Proceedings of SPIE, 4393, pp, 230-240 (2001)

Solar Battery Recharge Options for Unattended Ground Sensors

Paul E. Sims, AstroPower, Inc.

ABSTRACT
The operational lifetime of an Unattended Ground Sensor (UGS) depends on the power consumption of the package and the space allocated for batteries. Solar cells have the potential of dramatically increasing operational lifetimes of UGS instruments by providing supplemental power, but in this application solar cells are subject to a number of non-traditional constraints. There are UGS applications where the solar array will need to be covert or have a high shock resistance. It is also possible that a UGS-solar array will be placed in a shaded area or randomly oriented with respect to the path of the sun. This paper will first survey conventional approaches towards solar battery charging and then discuss non-conventional approaches applicable to randomly oriented and covert UGS solar cell arrays. Keywords: Battery-Recharge, Solar-Cell, Unattended-Ground-Sensors

1. BATTERIES
Batteries are electrochemical energy storage devices. Primary batteries are designed for a one-way chemical reaction and are not rechargeable. An example is the lithium sulfur dioxide (LiSO2) primary battery, the standard chemistry used in military applications. Secondary batteries are designed to accommodate a reversible chemical reaction and can typically be recharged more than 500 times. Table 1 displays some of the metrics of the most common rechargeable battery chemistries compared to the LiSO2 battery. A cursory examination of Table 1 might lead one to the conclusion that a Libased battery is the best choice for UGS applications. However, there are a number of other considerations and the proper choice of battery technology is not obvious without a detailed examination of the UGS operational profile. For instance, in a pulse-discharge scenario, a Li battery would perform poorly while a NiCd would perform well due to the large differences in the internal resistance of these battery types. Table 1. Battery Technology Comparison1 Capacity Energy Weight Battery Chemistry Nominal (Wh/L) compared compared Voltage to LiSO2 to LiSO2 (V) LiSO2 (Primary) 3.0 415 1.00 1.00 Sealed Lead Acid 2.0 90 2.04 0.30 Sealed NiCd 1.2 80-105 1.80 0.39 NiMH 1.2 175 1.73 0.75 Li-ion 3.6 200 1.32 0.78 Li-polymer 3.2 350 1.45 0.89 Battery Metrics Voltage. The instantaneous battery voltage depends on the state of charge and the temperature. The nominal voltage of a cell is merely a representative value. An important parameter is the End of Discharge Voltage (EODV). This is the voltage where the battery is completely discharged. Electronics powered by batteries must be designed to operate down to the EODV in order to utilize the rated capacity of a battery. Capacity. The capacity of a battery is the amount of energy it can store when it is fully charged. This is expressed in Watt Hours (Wh) or, when divided by the nominal terminal voltage, in Amp Hours (Ah). Under ideal conditions, this is also the amount of energy that can be extracted from a battery. A simple rule of thumb is that a 1 Wh battery can, in the best case, supply a 1 W electric load for one hour. Factors that can reduce the amount of energy that can be extracted from a battery include temperature variations, very high or very low current discharge levels, voltage mismatch and self-discharge. C rate. The C rate is the amount of current a battery can supply in one hour, i.e. a 2 Ah battery has a C/1 rate of 2 A, C/10 rate of 200 mA, etc.

Proceedings of SPIE, 4393, pp, 230-240 (2001)

Battery performance estimates using Ragone Diagrams A Ragone diagram2 plots specific power vs. specific energy and can be used to compare many different power storage technologies. Diagonal lines in a Ragone diagram have the units of time so that required weight for constant discharge situations can be compared for different energy storage devices. An example of the use of a Ragone Diagram is shown on Figure 1. Assume that a 10-hour total discharge time is required at 650 mW for a battery pack. By drawing a 10hour line to the Li-ion performance envelope, and then over to the Specific Power axis, we see that ~ 18 W/kg can be expected for this C/10 discharge rate. By dividing the draw power (650 mW) by the Specific Power (18 W/kg) the required battery pack weight is calculated to be 36 grams. Similarly, a NiMH battery (0.65 W / 6 W/kg) requires 108 grams. By starting with a power and weight target, this procedure can be reversed to determine the total discharge time available for different battery technologies. It is obvious from Figure 1 why lead acid and NiCd batteries are preferred in high-discharge applications and NiMH and Li-ion batteries are preferred in long-life consumer electronics since they require a lower weight for the same amount of energy.

Long Discharge Time

0.01 Hour

High Discharge Current

10 Hour Discharge

100 Hours

Figure 1. Ragone Diagram of some battery technologies. Battery charge procedures. With solar power charging, the NiCd, NiMH, and Li-ion chemistries are all feasible for UGS applications. However, the NiCd and NiMH batteries have an advantage when solar trickle charging is considered because they do not require any charge control electronics, which may have significant parasitic power drains in low power conditions. Lithium-ion batteries always require the use of protective circuits to prevent destructive over- and undervoltage conditions and manufacturers will not sell batteries without these circuits or approving your circuit design. Figure 2 illustrates the simplest Li-ion battery protection strategy. If area is not an issue, it is simple to implement solar power strategies. However, for many UGS applications, area is severely limited and the instrument may have to remain on standby for extended periods while the solar cell array converts sufficient power to resume normal operation.
2.5

Above V_max: Battery is allowed to discharge Battery is not allowed to charge

2 V_max

Li-battery charge protection strategy

Below V_min: Battery is not allowed to discharge Battery is allowed to charge

1.5

1 V_min

0.5

Normal Operating Range: Battery is allowed to charge and discharge

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 2. Li-battery charge protection strategy.

Proceedings of SPIE, 4393, pp, 230-240 (2001)

Maximizing battery capacity when there are volume and weight constraints is aided by using low system voltages combined with DC-DC converters to boost voltage as needed. For example, three 70-gram Li-ion batteries connected in series to provide 10.8 V has a capacity of 650 mAh. A 3.6 V battery pack with the same weight would have a capacity of 1950 mAh. If only a small portion of the circuit requires the higher voltage, a significant savings in power efficiency can be achieved through voltage conversion. The best way to charge a battery is to follow the manufacturers recommended procedure. This usually involves delivering a constant voltage or a constant current or some combination of both to the battery. The recommended charging procedure for a Li-ion battery is adjusting the voltage to deliver a constant current until an upper voltage limit is reached and then holding that voltage until the battery is fully charged. This type of charging procedure requires a charge control circuit and assumes that the required power is readily available. For solar cells, there can be differences in charging procedures, especially in cases where the solar power is limited.

2. SOLAR CELLS
Solar cells are large-area diodes where the top surface is patterned to allow light to penetrate into the bulk of the device. Figure 3 displays a generic solar cell structure. In this figure, the n-type region at the top of the solar cell is called the emitter and the p-type region is called the base. Typically, the emitter is made as thin as possible to maximize light absorption in the base region. Photons with energy greater than the bandgap are absorbed by the semiconductor material and generate electron-hole pairs. If the minority carrier of the pair (electrons in p-type material) diffuses to the p-n junction without recombining with a majority carrier, it is swept across by the electric field and becomes an excess majority carrier that can be used to power an external load. Figure 4 displays the current voltage curve of a solar cell and Table 2 defines some common terms associated with solar cell characterization. The principle of superposition applies as the dark diode curve is shifted downward by the photocurrent, IL.

Figure 3. Generic solar cell structure.

Figure4. Current voltage curve of a typical solar cell in the light and in the dark.

There are many different semiconductor materials that can be used to fabricate solar cells. One useful way of comparing these technology choices is to plot a theoretical conversion efficiency as a function of the bandgap of the semiconductor material under consideration. Figure 5 displays the maximum terrestrial module efficiency achieved to date on such a plot3. Crystalline silicon is the only material close to the theoretical limit. At the module level, the other mainstream technologies, copper indium diselenide-based (CIS or CIGS or CIGSS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), multicrystalline silicon (mc-Si) and amorphous silicon based (a-Si) are well below theoretical limits. The typical conversion efficency of a commercial silicon solar cell module is 11-12%. However, like the voltage of a battery, the conversion efficiency of a solar cell is a highly variable quantity under real conditions and is usually only quoted for Standard Test Conditions (STC). These are defined as 25C cell temperature, 100 mW/cm2 insolation and a particular spectrum, AM1.5G, which is a specific angle through the atmosphere (air mass) under low scattering conditions.

Proceedings of SPIE, 4393, pp, 230-240 (2001)

Table 2. Solar Cell Terminology Description Open-circuit voltage. The voltage a solar cell charges up to while under illumination if no external load is connected. Short-circuit current . The current an illuminated solar cell will deliver through an external short circuit. Max power point . The point on an illuminated solar cells IV curve where the product of the voltage (Vmp) and current (Imp) is a maximum. Fill factor. A measure of the squareness of the IV curve. Fill factor is defined as FF = Pmax/Voc*Isc. Series resistance. The internal series resistance of a solar cell which is strongly affected by solar cell geometric design. The final lumped series resistance can be determined by the slope of the IV curve at Voc. Shunt resistance. The internal shunt resistance of a solar cell which is strongly affected by solar cell processing flaws. The final lumped shunt resistance can be determined by the slope of the IV curve at Isc. Reflection. The wavelength dependent reflection of a solar cell. Extenal Quantum Efficiency. The wavelength dependent measure of the number of photons impinging on a solar cell and the percentage of carriers collected. Internal Quantum Efficiency. The wavelength dependent measure of the number of photons penetrating the surface of a solar cell and the percentage of carriers collected. IQE = EQE / (1-R) Conversion Efficiency. Pmax / (Total Power of the light incident on a solar cell). For terrestrial solar cells, the standard test conditions ( STC) are at 25C using 100 mW/cm2 insolation with a spectrum defined by AM1.5G.

Symbol Voc Isc P max FF Rs Rsh R EQE IQE

Figure 5. Modeled solar cell conversion efficiency as a function of the energy gap of various semiconductor materials. Also shown are record module efficiencies for the four most mainstream materials. Calculation of the average power that can be produced by a solar cell Figure 6 displays the electrical parameters of a typical 100-Watt crystalline silicon module. The installation details must be known to estimate the amount of energy that this module will produce. Typically, a flat plate module is oriented towards the equator and tilted at an angle from level ground equal to the latitude of the installation +/-15 (steeper to shed snow, shallower to improve performance under cloudy conditions). However, this is simply a guideline and the system designer should calculate each installation for maximum performance. Historical databases for the US can be found on the Internet at rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/redbook.

Proceedings of SPIE, 4393, pp, 230-240 (2001)

Figure 6. Electrical parameters of a typical 100-Watt crystalline silicon module. For the month of June in Delaware the average solar radiation for a module tilted at latitude is 5.6 kWh/m2/day and the average temperature is 21.9C. An average daily insolation of 5.6 kWh/m2 is equivalent to a day with exactly 5.6 hours of one-sun illumination. So, if the module were at 25C, the average amount of energy produced by a 100 W module is 100 W x 5.6 hours = 0.56 kWh/day. From the data sheet, The Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) is 45C for average illumination and 20C ambient temperature. Assuming linearity, the module is expected to operate 45-20 = 25C above the ambient temperature so that the average module temperature is expected to be 21.9+25 = 46.9 C. For silicon solar cells, the approximate temperature-power correction factor is 0.5% per degree C and the STC temperature is 25C. So, the temperature correction factor is (46.9-25)*0.5% = 10.95%. When the energy value calculated above is corrected for temperature, on average a 100-Watt module in June in Delaware will produce 0.50 kWh/day. The module for which data is shown in Figure 6 consists of 36 single crystal silicon solar cells connected in series. This is a common configuration designed to directly charge a 12 Volt lead acid battery under typical outdoor conditions and we note that under typical conditions, the knee of the module curve is above 12 Volts. The commercially available small solar modules are also designed for specific battery packs. Cell phone battery packs are typically 3.6 V and small modules can be purchased commercially to charge them. These COTS modules may be adaptable to UGS applications. Batteries are not resistive loads. A photovoltaic (PV) module directly connected to a battery is always biased to the instantaneous battery voltage in a narrow range between the full-charge voltage to the EODV. Design of a solar cell module requires, at a minimum, specification of the full-charge battery pack voltage and the minimum amount of useful current delivered by the solar cell array. Solar cell current is linear with light intensity while voltage is logarithmic with light intensity. The Vmp under different light conditions is the parameter of interest in module design. To maximize the amount of charge, the bias point of the solar cell should never exceed Vmp, which is near the knee of the IV curve ensuring that the solar cell is always operating on the flat part of the IV curve and maximizing the available current as the light level varies.

Proceedings of SPIE, 4393, pp, 230-240 (2001)

The Vmp is best determined using a model rather than by using a rule of thumb. A one-dimensional finite difference model, PC-1D, is commonly employed to predict the performance characteristics of individual solar cells under different light conditions and temperatures4. Figure 7 displays PC-1D model results for a GaAs solar cell illuminated by diffuse light at two different intensities. This is an unusual condition that might be encountered in a covert UGS deployment where the PV array is in the shade but can see diffuse light from the sky. This model indicates a best operating voltage near 0.75 V per cell and the current density is predicted to range from 2.8 mA/cm2 at low intensity and 13.8 mA/cm2 at the higher intensity.
0.015 1 cm2 GaAs solar cell model under diffuse sunlight 0.01

0.005

CURRENT (A)

0 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 10 mW/cm2 intergrated insolation -0.005 1 1.5

-0.01

-0.015

50 mW/cm2 integrated insolation

VOLTAGE (V)

Figure 7. Modeled performance of a GaAs solar cell under diffuse sunlight at 300K. For a Li-ion battery, the full-charge cell voltage is 4.1 V and the voltage drop for a germanium blocking diode is 0.3 V. Six GaAs solar cells in series are required to charge this battery. The solar cell module bias will follow the battery state of charge characteristic from 3 V to 4.1 V (plus the blocking diode). The average individual cell bias point is then 0.55 V to 0.73 V. On a per cell basis, there are four points of interest enumerated in Table 3 that define the operating envelope for this example. Table 3. Individual solar cell power density Light Level Discharged Battery Full battery Low 0.55 V x 2.8 mA/cm2 = 1.54 mW/cm2 0.73 V x 2.8 mA/cm2 = 2.04 mW/cm2 High 0.55 V x 13.8 mA/cm2 = 7.6 mW/cm2 0.73 V x 13.8 mA/cm2 = 10.1 mW/cm2 Now assume that the desired current under low light is 10 mA. This specification requires that each of the six solar cell segments have an area of 3.57 cm2 so the total array area is 21.4 cm2, with a form factor of 1.5 x 2.2 inches. The maximum power produced by this array is then 6 x 3.57 cm2 x 10.1 mW/cm2 = 216 mW while it is connected to the battery. For some UGS applications, there are two problems with this simple approach. First, the use of six solar cells connected in series assumes that each one of the cells receives the same illumination. Partial or complete shading of module segments will cause a significant degradation in module current due to diode mismatch. If the array is mounted on a curved surface, the cosine losses under uniform illumination will also cause mismatch-induced current degradation. Second, this module has an awkward size, it is too small from a fabrication perspective since it requires the laborious interconnection of discrete solar cell elements and it is too big for most of the targeted UGS application envelopes.

Proceedings of SPIE, 4393, pp, 230-240 (2001)

3. ADVANCED CONCEPTS
For UGS applications, solar power collection systems should be small, lightweight, shock resistant, insensitive to orientation and partial shading, deliver useful power while in full shade, covert, and feasible from a manufacturing standpoint. Light collection and concentration using scintillating fiber-optic bundles One possible approach meeting these criteria is to use infrared scintillating plastic fibers or preforms to collect light and deliver it to a solar cell array. With this approach, scattered UV and blue photons enter along the length of a plastic multimode fiber and are converted by an organic scintillant in the core to longer-wavelengths that are transmitted along the axis of the fiber to a shock-hardened photovoltaic converter. Three possible approaches for fiber incorporation in the GLIMPS projectile are shown in Figure 8.

(a) Wrap Figure 8. GLIMPS specific deployment options.

(b) Flag

(c) Slinky

With the scintillating fiber approach, there is a trade-off between increased solar cell conversion efficiency due to the near-monochromatic light spectra and power losses due to a reduced number of photons with energy high enough to excite the scintillant compared to a direct conversion approach using the photovoltaic effect. Figure 9 shows the spectral content of sunlight. A typical scintillant is excited by light with wavelengths shorter than 550 nm. For comparison, a silicon solar cell converts light with wavelengths shorter than 1100 nm (typ, AM1.5 = 14%) and a GaAs solar cell converts light with wavelengths shorter than 880 nm (typ, AM1.5 = 20%). For a direct semiconductor solar cell the conversion efficiency is maximized at a wavelength where the absorbed photon energy is just above the bandgap energy. For GaAs, this corresponds to > 1.41 eV or equivalently < 880 nm. A solar cell under this type of illumination will exhibit high conversion efficiency. A GaAs laser power converter may have efficiency greater than 60% due to a combination of monochromatic illumination and high injection levels.

Figure 9. Various solar spectra. The diffuse component is of primary interest for this application5.

Proceedings of SPIE, 4393, pp, 230-240 (2001)

Experimental light collection data for individual commercial red fibers are shown in Figures 10 and 11. Selfabsorption in the fiber limits the amount of optical gain or concentration that can be achieved. The maximum useful length for a fiber is on the order of 10 feet and most of the optical gain occurs within the first five feet. The larger diameter fibers are found to deliver significantly more light to the photodiodes. We believe that these results indicate that optical losses due to the escape of light from the fiber and cladding are dominating compared to optical losses due to self-absorption within the fiber. Optimization of the core/cladding interface should reduce this escape loss and increase the amount of light that can be delivered to the solar cell array. There are reports in the literature that thicker cladding material and double layer cladding material significantly improves optical confinement for scintillating fiber-based particle detectors. However, the differences between absorption of UV light compared to a particle absorption event indicate that a different optimization of layer thicknesses will be required.
3.5
0.04" Dia.

3.5
0.04" Dia.

2.5 PHOTOCURRENT (uA) PHOTOCURRENT (uA)

2.5

2
0.03" Dia.

2
0.03" Dia.

1.5

1.5

1
0.02" Dia.

1
0.02" Dia.

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0.5
0.008" Dia.

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ILLUMINATED FIBER LENGTH (ft)

0 0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

ILLUMINATED FIBER VOLUME (in^3)

Figure 10. Photocurrent as a function of illuminated length.

Figure 11. Photocurrent as a function of illuminated volume.

We have constructed various fiber bundles by using ferrules and optical epoxies to constrain the ends of the fibers. The brightest bundle constructed to date consists of 41 10-ft long fibers constrained by a 0.25 x 0.25 inch square ferrule. Using calibrated (AM1.5G) gallium arsenide solar cells, we measured the intensity of the light that was collected and delivered by these fiber bundles. These photocurrent results were then translated into a GaAs sun equivalent value. The 1-sun equivalent response of a GaAs solar cell fiber combination is defined as being the same cold light induced photocurrent that the GaAs solar cell would have under true 1-sun AM1.5G measurement conditions. The best experimental result to date is ~2.5 times the 1-sun photocurrent (Figure 12). We believe that these results can be improved significantly, at least by a factor of two, with improvements in light coupling and custom fiber design. The low-light performance of the large fiber bundle is particularly encouraging. This fiber bundle collects and delivers significant amounts of light while in the shade and during overcast conditions. A shaded fiber bundle collects and delivers more light during hazy conditions compared to clear conditions due to an increase in the spectral content of blue light under these conditions. Partial shading of a fiber bundle is not an issue; the light delivered at the end of the bundle is spatially uniform under these conditions. The power generation capability of a fiber bundle solar cell system can be calculated by multiplying the measured sun equivalent value delivered by a fiber bundle by a reasonable estimate of the AM1.5G conversion efficiency of a GaAs solar cell. These estimates are shown in Table 4. These calculations indicate that energy scavengers can reasonably be expected to produce power levels ranging from 5 to 100 mW/cm2 of device area, depending on the size of the bundle and placement conditions. However, to achieve this, it is also necessary to fabricate small area solar cell arrays to generate enough voltage to couple to an electronics package.

Proceedings of SPIE, 4393, pp, 230-240 (2001)

3.000

Large bundle
2.500

Effective Insolation (suns)

2.000

1.500

Small bundle

1.000

0.500

0.000
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Figure 12. Measured light intensity (converted to sun-equivalents) for two different fiber bundles under various outdoor illumination conditions. Table 4. Predicted Performance for GaAs Solar Cells Illuminated by Scintillating Fiber-optic Bundles 20% Module 18 % Module Insolation Performance Performance (sun(mW/cm2) (mW/cm2) equivalents) 0.1 1.8 2 0.5 9.0 10 1.0 18.0 20 2.0 36.0 40 5.0 90.0 100 Monolithically Interconnected GaAs Solar Cell Array Development The fiber-bundle approach implies a need to develop a small solar cell array fabrication process that has high conversion efficiency while illuminated by near-monochromatic infrared light. Solar cells based on the AlGaAs/GaAs material system were selected. This is due to two factors, (1) the GaAs system is well developed for high-efficiency solar cells, and (2) GaAs semi-insulating wafers are available which allows the fabrication of small arrays on a single substrate. Figure 13 displays a schematic of the array interconnect technology for an ion-implant-based fabrication sequence we originally proposed. A high-efficiency AlGaAs/GaAs solar cell structure is epitaxially grown on a semi-insulating GaAs substrate Channels are etched through the emitter into the base layer for the n-type contact Device isolation is accomplished using patterned H+ implantation to selectively damage and convert the material to high-resistivity Metal contacts and interconnects are deposited to create an integrated array structure

7A M

in

Proceedings of SPIE, 4393, pp, 230-240 (2001)

Figure 13.

High voltage GaAs solar cell array design schematic.

This ion-implant approach is feasible, and Figure 14 shows the IV curve of an array fabricated by this method. However, we have found that there is a yield problem associated with ion-implanting these devices and have changed our fabrication method to one based on the use of etch sequences to define array segments. This process uses a photopatternable polyimide to insulate metallization interconnect tracks and prevent junction shunting. This approach is beginning to consistently yield functional devices and we are presently optimizing the details of the etch sequence to maximize the solar cell array conversion efficiency. An IV characteristic of one of these GaAs-based devices is displayed in Figure 15. This device consists of five rectangular GaAs elements interconnected using photolithographic processes on a semi-insulating substrate.
Voc = 5.027 V Isc = 39.34 mA FF = 66.8

Figure 14. IV characteristics of a five element LPE-based monolithically interconnected, ion-implant isolated GaAs solar cell array. Integration of solar cell arrays and fiber-optic bundles will be accomplished by the use of a combination of optical epoxies to improve light coupling and mechanical clamps between a printed circuit board and the fiber ferrule to improve shock resistance. Inside the instrument, the shock resistance of the assembled light collector and solar cell array should be similar to that of properly potted electronics. We expect that the mechanical weak-link in a high-shock application will be shearing of the fiber bundle at the point where it exits the instrument. The best exit point for a fiber bundle in a projectile is directly down the rear of the instrument centered on the axis. This, however, is prime real estate and we invite system designers to suggest other feasible approaches.

Proceedings of SPIE, 4393, pp, 230-240 (2001)

Voc = 4.2 V Isc = 1 mA

Figure 15. IV Curve for GaAs module using the polyimide approach.

6. CONCLUSIONS
Incorporation of solar power systems and rechargeable batteries in UGS devices can dramatically increase operational lifetimes. However, each mission will require a separate assessment of the best approach and the trade-offs involved. For a non-covert, hand emplaced, non-area limited scenario, a COTS approach is recommended and simple guidelines for selecting batteries and PV modules have been presented. In this situation standard solar power technology can easily supply power for years of continuous instrument operation. For covert, orientation-independent, and high-shock scenarios, the fiber-bundle approach has promise, but will result in limited power levels and require significant top-down interaction between the respective system designers. A key issue is minimizing the draw power while the instrument is in standby mode to allow the solar cells to charge the battery during operational downtime.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work has been supported by DARPA and SPAWAR under Contract Number N66001-99-C-8516.

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. TRW Systems and Information Technology Group, Rechargeable Battery/Systems For Communications/Electronic Applications, Final Report, September 1999. D.V. Ragone, Review of Battery Systems for Electrically Powered Vehicles, SAE publication # 680453, 1968. M.A. Green, et al., Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 17), Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, M.A. Green, ed., 2001, 9:49-56. P.A. Basore, IEEE Transactions on Electronic Devices 37(2), 337 (1990). C. Hu and R.M. White, Solar Cells, From Basic to Advanced Systems, McGraw-Hill, 1983.

OTHER READING
1. 2. David Lindon, Handbook of Batteries, McGraw-Hill, 1995. C. Honsberg and S. Bowden, Photovoltaics Devices, Systems & Applications, (Interactive Computer Disk) ISBN 0-7334-0596-7.