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2001


1

1
1,1
1,2
1,3
1,4
1,5
1,6







2

2,1

2,2

2,3

2,4

2,5

2,6

3

3,1

3,2

3,3

3,4

3,5

3,6

3,7

3,8

3,9

3,1

3,11
4

4,1

4,2
-
4,2,1
4,2,2
4,3
-
4,4
-
5
-
5,1

5,2
- -
5,3

1
2
2
6
11
15
15

17
18
18
18
19
19

20
20
25
28
28
33
35
39
43
45
49

51
51
54
54
56
59

61
61
65

5,4
5,5
5,6
5,7

6,1
6,2
6,3
6,4
6,5
6,6
6,6,1
6,6,2
6,6,3
6,6,4
6,6,5
6,6,6
6,6,7
6,7

7,1
7,2
7,3
7,4

8,1
8,2
8,3
8,4

9,1
9,2
9,2,1
9,2,2
9,3





8






9

67
71
72
73

77
80
81
82
84
85
85
86
88
88
89
92
93
93

96
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99

103
104
105
108

112
113
113
114
115


1.
,
, . ,
, ,
,
- .
.
,
.

,
, 10 Km
.

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-1-

1.1



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1.2 -

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-2-


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-3-


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).
. (
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-4-

TISSOT (
)
. (
,
)
. ( )
,
.

. ( 10 Km)
.
.
. ( )
,
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( ,
),
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.
(Geoid), Listing 1873.
Suellius 1617,
,
,
.
.
.

, ,
( ).

a, b, f=(a-b)/a
( a = , b=
f=).
.
-5-


Bessel
(1841)
Hayford
(1909)
Krassowsky (1943)
G.R.S.
(1967)
GRS80
WGS84

1.3

: a=6,377,397 m - f=1/299.2
: a=6,378,388 m - f=1/297.0
: a=6,378,245 m - f=1/298.3
: a=6,378,160 m - f=1/298.2
: a=6,378,137 m f=1/298.2572236
: a=6,378,137 m f=1/298.257223563


() - Datum
/



/

-6-


.
.

(
).
, o,

.
.
Greenwich.
, o , ,
, .
,
, .


30' .
.

.

35 15 41 15 30
0 15 0 15 30
( ).
Bessel.
.

-7-

(196 ),
, .


1830 Gauss .
Kruger .
.


3 (1.5) .
3 .
Gauss.
. " "
(UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR U.T.M.), 6 (
60 ). =19 =28,
4 5 , =21
=27.
..... 3
( 1983).
. .
,
(...). ,
U.T.M. .

Bessel
To ED50 .
Potsdam . Hayford. UTM 6.
, =21 =27.
EGSA87 GRS80 /
. (=30 04 33.8000, =23 55 51.000).
.
=24 0.9996.
500,000 m
.
Datum.

-8-

...

-9-

-10-

1.4 - -

( ) (
). ( )

6370 Km.
,
.

( ),

.

-11-

,
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,
.

-12-



,

.
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. , 1/2 1/4 ,

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-13-

-14-

1.5


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1.6

,
.
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.
(1), 1/360 .
60' 1' 60''.
(1g) 1/400 .
100c ( ) 1 c 100cc ( ).
,
.
(rad),
/2 ( =3.1415926...).
,
1/6400 .
, 1/24
60 1 60 .

.
360 = 400g = 2 rad = 6400 = 24

-15-

.
(m),
.

.
.
.
.

1 (Km) = 1000.00 m
1 (hm) = 100.00 m
1 (dm) =
0.10 m
1 (cm) =
0.01 m
1 (mm)=
0.001 m
1
(m) =
1 : 106 m
1 - (nm) =
1 : 109 m

1 (in) =0.0254m = 1.0000in =0.0833f =0.0278y
1 (f) =0.3048m =12.0000in =1.0000f =0.3333y
1 (el)=0.7500m =29.5276in =2.4606f =0.8202y
1 (y) =0.9144m =36.0000in =3.0000f =1.0000y
1 () =1.9488m =76.7244in =6.3937f =2.1312y
.

(m), 1m.

1 . (el) :
0.75m X
0.75m
1 . (m) :
1.00m X
1.00m
1
(are) : 10.00m X
10.00m
1 () : 31.62m X
31.62m
1 (hec) : 100.00m X 100.00m
1 . () : 1000.00m X 1000.00m

-16-


2.1

,
, .
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( ).

.
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.
.
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.

, , .

-17-

2.2


.
,
() , l1, l2, l3, ...,
l
l1 = X l1
l2 = X l2
n
...........
l = X l


l1 + l2 + l3 + ...+ l
X = ----------------------------


1 = Xo l1
2 = Xo l2
...........
= Xo l
[] = n*Xo - [l1 + l2 + l3 + ...+ l] = n*Xo - n*Xo = 0

.

2.3
.
l1, l2, l3, ..., l
e1, e2, e3, ..., ek >k


.

2.4
.

1, 2, 3,...,

n
-18-

u
n =1

.

.
. ,
.
- .
.
...
l1 ,l2 ,..........., l
...= sqr ( (l12 + l22 +...........+ l2 ) / )

... = sqr ( [] / (-1) )

... .

= 4 * ... / 5
= 2 * ... / 3

2.5

P = c / ... c= > 0 ...
.
P=1 ...= c
... P=1 .

...

2.6
,
l1, l2, l3, ..., l . = f (l1, l2, l3, ..., l )
...
, l1, l2, l3, ..., l
,
, , -
3 . ,
,
, .

-19-


3.1
.

.
( )
.
.

3.2

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.

-20-

3.3

.
.


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-21-

-22-

1 2,
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1c 1cc
0,2cc
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.

-23-

-24-

3.4

.
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. (),
.
.
.
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-25-

-26-

-27-

3.5.
1)
'
2) , '
3) ,
,
4) .
5)
.
6)
7) '
8) ',
'
9)
.

-28-


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( ).

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-29-


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-30-

,
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( ) ( ,),

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(1c).

-31-



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-32-

3.6.

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-33-

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( ).
().
100g
.
100g,
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-34-

3.7.

- -


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0o 359o
0g 399g .
.
0
359 o 399 g . 0
90 o 100 g . 0
90 o 100 g
.

, .
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-35-

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-36-

-37-

-38-

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3.8.


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-39-



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)

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- (
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200g .
= ((L2-L1)+ k * 400) / L1-L2
.

-40-

400g .
2.
:
)

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200/ .

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Schreiber.

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3.
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4.

d,
.
=+
= (d * )/S ,
d S (

-41-

5.
,
,
S d ( ).
=+
= (d * )/S .

.

-42-

3.9.

,
.
z.
.



.

, 0g 100g (
), ,
.

,
,


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-43-


.
,
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.
Z1 = Z - K

. 2
,
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2 = +

= (1 + 2 ) / 2

= (2 1) / 2



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-44-

3.10.
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50 g, .
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-45-

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50g.

-46-



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-47-

50 g. 100 g.
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-48-

( ).

3.11.
)

1)
2) , .
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1) ,
( ).
2) ,
( ).
2c
4c. 2cm 50m.

-49-

-50-


4.1

,
.

. :
. :
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,

.
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4.2 -
.
, , (, , invar). ,
.
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.
fiberglass
.
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20,30 50 .
, .
10cm 2mm .

-51-

-52-


. 20 25m.
20cm , . 10
,
.
.


invar ( (36) (64)).
.

-53-

4m 100m.

. ,
invar.
.
,
.


.
.
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.
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4.2.1.

, ,
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( ), .

4.2.2.
.

. .
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) .
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-
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( )
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',' ...
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,
. (
).

-54-

.

.

.
, .

S=S1*cos1+S2*cos2+...+Sn*cosn

-55-

4.3

.
.
.
.
.
,
, ,
. .

.
.
.
( 2m)

.
S = b *

.

.

, .
1)
2)
3)
.

-56-

.
,
.
j
.
, .

S = x *g / j = k*g k = x / j
x j. , k=100 j x.

3 4m.

-57-

,
. 1cm. 10cm
,
(150m). 1m (, , , ,
...), .
, .
,
.

-58-

,
, g.
, 100, .

S = 100*g*sinV V ( 0 ).


, .
120 - 150
.

4.4


.
S
, .
,
, .

.
,
.

.
,
,
.
0.60m 40m.

.
( ).

. (=8 - 100mm)
. (=0.45-1m).

.
.
.
. (-)

-59-


. .
, (30-70 Km,
2-20 Km 0.2-5 Km).
,
, .
,
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.
5 Km,
.

,
. 20
.

.

-60-

-
5.1
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5.2 - -
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-61-

1) , .
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2) - - , .
3) , .
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1)
2. 3.
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-62-

600-800 .
5-6 4 ,

(
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2)

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3)
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5)
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40 1,00 1,10 . 0,40.

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-63-

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(),
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-64-

5.3

.
.

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.

-65-


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2'.
100 . 6 cm,
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-66-

,
, .
1
. 1 1
1

.
2
1
1
2
2

5.4

. (
)
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1.
( - )
(
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-67-

2.



.


.
'.
''.

'''.

.
( ,
, ),
, :
'
.

-68-

' ,
.
'

L b+a

2 * = a * b *
2*=L*X
(a * b * )
L * X = a * b * =
L
(a * b * )

( a + b)

1) a b
.

.
=200g ;i

.
<>200g
.
2) a b
-69-

1 2
d .

(a1 * b1 * 1)
(a 2 * b 2 * 2)
+d=
=
(a1 + b1)
(a 2 + b 2)
,
1 2 b1 b2
(a1 * b1 * 1) * (a 2 + b2)
X +d
=
X
(a 2 * b 2 * 2) * (a1 + b1)

2
=d*
( 1 2)
. g

. =200 g

. <>200
.

.

, .

(
).
1, 2, ..., n,
( ).
-70-

.
( ).
0,
, ,
.

,
. -
. , ( )
, (
0g )
.
.
+ 400g, 400g
.
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5.5.
.
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-71-

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(
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5.6


(.. ).
3-4-5.

3m, 4m 5m.
"
".
, , ,
,
, 3m 4m.
" ",

.

-72-

2+ +2 =2200g

( )

= + 2 * * * ()

()

* ( ) * ( ) * ( ) ,

2 * = * *

5.7
1


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,
.
1 2. 1-2
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1 2,
( . 5.5)
. 1 2
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,
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-73-

2
,
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, .
.
.
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,

S =

() + (+ )

,
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, .

.
.


=
. = +

*
+

-74-

3

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, .

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)
4

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-75-

5
-, ,
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, ( 3-4-5,
) .
.

-76-



6.1

,
(
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, .

-77-

-78-

-79-

6.2

() (), ,
( ),
, .

,
.
(.. )
0g < 400g
,
200g.
.
G = G + 200g G = G + 200g

-80-

6.3

, , G i , S

(i )

(i )

(i )

(i )

-81-

S
+

6.4

-82-

, ,

(i )

(i )

( i )

) (

2 +

( i )



/ . (
).

(i )

(i )

( , / INV TAN TAN-1 )


:


,
. ( )

>0

<0

=0

>

<

>

<

>

<

G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G

100

200-

400-

300

200+

200

-83-

6.5

: G01, 1, 2, 3, ...., -2, -1


: G(-1)-


.
:

G12
= G01
+ 1
G23
= G12
+ 2
G34
= G23
+ 3
.....................................
G(n-1)n= G(n-2)(n-1) + (n-1)

+200g
+200g
+200g
+200g


i=1
G
+
(-1)-= G01
n-1

( n 1)

i =1

(i )

+ (-1)*200

0g 400g,
.

G(-1)-= G01 +

( n 1)

i =1

(i )

+ (-1)*200 - *400

,
(*400), ,
0 400

-84-

6.6
6.6.1.

( - ),

,
( ),
.
(
(), ()),
( , ,
.)
, ,
.
.

,
(, , ),
( ), ,
, .
.
(
) .
.

-85-



. ,
.
,
,

, .

6.6.2.

n n+1 ( ) , .


.
-86-

, nKn+1. ' nM'.


,
n-Kn+1
n, .

.
2cm , ,
50m.
.

.
.

n-Kn+1,
n-Kn+1,
Kn+1. SM
,
-87-

(
).

n-Kn+1, Kn+1,
.
.

6.6.3.




.
.
, .
. .
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1.
2.
3.

6.6.4.

.
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.
.
.
.

-88-


, .
.

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.

.


, .
.

(, )
( ).
.

6.6.5.

-89-


.
.
. ,
, .

-90-

2cm , ,
50m. ,
25m. .

(, , ).
(, ) .

. .

-91-

6.6.6.

,
,
.

.
/
, /
.
G

G -I = G
i
- + i
i = + S -i * G -i
i = + S -i * G -i


, ,
.
, ,
. ,
, .
. .

, .


( ).
-92-

.

.

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.
,

.
, (
) .
,

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).

6.6.7.

6.7

/
, (
... ).
. .
.
-93-



J

V -i

-i
(i ) , (i ) , (i )
,
( ),
(i, i, i) .


,
(, , ),
0.000 (,,)

1
2 G-.
.

-94-

1.

2.

=100 * ( (i ) -

(i )

) * 2V -i

= G - + -i

>= 400 g G
= G
- 400g
i
i

G
= G
i
i

< 400 g

3.

4.

(i )

(i )

+ S

5.

6.

=100 * ( (i ) -

(i )

-95-

(i )

) * 2V -i

+ J -

(i )

.

, .

,
.
(, ,
).

7.1


.

Amsel, .

.
.
(1) (2) . (1) ,
(3)
. (2)
(8)
(5) (5) ,

(2). ,
(9) (10)
(14) .

.
. ,
(2),

(8) .
,
(5).
,
(14)
,
.

.

.
.
-96-

,
(
),
,
.
.

.

,

( ).
.


.
(digitazer)
,

.

.
7.2

,

.

(, ...)
. .

.

= * ( )( )( )
= ( + + ) / 2 .

-97-

1
4

2
3

,
.
, .

,
(
) .

.
.

7.3


,
,
,

.
.

-98-

1
4

2
3

9
6 3


.

.

7.4 .


,
.

,
.
1. .
= 1 / 2 * *
= 1 / 2 * * *
= * ( )( )( )

= ( + + ) / 2 .

-99-

2. .
= 1 / 2 * ( + ) *

3. .
= 1 / 2 * 1 * 2 * 1, 2 .
= 1 / 2 * 1 * 2 * 1, 2 .
2 = * * + * * * * ( + ) ,, ,
.

2
2
+
, ,,,
+ +
.
2 =

1
2

-100-

4. .


V.
2 = * 1 * ( 1 )

:
2 E = 2 * 1 * ( 2 1 ) + 3 * 2 * ( 3 2 ) + 4 * 3 * ( 4 3 ) + .........
+ * 1 * ( 1 )

2
2

1
1

-1
4
3
2

-1
-1

-101-

5. .
Simson.
.
2 E = * ( +1 1 )
2 = * ( 1 +1 )

.
.

()
()
* (-1-+1)

1
1
1
1 *(-2)
2
2
2
2 *(1-3)
3
3
3
3 *(2-4)
4
4
4
4 *(3-5)

*(-1-1)
1
1
.
= 2
= () / 2

2
1

-1

-1

-1

-102-

8



.
.
.

8.1. .
.
.

.
.

,
.


,
.

-103-

8.2. .
1.
,
.
.
,
, ,
.

2.


.

3.
.
.

U.
.
-104-

4. ,
.

5.
1,000 .
6. .
.
7.
300 1,000 .
8. ,
300 .
9. .
10.
.
11. ,
.
12.
.
13. ,
.

8.3. .
1.
, ,
.

U
.
.
2.
.
.

-105-

V
.

3.
.
V

.
4.

, ...



-106-

5. .
.
50 .
6.
.
.

7. .

.

-107-

8. , ,

.
9.

,
.

.
. .

.

.

.

8.4. .


.
.
,
.
:
1. (
) . .
. 12

.

-108-

2.
.
.

3.


.
.

-109-

4.
. .

5.
.

-110-

8.5. .

.
,
.
.
1. ()


. ( ) =
=
=
S
S

2.
100 .
( ) 100
.
, ,
100
100
100
% =
=
=

S
S
3.
, ..
0-5%, 5-20% ...

.
2 5-20%
5=2(100/S) S= 40
20=2(100/S) S=10 ( %).
10 40 5-20%.

-111-

9.1. .

.
:

.

,
0, 10, 100 ...

.
,
.

.
, ,
,

10 100.

,
.
,

.
(...)

.
Reper . reper


1000
...
. ...
. ...
reper.

:
1. ,
.
, .
[
.
10 0,5
-112-

, ,
, ...
.
2. ,
,
.
10 .
.
3. ,

. .

100 .

9.2. .

.

,
( reper)
.
.
(reper )
60-70
.

.

9.2.1. .

reper .
,
. R
.

( )
( ). = R + R.

( ).
=
= R + R -
R
= R -
:
= R +

,
.
-113-

,
.

E
B

Reper

Z B

Z reper

9.2.2. .
reper
.
.

3
O

OP3

OR

1
OP1

EE
EE

2
O

OP4

OP2

E
B

OR

ZE
Reper

Zreper


.
.

-114-

R
B

O1=R+OR
2=+
3=+
4=+

ZR
=1-
=2-
=3-
=4-

R
= -

= R + = R +


. .
2 2 3
4
.

R
B
1
2

1
2
3

O1=R+OR
2=+

3=+
4=+

1
2

1
2
3

ZR
=1-
1=2-1
2=2-2
=2-
=3-
1=3-1
2=3-2
3=3-3
=4-

9.3. .
, (allerretour), R ,
, R () R ().

R .


.
, ,
,
.
-115-


1 Clendinning J, Olliver J. "Principles of Surveing" Van Nostrand Reinhold Co 1971
2 ""
3 " " 1 1976
4 " " 2 1978
5 1970
6 . " " 1975
7 " " 1997
8 " " 1996
9 . "" . , 1970
10 . " " 1975
11 "" 1987
12 , " " 1990

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