Genetics & Heredity

Traits are controlled by genes Gregor Mendel established the basic laws of genetic inheritance

*Genetic Dominance *Genetic Recessiveness

Chromosomal theory of genetic transmission became established in the 20th century.

DNA
DNA is not the blueprint
Creates proteins and the proteins eventually create the biochemistry. The biochemistry affects behavior.

DNA is very flexible

All genetic information is based on the order of the four base pairs along the chromosome.

The Human-Ape Connection

DNA studies show a 1.6% difference between the great apes and humans.
There are only 8 total mutations difference between humans and chimpanzees.

Genetics studies show that humans & mice have 88% of the same genetic material.

Can apes actually communicate with humans or is it the result of learning and rewards?

Dominant & Recessive Genes

The Human Genome Compliment

The human genome contains 30,000 genes. The human egg & sperm each contain 22 chromosomes plus the sex chromosomes.

The Human Genome Compliment

The Human Genome contains about 3 billion base pairs.
Stretched out, it would measure about six feet.

Ninety-Percent of the variation in the human genome is found in a subset of 10 million pairs of nucleotides. At the DNA level, only 3 million pairs of nucleotides distinguish you from anyone else on the planet.

Fertilization
The ZYGOTE is the fertilized egg.
The zygote contains 22 PAIRS of chromosomes plus the sex chromosomes.

The BLASTOCYST is the ball of cells that eventually forms the fetus.
Calcium ions trigger the changes which become the different organs, skin, blood, bones, etc.

From Birth Onward

Personality traits develop within the limits set by genetics under the influence of the environment.
Language ability depends on the structure of the throat and mouth as well as learning experiences. Body size is significantly influenced by heredity and environment.

What the Neonate Knows

Babies are capable of making logical inferences and gaining cause/ effect relationships.
Two-hour old neonates can learn to predict relationships between events before an event and the event itself. Theyre sensitive to certain sounds that caretakers intuitively make (e.g. clicks and sh-h-h-h induce relaxation).

The Reflexes
Reflex Stimulation Response Developmental Pattern
Blinking Babinski Grasping Moro (Startle) Flash of light, Puff of air Stroke sole of foot Closes both eyes Fans out toes, twists foot Grasps tightly Permanent Disappears after 9 months to 1 year Weakens after 3 months, disappears after 1 year Startles, arches back, Disappears after 3 4 months throws head back, flings out arms & legs then rapidly closes Turns head, opens Disappears after 3 4 months mouth, begins sucking Moves feet as if to Disappears after 3 4 months walk Sucks automatically Disappears after 3 4 months Makes swimming movements Disappears after 6 7 months Touch palms of hands Sudden stimulation (e.g. loud noise or being dropped) Cheek stroked or side of mouth touched Lower feet onto flat surface Object touches mouth Put face down in in water

Rooting

Stepping Sucking Swimming

The Neonates Vision

The visual acuity of the neonate and infant are limited. The illustration below shows what a face looks like at Birth, at 1-month, and at 3-months.

The Senses in General

An Infant sees only about 1 foot but can perceive depth. It sees shapes and prefers novel images. It recognizes faces and prefers attractive faces over those not attractive. An Infant is able to hear from at least the 6th month in utero. It can identify its mothers voice as well as its own voice. It recognizes the sound of another infant/child who is in distress.

Physical Growth & Development

The Cephalocaudal Pattern
The greatest growth always occurs at the top of the head with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working from top to bottom. Sensory and motor development proceed according to the cephalocaudal pattern.

The Proximodistal Pattern

Growth starts in the center of the body and moves toward the extremities. An example is the early maturation of muscular control of the trunk and arms, as compared with that of the hands and fingers.

Neurological Development
The Motor Neurons closest to the head develop first. The Central Nervous System is not fully developed until from 2 to 3 years of age. Myelination of the neurons is associated with critical periods.

Piaget
Important Concepts: Schema - A mental model of an event, object, or action; a mental map. Assimilation - Fitting new information into what is already known. Accommodation - Refining the data into the current schema.
Stage Developmental Patterns
Sensory-Motor Stage 0 2 years Pre-operational Stage 2 7 years Concrete Operations 7 12 years Formal Operations 12+ years Gradual development of the capability to coordinate sensations and perceptions with physical actions. Progression is from reflexive actions to symbolic activities to the ability to separate the self from the objects in the environment. Object permanence develops. Characterized by the acquisition of language, the growth of the use of symbols, and a limited kind of logical thinking. Preconceptual thinking develops (the ability to deal with things individually but not as a group). Egocentricism develops. Characterized by the need to stabilize thoughts in concrete events. The ability to perform intellectual operations relating to concrete events (e.g. ordering objects by number, size, and class). Conservation develops. Characterized by the ability to think about both concrete and abstract events, and the ability to formulate and test hypotheses to solve problems. Can function purely on the symbolic, abstract level. The ability to used abstract symbols develops. Most people never reach this stage.

Other Cognitive Theories

Moral Development
Kohlberg refined Piagets stages of Moral Realism and Moral Autonomy.
Level I: Preconventional Level (Ages 4-10) Level II: Conventional Level (Ages 10-13) Stage 1 Fear of Punishment Stage 2 Self-interest and Reward Stage 3 Desire to Please Others Stage 4 Respect for Authority & Social Order

Level III: Postconventional Level Stage 5 Respect for Individual Rights & (After Age 13 at Young Laws Adulthood or Never) Stage 6 Universal Ethical Principles

Language Development
Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner
Language is learned through conditioning procedures. Age Language Milestones
Birth 1 2 Months 6 Months 8 12 Months Crying Cooing Begins Babbling Begins Use Gestures (Showing & Pointing) Comprehension of Words First Word Spoken Vocabulary Spurt Starts Uses 2 Word Utterances; Rapid Expansion of Understanding of Words

Linguistics
Noam Chomsky

Language is pre-wired in the brain. Theres a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) already in the brain.

13 Months 18 Months 18 24 Months

Authoritarian Parenting
A restrictive, punitive style in which the child must follow instructions and respect work and effort. Unexplained spankings may be frequent in order to enforce rigid rules. Anger may be frequently shown. Children of authoritarian parenting are unhappy, fearful and anxious when comparing themselves with others. They fail to initiate activities and tend toward social incompetence.

Permissive Parenting
* Permissive Indulgent Parenting: Highly involved with children with few demands or controls. View is that warm involvement and few restrictions produces a creative, confident child. Children are socially incompetent, lacking self-control, aggressive, domineering, noncompliant with few peer interactions. * Permissive Indifferent Parenting: Parents are very uninvolved with the child. Children are socially incompetent, lack selfcontrol, dont handle independence well, have low self-esteem, are immature, and tend to be alienated from the family. As adolescents, they tend to show patterns of delinquency and truancy.

Authoritative Parenting
Encouraging, supportive and nurtures the child to be independent but still places limits and controls on actions. Much verbal giveand-take. Expects mature, independent, ageappropriate behavior. Children are often cheerful, self-controlled, self reliant, achievement oriented and socially competent.

Social Development
Erikson
Understanding Psychosocial Development is the key to understanding how a person grows throughout their life-span.
Changes occur throughout life. Each stage of development has a unique developmental task with a crisis to be faced. The more the individual resolves the crisis, the healthier the development. Age Stage
Birth 1 Trust vs. Mistrust If basic needs are met, a sense of trust develops. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt Child learns independence & self-confidence. Initiative vs. Guilt Preschooler learns to initiate things & have self-control.

13

36

6 12

Industry vs. Inferiority Child learns to feel either competent or inadequate.

Adolescence
The
sexual maturation period ending childhood and beginning adulthood Primary and secondary sexual characteristics develop
Many dont know what to expect when the changes occur. Psychological reactions differ between those going into puberty early and those going in late.

Changes in Boys & Girls

Variations of Physical Changes at Puberty
Girls
Characteristics
Breasts Grow Pubic Hair Develops The Body Grows Menarche Occurs Underarm Hair Oil/Sweat Glands

Boys
Age of Occurrence
8 13 Years 8 14 Years 9.5 14.5 Years 10 16.5 Years Around 2 Years after Pubic Hair Around the time of Underarm Hair

Characteristics
Testes & Scrotal Sac Grow Pubic Hair Develops The Body Grows Penis Growth Underarm & Facial Hair Oil/Sweat Glands Voice Changes (Larynx Grows)

Age of Occurrence

10 13 Years 10 15 Years 10.5 16 Years 11 14.5 Years Around 2 Years after Pubic Hair Around the time of Underarm Hair Around the same as the Penis

Rites of Passage
Tribal Initiation Rites
In many native cultures when a boy or girl enters adolescence, they must undergo an initiation into the tribe. At this time, they assume the responsibilities of an adult.
What remnants of adolescent initiation rites do we have in our modern society?

Sexual Activity
First intercourse for most teens is from 16 17 years. Sex tends to be a 1-on-1 relationship. First intercourse tends to occur in December.
They think theyre invulnerable to STDs and pregnancy (See: Personal Fable). Most sex is learned from peers.

Adolescent Cognitive Changes

Imaginary Audience
The adolescent belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are. The attention-getting behavior is motivated by a desire to be noticed, visible, and on stage.

Personal Fable
The part of adolescent egocentricism that involves their view of their uniqueness and invincibility. It is often seen in the belief that theyll never suffer horrendous experiences that happen to other people.

Personality & Social Development

A Period of Storm & Strife? Identity Formation
Identity vs. Identity Diffusion Identity Achievement gone through a crisis & developed relatively firm commitments. Identity Foreclosure never had a crisis but has become committed to certain goals. Identity Moratorium currently going through a crisis. Identity Diffusion never went through a crisis, isnt in one, and hasnt formed any
commitments or established any goals.

Problems in Adolescence
Decline in Self-Esteem Depression & Suicide Violence

Early & Middle Adulthood

Love, Partnerships, & Parenting Career & Work Cognitive Changes Personality Changes Stages:
Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. SelfAbsorption

Love, Partnerships, & Parenting

Forming Partnerships
Loving vs. Falling in Love

Cohabitation
Living together before marriage does not bring marital satisfaction

Parenthood
Preparation for Parenthood

When Relationships End

Separation & Divorce Death

Cognitive & Personality Changes

Brain & Neurological Changes Trait Changes Midlife Transition vs. Midlife Crisis Menopause

Late Adulthood
Integrity vs. Despair Physical Changes Social Changes Cognitive Changes Death & Dying

Theories of Aging
The Genetic Theory Cellular Clock Theory
Programmed into the cells. There is a maximum number of times a cell can divide.

Free-Radical Theory (Antioxidant

Theory)
Cells normal metabolism produces unstable oxygen molecules (free radicals) that bounce around the cell damaging DNA & other cellular structures. The bodys hormonal system lowers resilience to stress increasing the likelihood 0f disease.

Hormonal Stress Theory

Retirement
Family Changes Defining Retirement
Difficult to define retirement because of the reasons there are for retiring, the influences on retiring, and what one does after retiring. The withdrawal process is blurred so, stages of retirement arent very descriptive of what actually goes on.

Cognitive Changes & the Final Stages

Alzheimers & Parkinsons Disease The Stages of Death and Dying
Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance