To remove a stain with an absorbent powder, sprinkle a layer of starch powder over the stain. Spread the starch round, and as soon as it becomes gummy lift, shake or brush it off. Repeat this until nothing further is being absorbed. If a mark still remains after this, mix the powder to a paste, using water for non-greasy stains and a grease solvent (see "for greasy marks"). Leave standing till dry, then brush off. Dusting powders. Dusting powder consists of finely powdered substances free of grittiness. They are used on normal intact skin prophylactically to reduce friction (talc) or moisture (starch). By cross-linking starch can be stand sterilising in autoclave and be used as surgical dusting powder. go to top Paper. Thin-boiling starches is used as sizing on most paper. Cationic starches are used as wet-end additives improving filler retension and reducing effluent load. Starch is used for for coating. Read more ... Corrugated board. Native starch in mixture with pregelatinized starch is applied on top of the corrugated flute before lining. The native starch acts as an instant glue with good tack when heat is applied. Card board may be produced by gluing liners together with a starch based glue. Textile Starch is used for sizing yarn to improve abrasion resistance in fast looms. Starch is is used for finishing fabrics to add feel, stiffness or to provide a good printing surface. Thin-boiling starches are preferred. Read more ... Plastics & Packaging. In plastics starches improve the biodegradability of plastic and finished products. Foamed Starch. Starch can be environmentally friendly blown into a foamed material using water steam. Foamed starch is antistatic, insulating and shock absorbing, therefore a good replacement for polystyrene foam. It can be used as packaging material or can be pressed into starch-based sheet for thin-walled products, such as trays, disposable dishes, cups etc or used as loose-fill for packaging. It offers numerous disposal alternatives and can be a good substitute of CFCs-blown PS.

THE OCCURRENCE OF STARCH Starch makes up the nutritive reserves of many plants. During the growing season, the green leaves collect energy from the sun. This energy is transported as a sugar solution to the starch storage cells, and the sugar is converted to starch in the form of tiny granules occupying most of the cell interior. The conversion of sugar to starch takes place by means of enzymes. Then, the following spring, enzymes are also responsible for the re-conversion of starch to sugar released from the seed as energy for the growing plant. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF CORN Corn, Zea Mays, is grown in most countries throughout the world. It requires, however, warmer climates than found in the temperate zones to grow to maturity.

DENT corn, the scientific name of which is Zea Mays Indentata, is also called "field" corn. It is a corn variety with kernels that contain both hard and soft starch and become indented at maturity. It is a major crop used to make food, animal feed, and industrial products. This is the variety to be considered for cornstarch manufacturing. FLINT corn, known by the scientific name Zea Mays indurata, is a variety of corn having hard, horny, rounded, or short and flat kernels with the soft and starchy endosperm completely enclosed by a hard outer layer. It is similar to dent and is used for the same purposes. Most of it is grown in South America. WAXY corn is a corn variety with grains that have a waxy appearance when cut, and that contains only branched-chain starch. It is grown to make special starches for thickening foods. SWEET or "green" corn is eaten fresh, canned, or frozen. It is a type of corn that is grown in many horticultural varieties. It is occasionally considered a distinct species (Zea saccharata or Zea rugosa), a subspecies (Zea Mays rugosa), or a specific mutation of dent corn. It is distinguished by kernels containing a high percentage of sugar in the milk stage when they are suitable for table use. POPCORN is a variety of corn, Zea Mays everta, which has small ears and small pointed or rounded kernels with very hard corneous endosperm that, on exposure to dry heat, are popped or everted by the expulsion of the contained moisture, and form a white starchy mass many times the size of the original kernel. INDIAN corn has white, red, purple, brown, or multicoloured kernels. It was the original corn grown by the Indians, and is known by the scientific name Zea Mays. It is many times seen in harvest time and Halloween decorations. FLOUR corn, also called "soft" corn or "squaw" corn, has kernels shaped like those of flint corn and is composed almost entirely of soft starch. It is known by the scientific name Zea Mays amylacea. The USA grows small amounts of blue flour corn to make tortillas, chips, and baked goods. In South America this corn is grown in various colours to make food and beer. Dent Corn Composition (15% Moisture Basis, USA)
Number of Samples Protein Oil Starch 151 Average Range (%) 7.7 5.7-9.7 (%) 3.3 2.6-4.9 (%) 61.7 59.9-64.8

CLEANING The raw material for wet milling is shelled dent corn delivered in bulk. The corn is inspected and cob, dust, chaff and foreign material are removed. The cleaning is normally done twice before wet processing. After cleaning the corn is transported to the steeps. International Starch has a process for the extraction and refining of starch even from corn flour or mill by-products. STEEPING A proper steeping is essential for high yields and high starch quality. The steeping is carried out

in a continuous counter-current process. The cleaned corn is filled into a battery of large steeping tanks (steeps), where the corn is soaked in hot water 30 to 48 hours to begin breaking the starch and protein bonds . The gluten bonds within the corn begin to loosen and release the starch. The steeping is actually a controlled fermentation. Sulphur dioxide improves the fermentation by enhancing growth of favourable micro-organisms, preferably lactobacillus, while suppressing detrimental bacteria, moulds, fungi and yeast. Solubles are extracted and the kernel softens. The kernel swells to more than double size and increases its moisture content from about 15% to 45%. STEEPWATER EVAPORATION The steepwater containing approximately 10% dry substance is drained from the kernels and condensed on a multi-stage evaporator. Most organic acids formed during the fermentation are volatile and evaporate with the water. The condensate from the first evaporator stage will therefore be discharged after the heat is recovered by preheating the entering steepwater. The steepwater is condensed to an auto-sterile product - a valuable nutrient in the fermentation industry - or concentrated to approximate 48% dry matter and mixed and dried with the fibre fraction. SO2 The sulphur dioxide may be prepared by burning sulphur and absorbing the gas in water. Because modern processes call for more strict and narrow dosage, a supply of sulphur dioxide gas under pressure is preferred or SO2 is replaced by sodium hydrogen bisulphite where no local gas supply is available. GERM SEPARATION The soften kernels are broken up in attrition mills to loosen the hull and break the bonds between germ and endosperm. Water is added to assist the wet milling. A good steeping ensures that the germ will be freely released intact from the kernel by a gentle milling operation with no free oil. Oil constitutes half the weight of the germ at this stage, and the germ is easy to separate by centrifugal force. The lightweight germs are separated from the ground slurry by hydrocyclones in a two step separation with regrinding in between. The germs are washed repeatedly counter-currently on a three-stage screen to remove starch. Process wash water is added at the last stage. GERM DRYING Surface water is removed from the germs by a tapered screw press. The dewatered and clean germs are fed to a rotary steam tube bundle dryer and dried to approximate 4% moisture. Low moisture content improves shelf life. The germs are cooled and pneumatically transported to a germ silo ready for bagging or oil extraction. CORN OIL Mechanical presses and/or solvent extraction are used to extract the crude oil from the germ. The crude oil is refined and filtered. A typical yield per ton corn is 27 kg corn oil. During refining free fatty acids and phospholipids are removed. The finished corn oil finds uses as food and cooking oil or as raw material for margarine. Refined corn oil has a pleasant taste and does not develop off-flavours in cooking and frying. The high content of polyunsaturated fats is a nutritional advantage. The residual extracted corn germ meal is used in animal feeds or combined with the gluten feed. FINE GRINDING AND SCREENING After germ separation the mill flow is finely ground in impact or attrition mills to release starch and gluten from the endosperm cell walls (fibres). The degerminated mill starch leaving the fine mill is pumped to the first stage of a fibre washing system, where starch and gluten is screened off. The overs, hull and larger fibres, are washed free from adhering starch and gluten (insoluble

protein) on screens in counter-current with process wash water added at the last stage. The last fibre washing stage has a slightly courser screen for pre-dewatering the fibre prior to a tapered screw press. FIBRE DRYING The dewatered fibres from the dewatering press may be mixed with concentrated steepwater and cakes from the oil press and dried to approximate 12% moisture. The dried fibre are pelletized to reduce bulkiness and pneumatically transported to a silo ready for shipping. The fibre fraction is a valuable constituent of animal feeds. PRIMARY SEPARATION Crude starch milk from the dewatering screen ahead of the fine mill and from the first stage fibre washing are combined. The crude starch milk contains starch, gluten and solubles. A primary separator splits by gravity the mill stream in two fractions: Gluten Overflow Starch Underflow A mill stream thickener may be applied on the separator feed. GLUTEN RECOVERY The gluten fraction from the primary separator is traditionally concentrated on a nozzle type continuous centrifugal separator - a gluten thickener. The gluten separator splits the gluten fraction in two streams: Process water Overflow Gluten Underflow Multi-Stage Hydrocyclone Unit. The underflow, which is mainly protein and a small amount of starch, is discharged to the gluten dewatering section. GLUTEN DEWATERING AND DRYING The gluten slurry is dewatered on a vacuum belt filter or decanter. The decanter removes more water, but require strict pH-adjustment to the iso-electrical point of the gluten. Dewatering splits the gluten stream in: Process water Gluten (moist) The dewatered gluten is dried in a rotary steam tube bundle dryer to approximately 10% moisture and disintegrated in a hammer mill. Drying is facilitated by powder recycling. The dried gluten is sold as corn gluten meal with 60% protein. It is a valuable source of methionine. The high xanthophyll content - typically 500 ppm - makes it an efficient pigmenting ingredient in poultry feeds. STARCH REFINING Washing with fresh clean water refines the crude starch milk. With hydrocyclones it is feasible to reduce fibre and solubles including soluble protein to low levels with a minimum of fresh water. To save water the wash is done counter currently, i.e. the incoming fresh water is used on the very last step and the overflow is reused for dilution on the previous step, and so on. By using

multi stage hydrocyclones all soluble materials and fine cell residues are removed in a water saving process. The refined starch milk contains an almost 100% pure starch slurred in pure water. With a middling separator the overflow from the starch refining hydrocyclones may be refined into: Process water Overflow Starch Underflow In the strong gravitational fields of a hydrocyclones and a centrifuge, the starch settles quickly. Refining is based on the differences in weight density between water, fibres and starch: Although some impurities go with the starch in the underflow, there is - by means of a sieve - a last chance to remove the larger particles. Impurities not removed this way are not removable by any known technique. CENTRIFUGES AND HYDROCYCLONES. The centrifuge obtains its gravitational force by spinning the bowl. The hydrocyclone has no moving parts and the separation is totally dependent on the pressure difference over the cyclone. The technological development and quality demands have forced centrifuges to give way for hydrocyclones in corn starch refining, but centrifuges still hold a defensive position in gluten concentration. Starch is among the most pure of all agricultural products. Actually, purity is the most important parameter in being competitive. STARCH DEWATERING. The purified starch milk is discharged to a peeler centrifuge for dewatering. The peeler filtrate is recycled to starch refining. The dewatered starch is batch-wise peeled off and discharged by gravity to the moist starch hopper. STARCH DRYING From the moist starch hopper the starch is fed by a metering screw conveyor into a flash dryer and dried in hot air. The inlet air temperature is moderate. The dried starch is pneumatically transported to a starch silo ready for screening and bagging. The moisture of cornstarch after drying is normally 12-13 %. Before delivery the starch is screened on a fine sieve in order to remove any scale formed in screw conveyors etc. MODIFICATION Most starch is used for industrial purposes. Starch is tailor made to meet the requirements of the end-user giving rise to a range of speciality products. Many and sophisticated techniques are applied. A most versatile principle comprises a three step wet modification: By applying different reaction conditions - temperature, pH, additives - and strict process control speciality products with unique properties are made. These speciality products are named modified starches. They still retain their original granule form and thereby resemble the native (unmodified) starch in appearance, but the modification has introduced improved qualities in the starch when cooked. The paste may have obtained improved clarity, viscosity, film-forming ability etc.

APPLICATION. Commercial cornstarch is used in the manufacture of sweeteners, sizing of paper and textile and as a food thickener and stabilizer. The by-products are valuable feed ingredients. Being a pure renewable natural polymer, starch has a multitude of applications. Starch finds uses in fast food, sweets, sausages, tablets, and paper, corrugated board etc. and plays a prominent part in our everyday life. In 2004 more than fifty percent of starch was converted to High Fructose Syrups (HFS). Per capita sweetener consumption is now evenly divided between sucrose and HFS. Corn Wet Milled Feed Products: Corn Germ Meal is a by-product from the extraction of oil. It contains typically 20-21% protein and 90% dry matter. Corn Gluten Feed is a mixture of the hulls & fibre fraction with steepwater, corn germ meal and other process residuals. A typical yield per ton corn is 250 kg corn gluten feed with 18-22% protein and 89-90% dry substance. Corn Gluten Meal is the dried gluten from the gluten concentration. A typical yield per ton corn is 50 kg corn gluten meal with 60% protein and 89-90% dry substance. Corn Steep Liquor also known as condensed fermented corn extractives is a high protein ingredient. It is often a constituent of corn gluten feed, but may be sold as is with approximate 23% protein and 50% dry substance for cattle feeds or as a pellet binder. Potato starch has been produced in Denmark on an industrial scale since 1900. 75% of the potato crop is grown for industrial processing and the Danes produce per capita more starch than any other nation.

OCCURRENCE OF STARCH Starch constitutes the nutritive reserves of many plants. During the growing season, the green leaves collect energy from the sun. In potatoes this energy is transported as a sugar solution down to the tubers, and it is down there that the sugar is converted to starch in the form of tiny granules occupying most of the cell interior. The conversion of sugar to starch takes place by means of enzymes. Then next spring, enzymes are also responsible for the re-conversion of starch to sugar - transported upwards as energy for the growing plant. THE BASIS FOR STARCH QUALITY IS LAID IN THE POTATO CLAMP. In the field or stored in clamps during winter, the tubers stay alive and need some air for respiration and life activity. Potatoes consume a small amount of their own starch during winter to maintain life functions until spring. This requires fresh air and the respiration causes generation of heat. If the surrounding temperature falls with a risk of frost, the tubers try to save their skin by extensive conversion of starch to sugar in order to lower the freezing point in the cell juice. If this

does not suffice, the tubers die. Potatoes therefore must be adequately covered when stored. If the potatoes get warm, respiration increases, raising the temperature further. A lot of starch is used for the respiration and the tubers will die of heat. Unfavourable storage conditions cause starch losses and, in the worst case, dead and smashed potatoes, which are disruptive for the process. Supplies of bad potatoes have to be rejected. Damage during transport also causes quality problems. Every single blow damages cells, with starch losses and a dead spot on the tuber as a result. It is therefore of utmost importance to handle the potatoes during transport as carefully as possible with the techniques and equipment available. REFINING BEGINS ALREADY DURING RAW MATERIAL INTAKE.

Drop damper for initial filling of empty store. During unloading at the factory, damage can be reduced by covering buffer silos with rubber and minimising drop impact with rubber curtains. Smashed potatoes loose a lot of juice, causing foam and unnecessary problems in the washing station. Loose dirt, sand and gravel are removed on a rotating screen before the potatoes are deposited in the store - the better the dirt removal, the lesser the problems with stones and sand in the fluming channels later. The soil also contains considerable quantities of nutrients, which will dissolve in the washing water and contribute to the environmental effect caused by the effluent. The potato store is a necessity to secure the supply of potatoes overnight. Supplies for the weekend may also be required because of restrictions on heavy road transport outside ordinary working hours. The ideal situation is to reach the bottom of the potato store every morning, because the potatoes suffer during long storage in thick layers without adequate ventilation. EFFICIENT WASHING MAKES REFINING EASIER. Soil and dirt not removed in the washing station give problems later. The washing is therefore very important. The washing is a counter current process, with fresh water added through pressure nozzles in the final step. The potatoes are flumed by water in channels - passing a stone trap - to the washing station. The stone trap utilises the difference in specific weights between stones and potatoes - an upstream water flow carries the potatoes over the stone trap, while the heavier stones are trapped and collected on a stone conveyor. The water level in the washing drum has to be kept low so that the potatoes do not float. The drum is not merely a conveyor, but also ensures that the potatoes rub vigorously against each other. The rubbing is essential for the removal of fungi, rotten spots, skin and dirt from the surface. The floating water may be recycled after settling of sand in pools.

A high standard of washing improves refining because many impurities resemble starch in specific density and size, so washing the potatoes is the only way to get rid of them. The quantity of impurities adhering to the potatoes on delivery depends to a great extent on weather conditions and on the soil where the potatoes are cultivated. The quantity of water used for fluming and washing is identical with the quantity of clean water applied in the final high-pressure spray. RASPING. Rasping is the first step in the starch extraction. The goal is to open the tuber cells and release the starch granules. The slurry obtained can be considered as a mixture of pulp (cell walls), fruit juice and starch. With modern high-speed raspers, rasping is a one-pass operation only. USE OF SULPHUR. The cell juice is rich in sugar and protein. When opening the cells the juice is instantly exposed to air and reacts with the oxygen, forming coloured components, which may adhere to the starch. Sulphur dioxide gas or sodium-bisulphite-solution therefore has to be added. A considerable reduction potential of the sulphur compounds prevents discoloration. Sufficient sulphur has to be added to maintain the juice and pulp light yellow. EXTRACTION. Powerful washing is needed to flush the starch granules out from the cells - the cells are torn apart in the rasper and form a filtering mat that tries to retain the starch. Water has previously been used for the extraction, but today extraction takes place in closed systems allowing the use of the potato juice itself. It has the advantage that the juice can later be recovered in concentrated and undiluted form, reducing transport costs for its use as a fertiliser. The flushed-out starch discharges from the extraction sieves along with the fruit juice, and the cell walls (pulp) are pumped to the pulp dewatering sieves. The pulp leaves the dewatering sieves as drip- dry - i.e. approximately 8% dry matter. The extraction takes place on rotating conical sieves, where centrifugal power increases the capacity per unit of area. The high efficiency makes it feasible to utilise high quality sieve plates made of stainless steel, which will withstand abrasion and CIP-chemicals. The sieve plates have long perforations only 125 microns across.

Operating Principle of a Starch Extractor. The extraction is a counter current process in which the pulp-dewatering screen is actually the last step. If the pulp is required in almost dry form, the number of spray nozzles with washing water is reduced. Instead continuous back spraying is maintained to ensure that the dry pulp will slide down the screen. CONCENTRATING THE CRUDE STARCH SLURRY.

On hydrocyclone unit as much juice is excreted as possible. The starch leaves the concentrator as pumpable slurry of approximately 19 oBe. The concentrating stage typically consists of a unit with hydrocyclone blocks for defoaming, concentrating and starch recovering arranged in series. REFINING It now remains to purify the crude starch milk (suspension) and remove residual fruit juice and impurities. The way it is done is more or less based on the same principles used when removing soap water from the laundry - you wring and soak in clean water again and again. Everyone doing laundry realises how often it is necessary to wring before the rinsing water is completely clear and that the harder you wring the fewer rinsing steps are required. In the same way, the starch slurry is diluted and concentrated again and again. To save rinsing water the wash is done counter currently - i.e. the incoming fresh water is used on the very last step and the overflow is recycled for dilution on the previous step and so on. HYDROCYCLONES. Refining is based on the difference in specific density of water, fibres and starch:

Starch Cell walls (fibres) Water Soil, sand

Specific density g/ml 1,55 1,05 1,00 above 2

In the strong gravitational fields of a hydrocyclone and a centrifuge, starch settle quickly, while fibres (pulp residuals) just float in the water. The juice is directly diluted in the water and goes with the water phase.

By creating a water flow moving towards the starch, lots of fibres just floating in the water may be forced into the overflow. Soil, sand and many fungi etc. are of equal density or heavier than starch and it is not possible to separate these particles from starch by centrifugal force - that is why it is so important to remove as many impurities as possible from the potato surface in the washing station. Although some impurities go with the starch in the underflow, there is - by means of a sieve - a last chance to remove the larger particles - that is particles larger than 125 microns. The particles are not spherical. On the contrary, they are of irregular shape and may be forced through refining sieve, if the spray pressure is too high. Impurities not removed this way are not removable by any known technique. In the recovery steps all starch has to be retained in the underflow so only very little is wasted in the effluent (fruit water). COOLING

The lower the water consumption, the more pumps are involved in the process and the more heat is generated. To retard bacterial growth refrigerator temperatures are ideal. In the effluent of concentrated fruit juice, cooling during extraction is a must because in hot juice microbes that break down protein and a bad smell may take control. CIP - CLEANING IN PLACE. Cleaning in Place is done with caustic and hypochlorite as cleaning agents. Caustic is a powerful agent for removal of the protein build-up on the interior walls and the hypochlorite is an efficient germ killer During CIP it is of the utmost importance to keep the pipes filled up. Tanks are most efficiently CIP'ed with rotating disc nozzles - and covered tanks are required. DRYING AND SIFTING. The moist starch from the rotating vacuum filters is dried in a flash dryer with moderate hot air. The air is indirectly heated. Before delivery the starch is sifted on a fine sieve in order to remove any scale formed in screw conveyors etc. Starch finds uses in fast food, sweets, sausages, tablets, and paper, corrugated board etc. and plays a prominent part in our everyday life.

Modification. Most starch is used for industrial purposes. Starch is tailor made to meet the requirements of the end-user giving rise to a range of speciality products. Many and sophisticated techniques are applied. A most versatile principle comprises a three step wet modification: Preparation v Reaction v Finishing By applying different reaction conditions - temperature, pH, additives - and strict process control speciality products with unique properties are made. These speciality products are named modified starches, because they still retain their original granule form and thereby resemble the native (unmodified) starch in appearance. But the modification has introduced improved qualities in the starch when cooked. The paste may have obtained improved clarity, viscosity, film-forming ability etc. Being a pure renewable natural polymer starch has a multitude of applications Composition of potato starch

Constituents Starch, dry substance Water Ash Sand Protein Phosphor, P Calcium, Ca Iron, Fe Cold water soluble

Typical analysis 80% 20% 0.3% 0.02% 0.09% 0.07% 0.03% 3 ppm 0.1%
Size distribution.

Interval, microns 87-140 53-87 38-53 28-38 22-28 17-22 13-17 10-13 8-10 6-8 0-6
Properties of starch. Surface of starch granules app. 30 ha/g Specific density app. 1.55 g/ml Specific heat 1.22 J/g Bulk weight of starch 80% DS app. 0.7 g/ml DS of moist centrifugate app. 0.6 g/ml Brightness (MgO2 = 100%) app. 95 %

% 3 24 34 17 9.1 7.7 3.3 0.9 0.5 0.2 2.0

Determination of starch content in potatoes.

The starch content of fresh potatoes is correlated with potato density. A sample of 5050 g potato in a net basket is weighed above water and then again immersed in clean water of maximum 18 o C. Wo = weight of the potato sample Wu = weight of sample under water Density dpotato = Wo / (Wo - Wu) g/ml Starch dry matter = (dpotato -1,015059)/ 0,0046051 % The calculated figure in per cent deviate less than 0.05 from values read out of the EU-table enforced by the European Commission covering potatoes with 8% to 23% starch dry matter. A short version of the table - as valid per 1. July 1996 - is as follows:
Starch dry matter of potatoes 4 % 13 14 15 16 17 Potatoes to produce 1 t commercial starch 5 kg 6,533 6,065 5,664 5,308 5,000 EUminimum price 6 ECU/t potato 32.110 34.590 37.040 39.520 41.960 EU-subsidy EU-subsidy I to the II to the factory 7 factory 8 ECU/t potato 3.405 3.671 3.924 4.190 4.456 ECU/t potato 13.31 14.33 15.35 16.38 17.39

Wo
g

Wu
2

Density d 3 g/ml 1.075 1.080 1.084 1.089 1.093

g 352 372 392 412 430

5050 5050 5050 5050 5050

5050 5050 5050 5050 5050 5050

1

450 470 488 508 527 545

1.098 1.103 1.107 1.112 1.117 1.121

18 19 20 21 22 23

4,720 4,467 4,299 4,234 4,140 4,056

44.440 46.960 48.800 49.550 50.670 51.720

4.709 4.987 5.180 5.253 5.373 5.482

18.42 19.46 20.22 20.53 21.00 21.43

) Weight of potato sample above water. 2) Weight of sample immersed in water. 3) Calculated density = (Wo / (Wo -Wu)). 4) Starch content according to the official table. 6) The minimum price to be paid by the manufacturer directly to the farmer in order to qualify for a subsidy. 7) An EUsubsidy I- a production premium - is paid to the manufacturer, if he pays the EU-minimum price or better. 8) A subsidy II- an equalisation payment - is paid directly to the factory, if he pays the EU-minimum price or better. The exchange rate 1. July 1996 was 1 ECU = 1,24 US$. This empirical method is used to settle accounts with suppliers of potatoes to starch factories. Similar method is used for cassava. Unfavourable storage conditions however may cause enzymatically conversion of starch to glucose affecting starch yield without changing the underwater-weight and density of potatoes. Therefore the method only apply to fresh potatoes. The method is by no means scientifically correct. Reliable methods for the determination of carbohydrates in potatoes exist, but the soluble non-starch fraction and the fraction of particular starch grains are indistinguishable from one another by practical accurate means. OCCURRENCE OF STARCH Starch makes up the nutritive reserves of many plants. During the growing season, the green leaves collect energy from the sun. This energy is transported as a sugar solution to the starch storage cells, and the sugar is converted to starch in the form of tiny granules occupying most of the cell interior. The conversion of sugar to starch takes place by means of enzymes. Then, the following spring, enzymes are also responsible for the re-conversion of starch to sugar - released from the seed as energy for the growing plant. WHEAT VARIETIES Wheat is a cereal plant of the genus Triticum of the family Gramineae (grass family). Modern wheat varieties are usually classified as winter wheat (fall-planted) and spring wheat - most of the wheat grown is winter wheat. Some ancient varieties of wheat like einkorn (T. monococcum), emmer (T. dicoccum) and spelt (T. spelta) are still being cultivated for specialty purposes. Triticum aestivum is by far the most important of all wheat species. Flour from hard varieties derived from bread wheat (T. aestivum) contains a high gluten content and is preferred in bakery products. The hardest-kernelled wheat is durum - macaroni wheat (T. durum); it is essential for the manufacture of pasta products.

WHEAT GLUTEN Gluten is proteins of the wheat. Gluten forms long molecules insoluble in water. This gives

dough its characteristic texture and permits breads and cakes to rise because the carbon dioxide released by the yeast is trapped in the gluten superstructure. Gluten is particular important in the manufacture of starch from wheat because gluten is a most valuable by-product representing half the turnover. In fact the starch is by some manufacturers considered the by-product and gluten the main product. If the gluten is extracted and gently dried in hot air at moderate temperatures it maintains it's characteristics. If so it is designated "vital gluten". Vital gluten may be added as a dry powder to flour otherwise low in gluten and thereby improve the baking qualities of the flour. The Danish and Scandinavian climate favours weak wheat of poor baking qualities. The gluten content is low and the texture of the gluten is short. A remedy is mixing it with French or Canadian wheat known for their better gluten quality. As an alternative the baking characteristics may be improved by mixing it with vital gluten powder. Commercial gluten is dried to minimum 90% dry matter and a typical composition is: 70 - 80 % crude protein, 6 - 8 % crude lipids, 10 - 14 % carbohydrates, 0.8 - 1.4 % minerals. Gluten in general is used as a meat extender in both food and feed. The fermentation industry consumes large amounts of gluten and by acid hydrolysis it is used for production of hydrolyzed vegetable protein and glutamic acid. A gluten based meat analogue was invented by the International Starch Group. It replaces up to one third of minced meat in popular meat balls. Another invention combines emulsifiers and gluten into a spray dried powder improving both baking quality of the flour and shelf life of the bread. A KITCHEN EXPERIMENT. Gluten is an invisible integrated part of the wheat flour. To make it visible and to illustrate its vital properties a small and simple experiment may serve the purpose. Form flour into a dough with a little water. Knead by hand a small lump of dough under a squirt of tap water. Apply water sparingly while kneading. The white starch will run off with the water and may be collected while the dough stays coherent. Gradually the starch is washed out and the remaining dough is made up of pure gluten with a cohesive chewing gum like consistence. Pulling the dough at this point will elongate the lump until it bursts. The elongation before bursting indicates the baking quality of the flour. WHEAT STARCH Wheat starch granules are divided in two groups by size, B-starch (15 - 20 %) is 2 - 15 m diameter and the larger A-starch granules (80 - 85 %) are 20 - 35 m. B-starch is contaminated with pentosans, fibres, lipids and protein to an extent requiring special treatment in the factory WHEAT GERM OIL

Wheat germ oil is contained at 8 - 12 % in the fresh wheat germ which is 2 % of total grain weight. Its fatty acid composition (%) is: C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 11-20% 1-6% 13-30% 44-65% 2-13% Due to its high level of linoleic acid (C18:2) wheat germ oil is used for dietary purposes and in cosmetic preparations. Wheat germ oil is expelled or extracted from the germ. Because the germ is removed from the endosperm during the dry milling it is not a by-product from the industrial wet milling of wheat. RAW MATERIAL FOR STARCH Wheat grain may be taken in as raw material as is the case with corn, but typically the starch manufacturer prefers to buy flour from a flour mill. Composition of the wheat kernel Bran 12 % Germ 2 % Endosperm 82 % The number of parts by weight of flour that is produced from 100 parts of wheat is termed the extraction rate. Flour extraction ranges from 73 to 77 % resulting in an average mill feed production of about 25 %. It is apparent that the mill feed contains, in addition to the bran, a significant portion of the starchy endosperm. Typical flour composition on dry matter basis Moisture content: 13.5 % Total protein content: 13 % Fibre content: 1.0 % Ash content: 0.75 % The flour must be suitable for human consumption and it has to be milled to a specific particle size distribution. THE MARTIN PROCESS The kitchen experiment previously described is also a demonstration of the old Martin process still in use. The process resembles very much the described experiment demonstrated by washing out the starch from a lump of dough with tap water. The classic Martin process uses ordinary baking equipment for the kneading and maturing of the dough. The combination of kneading and time develops the gluten and makes it cohesive. Until matured by kneading and time gluten will not allow the starch to be flushed out without falling apart with losses of both starch and gluten. THE SCANDINAVIAN PROCESS

Slurry processes (batter processes) are more industry friendly and make closed continuous handling possible. Several variants have been practiced over time, but the Scandinavian Process is by far the most elegant and efficient. The Scandinavian process is based on wheat flour as raw material and it is designed to process even weak (soft) Scandinavian wheat difficult to process otherwise and nevertheless obtain vital gluten of excellent properties. The Scandinavian process also works well with completely fresh and unconditioned flour minimizing storage capacity requirement. In general the Scandinavian process is very robust and of advantage to any wheat. Flour is pneumatically conveyed from intermediate silos into a feeding bin equipped with means to separate air and flour. The control system continuously discharges flour into a stream of warm water. Water and flour is mixed in-line and the slurry obtained is homogenized in a highspeed in-line disintegrator. The homogenized slurry is right away separated into the following fractions by a three-phase decanter (tricanter): Starch - Heavy phase Gluten - Middle phase Pentosanes - Light phase THE STARCH FRACTION is the heavy phase containing the major part of A-starch. It is reslurred and refined - much in the same way as starch of any other origin as described in "Starch Refining". THE PENTOSANE FRACTION - the light phase from the tricanter - contains various gums. It is preferably mixed with other by-products and used as a wet feed. The wet feed may be dried, mixed with bran or sold as such. THE GLUTEN FRACTION is the complex middle phase. It contains the gluten, fibres, solubles, B-starch and some A-starch. After maturing of the gluten these constituents are split into subfractions. Gluten Maturing. Before separating the gluten fraction the stream is carefully treated in a maturing reactor. The reactor is specially designed for the maturing of gluten. During maturing the gluten matrix of wheat flour is softened and bound starch granules are released. Glutenin and gliadin proteins can now start to form long molecular chains i.e. gluten formation can take place. Gluten Agglomeration and Recovery. The gluten maturing step is followed by a treatment in special gluten agglomerators. In the agglomerators the matured gluten is combined into lumps formed of glutenin and gliadin. The gluten lumps are screened off and washed on bend screens. The wet gluten is dewatered on screw presses and dried. By gentle drying in hot air in a ring dryer the gluten retains its vital properties. After in-line milling and classification the product leaves the dryer ready for packing and sale as Vital Gluten.

B-starch recovery. After gluten recovery the residual fraction is separated on hydrocyclones. The heavy A-starch goes in the underflow and the lighter B-starch goes with the overflow. A-starch recovered with the underflow is concentrated and combined with the A-starch main stream. B-starch is recovered from the overflow by special recovery cyclones and dewatered on a decanter. The B-starch is dried in hot air in a ring dryer or drum dried and used as pregelatinized starch. Solubles. A clarifier removes the last bit of starch from the overflow and only solubles and water remains. The clarified overflow leaves the factory as an effluent to be disposed of by landspreading or biogas digestion. A-STARCH REFINING Starch is refined by washing with fresh clean water. With hydrocyclones it is feasible to reduce fibre and solubles including soluble protein to low levels with a minimum of fresh water. To save water the wash is done counter currently, i.e. the incoming fresh water is used on the very last step and the overflow is reused for dilution on the previous step, and so on. By using multi stage hydrocyclones all soluble materials and fine cell residues are removed in a water saving process. The refined starch milk contains an almost 100% pure starch slurred in pure water. Starch is among the most pure of all agricultural products. Actually, purity is the most important parameter in being competitive. A-STARCH DEWATERING. The purified A-starch milk is discharged to a peeler centrifuge for dewatering. The peeler filtrate is recycled to the process. The dewatered starch is batch-wise peeled off and discharged by gravity to the moist starch hopper. A-STARCH DRYING From the moist starch hopper the A-starch is fed by a metering screw conveyor into a flash dryer and dried in hot air. The inlet air temperature is moderate. The dried starch is pneumatically transported to a starch silo ready for screening and bagging. The moisture of starch after drying is normally 12-13 %. Before delivery the starch is screened on a fine sieve in order to remove any scale formed in screw conveyors etc. CLEANING IN PLACE (CIP) To secure a high standard of sanitation in the plant a cleaning system is necessary. To minimize shutdown periods and thereby causing production losses, all equipment is designed to minimize the need of frequent cleaning. Cleaning and preventative maintenance must be planned once a month.

MODIFICATION Most starch is used for industrial purposes. Starch is tailor made to meet the requirements of the end-user giving rise to a range of specialty products. Many and sophisticated techniques are applied. A most versatile principle comprises a three step wet modification: By applying different reaction conditions - temperature, pH, additives - and strict process control specialty products with unique properties are made. These specialty products are named modified starches. They still retain their original granule form and thereby resemble the native (unmodified) starch in appearance, but the modification has introduced improved qualities in the starch when cooked. The paste may have obtained improved clarity, viscosity, film-forming ability etc. STARCH SWEETENERS Starch sweeteners are an important outlet for wheat starch and in many plants starch is not dried at all. In stead the refined A-starch slurry is further processed into starch syrups. For wheat starch the glucose is particular important. Basic and typical units of operation are: LIQUEFACTION. The refined A-starch slurry is pH-adjusted and enzymes are added. The prepared slurry is heated by direct steam in a steam jet. The liquefaction is typically a two stage process. The combination of heat and enzymes gelatinizes and thins the starch. The enzyme does the work by cutting the long starch molecules into pieces by hydrolysis. A low DE hydrolysate is formed and at this point the starch has been converted into a maltodextrin. (DE= Dextrose Equivalent).

SACCHARIFICATION. The low DE hydrolysate is pH and temperature adjusted once again and new enzymes added to produce glucose with a higher DE. Glucose of different composition can be made depending on the enzymes added and the process applied - even products close to pure dextrose. PROTEIN FILTRATION. New technology allows cross-flow membrane filtration of the hydrolysate. By dia-filtration glucose may be recovered from the filter residue leaving a protein rich mud to be discharged as animal feed. CARBON TREATMENT. The glucose hydrolysate is heated and treated with activated carbon to remove impurities and colour bodies and then filtered. ION EXCHANGE. The glucose hydrolysate is demineralised with ion exchange resins in a "merry go round" arrangement. Cation resins remove various ions as sodium, calcium, traces of iron and some amino acids. Anion resins remove ions like chloride, sulphate, phosphate and most residual amino acids. EVAPORATION. The refined glucose syrup is concentrated by evaporation to its final commercial dry matter content. The syrup is now ready for drumming off or for road tanker transport.

A MULTITUDE OF SWEETENERS. By varying the procedures a range of commercial products can be made and the pure dextrose syrups may even form basis for further processing into High Fructose Syrups utilizing sophisticated techniques like enzymatically isomerising and chromatography. APPLICATION. Being a pure renewable natural polymer, starch has a multitude of applications. Commercial wheat starch is used in the manufacture of sweeteners, sizing of paper and textile and as a food thickener and stabilizer. Nine million t per annum of starch and starch sweeteners are manufactured in the European Union and one third is originating from wheat. In the European Union 40% of native and modified starches is consumed by the paper industry being the most important outlet at present. Increasing amounts of grain, however, is supposed to be consumed by the new bio-fuel industry. In USA this development has already started on maize as raw material. In Europe wheat is the prime candidate

FEOGA
The fundamental objectives of the European Union (EU) agricultural settlement are to secure an adequate supply of food to the people and a decent income to the farmer and his family. To achieve this, the Eurpean Commission decides a target price on some basic agricultural products - high enough to encourage the farmer - and they shield the market with an import duty filling the gap between the EU and the world market price. In order to give the farmer a fair competition when he has to export any surplus food, he is offered export restitution matching the import duty. The thoughts of the wise fathers about the regulations was that simple - until the officials in Brussels took over. OBS! The regulations are continously updated and this site is not. Be aware of large changes planned for 2010. Potatoes - An European Starch Crop Only basic agricultural commodities are regulated directly - industrial products are not. Starch is therefore not supported as such - only the raw materials for starch like wheat and maize. Potatoes are an awkward product, not fitting into the EU system for the simple reason that potatoes can not be stored making it impossible for the Commission to purchase and put them in store, if other means to control the market mechanisms fail. On the other hand - potatoes are a fundamental European crop for starch and it is of great concern to keep the potato starch competitive with maize starch made from imported maize.

To overcome this controversy and find a modus vivendi, potato starch is associated to the regulation of maize and is in many ways treated and even named as maize starch. This fact adds confusion to many a detail in the administration of the FEOGA settlement and may confuse newcomers. This paper contains a glossary, listing some of the price tools and terms used by the commission to administer the market regulations. In order to understand the impact of the regulations on international trade we need an understanding of some of these tools. The import duty is calculated as: + EU threshold price - World market price = Import duty The world market price is an artificial price based on statistics obtained on a daily basis, whereas the threshold price is decided politically once a year. In principle the export restitution should be equal to the import duty, but for several reasons the value is modified. The most important reason is to save money for the Commission and therefore the restitution has always come out at a lower level than the import duty. The actual calculation is: Export restitution of maize: + EU Import duty on maize + Threshold price regulations + Freight (From US to EU) - EU preference = Basic restitution - Standard deduction (5%) = Export restitution for maize

To translate the restitution of maize to starch, the restitution of maize is multiplied by 1.6 to convert it to the equivalent quantity of maize starch. The Commission gives all figures in ECU. The corresponding national currency is calculated by means of the green exchange rate. Go to top The hen and the egg. The influence of export restitution on the price level outside EU is obvious, but who is the mother of whom? The export restitution was introduced as a consequence of low prices outside EU, which again are influenced by the restitution. The following example illustrates the effect the restitution may have on world market prices, which again have a feed back effect on EU export restitution.

Starch price example DKK/kg

Ex works EU Freight to non-EU Destination Export restitution 3.20 + 0.60 3.80 - 1.27

Price in non-EU country

2.53

CAP & GATT This effect is subject to criticism from members of other members of GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs).

CAP reform (Source:March 1999, Berlin European Council: Agenda 2000, conclusions of the Presidency)
The content of the CAP reform aims to ensure that European agriculture is multifunctional, sustainable and competitive throughout Europe, including regions with specific problems. Agriculture must play its role in preserving the countryside and natural open spaces, and make a key contribution to the vitality of rural life. It must be capable of responding to consumer concerns as regards food quality and safety, environmental protection and the safeguarding of animal welfare. The European Council considers that the implementation of the reform within the new financial framework will be more in keeping with actual levels of spending, and will stabilise agricultural expenditure over the period. It recognises the efforts which have been made to curb the budget within the framework of CAP reform, and underlines that this reform will constitute an essential element in defining the Commission's negotiating mandate for the forthcoming multilateral trade negotiations within the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Agriculture (Arable crops): Measures adopted by the European Council The European Councils amendments to the compromise on the proposals for the dairy and cereals sector reached at the Agriculture Council on 11 March 1999 reflect efforts to take account of the budgetary constraints. Arable crops: For cereals, the principles of the proposed reform were endorsed. Only three parameters will be modified: o The intervention price will be reduced by 15% in two equal steps of 7.5% for the marketing years 2000/2001 and 2001/2002. However, market development as of the marketing year 2002/2003 will be analysed closely in order to establish whether further reductions are required. o Compensation of approximately 50% of the reduction of the intervention price is maintained. The increase of compensation payments per hectare (currently 54.34 euro multiplied by the reference yield), to be effected in two equal steps, will amount to 63 euro. o The base rate of compulsory set-aside will be fixed at 10% for the period 2000 - 2006. Monthly increments will be maintained at the current level. For oilseeds, progressive adjustments aligning aid per hectare to that of cereals is confirmed. An analysis of the production potential, accompanied by appropriate proposals, if necessary, will be issued at the end of the second phase. In view of the specificity of agriculture in Portugal, the European Council recognised the need to improve the balance of the support granted to agriculture by means of rural development measures financed from the EAGGF Guarantee section. Moreover, the maximum guaranteed area for durum wheat will be increased from 59,000 ha to 118,000 ha.

Arable Crops : Prices and Payments 1999 Cereals/maize in euro/tonne - intervention price 119.19 110.25 101.31 101.31 - compensation Protein crops in euro/tonne 54.34 78.49 58.6 72.50 81.74 63 72.50 72.37
1

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

101.31

101.31

101.31

101.31

63

63

63

63

63

72.50 63
3

72.50 63
3

72.50 63
3

72.50 63
3

72.50 63
3

2 Oilseeds 94.24 in euro/tonne/cereals equivalent

Non-textile 4 linseed in euro/tonne Durum wheat Additional payment per hectare

5

105.10

88.26

75.63

63

63

63

63

63

- traditional areas - other areas Potato starch per tonne of starch

6

344.5 138.9

344.5 138.9

344.5 138.9

344.5 138.9

344.5 138.9

344.5 138.9

344.5 138.9

344.5 138.9

- minimum price - compensation Silage grass in euro/tonne Set-aside in euro/tonne

209.78 194.05 178.31 178.31 86.94 none 68.83 98.74 110.54 58.6 58.67 6 63

178.31

178.31

178.31

178.31

110.54 63 63
1

110.54 63 63
1

110.54 63 63
1

110.54 63 63
1

110.54 63 63
1

NB: A special measure applies to cereals and oilseeds in Finland and Sweden: a fixed drying premium of 19 euro per yield tonne will be introduced from the year 2000.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

May change from the year 2002 if the intervention price is lowered, in which case aid will be increased. Subject to the reference price system. May change from 2002 in the event of a reduction of the intervention price and/or an overall revision of the sector. NB: Up to and including 2001, aid can be calculated on the basis of the oilseed yield expressed in cereal equivalent multiplied by a factor of 1.95. As from 2002, aid will be calculated on the basis of the cereal yield. The Blair House system will apply throughout the whole transitional period (aid reduced if the maximum guaranteed area (MGA) is exceeded). No changes for fibre flax. Subject to maximum guaranteed area per Member State; the MGA for Portugal was increased from 59,000 ha to 118,000 ha. Subject to Member State quotas; compensation was increased to 75 % to offset quota reductions.

Set aside: base rate has been cut from 17.5% to 10%; effective rate may be adapted according to market conditions. Payments (currently made between 16 October and 31 December) are made between 16 November and 31 January. Small producers (less than 92 tonnes): exemption from compulsory set-aside is maintained. From 2000, specific payments for oilseeds, protein crops, linseed and maize will be available to these producers instead of the payments based on the average "all cereals" yields. These producers may also participate in the voluntary set-aside scheme.

EU Starch Glossary:
Target price. Once a year a target for EU market price is negotiated. This is only an indicative price, but the threshold and the intervention price are derivatives of the target price. Threshold price The threshold price is in essence a minimum import price. The level is fixed for one production year at a time beginning 1st. of July. Threshold adjustment During the production year the threshold prices are adjusted monthly to compensate for storage costs etc. Potato starch gets 7 monthly adjustments beginning 1st. of November. Import duty The import duty is calculated daily as the difference between the threshold price and the calculated world market price on certain agricultural produce. 01.10.92 the derived import duty for starch is:
Potato starch 2.17 DKK/kg Maize starch 2.17 DKK/kg Wheat starch 3.07 DKK/kg

Go to top Intervention price The intervention price of maize is established once a year. If the market price falls below the intervention price, there is an obligation for the Commission to purchase in order to support the market price. There is no intervention price for potatoes. EU market price The EU market price is fixed daily based on statistics.

The market price fluctuates widely. It may reach the threshold price or even go above, but often the market price is rather close to the purchase price. The purchase price When the market price of maize falls below the intervention price, the Commission is obliged to buy and pay 94% of the intervention price. This lower price is named the purchase price. There is no purchase price for potatoes (they cannot be kept in stock). World market price No such price exists. It thus has to be established. Through enquiries all over the world the Commission gets daily the basis of statistics on which the import duty is calculated. The world market price itself - as well as its sources - is kept confidential by the Commission, but anyone interested may calculate the figure by subtracting the import duty from the EU threshold price. The calculated world market price - and thus the import duty - is very sensitive to changes in the value of the US$. Go to top Production restitution Production restitution is obtained by preparation of native potato starch for certain manufactured goods if they are sold on EU markets, and it is paid in order to guarantee the competitive power of the manufactured goods containing starch, when necessary. A list of manufactured goods entitled to production restitution is given.

The production restitution is per November 1992: 1.36 ECU = 1.22 DKK/kg of potato starch. The calculation is based on the purchase/intervention price for maize and an average world market price is deducted. Maize November 1992 ECU/t
Purchase price World market price, CIF Rotterdam, (25 days average) Basic restitution 155.18 -68.28 86.90

Translated into potato starch (86.90x1.60) = Converted into DKK Rate 8.97989

139.04 ECU/t 124.856 DKK/t

If the market price is equal to or higher than the intervention price, the production restitution is calculated as the difference between the intervention price and world market price. The rate is normally fixed at the end of each month - and is valid for the following month. The regulation is adjusted by extensive and complicated rules and requires extremely careful use due to the possibilities for fraud. Go to top Export restitution

Export restitution is obtained by export of starch products to non-EU-countries, provided that the article complies with different quality requirements etc. - and it is paid in order to guarantee competitive power on the world market. The actual calculation system is rather complicated, but in short terms the calculation is based on variable import duties for maize (US rate), the institutional prices and market conditions of various grain products at the time of calculation. If the EU market price varies more than +/- 5% proportional to the purchase price, the market price is applied in place of the purchase price in the calculations. Normally the rate for export restitution is fixed at the end of each month (as for production restitution) with effect for the following month. If the Commission finds that the market conditions require intervention/regulation, it has the authority to carry out different political efforts (suspension of pre-fixation, change of rate of restitution etc.) Intervention from the Commission normally takes place in order to prevent speculation in restitution decreases.

November 1992
Import duty for maize(Average of 25 days in October)

ECU/t
137.49

Adjustment of the threshold price

+1.50

138.99 Freight allowance (USA - Europe) Adjusted import duty Threshold price for maize (October) Purchase price for maize (October) Community preference Adjusted import duty Community preference Basic export restitution Standard deduction 5% Export restitution Translated into potato starch (90.06 x 1.60)= 146.99 205.87 -153.68 52.19 146.99 -52.19 94.80 -4.74 90.06 + 8.00

144.10

History. The discovery of the New World gave rise to the import and use of sugar extracted from sugar cane grown especially in the West Indies. The Napoleon Wars caused a temporarily import stop and may indirectly have provoked G. Kirchhoff to invent the process of making a sugar substitute from starch. In 1811 he published a method for acid hydrolisation of starch and that process has since then been modified and improved to produce one of the most versatile sweeteners on the market today. The Second World War caused a shortage of sweeteners which brought about a new leap ahead with the invention of the continuos glucose converter by Karl Kroyer, Denmark. Members of The International Starch Group were deeply involved in inventions and development based on the new technique, in the industrial introduction of enzymes for glucose hydrolysis and in new products as Total Sugar. Chemistry. Glucose is formed in plants from carbon dioxide absorbed from the air using sun light as energy source. Part of the glucose is polymerised into long chains of glucose and stored as starch in granules as a reserve. In spring starch is broken down again to support new growth. This break down of starch can be imitated in a our factories by applying acid or enzymes to cooked starch. The way we do it cause the starch to hydrolyse into a variety of mixtures of glucose and intermediates and the way we characterise these various mixtures is by its DE number. DE means Dextrose Equivalent. The analytical procedure measures reducing end groups and attach a DE of 100 to pure glucose (glucose = dextrose) and a DE of 0 to pure starch.

Only glucose solution of high DE can crystallise easily and yield a product in powder or granular form. A most popular crystallised product is dextrose monohydrate with applications in medicine and used in chewing tablets by people doing sport. Dextrose monohydrate is pure glucose. A less purified product known as Total Sugar is produced by instant crystallising a 97 DE syrup leaving no hydrol (mother liquor) to dispose off. Standard Acid converted 42 DE Syrup. Lowering the DE, the syrup loose gradually its tendency to crystallise and below approximately 45 DE the syrup can be evaporated into a stable, non-crystallising and auto sterile liquid. These qualities are one of the reasons behind the success and wide spread use of the standard 42 DE syrup. Starch is hydrolysed by acid or enzymes to 40 - 42 DE and evaporated to a viscous liquid with a dry matter of 80% - 84%. This standard product has a bland sweet taste, stores and ship well in drums or tank lorries. It find applications in canned fruit preserves, ice cream, bakery products, jam, soft drinks, candy and all kinds of confectionery. Large quantities are also used as a booster in the fermentation of alcohol The relative sweetness of 42 DE to sucrose is 40 - 45%. High quality starch is supplied either as a slurry from a starch factory or a slurry of approximately 21 oBe is prepared from ordinary native dried starch. Acid - preferably hydrochloric acid, HCl is added to the slurry in order to acidify before cooking. The acidified slurry is heated to the desired temperature by injecting steam of 9 bar. The liquefaction temperature is kept for a few minutes. The degree of liquefaction (hydrolysis) is controlled by the temperature in the holding zone. The acid is neutralised and the hydrolysate enters a cyclone - via a back pressure valve - where the hydrolysate is flashed down to atmospherical pressure. The crude hydrolysate is refined by means of activated carbon in order to remove discoloration from the interaction of protein and other starch constituents during hydrolysation. Filter aid is added as body feed and the filtered off on a filter press. The purified hydrolysate passes a check filter and the water clear hydrolysate is evaporated until the dry substance reaches 80 - 84 %. From the evaporator the final product can be drummed off. Dependent on raw material and end product requirements various filtration steps and deionization etc. may be added to the process Enzymes as catalysts. The acid catalyst allows the manufacture of intermediate conversion products ranging from 35 - 55 DE. Intermediate and higher conversion products for special purposes can also be made by substituting acid with enzymes - typically in a two step process. For the first step, the liquefaction, termostable a-amylase or acid is used. After cooling and pH adjustment a saccharification enzyme like amyloglucosidase is applied. Except for a different holding time the processes are in principles identical regardless of catalyst. However, enzymes and acid breaks down starch differently resulting in different sugar composition for identical DE, but it is possible to work around that problem and even produce the classic 42 DE syrup by an all-enzyme process only. With enzymes it is possible to produce syrups with DE from 28 and up to 98. Glucose syrups may be grouped according to the degree of conversion: Conversion Groups

Conversion Low Intermediate

DE 20-38 38-58

High Very high

58-73 73

Glucose Composition

DE Catalyst Glucose Maltose Maltotriose Higher sugars

28 A/E 5 8 16 71

38 A 12 10 10 68

42 A 18 13 12 57

63 A/E 37 34 16 13

98 E 96 2 1 1

A=Acid E=Enzyme A/E=Acid liquefaction plus enzyme saccharification

High DE syrups are intermediates for fructose syrup, sorbitol, and many fermentation products and find uses in beverages, foods etc. Glucose syrup and maltose syrup are referred to as wort syrups in breweries, where they substitute malt improving capacity, adjusting protein, taste, mouthfeel etc. Sugar confections will either pickup or lose moisture to the atmosphere, depending on the external conditions to which they are subjected. Therefore the water activity of the sweetener is an important property. This value is known as the equilibrium relative humidity (ERH). Water Activity of Sweeteners

Syrup 42 DE

Conversion A

60 DE

A/E

94 DE High Fructose Liquid Sucrose

E E

Solids 75 80 85 75 80 85 74 70 67

Water Acitity 0.81 0.77 0.70 0.78 0.71 0.64 0.72 0.76 0.85

HFSS. High Fructose Starch-based Syrups are produced from refined very high DE glucose syrups. An enzymatic process using isomerase fixated on a resin facilitates the conversion of glucose to fructose. By using more resin columns in parallel the enzyme activity is completely exhausted before a refill. The isomerase catalyses the formation of 42% fructose in equilibrium with glucose. This syrup

may be refined and evaporated as such and it is an excellent all-purpose sweetener. In order to obtain a more perfect match with sucrose based liquid sugar (cane and beet sugar) the fructose content has to be increased to 55% by enrichment. A stream of HFSS-42 is fractionated. Previous attempts to do this by crystallisation have never gained industrial acceptance. The fractionation is done more elegantly by chromatography. By auto-matically switching the injection point an endless ring column is simulated and the HFSS-42 is fractionated in fructose and glucose. Water or condensate is used to eluate the column. The fructose fraction is backmixed with the HFSS-42 to make up an HFFS-55. In this way a perfect match with traditional sucrose based liquid sugar is obtained. The HFSS-55 finds widespread use as sweetener in soft drinks. The fructose fraction from the chromatographic column can of course be refined and evaporated to a syrup separately as HFSS-90 finding applications in low calorie foods. Demineralisation throughout the HFSS-process and precautions against de-cross-linking by oxygen extends the lifetime of the resins. An HFSS-section should preferably run continuously non-stop.

Starch & Sweetener Process Flow Chart in Principle

Corn
Steeping Milling Separation

Cassava Potato
Washing Rasping Extraction

Native Starch

Cleaning

Concentration Refining

Slurry preparation

Purified starch milk

Prepara tion Liquefaction Saccharification Refining Ion exchange

Hydrolysate
Reaction Crystal lisation Evaporation Hydro Isomerisation genation Refining Ion exchange Evapora tion Enrich ment Ion exchange

Finishing

Separa tion

Granular Native Corn Starch

Drying Evaporation Starch Products Hydrolysed Starch products Native Dextrose High DE Modified Malto HFSS HFSS Glucose Tuber Mono Sorbitol Glucose Starch dextrin 55 42 syrup Starch hydrate syrup

A
Acid conversion. Starch hydrolysis with acid as the catalyst Acid treated starch or Acid-thinned starch. Granular starch slightly hydrolysed with acid at low temperature. Acetylated distarch adipate. Acetylated starch crosslinked by adipate groups. Acetylated distarch phosphate. Crosslinked starch esterified with acetyl groups. Acetyl value. Acetyl value of a modified starch is % of acetyl groups calculated on starch dry matter. Method: ISI 14 Determination of Acetyl. Content. Acetylated starch. Granular starch ester with a CH3CO-group introduced at low temperature Adjunct. Malt substitute. Adjunct syrup is used as a brewing supplement and booster - see wort syrup. Alkali lability. Substituents of a modified starch removable by hydrolysis with alkali is titrated. Method: ISI 23 Determination of Alkali Lability. Alkali number. Alkali Number is a measure of the average molecular weight of the starch and expressed as ml 0.1N sodium hydroxide, consumed under test conditions. Amaranth. Amaranth - a common name used for plants with blossoms that do not readily fade when picked. Amphoteric starch is modified starch which both cationic and anionic substituents. f.e. cationic potato starch. Amylase. Amylase is an enzyme breaking down starch at random. For the liquefaction an aamylase of bacterial origin is used. For high maltose syrups a -amylase is applied for saccharification Amyloglucosidase (AMG). Enzyme cutting off glucose from the non-reducing end of starch. AMG cuts both 1-4 and 1-6 bonds and enables the manufacture of up to 98 DE syrups, acting optimal on molecules that are 4-5 glucose units long Amylopectin. For most starches amylopectin is the major component, and amylose the minor component. Amylopectin is a branched glucose polymer with typically one 1-6 glucosidic bonds for every 12 glucose units. Amylopectin consists of several 100.000 glucose units. Amylose. The minor constituent of starch is amylose - a linear glucose polymer with alpha 1-4 glucosidic bonds only. Amylose may contain 200-2000 anhydroglucose units. Anhydroglucose unit The glucose unit of amylose and amylopectin minus one molecule of water. Anhydrous dextrose. The crystalline form of pure a-D-glucose. Arrowroot. Arrowroots belong to the family Marantaceae. The true arrowroot plant is classified as Maranta arundinacea. B Go to Top BAN. Brand name of bacterial a -amylase hydrolysing 1,4-a -glucosidic linkages at random. Banana. Banana make up the genus Musa of the family Musaceae. The plantain, or cooking banana, is classified as Musa x paradisiaca. Barley. Barley, common name for any of a genus of cereal grasses, native to north temperate regions, and one of the most ancient of cultivated plants. Barley malt. Barley malt is processed from grain, and retains about 40% of its complex carbohydrates. The remaining sugar composition is 42% maltose, 6% glucose, and about 1% fructose. Baum (oBe). Density is measured in Baum: oBe = 145 - 145/specific gravity at 60 oF. The commercial Baum = oBe + 1 is used within the glucose industry. Baum tables.

Bioethanol. Bioethanol (Ethyl alcohol, ethanol, etanol, alcohol) is made by yeast fermentation of starch or starch crops. A second generation of bioethanol is made from agricultural cellulosic byproducts. Black pearl. Black spheres made of tapioca starch and used as a chewy constituent of bubble tea. Brabender. Brabender Viscograph is the industry standard in determination og starch viscoisty. Brix. Brix (oBx). Percentage (w/w) of a sucrose solution. See table for conversion: Beaume - Brix - Dry matter of Glucose Syrups. Brown rice syrup. Brown rice syrup is an extremely versatile and relatively healthy sweetener which is derived by culturing rice with enzymes to break down the starches. C Go to Top Carbohydrate. Monosaccahrides or natural organic substance giving monosaccharides by hydrolysis e.g. starch, sugars, cellulose, glucose, fructose, maltose. Carbon treatment. Activated carbon is used for decolorization and purification of hydrolysates. Cassava. Cassava belong to the family Euphorbiaceae Cassava Flour. Cassava Flour is a white pure nutritious food extracted from fresh roots and useful as wheat flour extender. Cationic starch. Granular cationic starch ether used in papermaking due to its affinity to cellulose fibres and thereby reducing BOD. Chemical gain. The increase of dry substance by hydrolysation of starch. Molecular weight of dextrose = 180. Molecular weight of Anhydrous Glucose Unit (AGU) of starch = 162. By converting one AGU into dextrose a chemical gain of 18 is achieved equivalent to 11.1%. Chips. Chips Sliced and dried cassava roots. Chiral Means "handedness" - A chiral or asymmetric molecule is one which can be distinguished from its mirror image. Chromatography. Method for industrial separation of glucose and fructose on a resin-filled column. Concentrated fruit juice. Concentrated fruit juice is a relatively new sweetener. It is highly refined, decolorized and at 68% soluble sugar, is relatively concentrated. Conversion. Synonym of conversion hydrolysis or hydrolysis. Converter. Apparatus for the hydrolysis of starch. Corn gluten feed. Corn gluten feed is a medium protein by-product, along with fibre and residual starch Corn gluten meal. Corn gluten meal is a high-protein, high-energy ingredient consisting of protein (gluten) and yellow pigments separated in the corn wet-milling process. Corn oil. Corn oil is widely used as a cooking oil and for margarine. Crystallisation. In concentrated high DE syrups glucose crystals are formed and precipitate. Curdlan - a fermentation-produced polysaccharide as is Xanthan, and Gellan. CWS Starch. - Cold Water Soluble Starch are made by cooking and spray drying or by alkali/alcohol technology to allow for hydration without cooking. Starches labeled instant, granular or cold water-swelling are made that way.

D Go to Top
DE. Dextrose Equivalent expresses the number of aldehyde groups - reducing ends - relative to pure glucose of same concentration Derivative. Another term for chemically modified starch e.g. oxidised starch. Dextrin. Industrial dextrin is granular starch with molecules reorganised by roasting causing the granules to be cold water soluble. Depending on the degree of roasting dextrins are grouped as White Dextrin, Yellow Dextrin and British gum.

Dextrose. Synonym for glucose. Within the industry dextrose is used to describe 100 % pure glucose. Both the anhydrous and the monohydrate form is used. Dextrose monohydrate. The crystalline form of pure a-D-glucose containing one molecule of water of crystallization. Produced from high DE syrup by crystallization under controlled cooling. The continuous vertical crystallizer has advantages, but not completely outdid the classic horizontal batch crystallizer. Dextrose anhydrous. The crystalline form of pure a-D-glucose. Produced from high DE syrup by crystallization above 60 oC. Dextrozyme. Brand name of a pullulanase and AMG mixture DP. Degree of Polymerisation is the average number of monosaccharides in a polymer. Disaccaharide. Carbohydrate with two monosaccharides per molecule, e.g. sucrose, maltose. Sucrose is a disaccharide with one glucose and one fructose per molecule. DS. (1) Dry Substance = Dry Matter (DM). (2) Degree of Substitution. DX. Dextrose E Go to Top Enzyme. Three groups of enzyme catalysts are used in the glucose industry: (1) Alpha-amylase for liquefaction, (2) Amyloglucosidase for sachharification and (3) isomerase for conversion of glucose to fructose. Enzyme conversion. A two step hydrolysis: Liquefaction with a-amylase and saccharification with amyloglucosidase. Ethylated starch. Starch, 2-hydroxyethyl ether improves coating and ink holdout. It has good film-forming and produces superior printing paper F Go to Top Fructose. Fructose Alpha-D-fructose is an isomer of alpha-D-glucose. Standard fructose syrup contains as much as 42% fructose and enriched syrups as much as 55%. High concentration of fructose is achieved by chromatography. Fungamyl. Brand name of fungal amylase hydrolysing 1,4-a -glucosidic linkages in formation of substantial amounts of maltose.

G Go to Top
Gari. Gari is a processed fermented cassava food. Gelatinisation. Cooking starch. Gellan Gum is a water-soluble polysaccharide produced by Sphingomonas elodea. It is used as a food thickener, emulsifier, and stabilizer. It has E number E418. Glucose. Glucose is a monosaccharide, C6H12O6 existing as a - and -glucose with an optical rotation of +105.2o respectively +20,3o. The synonym dextrose refers to the positive direction of rotation (dextra = right) Glucose Syrup. Glucose syrup is a liquid starch hydrolysate of mono- di- and higher saccharides. Granular starch. Starch are formed in plants as tiny granules preserved in starches modified at low temperatures. H Go to Top High Fructose Syrup. High Fructose Syrup is a liquid starch hydrolysate with a high content of fructose - typically 42, 55 or 90% fructose HFCS. HFCS = High Fructose Corn Syrup is identical to HFSS.

HFSS. HFSS = High Fructose Starch-based Syrup. HFSS-42 contains 42% fructose and is an all-purpose sweetener. HFSS-55 contains 55% fructose and substitutes sucrose. HFSS-90 contains 90% fructose. Honey. Honey is a natural invert sugar. It is estimated to be approximately 25% sweeter than table sugar HSH. Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates (HSH), - polyglycitol syrups - are found in a variety of foods. They serve as bulk sweeteners, viscosity or bodying agents, humectants (moisture retaining ingredient), crystallization modifiers etc. just like sorbitol. HSH and sorbitol are made the same way, but from starch hydrolysates of different Dextrose Equivalent (DE) and different composition. Hydrol. Mother liquor left by crystallisation of dextrose from glucose syrup. Hydrolysis. Break down of starch to glucose and smaller polymers by cutting glucosidic bonds with simultaneously uptake of water. Industrial hydrolysis is a two step operation: liquefaction and saccharification. I Go to Top Invert sugar. Hydrolysed sucrose Ion exchange. Deionization of the hydrolysate in columns of ion exchange resins. Isomerase. Enzyme rearranging glucose into fructose. The process reaches a feasible equilibrium with 42% fructose, 53% glucose and 5% higher sugars. Isomerisation. Restructuring of glucose to fructose J Go to Top Jet cooker. Apparatus for continuos gelatinisation of starch by direct steam injection

K Go to Top
Karl Kroyer. Karl Kroyer is the Danish inventor of the continuous glucose process. L Go to Top Liquefaction. Partial hydrolysis of cooked starch followed by a viscosity reduction. Depending on the catalyst the DE of the liquefied starch is 15 - 25. Liquid sugar. Commercial syrup made by hydrolysing sucrose (invert sugar) or by inverting glucose enzymatically. Lysine. L.lysine is an essential amino acide made by fermentation of starch sugars. M Go to Top Maize. Maize or Corn, common name for a cereal grass widely grown for food and livestock fodder Maltitol. Maltitol is a polyol like sorbitol. Maltodextrin. Liquefied starch below 20 DE. Food applications as a carrier and extender. Maltose. A disaccharide of glucose. -amylase is used for maltose rich syrups. Maltose syrup. Starch syrup high in maltose, typically 45-50% in ordinary conversion syrup and 65-80% in high maltose syrup. Mannitol. Isomer of sorbitol Maple syrup. Maple syrup, concentrated from the sap of maple trees, is a uniquely American product. Millet. Millet belongs to the genera Echinochloa, Milium, Panicum, Pennisetum, and Setana all within the family Poaceae (or Gramineae Modification. Modification is a process, in which native starch is modified by physical and chemical means to suit various industrial applications, e.g. esterification.

Molasses. Molasses, if manufactured as an end product and not as a by-product of commercial sugar production, can be a good choice of sweeteners. Monosaccharide. The smallest unit obtained by hydrolysis of carbohydrates, e. g. glucose, and fructose. Glucose is the monosaccharide obtained by hydrolysis of starch. MSG. Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) is made by fermentation of starch sugars. It is also known as the "third spice". Mung bean starch has 37% amylose and produces a strong gel. Mung bean starch is the prime material for making clear starch noodles, however, it is much more expensive than tapioca starch often used as a replacement.

N Go to Top
Native starch. Native starches designate starch in its natural unmodified form no modification, e.g. native starch from potato, cassava, maize, rice, wheat. O Go to Top Oat. Oat belongs to the genus Avena of the family Poaceae (or Gramineae) Oligosaccharide. Carbohydrate giving 2 - 6 monosaccharides by hydrolysis Oxidised starch. Granular starch with carboxyl groups introduced by oxygenation. Its performance in paper is proven, reduces linting and Improves short-fiber bonding. P Go to Top Polyol. Polyol - polyglycitol - is a family of sugar alcohols such as sorbitol, mannitol etc. Like sorbitol, they have a wide range af applications. Polysaccharide. Carbohydrate giving more than 6 monosaccharides by hydrolysis, e.g. amylopectin, amylose, cellulose. Potato. Potatoes are produced by plants of the genus Solanum, of the family Solanaceae. Precoat filtration. Hydrolysate filtration on a filter precoated with filter aid and activated carbon. Pregelatinised. Pregelatinised starch = cooked and dried starch. Promozyme. Brand name of pullulanase reducing oligosaccharides after liquefaction Pullulanase. Pullulan 6-glucanohyrolase catalysing the hydrolysis of 1,6-alpha linkages in pullulan and amylopectin and only acts on molecules with at least two 1,4 bonds. Pulp. The wet residue of tuber and roots after starch extraction. Pulp from potato and cassava is excelent cattle feed.

R Go to Top
Retrogradation. Starch crystallisation. Linear chains of starch are able to form crystalline structures - crystallites - causing staling in bread and milky appearance or syneresis in starch gels. Rice. Rice makes up the genus Oryza of the family Poaceae (or Gramineae). Rice syrup, brown. Brown rice syrup is an extremely versatile and relatively healthy sweetener which is derived by culturing rice with enzymes to break down the starches Rye. Rye belongs to the family Poaceae (or Gramineae). It is classified as Secale cereale S Go to Top Saccharification. Hydrolysis of starch into higher DE syrups after liquefaction. Sago. Sago starch is prepared from the pith of several genera of palms Second Generation. With new improved cellulolytic enzymes a whole crop can be turned into

biofuel, meaning that both starch and cellulose can be digested. This improves yield or make it even possible just to use the cellulosic parts of the plants saving grain for human nutrition. Second generation biofuel is made that way. This principle may just as well be applied in the process of making starch sweeteners like glucose and for beer etc. Direct hydrolysis of combined starch and cellulosic material increases yield and may do away with cumbersome filtration of cellulosic fibres. Sorbitol. Sorbitol - a sugar alcohol - obtained by hydrogenation of glucose. Sorghum. Sorghum makes up the genus Sorghum in the family Poaceae (or Gramineae). Sucanat. Sucanat (SUgar CAne NATural) is a brand name for organically grown, dehydrated cane juice. Sucrose. Sucrose = ordinary sugar from cane or beet is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Synonyms: Saccharose, sugar. Sugar. Sugar = white table sugar is pure sucrose. Starch. Starch; is a polymer of glucose found as a reserve in most plants. Another glucose polymer found in plants is cellulose. Compared to cellulose, starch is made up of alpha glucosidic bonds, which cause helix-shaped molecules, while cellulose build with beta glucosidic bonds giving straight molecules and a fibrous structure. In plants starch is organised in 1-140 m granules. Starch ester. Modified starch with ester groupings like acetylated starch and starch monophosphate. Potato starch is a natural starch phosphate ester. Starch ether. Modified starch with ether groupings like hydroxypropyl-starch, cationic starch and carboxymethyl starch Starch succinate. Anionic starch esterified by succinate groups. The starch may also be crosslinking. Starch xanthate. Starch esterified by xanthate groups. Stein-Hall. In the Stein-Hall corrugating process a carrier is prepared by gelatinising 10-20% of the starch using heat and caustic soda. The paste is diluted with water and native granular starch is then added. Sucanat. Sucanat (SUgar CAne NATural) is a brand name for organically grown, dehydrated cane juice. Sweet potato. Sweet potato belongs to the family Convolvulaceae. It is classified as Ipomoea batatas Sweetzyme. Brand name of immobilised glucose isomerase Syneresis. The free setting of water from a starch gel caused by retrogradation. T Go to Top Termamyl. Brand name of heat-stable a -amylase hydrolysing 1,4-alpha-glucosidic linkages at random. Thinboiling starch. Acid treated and oxidised starches with low paste viscosity used in paper and textile Total Sugar. Total sugar is high DE-dextrose syrup solidified by evaporation and subsequent instant crystallization.

V Go to Top
Vegetable oil. Cooking oils are edible oils extracted from olives, soybeans and oil seeds.

W Go to Top
Wheat. Wheat makes up the genus Triticum of the family Gramineae Wheat Starch. In EU wheat starch is an important starch.

White dextrin. Produced by gentle roasting of acidified starch Wort syrup. Glucose or maltose syrup used as a carbohydrate source (adjunct) in breweries for increasing capacity, adjusting protein content, taste, mouthfeel etc. X Go to Top Xanthan gum - a fermentation-produced polysaccharide. Xanthan is used as a viscous food additive. It is made by fermentation of glucose by Xanthomonas campestris bacterium. Xylitol. Polyol with five hydroxyl groups. Its relative sweetness compared to sucrose is between 80 and 100. Y Go to Top Yam. Yams make up the genus Dioscorea of the family Dioscoreaceae. Yellow dextrin or Canary dextrin. Produced by roasting acidified starch. It is cold water soluble. Used as a glue and has a good tack.