Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Topografia1
Topografia1
...
2001
1
1
1,1
1,2
1,3
1,4
1,5
1,6
2
2,1
2,2
2,3
2,4
2,5
2,6
3
3,1
3,2
3,3
3,4
3,5
3,6
3,7
3,8
3,9
3,1
3,11
4
4,1
4,2
-
4,2,1
4,2,2
4,3
-
4,4
-
5
-
5,1
5,2
- -
5,3
1
2
2
6
11
15
15
17
18
18
18
19
19
20
20
25
28
28
33
35
39
43
45
49
51
51
54
54
56
59
61
61
65
5,4
5,5
5,6
5,7
6,1
6,2
6,3
6,4
6,5
6,6
6,6,1
6,6,2
6,6,3
6,6,4
6,6,5
6,6,6
6,6,7
6,7
7,1
7,2
7,3
7,4
8,1
8,2
8,3
8,4
9,1
9,2
9,2,1
9,2,2
9,3
8
9
67
71
72
73
77
80
81
82
84
85
85
86
88
88
89
92
93
93
96
97
98
99
103
104
105
108
112
113
113
114
115
1.
,
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, ,
,
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.
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, 10 Km
.
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).
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-4-
TISSOT (
)
. (
,
)
. ( )
,
.
. ( 10 Km)
.
.
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,
.
( ,
),
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. ,
.
(Geoid), Listing 1873.
Suellius 1617,
,
,
.
.
.
, ,
( ).
a, b, f=(a-b)/a
( a = , b=
f=).
.
-5-
Bessel
(1841)
Hayford
(1909)
Krassowsky (1943)
G.R.S.
(1967)
GRS80
WGS84
1.3
: a=6,377,397 m - f=1/299.2
: a=6,378,388 m - f=1/297.0
: a=6,378,245 m - f=1/298.3
: a=6,378,160 m - f=1/298.2
: a=6,378,137 m f=1/298.2572236
: a=6,378,137 m f=1/298.257223563
() - Datum
/
/
-6-
.
.
(
).
, o,
.
.
Greenwich.
, o , ,
, .
,
, .
30' .
.
.
35 15 41 15 30
0 15 0 15 30
( ).
Bessel.
.
-7-
(196 ),
, .
1830 Gauss .
Kruger .
.
3 (1.5) .
3 .
Gauss.
. " "
(UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR U.T.M.), 6 (
60 ). =19 =28,
4 5 , =21
=27.
..... 3
( 1983).
. .
,
(...). ,
U.T.M. .
Bessel
To ED50 .
Potsdam . Hayford. UTM 6.
, =21 =27.
EGSA87 GRS80 /
. (=30 04 33.8000, =23 55 51.000).
.
=24 0.9996.
500,000 m
.
Datum.
-8-
...
-9-
-10-
1.4 - -
( ) (
). ( )
6370 Km.
,
.
( ),
.
-11-
,
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.
-12-
,
.
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. , 1/2 1/4 ,
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-14-
1.5
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1.6
,
.
.
,
.
.
.
(1), 1/360 .
60' 1' 60''.
(1g) 1/400 .
100c ( ) 1 c 100cc ( ).
,
.
(rad),
/2 ( =3.1415926...).
,
1/6400 .
, 1/24
60 1 60 .
.
360 = 400g = 2 rad = 6400 = 24
-15-
.
(m),
.
.
.
.
.
1 (Km) = 1000.00 m
1 (hm) = 100.00 m
1 (dm) =
0.10 m
1 (cm) =
0.01 m
1 (mm)=
0.001 m
1
(m) =
1 : 106 m
1 - (nm) =
1 : 109 m
1 (in) =0.0254m = 1.0000in =0.0833f =0.0278y
1 (f) =0.3048m =12.0000in =1.0000f =0.3333y
1 (el)=0.7500m =29.5276in =2.4606f =0.8202y
1 (y) =0.9144m =36.0000in =3.0000f =1.0000y
1 () =1.9488m =76.7244in =6.3937f =2.1312y
.
(m), 1m.
1 . (el) :
0.75m X
0.75m
1 . (m) :
1.00m X
1.00m
1
(are) : 10.00m X
10.00m
1 () : 31.62m X
31.62m
1 (hec) : 100.00m X 100.00m
1 . () : 1000.00m X 1000.00m
-16-
2.1
,
, .
,
, (
, - ),
( ).
.
.
, .
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.
,
.
.
, .
.
,
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.
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. ,
.
.
.
,
.
, , .
-17-
2.2
.
,
() , l1, l2, l3, ...,
l
l1 = X l1
l2 = X l2
n
...........
l = X l
l1 + l2 + l3 + ...+ l
X = ----------------------------
1 = Xo l1
2 = Xo l2
...........
= Xo l
[] = n*Xo - [l1 + l2 + l3 + ...+ l] = n*Xo - n*Xo = 0
.
2.3
.
l1, l2, l3, ..., l
e1, e2, e3, ..., ek >k
.
2.4
.
1, 2, 3,...,
n
-18-
u
n =1
.
.
. ,
.
- .
.
...
l1 ,l2 ,..........., l
...= sqr ( (l12 + l22 +...........+ l2 ) / )
... .
= 4 * ... / 5
= 2 * ... / 3
2.5
P = c / ... c= > 0 ...
.
P=1 ...= c
... P=1 .
...
2.6
,
l1, l2, l3, ..., l . = f (l1, l2, l3, ..., l )
...
, l1, l2, l3, ..., l
,
, , -
3 . ,
,
, .
-19-
3.1
.
.
( )
.
.
3.2
. .
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-20-
3.3
.
.
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.
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-21-
-22-
1 2,
, ,
, .
,
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.
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), , .
1c 1cc
0,2cc
.
.
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.
-23-
-24-
3.4
.
, ,
. (),
.
.
.
.
-25-
-26-
-27-
3.5.
1)
'
2) , '
3) ,
,
4) .
5)
.
6)
7) '
8) ',
'
9)
.
-28-
.
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, , ,
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-29-
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-30-
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(1c).
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-32-
3.6.
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-33-
.
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().
100g
.
100g,
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.
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.
-34-
3.7.
- -
.
.
.
.
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.
0o 359o
0g 399g .
.
0
359 o 399 g . 0
90 o 100 g . 0
90 o 100 g
.
, .
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,
.
-35-
,
,
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-36-
-37-
-38-
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(HOLD),
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-39-
.
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)
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.
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200 / , . .
= [ i ] /
)
.
.
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, .
- (
)
. .
200g .
= ((L2-L1)+ k * 400) / L1-L2
.
-40-
400g .
2.
:
)
,
.
,
,
.
-
, ,
. .
,
200/ .
.
.
.
) Schreiber
Schreiber.
.
.
3.
.
.
.
.
3 ,
.
4.
d,
.
=+
= (d * )/S ,
d S (
-41-
5.
,
,
S d ( ).
=+
= (d * )/S .
.
-42-
3.9.
,
.
z.
.
.
, 0g 100g (
), ,
.
,
,
.
-43-
.
,
, 1
.
Z1 = Z - K
. 2
,
.
2 = +
= (1 + 2 ) / 2
= (2 1) / 2
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.
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3.10.
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.
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50 g, .
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-45-
.
.
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50g.
-46-
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)
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.
.
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-47-
50 g. 100 g.
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.
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,
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) (
)
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-48-
( ).
3.11.
)
1)
2) , .
)
,
1) ,
( ).
2) ,
( ).
2c
4c. 2cm 50m.
-49-
-50-
4.1
,
.
. :
. :
. :
,
.
.
.
( )
.
.
, ,
.
4.2 -
.
, , (, , invar). ,
.
.
.
fiberglass
.
.
, ,
.
20,30 50 .
, .
10cm 2mm .
-51-
-52-
. 20 25m.
20cm , . 10
,
.
.
invar ( (36) (64)).
.
-53-
4m 100m.
. ,
invar.
.
,
.
.
.
. ( )
.
.
.
4.2.1.
, ,
, .
.
.
( ), .
4.2.2.
.
. .
. (
) .
, , ' .
-
, '
. .
( )
' .
',' ...
. ,
,
. (
).
-54-
.
.
.
, .
S=S1*cos1+S2*cos2+...+Sn*cosn
-55-
4.3
.
.
.
.
.
,
, ,
. .
.
.
.
( 2m)
.
S = b *
.
.
, .
1)
2)
3)
.
-56-
.
,
.
j
.
, .
S = x *g / j = k*g k = x / j
x j. , k=100 j x.
3 4m.
-57-
,
. 1cm. 10cm
,
(150m). 1m (, , , ,
...), .
, .
,
.
-58-
,
, g.
, 100, .
S = 100*g*sinV V ( 0 ).
, .
120 - 150
.
4.4
.
S
, .
,
, .
.
,
.
.
,
,
.
0.60m 40m.
.
( ).
. (=8 - 100mm)
. (=0.45-1m).
.
.
.
. (-)
-59-
. .
, (30-70 Km,
2-20 Km 0.2-5 Km).
,
, .
,
. ,
.
5 Km,
.
,
. 20
.
.
-60-
-
5.1
, , . ,
, .
.
( )
.
.
5.2 - -
)
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-61-
1) , .
.
2) - - , .
3) , .
)
, ,
.
1)
2. 3.
.
.
- .
,
.
-62-
600-800 .
5-6 4 ,
(
) .
2)
, ,
.
.
3)
.
4) ,
, .
5)
,
40 1,00 1,10 . 0,40.
. .
,
-63-
.
,
(. ),
( , , , .).
(),
, ,
.
,
.
,
.
-64-
5.3
.
.
, .
.
, ,
.
-65-
. ,
.
,
. ,
.
.
,
, ,
, .
, .
,
,
.
2'.
100 . 6 cm,
. ,
, .
,
( )
.
-66-
,
, .
1
. 1 1
1
.
2
1
1
2
2
5.4
. (
)
.
. .
1.
( - )
(
). ,
,
.
.
,
.
.
-67-
2.
.
.
'.
''.
'''.
.
( ,
, ),
, :
'
.
-68-
' ,
.
'
L b+a
2 * = a * b *
2*=L*X
(a * b * )
L * X = a * b * =
L
(a * b * )
( a + b)
1) a b
.
.
=200g ;i
.
<>200g
.
2) a b
-69-
1 2
d .
(a1 * b1 * 1)
(a 2 * b 2 * 2)
+d=
=
(a1 + b1)
(a 2 + b 2)
,
1 2 b1 b2
(a1 * b1 * 1) * (a 2 + b2)
X +d
=
X
(a 2 * b 2 * 2) * (a1 + b1)
2
=d*
( 1 2)
. g
. =200 g
. <>200
.
.
, .
(
).
1, 2, ..., n,
( ).
-70-
.
( ).
0,
, ,
.
,
. -
. , ( )
, (
0g )
.
.
+ 400g, 400g
.
.
, .
.
,
.
, ,
, .
.
, ,
, ,
.
5.5.
.
,
, .
.
,
.
,
, (
)
.
.
,
.
.
,
.
-71-
,
( )
.
, .
,
.
.
,
(
)
( ).
(
) ,
.
.
5.6
(.. ).
3-4-5.
3m, 4m 5m.
"
".
, , ,
,
, 3m 4m.
" ",
.
-72-
2+ +2 =2200g
( )
= + 2 * * * ()
()
* ( ) * ( ) * ( ) ,
2 * = * *
5.7
1
)
.
( ),
,
.
1 2. 1-2
, ,
.
)
1 2,
( . 5.5)
. 1 2
.
, , .
,
, .
-73-
2
,
, ( ).
, .
.
.
. .
,
S =
() + (+ )
,
, .
, .
.
.
=
. = +
*
+
-74-
3
.
.
. .
,,,, ( ).
, .
,
. ,
.
, ( 3-4-5,
)
4
.
,
. , . () .
-75-
5
-, ,
.
, .
, .
,
. ,
, ( 3-4-5,
) .
.
-76-
6.1
,
(
) ( ).
, "" ,
. ,
. .
,
.
(, ) , .
,
. /,
,
.
,
, .
, .
,
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.
, .
,
, , .
, .
-77-
-78-
-79-
6.2
() (), ,
( ),
, .
,
.
(.. )
0g < 400g
,
200g.
.
G = G + 200g G = G + 200g
-80-
6.3
, , G i , S
(i )
(i )
(i )
(i )
-81-
S
+
6.4
-82-
, ,
(i )
(i )
( i )
) (
2 +
( i )
/ . (
).
(i )
(i )
,
. ( )
>0
<0
=0
>
<
>
<
>
<
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
100
200-
400-
300
200+
200
-83-
6.5
G12
= G01
+ 1
G23
= G12
+ 2
G34
= G23
+ 3
.....................................
G(n-1)n= G(n-2)(n-1) + (n-1)
+200g
+200g
+200g
+200g
i=1
G
+
(-1)-= G01
n-1
( n 1)
i =1
(i )
+ (-1)*200
0g 400g,
.
G(-1)-= G01 +
( n 1)
i =1
(i )
+ (-1)*200 - *400
,
(*400), ,
0 400
-84-
6.6
6.6.1.
( - ),
,
( ),
.
(
(), ()),
( , ,
.)
, ,
.
.
,
(, , ),
( ), ,
, .
.
(
) .
.
-85-
. ,
.
,
,
, .
6.6.2.
n n+1 ( ) , .
.
-86-
n-Kn+1,
n-Kn+1,
Kn+1. SM
,
-87-
(
).
n-Kn+1, Kn+1,
.
.
6.6.3.
.
.
, .
. .
. ,
.
. , .
1.
2.
3.
6.6.4.
.
, ,
, ,
.
.
.
.
.
-88-
, .
.
.
.
.
, .
.
(, )
( ).
.
6.6.5.
-89-
.
.
. ,
, .
-90-
2cm , ,
50m. ,
25m. .
(, , ).
(, ) .
. .
-91-
6.6.6.
,
,
.
.
/
, /
.
G
G -I = G
i
- + i
i = + S -i * G -i
i = + S -i * G -i
, ,
.
, ,
. ,
, .
. .
, .
( ).
-92-
.
.
. ,
. ,
.
,
.
, (
) .
,
, (..
).
6.6.7.
6.7
/
, (
... ).
. .
.
-93-
J
V -i
-i
(i ) , (i ) , (i )
,
( ),
(i, i, i) .
,
(, , ),
0.000 (,,)
1
2 G-.
.
-94-
1.
2.
=100 * ( (i ) -
(i )
) * 2V -i
= G - + -i
>= 400 g G
= G
- 400g
i
i
G
= G
i
i
< 400 g
3.
4.
(i )
(i )
+ S
5.
6.
=100 * ( (i ) -
(i )
-95-
(i )
) * 2V -i
+ J -
(i )
.
, .
,
.
(, ,
).
7.1
.
Amsel, .
.
.
(1) (2) . (1) ,
(3)
. (2)
(8)
(5) (5) ,
(2). ,
(9) (10)
(14) .
.
. ,
(2),
(8) .
,
(5).
,
(14)
,
.
.
.
.
-96-
,
(
),
,
.
.
.
,
( ).
.
.
(digitazer)
,
.
.
7.2
,
.
(, ...)
. .
.
= * ( )( )( )
= ( + + ) / 2 .
-97-
1
4
2
3
,
.
, .
,
(
) .
.
.
7.3
,
,
,
.
.
-98-
1
4
2
3
9
6 3
.
.
7.4 .
,
.
,
.
1. .
= 1 / 2 * *
= 1 / 2 * * *
= * ( )( )( )
= ( + + ) / 2 .
-99-
2. .
= 1 / 2 * ( + ) *
3. .
= 1 / 2 * 1 * 2 * 1, 2 .
= 1 / 2 * 1 * 2 * 1, 2 .
2 = * * + * * * * ( + ) ,, ,
.
2
2
+
, ,,,
+ +
.
2 =
1
2
-100-
4. .
V.
2 = * 1 * ( 1 )
:
2 E = 2 * 1 * ( 2 1 ) + 3 * 2 * ( 3 2 ) + 4 * 3 * ( 4 3 ) + .........
+ * 1 * ( 1 )
2
2
1
1
-1
4
3
2
-1
-1
-101-
5. .
Simson.
.
2 E = * ( +1 1 )
2 = * ( 1 +1 )
.
.
()
()
* (-1-+1)
1
1
1
1 *(-2)
2
2
2
2 *(1-3)
3
3
3
3 *(2-4)
4
4
4
4 *(3-5)
*(-1-1)
1
1
.
= 2
= () / 2
2
1
-1
-1
-1
-102-
8
.
.
.
8.1. .
.
.
.
.
,
.
,
.
-103-
8.2. .
1.
,
.
.
,
, ,
.
2.
.
3.
.
.
U.
.
-104-
4. ,
.
5.
1,000 .
6. .
.
7.
300 1,000 .
8. ,
300 .
9. .
10.
.
11. ,
.
12.
.
13. ,
.
8.3. .
1.
, ,
.
U
.
.
2.
.
.
-105-
V
.
3.
.
V
.
4.
, ...
-106-
5. .
.
50 .
6.
.
.
7. .
.
-107-
8. , ,
.
9.
,
.
.
. .
.
.
.
8.4. .
.
.
,
.
:
1. (
) . .
. 12
.
-108-
2.
.
.
3.
.
.
-109-
4.
. .
5.
.
-110-
8.5. .
.
,
.
.
1. ()
. ( ) =
=
=
S
S
2.
100 .
( ) 100
.
, ,
100
100
100
% =
=
=
S
S
3.
, ..
0-5%, 5-20% ...
.
2 5-20%
5=2(100/S) S= 40
20=2(100/S) S=10 ( %).
10 40 5-20%.
-111-
9.1. .
.
:
.
,
0, 10, 100 ...
.
,
.
.
, ,
,
10 100.
,
.
,
.
(...)
.
Reper . reper
1000
...
. ...
. ...
reper.
:
1. ,
.
, .
[
.
10 0,5
-112-
, ,
, ...
.
2. ,
,
.
10 .
.
3. ,
. .
100 .
9.2. .
.
,
( reper)
.
.
(reper )
60-70
.
.
9.2.1. .
reper .
,
. R
.
( )
( ). = R + R.
( ).
=
= R + R -
R
= R -
:
= R +
,
.
-113-
,
.
E
B
Reper
Z B
Z reper
9.2.2. .
reper
.
.
3
O
OP3
OR
1
OP1
EE
EE
2
O
OP4
OP2
E
B
OR
ZE
Reper
Zreper
.
.
-114-
R
B
O1=R+OR
2=+
3=+
4=+
ZR
=1-
=2-
=3-
=4-
R
= -
= R + = R +
. .
2 2 3
4
.
R
B
1
2
1
2
3
O1=R+OR
2=+
3=+
4=+
1
2
1
2
3
ZR
=1-
1=2-1
2=2-2
=2-
=3-
1=3-1
2=3-2
3=3-3
=4-
9.3. .
, (allerretour), R ,
, R () R ().
R .
.
, ,
,
.
-115-
1 Clendinning J, Olliver J. "Principles of Surveing" Van Nostrand Reinhold Co 1971
2 ""
3 " " 1 1976
4 " " 2 1978
5 1970
6 . " " 1975
7 " " 1997
8 " " 1996
9 . "" . , 1970
10 . " " 1975
11 "" 1987
12 , " " 1990