ASPS Transparencies 03

1
Advanced Advanced Space Space Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems

Lecture Lecture 317.014 317.014
Dr. Martin Tajmar Dr. Martin Tajmar
Institute Institute for for Lightweight Lightweight Structures Structures and Aerospace Engineering and Aerospace Engineering
Space Space Propulsion Propulsion, ARC Seibersdorf , ARC Seibersdorf research research
Advanced Advanced Space Space Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems
2
Content Content
Propulsion Fundamentals Propulsion Fundamentals
Chemical Propulsion Systems Chemical Propulsion Systems
Launch Assist Technologies Launch Assist Technologies
Nuclear Propulsion Systems Nuclear Propulsion Systems
Electric Propulsion Systems Electric Propulsion Systems
Micropropulsion Micropropulsion
Propellentless Propellentless Propulsion Propulsion
Breakthrough Propulsion Breakthrough Propulsion
3
History History & & Propulsion Propulsion Fundamentals Fundamentals
m
m
v v
p
0
ln =
4
Propulsion Propulsion Fundamentals Fundamentals 1.1 1.1 History History
Isaac Newtons Isaac Newtons
Principia Principia Mathematia Mathematia (1687) (1687)
Reaction Principle Reaction Principle
Feng Feng Jishen Jishen invested Fire Arrow in 970 AD invested Fire Arrow in 970 AD
Used against Japanese Invasion in 1275 Used against Japanese Invasion in 1275
Mongolian and Mongolian and arab arab troups troups brought it to Europe brought it to Europe
1865 Jules Verne published 1865 Jules Verne published Voyage from Earth Voyage from Earth
to the Moon to the Moon
Constantin Constantin Tsiolkovski Tsiolkovski (1857 (1857- -1935) 1935)
Self Self- -educated mathematics teacher educated mathematics teacher
The Investigation of Space by The Investigation of Space by
Means of Reactive Drives (1903) Means of Reactive Drives (1903)
Liquid Liquid- -Fuel Rockets, multi Fuel Rockets, multi- -staging, staging,
artificial satellites artificial satellites
Robert Goddard (1882 Robert Goddard (1882- -1945) 1945)
Launched first liquid Launched first liquid- -fueled fueled
rocket 1926 rocket 1926
Gyroscope guidance Gyroscope guidance
patens, etc. patens, etc.
Hermann Hermann Oberth Oberth (1894 (1894- -1989) 1989)
Die Die Rakete Rakete zu zu den den
Planetenr Planetenr umen umen (1923) (1923)
Most Most influencial influencial on on Wernher Wernher
von Braun von Braun
5
1.1 1.1 History History
Fritz von Fritz von Opel Opel RAK 2 (1925) RAK 2 (1925)
Fritz Lang Fritz Lang Die Frau Die Frau im im Mond Mond
Hermann Hermann Oberth Oberth contracted to built rocket for contracted to built rocket for
premiere showing premiere showing
Rocket was not finished, but key advancements Rocket was not finished, but key advancements
accomplished and movie was big success accomplished and movie was big success
Treaty of Versailles from World War I Treaty of Versailles from World War I
prohibits Germany from Long prohibits Germany from Long- -Range Range
Artillery Artillery
Walter Walter Dornberger Dornberger recruits recruits Wernher Wernher von von
Braun from the Braun from the Verein Verein f f r r Raumschifffahrt Raumschifffahrt
to develop missile in to develop missile in Penem Penem nde nde (1932) (1932)
A4 (V2) first ballistic A4 (V2) first ballistic
missile missile
A9/A10 on the drawing A9/A10 on the drawing
board ( board (intercontinential intercontinential
missile) missile)
6
1.1 1.1 History History
Sergei Sergei Korolev Korolev
(1907 (1907- -1966) 1966)
Valentin Valentin Glushko Glushko
(1908 (1908- -1989) 1989)
Wernher Wernher von Braun von Braun
(1912 (1912- -1977) 1977)
A A- -4 / V 4 / V- -2 2
Saturn V Saturn V
Space Shuttle Space Shuttle
N N- -1 1
Energia Energia / / Buran Buran
2
7
1.2 1.2 Propulsion Propulsion Fundamentals Fundamentals
Conservation of Conservation of
Momentum Momentum
Force Force
p p p p
v m v m
dt
d
dt
I d
F
v
&
v
v
v
= = =
0
g
v
I
p
sp
= Specific Impulse Specific Impulse
p
p
v
dt
dm
dt
dv
m =
0
0
0
m
dm
v dv
p
=
dm dm
p p
=dm =dm
0 0

=
m
m
p
m
dm
v dv
0
0
0
m
m
v v
p
0
ln =
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
p
p
v
v
m m exp 1
0 Tsiolkovski Tsiolkovski
Equation Equation
8
1.2.2 Delta 1.2.2 Delta- -V Budget V Budget
initial orbit drag g
v v v v v + + =
Most important to select propulsion system ! Most important to select propulsion system !
LEO LEO
GEO GEO
Gravitational Potential Gravitational Potential Drag Drag Orbit Orbit Initial Initial
1.4 1.4
10.3 10.3
0.1 0.1
0.1 0.1
7.8 7.8
3 3
- - 0.4 0.4
- - 0.4 0.4
= 8.9 km/s = 8.9 km/s
= 13 km/s = 13 km/s
120,000 4.5 light-years in 10 years Fast Interstellar
30,000 4.5 light-years in 40 years Slow Interstellar
1,000 Mission to Oorth cloud 10,000 AU
100 Interstellar precursor mission 100 1,000 AU (Distance Sun-Earth)
30 200 Fast, direct trajectory Human Planetary Exploration
10-15 Satellites, Robotic missions LEO, GEO, Planetary Targets
Typical v [km/s] Description Mission
9
1.2.2.1 1.2.2.1 Propulsion Propulsion Requirements Requirements
?
unlimited
3.5 27.6
27.6 - 230
16.1 115
11.5 20.7
230 2,300
1,381
4.6
5.7 7.1
6.9 11.5
Maximum
v [km/s] *
10
-4
3x10
7
Photon Rocket Propellantless
? ? Breakthrough
10
1
3x10
-1
10
2
150 1,200
1,200 10,000
700 5,000
Electrothermal
Electrostatic
Electromagnetic
Electric
10
6
10
5
10
2
500 800
10,000 100,000
60,000
Fission
Fusion
Antimatter
Nuclear
10
5
< 200 MHD
10
7
10
7
250 310
300 500
Solid
Liquid
Chemical
Maximum
Thrust [N]
Specific
Impulse [s]
Propulsion System
* Assuming (m/m
0
)=0.1 Spacecraft consists of 90% Propellant
10
1.2.2.1 1.2.2.1 Propulsion Propulsion Comparison Comparison
10 10
7 7
10 10
6 6
10 10
5 5
10 10
4 4
10 10
3 3
10 10
2 2
10 10
1 1
0 0
Max. Max. Thrust Thrust [N] [N]
Chemical
MHD
Electric
Nuclear
Photon
S
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
e
s
S
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
e
s
H
u
m
a
n

H
u
m
a
n

E
x
p
l
o
r
a
t
i
o
n
E
x
p
l
o
r
a
t
i
o
n
O
o
r
t
h
O
o
r
t
h
C
l
o
u
d
C
l
o
u
d
S
l
o
w
S
l
o
w
I
n
t
e
r
s
t
e
l
l
a
r
I
n
t
e
r
s
t
e
l
l
a
r
F
a
s
t

F
a
s
t

I
n
t
e
r
s
t
e
l
l
a
r
I
n
t
e
r
s
t
e
l
l
a
r
Max. Max. v v
[km/s] * [km/s] *
0 10 0 10
1 1
10 10
2 2
10 10
3 3
10 10
4 4
10 10
5 5
NERVA
Saturn-V
JIMO
(Planned)
*

A
s
s
u
m
in
g

(
m
/
m
0
)
=
0
.
1
11
1.2.2 Single 1.2.2 Single Staging Staging Multi Multi Staging Staging
Payload mass is directly linked to propellant velocity (e.g. Che Payload mass is directly linked to propellant velocity (e.g. Chemical 3,000 mical 3,000- -4,000, 4,000,
Electric up to 100,000) Electric up to 100,000)
Mass is directly linked to costs (e.g. 20 k$ / kg on Space Shutt Mass is directly linked to costs (e.g. 20 k$ / kg on Space Shuttle, 5 k$ on cheap le, 5 k$ on cheap
Russian launcher) Russian launcher)
Structural Factor: Ratio of Empty Rocket (Structure + Payload) t Structural Factor: Ratio of Empty Rocket (Structure + Payload) to Full Rocket (Structure + o Full Rocket (Structure +
Payload + Propellant) Payload + Propellant)
Calculated for Orbital Speed ( Calculated for Orbital Speed ( v = 8,000 m/s v = 8,000 m/s, Atmospheric Drag + Gravity 1,500 , Atmospheric Drag + Gravity 1,500 2,000 m/s) 2,000 m/s)
Single Stage Chemical Propulsion System (3,500 m/s) needs 90% pr Single Stage Chemical Propulsion System (3,500 m/s) needs 90% propellant ! opellant ! 12
1.2.2 Single 1.2.2 Single Staging Staging Multi Multi Staging Staging
Multi Multi- -Staging with separate structures, engines and tanks Staging with separate structures, engines and tanks
( )
payload propellant structure
m m m
m m m
m
m
+ +
+ +
= |
.
|
\
|
1
1
0
( ) | |
( )
payload structure
m m
m m m
m
m
+
+ +
= |
.
|
\
|
1
1
2
0
m
m
m
m
m
m
v
v
v
p
0
2
0
1
0
2 1
ln
ln ln |
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
+
Example for 100 kg rocket of Example for 100 kg rocket of
m m
propellant propellant
: : m m
structure structure
: : m m
payload payload
= =
90 : 9 : 1 kg 90 : 9 : 1 kg
Two stage rocket has maximum Two stage rocket has maximum
velocity gain of 1.43 at stage velocity gain of 1.43 at stage
separator percentage of 91% separator percentage of 91%
More stages increase velocity gain More stages increase velocity gain
but also increases complexity but also increases complexity
Multi Multi- -Staging discovered by Staging discovered by
Tsiolkovski Tsiolkovski in 1924 article in 1924 article Cosmic Cosmic
Rocket Trains Rocket Trains
3
13
1.2.2 Single 1.2.2 Single Staging Staging Multi Multi Staging Staging (Saturn V) (Saturn V)
2,498 m/s 4,071 m/s 3,312 m/s Velocity increment v
1.81 2.63 3.49 Mass ratio
4,210 m/s 4,210 m/s 2,650 m/s Propellant velocity v
p
LO
2
/LH
2
LO
2
/LH
2
LO
2
/Kerosene Propellant
13,300 kg 39,048 kg 135,218 kg Dry mass
119,900 kg 490,778 kg 2,286,217 kg Launch mass
Stage 3 Stage 2 Stage 1
14
1.3 1.3 Trajectory Trajectory and Orbits and Orbits
Johannes Johannes Kepler Kepler
(1571 (1571- -1630) 1630)
Tycho Tycho Brahe Brahe
(1546 (1546- -1601) 1601)
Kepler Kepler laws are first correct description laws are first correct description
of the planets motion around the Sun of the planets motion around the Sun
( )
2
2
r
M G
r r m

=
&
& & ( ) 0
2
=
&
mr
dt
d
( ) + = cos 1
1
2 2

v r
GM
r
|
|
.
|
\
|
= 1
2
GM
rv
Balance of gravitational Balance of gravitational

and centrifugal forces and centrifugal forces
Conservation of angular Conservation of angular
momentum momentum
Parabola trajectory Parabola trajectory
leaves Earth leaves Earth
Just Just 2 greater than 2 greater than
circle (minimum orbit) circle (minimum orbit)
Mach 24 Mach 24
Hyperbola trajectory Hyperbola trajectory
used for interplanetary used for interplanetary
flights flights
r
GM
v
2
=
15
1.3.1 1.3.1 Keplerian Keplerian Orbital Elements Orbital Elements
Semi Semi- -Major Axis Major Axis a a : size of elliptical orbit : size of elliptical orbit
Eccentricity Eccentricity : shape of orbit : shape of orbit
Inclination Inclination I I : angle of orbit with the equatorial plane : angle of orbit with the equatorial plane
Longitude of ascending node Longitude of ascending node : inclination around semi : inclination around semi- -major axis major axis a a
Argument of perigee Argument of perigee : Angle between ascending node and perigee : Angle between ascending node and perigee
True anomaly True anomaly : Angle between perigee and the spacecraft : Angle between perigee and the spacecraft s location s location
16
1.3.2 Orbit 1.3.2 Orbit Types Types
Remote Sensing i = 95 6,500 7,300 km Sun Synchronous
Orbit
Communication,
Intelligence
e = 0.75
i = 28.5 / 57
26,600 km Molniya Orbit
Communications i = 0 42,120 km Geostationary Orbit
(GEO)
Space Shuttle, Space
Station, Small Sats
- < 1000 km Low Earth Orbit
(LEO)
Application Orbital Parameters Altitude
Molniya Molniya Orbit Orbit
17
1.3.3 Orbit Transfers 1.3.3 Orbit Transfers
Hohmann Hohmann Transfer Orbit: Most Transfer Orbit: Most
common and fuel efficient common and fuel efficient
(example GTO (example GTO- -GEO) GEO)
Low Thrust Transfer Orbit: Low Thrust Transfer Orbit:
E.g. Electric propulsion or E.g. Electric propulsion or
solar sails solar sails
Gravity Assist Trajectory Gravity Assist Trajectory
Aerobrake Aerobrake Trajectory Trajectory
18
1.4 1.4 Classification Classification of of Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems
Breakthrough Propulsion Propellantless (Solar Sail)
Catapults
Propellantless
(Photon, Nuclear)
No Propellant
Air Breathing Ext. / Int.
Propellant
Propellantless
(Laser, Solar Sail)
Air Breathing
MHD
External
Propellant
Nuclear (Induction Heating) Electric Chemical Internal
Propellant
External / Internal Energy External Energy Internal Energy
4
19
Chemical Chemical Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems
20
2. 2. Chemical Chemical Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems
( )
e c p p gas
T T m c E =
( )
e c p p
T T c v = 2
( )
constant
1 /
=

p T
( )
gas
p
m
R
c
=
1
( )
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|

/ 1
1
1
2
c
e
gas
c
p
p
p
m
T R
v
Combustion Combustion
Chamber Chamber
Exit Exit
Plane Plane
Specific Heat at Specific Heat at
Constant Pressure Constant Pressure
Equal Kinetic Energy Equal Kinetic Energy
Propellant Velocity Propellant Velocity
Specific Heat: 1.2 Specific Heat: 1.2 1.3 1.3
p p
e e
/ /p p
c c
influenced by nozzle and influenced by nozzle and
atmosphere atmosphere
T T
c c
is function of chemical is function of chemical
energy release energy release
m m
gas gas
small small high specific high specific
impulse but low thrust impulse but low thrust
Thermodynamic Characterization Thermodynamic Characterization
Classical Gas Theory Classical Gas Theory
21
2.2 Liquid 2.2 Liquid Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems
Liquid propellant stored in tanks Liquid propellant stored in tanks also mixture of liquid/solid called slush also mixture of liquid/solid called slush
Fed into combustion chamber by pressurized gas or pump Fed into combustion chamber by pressurized gas or pump
Monopropellant Engines Monopropellant Engines Used for Used for Propellant Propellant
Widely used for Widely used for
spacecraft attitude spacecraft attitude
and orbit control and orbit control
Hydrazin Hydrazin (N (N
2 2
H H
4 4
) )
Hydrogen Hydrogen
Peroxide (H Peroxide (H
2 2
O O
2 2
) )
Due to Due to catalyzer catalyzer low pressure required low pressure required
low low I I
sp sp
of 150 of 150 250 s 250 s
Bipropellant Engines Bipropellant Engines
Used for launchers Used for launchers
and spacecraft and spacecraft
primary propulsion primary propulsion
systems systems
Large variety Large variety
available (LO available (LO
2 2
- -
LH LH
2 2
, ) , )
Either separate plug is needed or propellants Either separate plug is needed or propellants
ignite at contact (hypergolic ignite at contact (hypergolic like in Space like in Space
Shuttle) Shuttle) 22
450 - 480 0.42 Fluorine (F
2
) Hydrogen (H
2
)
300 340 1.20 Nitrogen
Tetroxide (N
2
O
4
)
Unsymmetrical
Dimethyl
Hydrazin (UDMH)
415 470 0.35 Oxygen (O
2
) Hydrogen (H
2
)
300 360 1.02 Oxygen (O
2
) Kerosine (RP-1)
Specific Impulse
[s]
Average Density
[g/cm
3
]
Oxydizer Fuel
2.2 Liquid 2.2 Liquid Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems
Saturn V Saturn V F1 F1
Propellant Combination Examples Propellant Combination Examples
Largest ever produced engines are the F Largest ever produced engines are the F- -1 1
(Saturn V) and the RD (Saturn V) and the RD- -170 ( 170 (Energia Energia) )
23
General General Dynamics Dynamics / R / R- -6 Rocket 6 Rocket Engine Engine
Thrust: 22 N (6.2 Thrust: 22 N (6.2 32.9 N) 32.9 N)
I I
sp sp
=290 s at 22 N =290 s at 22 N
N N
2 2
O O
4 4
(Nitrogen (Nitrogen Tetraoxyde Tetraoxyde) ) MMH ( MMH (Monomethyl Monomethyl Hydrazine) Hydrazine)
O/F Ratio = 1.65 O/F Ratio = 1.65
1370 1370 C C
650 650 C C
24
General General Dynamics Dynamics / R / R- -6 Rocket 6 Rocket Engine Engine
35.6 N 35.6 N
31 N 31 N
24 bar 24 bar
49 49 C C
( )
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|

/ 1
1
1
2
c
e
gas
c
p
p
p
m
T R
v
5
25
2.2.2/3 Solid / Hybrid 2.2.2/3 Solid / Hybrid Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems
Solid Propulsion Systems Solid Propulsion Systems
Fuel and oxidizer are stored as grains Fuel and oxidizer are stored as grains
glued together forming a kind of rubber glued together forming a kind of rubber
Typically hydrocarbon (fuel) and Typically hydrocarbon (fuel) and
ammonium ammonium perchlorate perchlorate (oxidizer) (oxidizer)
16 16- -18% of aluminium powder added to 18% of aluminium powder added to
increase temperature and specific impulse increase temperature and specific impulse
Different shapes burn different surface Different shapes burn different surface
areas over time (constant thrust profile) areas over time (constant thrust profile)
Cons Cons
Can not be stopped Can not be stopped
after ignition (special after ignition (special
liquid can be injected to liquid can be injected to
cease burn, difficult) cease burn, difficult)
Low specific impulse Low specific impulse
(260 (260 310 s) 310 s)
Pros Pros
Very simple, Very simple,
cheap cheap
High thrust High thrust
(10 (10
7 7
N) N)
Hybrid Propulsion Systems Hybrid Propulsion Systems
Oxidizer or fuel stored in liquid state Oxidizer or fuel stored in liquid state
Can be restarted / shut off Can be restarted / shut off
Difficult technology Difficult technology 26
2.3 2.3 Nozzle Nozzle Design Design
Cone Nozzle Cone Nozzle
Most simple Most simple
Bell Nozzle Bell Nozzle
Reduces Beam Divergence Reduces Beam Divergence
Most common nozzles: Most common nozzles:
In atmosphere, the outside In atmosphere, the outside
pressure is balanced everywhere pressure is balanced everywhere
but on the nozzle exit but on the nozzle exit
( )
e a e p p axial
A p p v m F + = &
Additional Force Additional Force
Nozzle length Nozzle length
Expansion ratio Expansion ratio A A
e e
/A* /A*
Every nozzle is optimized for one specific Every nozzle is optimized for one specific
pressure pressure
Also Also v v
p p
is affected by pressure ratio is affected by pressure ratio
Optimal nozzle: Optimal nozzle: p p
e e
= p = p
a a
Maximum thrust: p Maximum thrust: p
a a
= 0 (nozzle = 0 (nozzle long, long,
A A
e e
/A* /A* high high compromise compromise) )
27
How How can can we we Improve Improve
Chemical Chemical Propulsion Propulsion
Systems ? Systems ?
Nozzle Nozzle
Propellant Propellant
Alternative Designs Alternative Designs
Advanced Advanced Chemical Chemical Propulsion Propulsion
28
2.3 2.3 Advanced Advanced Nozzle Nozzle Designs Designs
Aerodynamic Boundaries Aerodynamic Boundaries
Plug Nozzle Plug Nozzle Aerospike Aerospike Nozzle Nozzle
Linear Linear Aerospike Aerospike
Engine Engine
29
2.4 2.4 Advanced Advanced Propellants Propellants
Example Example SSTO Launcher, Liquid Propulsion LO SSTO Launcher, Liquid Propulsion LO
2 2
/LH /LH
2 2
10% increase in propellant 10% increase in propellant denity denity (e.g. slush) (e.g. slush) 25 % 25 %
increase in payload increase in payload
10% increase in specific impulse 10% increase in specific impulse 70% increase in payload 70% increase in payload
Tripropellants Tripropellants Many chemical reactions produce more energy than Many chemical reactions produce more energy than
LO LO
2 2
/LH /LH
2 2
, but the reaction product in not gaseous , but the reaction product in not gaseous
Hydrogen can be used as a working fluid in addition to fuel Hydrogen can be used as a working fluid in addition to fuel
and oxidizer and oxidizer
Examples: Be/O Examples: Be/O
2 2
or Li/F or Li/F
2 2
( (I I
sp sp
= 700 s = 700 s 55% increase 55% increase!) !)
Problems: Toxic, contamination Problems: Toxic, contamination
High Energy Density High Energy Density
Matter (HEDM) Matter (HEDM)
Atomic Hydrogen: H Atomic Hydrogen: H- -H recombination releases 52.2 H recombination releases 52.2
kcal/g compared to H kcal/g compared to H
2 2
- -O O
2 2
of 3.2 kcal/g ( of 3.2 kcal/g (I I
sp sp
=2,112 s) =2,112 s)
Metastable Metastable Helium: 114 kcal / g ( Helium: 114 kcal / g (I I
sp sp
=3,150 s), can not =3,150 s), can not
be stored longer than 2.3 hours at 4 K ! be stored longer than 2.3 hours at 4 K !
Metallic Hydrogen: 1.4 Mbar pressure ( Metallic Hydrogen: 1.4 Mbar pressure (I I
sp sp
=1,700 s) =1,700 s)
Storage problems Storage problems
Very low temperature Very low temperature
needed needed
30
2.5 Alternative Designs 2.5 Alternative Designs
Pulse Detonation Rocket Pulse Detonation Rocket Combustion occurs at constant volume instead of Combustion occurs at constant volume instead of
constant pressure (much higher inlet pressure) constant pressure (much higher inlet pressure)
10% higher thermodynamic efficiency 10% higher thermodynamic efficiency
Tube with open/close end Tube with open/close end
Similar to V Similar to V- -1 rocket during WW 1 rocket during WW- -II II
6
31
2.5 Alternative Designs 2.5 Alternative Designs
Rocket Based Combined Cycle Rocket Based Combined Cycle
Rotary Rocket Rotary Rocket
Ejector mode: Ejector mode: Rocket works as Rocket works as
compressor stage for jet engine compressor stage for jet engine
Ram jet mode: Ram jet mode: Rocket engine turned Rocket engine turned
off at Mach 2, air pressure is high off at Mach 2, air pressure is high
enough enough
Scram jet mode: Scram jet mode: Secondary fuel Secondary fuel
injection from jet stage is moved injection from jet stage is moved
forward forward
Pure rocket mode Pure rocket mode
Air Breathing saves a lot of propellant! Air Breathing saves a lot of propellant!
Pumps replaced by centrifugal force ! Pumps replaced by centrifugal force !
32
2.6 2.6 Reusable Reusable Launch Launch Vehicles Vehicles
Reduction of launch costs by one order of magnitude to a few hun Reduction of launch costs by one order of magnitude to a few hundred $/kg dred $/kg
Increased safety: current launcher failures 1 Increased safety: current launcher failures 1 10%, reduction to 0.1% 10%, reduction to 0.1%
Increased reliability: fully reusable parts, routine operations Increased reliability: fully reusable parts, routine operations, much lower costs , much lower costs
NASA Advanced Space Transportation Program (initiated 1994) NASA Advanced Space Transportation Program (initiated 1994)
Space Shuttle Space Shuttle 1 1
st st
generation RLV generation RLV
Replace solid with liquid boosters Replace solid with liquid boosters
X X- -Planes Planes
X X- -15 15
X X- -15A2 with external tanks 15A2 with external tanks
North American X North American X- -15 flown 1959 15 flown 1959- -1968 1968
Rocket plane Rocket plane reusable launcher technology reusable launcher technology
World record Mach 6.72, 108 km altitude World record Mach 6.72, 108 km altitude
33
DC DC- -XA Delta Clipper XA Delta Clipper
2.6 2.6 Reuseable Reuseable Launch Launch Vehicles Vehicles
First vertical takeoff and vertical landing SSTO First vertical takeoff and vertical landing SSTO
prototype (constructed 1991 prototype (constructed 1991- -1993) 1993)
LO LO
2 2
/LH /LH
2 2
RL RL- -10A 10A- -5 engine 5 engine
Total mass 16.3 t, diameter 3.1 m, length 11.4 m Total mass 16.3 t, diameter 3.1 m, length 11.4 m
1995 advanced lightweight tank structure 1995 advanced lightweight tank structure
1996 landing failure 1996 landing failure LOX tank exploded LOX tank exploded
McDonnel McDonnel Douglas Delta Clipper Douglas Delta Clipper 34
X X- -33 / Venture Star 33 / Venture Star
Mach 13+ Maximum Speed
2 XRS-2200 Main Propulsion
105,000 kg Fuel Weight
LO
2
/LH
2
Fuel
142,500 kg Take-off Weight
23.5 m Width
21 m Length
Lookheed Lookheed Martins X Martins X- -33 and Venture Star 33 and Venture Star
Development since 1996 (currently Development since 1996 (currently
stopped) stopped)
All lightweight structures (tank, All lightweight structures (tank,
outer skin, etc.) outer skin, etc.)
2 day turnaround shall be 2 day turnaround shall be
demonstrated demonstrated
35
X X- -34 34
Orbital Sciences L Orbital Sciences L- -1011 1011
Aircraft with Pegasus Booster Aircraft with Pegasus Booster
TSTO TSTO testbed testbed, Cancelled 2001 , Cancelled 2001
LOX/Kerosene engine for Mach 8 LOX/Kerosene engine for Mach 8
and 76 km altitude and 76 km altitude
Composite structure, advanced Composite structure, advanced
thermal protection system, etc. thermal protection system, etc.
500 k$ / flight cost demonstration 500 k$ / flight cost demonstration
36
X X- -43 (HYPER 43 (HYPER- -X) X) Hyper Hyper- -X will ride on Pegasus booster X will ride on Pegasus booster
Scramjet technology demonstrator Scramjet technology demonstrator
Mach 7 Mach 7 10 at 30 km altitude 10 at 30 km altitude
First test 2001 failed (Pegasus rocket First test 2001 failed (Pegasus rocket
exploded!) exploded!) 2 2
nd nd
test late 2003 test late 2003
7
37
European Future Launchers European Future Launchers
HERMES was cancelled mid 1990s HERMES was cancelled mid 1990s
German TSTO project German TSTO project S S nger nger cancelled cancelled
end 1980s (ramjet + rocket) end 1980s (ramjet + rocket)
FESTIP 1994 FESTIP 1994- -2000, FLTP, FLPP 2000, FLTP, FLPP
European RLV prototype is scheduled for European RLV prototype is scheduled for
2006 2006- -2007 2007
HOPPER programme HOPPER programme Precursor Precursor
PHOENIX (led by EADS, first flights PHOENIX (led by EADS, first flights
scheduled 2004 in scheduled 2004 in Schweden Schweden) )
38
Japanese Future Launchers Japanese Future Launchers
HOPE HOPE similar to HERMES similar to HERMES
On top of H On top of H- -II launch vehicle II launch vehicle
Budget Budget custs custs HOPE HOPE- -X demonstrator X demonstrator
High speed flight demonstration started High speed flight demonstration started
in 2003 in 2003
Cooperation with CNES underway Cooperation with CNES underway
39
Launch Launch Assist Assist Technologies Technologies
40
3. 3. Launch Launch Assist Assist Technologies Technologies
Example Example SSTO Launcher, Liquid Propulsion LO SSTO Launcher, Liquid Propulsion LO
2 2
/LH /LH
2 2
( (Isp Isp = 450 s) = 450 s)
v v
LEO LEO
= 8,000 m/s = 8,000 m/s
Payload mass fraction 16.3% Payload mass fraction 16.3%
v v reduction only 300 m/s reduction only 300 m/s payload mass fraction 17.5% payload mass fraction 17.5%
(increase of 7% !) (increase of 7% !)
Launching from an aircraft with initial velocity Launching from an aircraft with initial velocity
Providing initial boost with chemical/electromagnetic catapult Providing initial boost with chemical/electromagnetic catapult
Launching outside of the atmosphere on top of an ultra Launching outside of the atmosphere on top of an ultra- -high tower high tower
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
p
v
v
exp fraction Payload Exponential Law ! Exponential Law !
All technologies have up All technologies have up- -scaling problems ! scaling problems !
41
3.1 3.1 Aircraft Aircraft Assisted Assisted Launch Launch
Advantages Advantages Additional velocity Additional velocity
Reduced Air Drag Reduced Air Drag
Problem Areas Problem Areas
Separation is difficult for a big rocket Separation is difficult for a big rocket
Supersonic speeds and high altitudes Supersonic speeds and high altitudes
are a costly technology are a costly technology
Present Technology Present Technology
Pegasus on Boeing 747 Pegasus on Boeing 747
(Speed 255 m/s, altitude 13 km) (Speed 255 m/s, altitude 13 km)
42
3.1 3.1 Catapults Catapults
Problem Areas Problem Areas Very high velocities for orbit insertion (2,000 Very high velocities for orbit insertion (2,000 100,000 g!): 100,000 g!):
humans require max. 3 g (very long tubes), special hardware humans require max. 3 g (very long tubes), special hardware
protection against high accelerations (costs!) protection against high accelerations (costs!)
Heat shields: reduce payload capacity Heat shields: reduce payload capacity
l
v
a
=
2
2
Catapult Catapult
300 m/s require 1.5 km tube at 3 g 300 m/s require 1.5 km tube at 3 g
100 m long gun for v=8,000 m/s requires 100 m long gun for v=8,000 m/s requires
32,600 g! 32,600 g!
8
43
3.1 3.1 Gun Gun Launch Launch
Classical Gun Classical Gun
Gas Gun Gas Gun
Typical: 3,500 K and 3,500 bar Typical: 3,500 K and 3,500 bar
Accelerations are Accelerations are withing withing 10,000 10,000 40,000 (not 40,000 (not
humans rated !) humans rated !)
Long tubes used in WW I (Big Bertha 120 kg Long tubes used in WW I (Big Bertha 120 kg
at 40 km) and during 1960s High Altitude at 40 km) and during 1960s High Altitude
Research Program (HARP) Research Program (HARP)
HARP record: 85 kg projectile to 180 km HARP record: 85 kg projectile to 180 km
Maximum velocity: 3 km/s (limited by Maximum velocity: 3 km/s (limited by
molecular weight of explosives) molecular weight of explosives)
Circumvents velocity limitation Circumvents velocity limitation
Reduced pressure of 1,000 bar due to Reduced pressure of 1,000 bar due to
continuous injection (problem for very continuous injection (problem for very
long tubes long tubes
Largest gun at Lawrence Largest gun at Lawrence Livermoore Livermoore
National Laboratory with 5.8 kg to 2.77 National Laboratory with 5.8 kg to 2.77
km/s km/s
44
3.1 HARP 3.1 HARP Gun Gun
Constructor: Gerald Bull Constructor: Gerald Bull
Contracted by Iraq in 1980s to Contracted by Iraq in 1980s to
develop Project Babylon (put 2,000 kg develop Project Babylon (put 2,000 kg
projectile into 200 km orbit at 600$/kg) projectile into 200 km orbit at 600$/kg)
Assassinated by Israelis (consultancy Assassinated by Israelis (consultancy
for Scud missiles !) for Scud missiles !)
45
3.1 3.1 Gun Gun Launch Launch
Ram Accelerators Ram Accelerators
Pneumatic Catapult Pneumatic Catapult
Experiments were done with Experiments were done with
4.29 kg to 1.48 km/s 4.29 kg to 1.48 km/s
Different mixing rations lead to Different mixing rations lead to
increase of speed and higher increase of speed and higher
exit velocities exit velocities
Lower end closed and upper end Lower end closed and upper end
vented vented
Difference in altitude of 2.1 km results Difference in altitude of 2.1 km results
in pressure difference of 0.25 bar in pressure difference of 0.25 bar
Accelerations of 1.5 g and 300 m/s exit Accelerations of 1.5 g and 300 m/s exit
velocity velocity
46
3.1 3.1 Rail Rail Gun Gun
W I B F =
L F
mv
=
2
2
m
LW
I
m
FL
v
0
2 2
= =
BL
V
v =
max
Simple EM accelerator Simple EM accelerator
Developed for the SDI program Developed for the SDI program
Force on Projectile Force on Projectile Exit Velocity Exit Velocity
Kinetic Energy Kinetic Energy
Magnetic Energy Magnetic Energy
gained along the Rail gained along the Rail
Geometry & Mass Geometry & Mass
Back induced Back induced
Current Limitation Current Limitation
Efficiencies 40 Efficiencies 40 70% 70%
2 kg to 4 km/s with L=6 m and W=5 cm 2 kg to 4 km/s with L=6 m and W=5 cm
6.5 million Ampere 6.5 million Ampere single shot! single shot!
Lower current with superconductors Lower current with superconductors
Circuit Voltage Circuit Voltage
47
3.1 3.1 Mass Mass Driver Driver
Electromagnets stacked together Electromagnets stacked together
Conductive projectile (+ permanent magnet can increase force) Conductive projectile (+ permanent magnet can increase force)
Sequence of coil energizing can be computer controlled Sequence of coil energizing can be computer controlled
Principle Principle Experiment Experiment 340 gram to 410 m/s 340 gram to 410 m/s
Pros Pros Efficiencies 90% (superconducting coils) Efficiencies 90% (superconducting coils)
Acceleration levels can be controlled (humans possible) Acceleration levels can be controlled (humans possible)
De De- -Acceleration is possible in case of problems Acceleration is possible in case of problems
Up Up- -Scaling seems to be more easy Scaling seems to be more easy
Seems to be ideal for use on Moon and other low gravity bodies! Seems to be ideal for use on Moon and other low gravity bodies!
(e.g. Fusion fuel delivery to Space Station, etc.) (e.g. Fusion fuel delivery to Space Station, etc.) 48
3.1 3.1 Magnetic Magnetic Levitation Levitation
Combination of superconducting levitation and mass driver Combination of superconducting levitation and mass driver
Spin Spin Off from train developments (e.g. Off from train developments (e.g. Transrapid Transrapid) )
NASA Prototype aiming 300 m/s at 3g NASA Prototype aiming 300 m/s at 3g
Maglifter Maglifter
9
49
3.1 Ultra High Towers 3.1 Ultra High Towers
Ultra Ultra- -High Towers (Space Elevator) High Towers (Space Elevator)
Launching outside the atmosphere (> 50 km) can reduce Launching outside the atmosphere (> 50 km) can reduce v by 1 v by 1- -2 km/s 2 km/s
Materials (?): Graphite Materials (?): Graphite- -epoxy construction / Carbon epoxy construction / Carbon Nanotubes Nanotubes
Skyhook: Elevator from GEO to Earth Skyhook: Elevator from GEO to Earth
Might be a very good idea for small moons Might be a very good idea for small moons Invented by Sir Arthur C. Clarke Invented by Sir Arthur C. Clarke
50
3.2 3.2 Advanced Advanced Drag Drag Reduction Reduction
Traditional methods try to shape surfaces to minimize turbulence Traditional methods try to shape surfaces to minimize turbulences s
Best concept obviously is to reduce air flow towards the vehicle Best concept obviously is to reduce air flow towards the vehicle
Surface Surface- -Charged Vehicles Charged Vehicles
Close to the surface air molecules are slightly positive, at hig Close to the surface air molecules are slightly positive, at higher altitudes her altitudes
negative (solar radiation) negative (solar radiation)
Patent by H. Dudley (1963): Charged model rockets could increase Patent by H. Dudley (1963): Charged model rockets could increase their their
maximum altitude by 500 maximum altitude by 500- -600% 600%
51
3.2 3.2 Energy Energy Spike Spike
Reduction Reduction of Drag of Drag by by Transfering Transfering Heat Heat Exchange to Exchange to Bow Bow Shock Shock initiated initiated by by
Plasma Plasma Discharge Discharge or or Laser/ Laser/Microwave Microwave Excitation Excitation
Enables Enables Mach 50 Mach 50 Atmospheric Atmospheric Speeds Speeds - - Significatly Significatly Reduces Reduces Re Re- -Entry Entry Thermal Thermal
Loads Loads
Russian Russian Skval Skval torpedo torpedo class class: rocket : rocket exhausts exhausts infront infront of of vehicle vehicle
52
3.2 3.2 Magnetohydrodynamic Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) (MHD) Propulsion Propulsion
Ionised Ionised Air Air Flow Flow can can be be Accelerated Accelerated / / Slowed Slowed down down by by Electric Electric Energy Energy using using
MHD MHD
Energy Energy Transfers Transfers with with Ambient Ambient Environment Environment are are Possible Possible
53
3.2 MHD 3.2 MHD Physics Physics
( ) B l I F
L
v v v
=
( ) B l
R
P
F
L
v v v
=
Force Produced Force Produced
Power Power Requriements Requriements
Ohms Law Ohms Law
Resistance: Needs to be as low as Resistance: Needs to be as low as
possible for high thrusts possible for high thrusts
Heat Heat up of air up of air plasma plasma
Alkali metal Alkali metal seeding seeding (e.g. (e.g. Cesium Cesium, ,
Gallium) to Gallium) to increase increase ionization ionization fraction fraction
and and lower lower required required temperatures temperatures
Example Example
Ariane Ariane 5 lift off thrust 6.7 MN 5 lift off thrust 6.7 MN
10% 10% increase increase in in I I
Sp Sp
P=17 MW ! P=17 MW !
l=1 m, l=1 m,
B=20 T (Superconducting Magnets) B=20 T (Superconducting Magnets)
54
3.4 MHD 3.4 MHD Energy Energy Bypass Bypass
Air Ionisation Air Ionisation by by Laser/ Laser/Microwave Microwave
Advanced Advanced Drag Drag Reduction Reduction
Velocity Velocity Decrease Decrease to to Enhance Enhance
Combustion Combustion Efficiency Efficiency
Velocity Velocity Increase Increase by by Energy Energy from from
Decrease Decrease
Russian AJAX Concept Russian AJAX Concept
Calculations show realistic 20% Calculations show realistic 20%
increase in increase in I I
sp sp
at Mach 12 at Mach 12
10
55
Nuclear Nuclear Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems
MeV 7 . 17
4
2
3
1
2
1
+ + + n He T D
+ +
56
4. 4. Nuclear Nuclear Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems
10
1
10
3
10
5
10
7
10
9
10
11
Proton-Antiproton
Annihilation
Deuterium-Tritium
Fusion
U
235
Fission
O
2
/H
2
Chemical
I
d
e
a
l

E
n
e
r
g
y

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
k
J
/
g
]
Fusion Fusion Fission Fission
Energy Gain Energy Gain E=mc E=mc
2 2
> 9 order of > 9 order of magnitude magnitude higher higher energy energy density density than than chemical chemical
High High energy energy density density leads leads to to very very high high specific specific impulse impulse
Involves Involves very very small small quantities quantities of of mass mass low low thrust thrust ( (needs needs working working fluid fluid) )
Enables Enables manned manned solar system solar system exploration exploration NOW NOW! !
MeV 200 2
* 94
37
* 140
55
235
92
+ + + + n Rb Cs U n
Fission Example Fission Example
+ +
57
4.2.1 NERVA 4.2.1 NERVA Program Program
18,150 kg 6,800 kg Total Engine Mass
820 s 825 s Specific Impulse
1,112 kN 333 kN Thrust
129 kg/s 42 kg/s Mass Flow Rate
4,500 MW 1,500 MW Power
Phoebus Series NRX Series
US Atomic Energy Commission & NASA US Atomic Energy Commission & NASA
Space Nuclear Propulsion Office (SNPO) Space Nuclear Propulsion Office (SNPO)
Aerojet Aerojet Westinghouse Westinghouse
1961 1961
Nuclear Engine Nuclear Engine
For Rocket Vehicle For Rocket Vehicle
Application Application
Based Based on on experience experience with with KIWI and ROVER KIWI and ROVER program program
from from Los Alamos (1955) Los Alamos (1955)
Directed Directed towards towards manned manned exploration exploration (Moon, Mars) (Moon, Mars)
Test Test firings firings at at Nuclear Nuclear Rocket Rocket Development Development Station in Station in
Nevada Nevada
NRX NRX developed developed up to up to
engineering engineering level level
Test at September 1969 Test at September 1969
lastet 3 lastet 3 hours hours 48 48 minutes minutes at at
full full thrust thrust level level (333 kN!) (333 kN!)
Program stopped in 1971 Program stopped in 1971
after 2.4 billion US$ after 2.4 billion US$ 58
4.2.2 Solid 4.2.2 Solid Core Core
Fissionable Fissionable material: material: Uraniun Uraniun carbide carbide
Coated Coated by by Niobium to Niobium to protect protect from from
corrision corrision
Hydrogen Hydrogen ( (or or Ammonium Ammonium) ) working working
fluid fluid
59
4.2.2 Solid 4.2.2 Solid Core Core NERVA Rocket NERVA Rocket Firing Firing
60
4.2.2 Solid 4.2.2 Solid Core Core NERVA Rocket NERVA Rocket Firing Firing
11
61
4.2.2 PLUTO 4.2.2 PLUTO Nuclear Nuclear Ramjet Ramjet
Lawrence Lawrence Livermoore Livermoore National Laboratory National Laboratory
Develop Nuclear Ramjet to Counter Soviet Anti Develop Nuclear Ramjet to Counter Soviet Anti- -Missile Threat Missile Threat
1957 1957
Mounted Mounted on on Railtrack Railtrack
1961 Tory 1961 Tory- -IIA IIA fired fired for for a a few few seconds seconds
at at fraction fraction of of full full power power
1964 Tory 1964 Tory- -IIC IIC fired fired at at full full power (513 power (513
MW) at a MW) at a thrust thrust of 155 kN of 155 kN for for five five
minutes minutes ! !
Project Project stopped stopped shortly shortly aftwards aftwards
Revolution Revolution for for RBCC Launcher! RBCC Launcher!
62
4.2.2 4.2.2 Particle Particle- -Bed Bed- -Nuclear Nuclear Reactor Reactor
Nuclear Fuel Nuclear Fuel
Fuel Flow Fuel Flow Developed Developed in in late late 1980s (Project 1980s (Project
Timberwind Timberwind) )
Higher Higher Surface Surface Area Area Higher Higher Power Power
Density Density, Compact Design , Compact Design
Specific Specific Impulse Impulse 1000 s 1000 s
Thrust Thrust- -to to- -Weight Weight Ratio 30:1 (45:1) Ratio 30:1 (45:1)
Thrust Thrust 180 kN 180 kN
63
4.2.2 Project Prometheus 4.2.2 Project Prometheus
Nuclear Propulsion Initiative Nuclear Propulsion Initiative
Project Prometheus Project Prometheus
2002 2002
2003 2003
Radioisotope Systems Radioisotope Systems Nuclear Fission Based Systems Nuclear Fission Based Systems
Nuclear Thermal Propulsion Nuclear Thermal Propulsion Nuclear Electric Propulsion Nuclear Electric Propulsion
Jupiter Icy Moon Jupiter Icy Moon Orbiter Orbiter
(JIMO) (JIMO)
64
4.2.2 JIMO 4.2.2 JIMO Spacecraft Spacecraft
Launch Launch > 2012 > 2012
Provide Provide in in- -orbit orbit v=40 km/s ! v=40 km/s !
65
4.2.2 4.2.2 Russian Russian Activities Activities
Nuclear Nuclear Propulsion Propulsion Program Program initiated initiated 1954 1954
Late Late 1960s, Prototype 1960s, Prototype Developed Developed ( (Thrust Thrust 36 kN, 36 kN, Isp Isp 920 s, Time of Operation 1 h) 920 s, Time of Operation 1 h)
Testing Testing continued continued on on various various test test stands stands between between 1978 1978- -1981 1981
More More than than 30 30 satellites satellites equipped equipped with with nuclear nuclear reactor reactor
Topaz Topaz with with 5 kW 5 kW flown flown in 1987 in 1987- -1988 1988
Used Used together together with with electric electric propulsion propulsion ! !
66
4.2.2/3 Solid / Liquid 4.2.2/3 Solid / Liquid Core Core
Solid Core Solid Core
Liquid Core Liquid Core
Material Material contraints contraints: max. I : max. I
sp sp
=900 s =900 s
Fuel Fuel and thruster and thruster can can be be launched launched
separately separately
SSTO Launcher SSTO Launcher with with solid solid core core
nuclear nuclear rocket ( rocket (like like NERVA): NERVA): Payload Payload
capability capability 37% 37%
Liquid Liquid nuclear nuclear fuel fuel in in rotating rotating drum drum
configuration configuration
Working Working fluid fluid can can be be heated heated above above
nuclear nuclear fuel fuel melting melting point point
Max. Max. I I
sp sp
= 1,300 = 1,300 1,500 s 1,500 s
Losses Losses of of nuclear nuclear fuel fuel with with working working
fluid fluid
12
67
Gas Core Gas Core
4.2.4/5 Gas 4.2.4/5 Gas Core Core, Fission Fragment , Fission Fragment
Fission Fragment Fission Fragment
Nuclear Nuclear fuel fuel contained contained in in high high- -temperature temperature plasma plasma
Radiant Radiant energy energy is is transmitted transmitted to to working working fluid fluid
Liquid Liquid hydrogen hydrogen is is used used also also for for cooling cooling nozzle nozzle / / plasma plasma
container container
Max. I Max. I
sp sp
=3,000 =3,000 7,000 s 7,000 s
No No working working fluid fluid ( (I I
sp sp
close close to to
speed speed of light) of light)
Nuclear Nuclear products products ionized ionized due due to to
radiation radiation
Directed Directed through through magnetic magnetic fields fields
68
4.2.6 4.2.6 Improvements Improvements
LOX LOX- -Augmented Nuclear Augmented Nuclear
Thermal Rocket (LANTR) Thermal Rocket (LANTR)
Induction Heating Induction Heating
Oxygen Oxygen can can be be used used as an as an afterburner afterburner
Increases Increases thrust thrust and and reduces reduces I I
sp sp
(H (H
2 2
O O is is heavier heavier) )
Provides Provides easy easy thrust thrust modulation modulation capability capability
Oxygen Oxygen can can be be collected collected during during the the mission e.g. mission e.g. from from moon moon material material or or dissociation dissociation
from from CO CO
2 2
from from the the Marsian Marsian atmosphere atmosphere
67 67 kN kN at 940 s at 940 s 184 184 kN kN at 647 s at 647 s
LANTR Mode LANTR Mode
(oxidizer (oxidizer- -fuel ratio 3) fuel ratio 3)
69
4.2.6 4.2.6 Nuclear Nuclear Pulse Rocket Pulse Rocket
Project ORION Project ORION
Better Better energy energy yield yield utilization utilization
Spaceship Spaceship becomes becomes working working
fluid fluid
Shock Shock absorbers absorbers needed needed to to
handle handle acceleration acceleration loads loads
Studied Studied by by NASA in 1960 NASA in 1960' 's s
10 m 10 m diameter diameter, 21 m , 21 m long long
585 585 tons tons of of weight weight
2000 2000 atomic atomic bombs bombs required required
for for 250 250 days days round round trip trip to Mars to Mars
Subscale Subscale tests tests with with chemical chemical
explosives explosives proved proved concept concept
Stopped Stopped due due to to political political
reasons reasons
Project ORION Project ORION
70
4.3 Radioisotope 4.3 Radioisotope Nuclear Nuclear Rocket Rocket
Heat Heat produced produced by by nuclear nuclear decay decay (e.g. (e.g. from from Plutonium) Plutonium)
similar similar to RTG power to RTG power generators generators
Typical Typical temperatures temperatures 1,500 1,500 2,000 2,000 C (I C (I
sp sp
=700 =700 800 s) 800 s)
5 kW 5 kW reactor reactor, 13.6 kg, F=1.5 N , 13.6 kg, F=1.5 N
Alternative Alternative fuel fuel: : Pollonium Pollonium (half (half- -life 138 life 138 days days) )
TRW TRW demonstrated demonstrated Po Po- -Thruster 65 Thruster 65 hours hours test in 1965 ! test in 1965 !
71
4.4 Fusion 4.4 Fusion Propulsion Propulsion
MeV 7 . 17
4
2
3
1
2
1
+ + + n He T D
Fusion Example Fusion Example
+ +
Fission Fission requires requires neutrons neutrons to to make make the the core core unstable unstable fusion fusion requires requires to to
overcome overcome electrostatic electrostatic repulsion repulsion of of two two nuclear nuclear cores cores and and maintain maintain it it
This This reaction reaction needs needs about about 10 10 keV keV ( ( temperature temperature of 75 of 75 million million Kelvin) Kelvin)
Can Can be be achieved achieved by by: : electromagnetic electromagnetic induction induction, , laser laser / / particle particle bombardment bombardment
Technical Technical difficulty difficulty is is magnetic magnetic confinement confinement: : plasma plasma must must not not touch touch chamber chamber
walls walls
Uncontrolled Uncontrolled fusion fusion: : hydrogen hydrogen fusion fusion bombs bombs
Controlled Controlled fusion fusion: JET (Joint European : JET (Joint European Torous Torous) ) achieved achieved first first major Deuterium major Deuterium- -
Tritium Tritium reaction reaction (1991), (1991), later later 60% of 60% of initial initial energy energy from from fusion fusion for for 1 1 minute minute (1997) (1997)
< 1 % < 1 % energy energy gain gain is is possible possible in in many many designs designs) )
72
4.4.1/2 4.4.1/2 Inertial Inertial / / Magnetic Magnetic Confinement Confinement Fusion Fusion
Inertial Confinement Inertial Confinement
Fusion (ICF) Fusion (ICF)
Magnetic Confinement Magnetic Confinement
Fusion (MCF) Fusion (MCF)
Pellet Pellet with with fusion fusion fuel fuel
Outer Outer shell shell with with HEDM HEDM
Pellets Pellets inertia inertia confines confines plasma plasma long long enough enough
MICF: Additional metallic MICF: Additional metallic shell shell and and magetic magetic
field field to to confine confine plasma plasma longer longer ( (Magnetically Magnetically Insulated Insulated ICF) ICF)
Magnetic Magnetic bottle bottle confines confines plasma plasma (e.g. JET) (e.g. JET)
Electromagnetic Electromagnetic induction induction for for heating heating
Confine Confine, , compress compress and and direct direct plasma plasma in in one one process process
( (magnetic magnetic pinch pinch) ) similar similar to MPD thruster to MPD thruster
Dense Dense Plasma Focus Thruster Plasma Focus Thruster
13
73
4.4.3 4.4.3 Inertial Inertial Electrostatic Electrostatic Confinement Confinement Fusion Fusion
Electrostatic Electrostatic fields fields used used to to confine confine plasma plasma
Fusion Fusion fuel fuel: D : D
+ +
, T , T
+ +
, He , He
3 3
+ +
Mesh Mesh at at 100 kV, 100 kV, outer outer shell shell at at ground ground
Accelerated Accelerated ions ions have have enough enough energy energy to to perform perform fusion fusion reactions reactions
Plasma Plasma can can escape escape from from hole in hole in mesh mesh
Small Small scale scale IEC IEC fusion fusion devices devices are are sold sold as portable as portable
neutron neutron sources sources ( (energy energy gain gain <1%), <1%),
upscaling upscaling is is investigated investigated! !
74
4.5 Antimatter 4.5 Antimatter Propulsion Propulsion
MeV 511 2 + +
+
e e
0
6 . 1 , 2 . 3 + +
+ +
p p
Collision Collision of matter of matter- -antimatter antimatter can can produce produce radiation radiation and/ and/or or matter and/ matter and/or or
antimatter antimatter
Highest Highest energy energy density density known known up to up to now now
Produced Produced as as by by- -product product in in particle particle accelerators accelerators (e.g. CERN) (e.g. CERN) from from slowing slowing down of down of
particles particles at at relativistic relativistic speeds speeds ( (present present costs costs 10 10 cents cents / / anti anti- -protons protons, 10 , 10
12 12
/ / year year !) !)
Trapping Trapping and and storing storing anti anti- -matter matter requried requried very very high high vacuum vacuum conditions conditions, and , and
cooling cooling to a to a few few Kelvin Kelvin
Penning Penning Trap Trap: : Storage Storage capability capability
10 10
10 10
anti anti- -protons protons (10 (10 femtograms femtograms) )
Not all anti Not all anti- -matter matter interesting interesting for for
propulsion propulsion: :
9 9
Due Due to to very very high high costs costs and and low low
production production rate rate not not feasible feasible today today! !
Propulsion Propulsion devices devices require require
10 10
20 20
anti anti- -protons protons
75
Compatible Compatible with with present present production production rate rate
Anti Anti- -proton proton catalyzed catalyzed fusion fusion produces produces
6 6 times times more more neutrons neutrons
Concept Concept ICAN ICAN under under study study similar similar to to
Project ORION at Penn State University Project ORION at Penn State University
Anti Anti- -Proton Catalyzed Fission/Fusion Proton Catalyzed Fission/Fusion
Direct Anti Direct Anti- -Matter Propulsion Matter Propulsion
Similar Similar to Solid to Solid Core Core to to heat heat up up
working working fluid fluid
Anti Anti- -matter matter can can also also be be injected injected into into
working working fluid fluid ( (I I
sp sp
2,500 s) 2,500 s)
Magnetic Magnetic confinement confinement heating heating ( (I I
sp sp

100,000 s) 100,000 s)
Only Only charged charged pion pion particles particles
4.5 Antimatter 4.5 Antimatter Propulsion Propulsion
76
Electric Electric Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
Y [m]
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
Z
[
m
]
5.20E+16
1.55E+16
4.65E+15
1.39E+15
4.17E+14
1.25E+14
3.73E+13
1.12E+13
3.34E+12
Total Ion Density [m
-3
]
Solar Array
SMART-1 Spacecraft
Yoke
77
5. Electric 5. Electric Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems
Electric Power Electric Power from from Spacecraft Spacecraft
Energy Energy stored stored in in Propellant Propellant
Exhaust Exhaust Velocity Velocity limited limited by by
Chemical Chemical Reaction Reaction Energy Energy Release Release
Electrothermal Electrothermal Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Electrostatic Electrostatic
Exhaust Exhaust Velocity Velocity limited limited by by
Power Power Available Available on on Spacecraft Spacecraft
78
Already Already described described by by Tsiolkovski Tsiolkovski, Goddard, and , Goddard, and Oberth Oberth
First thruster ( First thruster (Arcjet Arcjet) ) built built by by Vladimir Vladimir Glushko Glushko in 1929 in 1929
at at the the Gas Gas Dynamics Dynamics Laboratory in Leningrad Laboratory in Leningrad
Always Always believed believed that that there there is is never never enough enough power power available available
on on spacecraft spacecraft, Ernst , Ernst Stuhlinger Stuhlinger' 's s book book Ion Ion Propulsion Propulsion for for
Spaceflight Spaceflight (1964) (1964) stimulated stimulated again again research research
Space Space Electric Rocket Test Electric Rocket Test
(SERT (SERT- -1) in 1964 (US) 1) in 1964 (US)
Zond Zond 2 2 Interplanetary Interplanetary Mission Mission
to Mars in 1964 ( to Mars in 1964 (Russia Russia) )
P m
F
& 2
2
=
2
Pressure Initial
2
2 F P m
F
+
=
&
Small Small thrusters thrusters with with

pressurized pressurized gas gas feeding feeding
14
79
1 2 kN < 60% 3,000 30,000 s 1 10 MW Hydrogen VASIMR
1 200 N 25% 2,000 5,000 s 1 4000 kW Ammonia,
Hydrogen,
Lithium
MPD magnetic
1 100 mN 5% 1,000 s 1 200 W Teflon PPT Electro-
0 100 mN 10
7
s 1 MW Any kind Laser
Accelerated
0.001 1 mN 500 1,500 s 5 50 W Glycerol Colloid
0.001 1 mN 30 90% 8,000 12,000 s 10 150 W Indium,
Cesium
FEEP
80 200 mN 50% 1,500 2,000 s 1.5 5 kW Xenon Hall
10 200 mN 60 80% 3,000 s 0.5 2.5 kW Xenon Ion Electrostatic
0.2 2 N 35% 500 2,000 s 0.3 100
kW
Hydrazin,
Hydrogen
Arcjet
0.1 0.5 N 80% 300 s 0.5 1.5 kW Hydrazin,
Ammonia
Resistojet Electrothermal
Thrust Efficiency Specific
Impulse
Power Propellant
Power Power Processing Processing Unit (PPU) Unit (PPU) adds adds complexity complexity, power , power losses losses and and weight weight
80
Thrust Thrust = = Massflow Massflow * Velocity * Velocity
mN mN - - MN High 1.000 MN High 1.000 - - 3.000 m/s 3.000 m/s
N N - - N N Low Low 20.000 20.000 - - 100.000 m/s 100.000 m/s
Chemical Propulsion Chemical Propulsion
Electric Propulsion Electric Propulsion
Same Same thrust thrust level level needs needs only only up to 10% of up to 10% of propellant propellant ! !
Typical Typical Chemial Chemial Propellant Propellant Mass Mass Fractions Fractions: :
20% (LEO), 55% (GEO), 85% ( 20% (LEO), 55% (GEO), 85% (Planetary Planetary) )
Drastically Drastically lower lower Spacecraft Spacecraft Mass Mass & & Costs Costs
Increase Increase Transponders Transponders / / Revenues Revenues
Increase Increase Lifetime Lifetime
Mission Mission Enabling Enabling Technology Technology using using
Ultraprecise Ultraprecise Micro Micro- -Newton Newton Thrusters Thrusters
(Drag Free, (Drag Free, Scientific Scientific/Earth Observation, /Earth Observation,
Small Small Satellites Satellites) )
81
5.1 5.1 Electrothermal Electrothermal
Resistojet Resistojet
Propellant Propellant velocity velocity can can be be calculated calculated similar similar to to chemical chemical propulsion propulsion systems ! systems !
Hydrazine Hydrazine, , Ammonia Ammonia
300 s 300 s
0.1 0.1 - - 0.5 N 0.5 N
0.5 0.5 - - 1.5 kW 1.5 kW
I I
Sp Sp
Thrust Thrust
Power Power
Temperature Temperature limited limited by by heat heat exchanger exchanger
( (Tungsten Tungsten) ) max. 3000 K max. 3000 K
Used Used for for attitude attitude control control, , competes competes
against against monopropellant monopropellant (I (I
sp sp
=150 =150- -250) 250)
and and cold cold gas (I gas (I
sp sp
=80 s) =80 s) thrusters thrusters
Also Also waste waste water water can can be be used used ( (space space
station station) )
Efficiency Efficiency: 80% : 80%
General General Dynamics Dynamics Resistojets Resistojets (Iridium) (Iridium) 82
5.1.2 5.1.2 Arcjet Arcjet
Hydrazine Hydrazine, , Hydrogen Hydrogen
500 500 2,000 s 2,000 s
0.2 0.2 - - 2 N 2 N
0.3 0.3 - - 100 kW 100 kW
I I
Sp Sp
Thrust Thrust
Power Power
Propellant Propellant swirled swirled into into chamber chamber
( (increases increases time time for for heating heating) )
Either Either low low voltage voltage (100 V) and high (100 V) and high
current current ( (hundreds hundreds of A) of A) discharge discharge or or
high high- -frequency frequency high high voltage voltage discharge discharge
Very Very high high local local heating heating along along center center line line
( (fully fully ionization ionization) )
Strong Strong temperature temperature gradient gradient towards towards
walls walls
Cathode Cathode erosion erosion limits limits lifetime lifetime to to
typically typically 1,500 1,500 hours hours
Also Also microwave microwave and AC and AC discharges discharges
Commercial Commercial Arcjets Arcjets used used e.g. on e.g. on
Lookheed Lookheed Martin Martin Series Series 7000 7000 Comsat Comsat
83
5.1.3 Solar / Laser / 5.1.3 Solar / Laser / Microwave Microwave Thermal Thermal
External External energy energy source source: : Sunlight Sunlight, , laser laser or or microwave microwave
Laser / Laser / microwave microwave require require Earth Earth infrastructure infrastructure and and can can only only be be used used effectively effectively in in
LEO LEO
Sun / Sun / Hydrogen Hydrogen produce produce I I
sp sp
between between 800 800 1,200 s and 1,200 s and several several hundred hundred mN mN
Good Good concept concept for for LEO to GEO LEO to GEO transfers transfers in in about about 20 20 days days with with little little propellant propellant
( (significant significant cost cost reduction reduction) )
Low Low mass mass inflatable inflatable reflectors reflectors are are presently presently under under study study
Electric Propulsion Electric Propulsion Beamed Energy Propulsion Beamed Energy Propulsion
84
5.1.3 Solar Thermal 5.1.3 Solar Thermal Upperstage Upperstage
15
85
5.2 5.2 Electrostatic Electrostatic Propulsion Propulsion
m
qU
v
2
=
q
m
I m = &
q
mU
I F
2
=
m
q
q
m
I I
sp sp
scales scales with with Thrust Thrust scales scales with with
High High I I
sp sp
: : Multi Multi- -ionized ionized, light , light ions ions High High thrust thrust: : Singly Singly charged charged, , heavy heavy ions ions
More More important important
Ion Thruster Ion Thruster Ionization Ionization through through electron electron bombardment bombardment of of high high- -frequency frequency
excitement excitement
High High I I
sp sp
(2,500 s) and (2,500 s) and thrusts thrusts (up to 200 mN at (up to 200 mN at several several kW) kW)
Propellant Propellant Cesium Cesium, Mercury ( , Mercury (heavy heavy, , low low
1 1
st st
ionization ionization potential, high potential, high
2 2
nd nd
ionization ionization potential) potential)
Xenon ( Xenon (heavy heavy inert inert gas) gas)
Contamination Contamination, ,
Toxity Toxity
86
5.2.1 5.2.1 Electron Electron Bombardment Bombardment Thruster Thruster
Invented Invented by by Prof. Prof. Kaufman Kaufman
Space Space charge charge limits limits grid grid size size
A
d
U
m
q
I
2
2 / 3
0
1
9
4
=
20 cm 20 cm for for 20 20 N, N,
40 cm 40 cm for for 200 200 N N
Charge Charge- -Exchange Exchange ions ions cause cause
grid grid sputtering sputtering (Mo, C) (Mo, C)
Lifetime Lifetime limitation limitation
( (deacceleration deacceleration grid grid) )
87
Thermionic Thermionic electrons electrons further further
ionize ionize propellant propellant (and (and create create
more more electrons electrons) )
Ions Ions attracted attracted by by cathode cathode
( (further further heating heating) )
Outside Outside CEX CEX plasma plasma is is formed formed
Built Built at NASA Lewis in 1960 at NASA Lewis in 1960' 's s
Flown Flown on SERT on SERT- -I (1964), SERT I (1964), SERT- -II (1970, II (1970,
operated operated 11 11 years years, 5,792 , 5,792 hours hours of of
thrusting thrusting) and ATS ) and ATS- -6 (1974) 6 (1974) using using
Mercury/ Mercury/Cesium Cesium
NSTAR thruster on NSTAR thruster on Deep Deep Space Space 1 1
(Xenon, 1998) (Xenon, 1998)
Also Also used used by by Hughes (HP 601 HP Hughes (HP 601 HP
satellite satellite bus bus, XIPS) , XIPS)
1.5 m 1.5 m diameter diameter, 200 kW , 200 kW 88 NASA NASA Deep Deep Space Space 1 1
First First Interplanetary Interplanetary EP EP
Mission ( Mission (Launched Launched 1998) 1998)
Target Target: : Comets Comets
Thruster Thruster Operated Operated > 200 h > 200 h
UK UK- -10 Thruster 10 Thruster
NSTAR Thruster NSTAR Thruster
First First commerical commerical satellite satellite PAS PAS- -5 5 launched launched in 1997 in 1997
ESA ARTEMIS ESA ARTEMIS satellite satellite is is equipped equipped with with RIT RIT- -10 and 10 and
UK UK- -10 thruster 10 thruster
Efficiencies Efficiencies towards towards 80% 80%
Presently Presently shift shift towards towards Hall Hall thrusters thrusters in in Telecom Telecom- -
Satellites Satellites ( (lower lower power) power)
89
5.2.1 5.2.1 Radiofrequency Radiofrequency Ion Thruster Ion Thruster
Invented Invented by by Prof. Loeb Prof. Loeb
No No hollow hollow cathode cathode needed needed! !
Lower Lower ionization ionization efficiencies efficiencies ( (overall overall efficiency efficiency 60%) 60%)
RIT RIT thrusters thrusters used used on ARTEMIS on ARTEMIS
RIT RIT- -10 Thruster 10 Thruster
90
5.2.2 Hall Thruster 5.2.2 Hall Thruster
Gridless Gridless, , Efficiency Efficiency 50% 50%
Lifetime Lifetime limitation limitation: Anode : Anode erosion erosion
Xenon Xenon
1,500 1,500 2,000 s 2,000 s
80 80 - - 200 200 N N
1.5 1.5 - - 5 kW 5 kW
I I
Sp Sp
Thrust Thrust
Power Power
16
91
Over Over 100 100 flights flights on on Russian Russian satellites satellites for for North North- -South South
Stationkeeping Stationkeeping
Low Low acceleration acceleration potential potential means means less less complex complex PPU PPU
Optimum Optimum specific specific impulse impulse of 1,500 s of 1,500 s for for telecom telecom
satellites satellites
SMART SMART- -1 will 1 will use use PPS PPS- -1350 Hall thruster 1350 Hall thruster for for
interplanetary interplanetary flight flight
SMART SMART- -1 1
92
93
5.2.3 5.2.3 Field Field Emission Thruster Emission Thruster
Indium, Indium, Cesium Cesium
8,000 8,000 12,000 s 12,000 s
0.001 0.001 - - 1 mN 1 mN
10 10 - - 150 W 150 W
I I
Sp Sp
Thrust Thrust
Power Power
94
Unique Unique: :
Ionization Ionization and and Acceleration Acceleration
in One in One Process Process
Indium, Indium, Cesium Cesium
8,000 8,000 12,000 s 12,000 s
0.001 0.001 - - 1 mN 1 mN
10 10 - - 150 W 150 W
I I
Sp Sp
Thrust Thrust
Power Power
95
In In- -FEEP Thruster Details FEEP Thruster Details
Thermal Thermal Insulation Insulation
Electrical Electrical Insulation Insulation
Mechanical Mechanical Interface Interface
Contains Contains Heater Heater and Indium and Indium
LMIS LMIS
Different Different Propellant Propellant Size Size Ranging Ranging from from 0.22 0.22
15 15 grams grams, 30 , 30 grams grams in in manufacturing manufacturing
( (available available Sept. 2002) Sept. 2002)
15 15 grams grams = 400 Ns total = 400 Ns total impulse impulse
96
Power Power- -To To- -Thrust Thrust Ratio Ratio
60 60 75 W/mN ( 75 W/mN ( low low
thrust thrust levels levels) )
Electrical Electrical Efficiency Efficiency 99% 99%
Mass Mass Efficiency Efficiency 50% 50%
17
97
Austrian In Austrian In- -FEEP Technology FEEP Technology
Development of Indium Liquid Development of Indium Liquid- -Metal Metal- -Ion Ion- -Source (LMIS) Source (LMIS)
Mass Spectrometer Mass Spectrometer S/C Potential Control S/C Potential Control FEEP Thruster FEEP Thruster
20 years of 20 years of
development at development at
ARCS ... ARCS ...
10 years 10 years
involved in space involved in space
programs programs
Experiment Experiment Spacecraft Spacecraft Operation Time Operation Time
EFD EFD- -IE IE
PCD PCD
ASPOC ASPOC
ASPOC ASPOC- -II II
GEOTAIL GEOTAIL
EQUATOR EQUATOR- -S S
CLUSTER CLUSTER
CLUSTER CLUSTER- -II II
600 h ('92 600 h ('92 - - ) )
250 h ('98) 250 h ('98)
Launch Launch Failure Failure '96 '96
1700 h ('00 1700 h ('00 - - ) )
ASPOC Before ... ASPOC Before ...
... and After Launch Failure ... and After Launch Failure 98
Clustering Clustering Higher Higher Thrust Thrust
Conventional Clustering Conventional Clustering
Developed Developed within within GOCE GOCE Program Program
(Maximum (Maximum Thrust Thrust 650 N) 650 N)
Tests Start September 2002 Tests Start September 2002
Either Either Power Power Supply Supply - - Thruster Thruster or or
One Power One Power Supply Supply Thruster & Thruster &
Individual Individual Extractor Extractor Control Control
99
8 8 Tip Tip Crown Crown Emitter Emitter
Multicapillary Multicapillary Emitter Emitter
More Emissions Zones More Emissions Zones
per Thruster per Thruster
Full Prototype Full Prototype Tested Tested, ,
1 mN 1 mN Thrust Thrust Range Range Reached Reached
Multiemitter Multiemitter
100
Extractor Extractor Heater Heater
Extractor Extractor Heater Heater to to Evaporate Evaporate any any
Contamination Contamination
Heater Heater Successfully Successfully
Implemented Implemented in 2,000 in 2,000 Hours Hours
Lifetime Lifetime Test Test
Not Not Necessary Necessary for for Thrust Thrust < 2 N ! < 2 N !
101
Lifetime Lifetime Testing Testing
> 2,700 > 2,700 hours hours in in space space
4000 h 4000 h Endurance Endurance Test at 1.5 N Test at 1.5 N
820 820 hours hours at 15 N at 15 N
2,000 2,000 hours hours at 0 at 0- -54 N 54 N
5,000 h Test Starts in September 5,000 h Test Starts in September
2,000 h 2,000 h Enduranace Enduranace Test of 2 Thruster (out of 3) Test of 2 Thruster (out of 3)
102
World World- -first first direct direct thrust thrust measurement measurement in in
N N range range
Already Already fulfills fulfills challanging challanging LISA LISA thrust thrust
noise noise requirement requirement
18
103
8 8 Tip Tip Crown Crown Emitter Emitter Porous Porous Ring Emitter Ring Emitter Capillary Capillary Tube Emitter Tube Emitter
Blade Emitter Blade Emitter
104
ARCS In ARCS In- -FEEP FEEP Diagnostics Diagnostics
105
5.2.3 5.2.3 Field Field Emission Thruster / Emission Thruster / Neutralizers Neutralizers
Thermionic Thermionic cathode cathode: :
1.5 1.5 2 W/mA 2 W/mA
Field Field emission emission cathodes cathodes: :
10 mW/mA 10 mW/mA
106
5.2.4 5.2.4 Colloid Colloid Thruster Thruster
Similar Similar to FEEP to FEEP with with glycerol glycerol + +
additives additives as as propellant propellant
Extensively Extensively studied studied in 1960 in 1960' 's (TRW s (TRW
Dan Goldin!, NASA, ESA, MAI) Dan Goldin!, NASA, ESA, MAI)
Too Too high high acceleration acceleration potential potential for for
competing competing with with ion ion engines engines
Glycerol Glycerol + + additives additives
500 500 1,500 s 1,500 s
0.001 0.001 - - 1 mN 1 mN
5 5 - - 50 kW 50 kW
I I
Sp Sp
Thrust Thrust
Power Power
107
5.2.5 Laser 5.2.5 Laser Accelerated Accelerated Plasma Plasma Propulsion Propulsion
Currently Currently under under study study at University of Michigan at University of Michigan
Ultrashort Ultrashort laser laser ( (picoseconds picoseconds and and below below) ) with with very very high high intensities intensities ( (hundreds hundreds of of
Terrawatt Terrawatt) ) focused focused on a on a small small spot spot creates creates high high temperature temperature plasma plasma on on surface surface
Electrons Electrons at at relativistic relativistic speeds speeds penetrate penetrate material material generating generating very very high high electric electric
fields fields (GV/m) (GV/m) which which can can accelerate accelerate ions ions out of out of target target material material
State State- -of of- -the the- -art art laser laser (500 J (500 J with with 500 500 fs fs pulse pulse length length) ) performance performance would would be be 100 100
mN and 10 mN and 10
7 7
s s I I
sp sp
! !
Incredible Incredible potential potential problem problem is is to to get get laser laser infrastructure infrastructure into into space space
Requires Requires 1 MW 1 MW nuclear nuclear reactor reactor
Future Future lasers lasers will will offer offer > N > N thrust thrust capabilities capabilities
Any Any kind kind
10 10
7 7
s s
0 0- -100 mN 100 mN
1 MW 1 MW
I I
Sp Sp
Thrust Thrust
Power Power
108
5.3 5.3 Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Propulsion Propulsion
Magnetoplasmadynamic Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) Thruster (MPD) Thruster Ammonia Ammonia, , Hydrogen Hydrogen, Lithium , Lithium
2,000 2,000 5,000 s 5,000 s
1 1 200 N 200 N
1 1 4,000 kW 4,000 kW
I I
Sp Sp
Thrust Thrust
Power Power
19
109
5.3.1 MPD Thruster 5.3.1 MPD Thruster
Low Low voltage voltage / high / high current current discharge discharge ionizes ionizes propellant propellant
Self Self- -Field Field / / Applied Applied- -Field Field ( (coils coils, permanent , permanent magnets magnets) )
Lorentz Lorentz- -Force: Force: Thrust Thrust scales scales with with I I
2 2
( (velocity velocity, , mass mass flow flow) )
Also high Also high tempearture tempearture (2,500 (2,500 C) C) contributes contributes to to thrust thrust ( (one one order of order of magnitude magnitude
below below) )
Very Very high high thrusts thrusts, , capability capability to to transmit transmit very very high power high power loads loads, , efficiencies efficiencies 35 35- -70% 70%
Interesting Interesting candidate candidate for for manned manned Mars mission Mars mission
20 mN (1KW) 20 mN (1KW) quasi quasi- -
steady steady state state MPD MPD
flown flown by by ISAS in 1997 ISAS in 1997
110
5.3.2 5.3.2 Pulsed Pulsed Plasma Thruster Plasma Thruster
Teflon Teflon
1,000 s 1,000 s
1 1 100 mN 100 mN
1 1 200 W 200 W
I I
Sp Sp
Thrust Thrust
Power Power
Heat Heat transfer transfer from from discharge discharge
ablates ablates and and ionizes ionizes the the
propellant propellant
Typically Typically 1 1 3 Hz 3 Hz frequency frequency
each each producing producing hundreds hundreds of of N N
No warm up time, no No warm up time, no standby standby
power, no power, no propellant propellant tank and tank and
feedlines feedlines
Very Very cheap cheap and simple and simple
Disadvantage Disadvantage: : efficiencies efficiencies
5 5- -15% 15%
Flown Flown on Zond on Zond- -2 in 1964 ! 2 in 1964 !
111
5.3.2 5.3.2 Pulsed Pulsed Plasma Thruster Plasma Thruster
PPT PPT firing firing from from
General General Dynamics Dynamics 112
5.3.3 Variable 5.3.3 Variable I I
sp sp
Plasma Rocket (VASIMR) Plasma Rocket (VASIMR)
Hydrogen Hydrogen
3,000 3,000 30,000 s 30,000 s
1 1 2 kN 2 kN
1 1 10 MW 10 MW
I I
Sp Sp
Thrust Thrust
Power Power
Magnetic Magnetic field field to to confine confine plasma plasma and EM and EM energy energy to to
heat heat it it (RF (RF fields fields) )
Isp Isp can can be be changed changed by by RF power RF power
Efficiencies Efficiencies < 60% (TBC !) < 60% (TBC !)
Under Under study study at NASA JSC, at NASA JSC, prototype prototype shall shall be be
tested tested on on board board ISS ISS
113
5.3.4 5.3.4 Induced Induced Spacecraft Spacecraft Interactions Interactions
Fast Slow Slow Fast
Neutral Ion Neutral Ion + + Charge Charge- -Exchange Exchange Collision Collision: :
CEX Ion CEX Ion
Distribution Distribution
Potential Potential
Distribution Distribution
114
Possible Possible Hazards Hazards: :
Contamination Contamination, , Sputtering Sputtering and and
Erosion on Erosion on Spacecraft Spacecraft Surfaces Surfaces
Degradation of Solar Array Degradation of Solar Array
Influence Influence on on Measurements Measurements
(Ambient Plasma, ...) (Ambient Plasma, ...)
Spacecraft Spacecraft Charging Charging
Influence Influence on on Communication Communication
Lifetime Lifetime Reduction Reduction
... ...
20
115
Vacuum Vacuum Chamber Chamber Background Background
Pressure Pressure
Chamber Chamber Walls Walls
Neutralisation Neutralisation from from Secondary Secondary- -
Electrons Electrons, , Sputtering Sputtering, ... , ...
Ground Ground- -Testing Testing
Only Only Single Single- -Point Point Measurements Measurements
Very Very Expensive Expensive
Not Flexible Not Flexible
Space Space- -Measurements Measurements
Full Full Characterisation Characterisation of EP of EP
Influence Influence on on Spacecraft Spacecraft
Optimisation Optimisation of Experiments, of Experiments,
Missions Missions
Cheap Cheap and Flexible and Flexible
Comparison Comparison
Modelling Modelling and Simulation and Simulation
116
Test Test Satellites Satellites: :
ATS ATS- -6, SERT 6, SERT- -1, 2, (NASA) 1970s 1, 2, (NASA) 1970s
NSSK NSSK - - Spacecraft Spacecraft ( (Russia Russia) 1970s, 1980s ) 1970s, 1980s
NASA NASA Deep Deep Space Space 1 (1998) 1 (1998) ESA SMART ESA SMART- -1 (2002) 1 (2002)
117
Full Full Particle Particle / Hybrid Model / Hybrid Model
Ions/ Ions/Neutrals Neutrals as Computer as Computer Particles Particles
Electrons Electrons as as Fluid Fluid or or Particles Particles
3D 3D Particle Particle- -In In- -Cell Cell (PIC (PIC- -MCC) Code MCC) Code
Average Average Plasma Parameters to Plasma Parameters to Grid Grid
Structure Structure
Monte Monte- -Carlo Charge Carlo Charge- -Exchange Exchange
Collisions Collisions ( (Calculate Calculate Probability Probability) )
Environment Environment
Vacuum Vacuum - - Space Space
Grid Grid Size Size: 100x100x100 : 100x100x100
1,500,000 1,500,000 Computer Computer- -Particles Particles
Simulation Parameters Simulation Parameters
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

e
e e i
kT
e
n n n exp
Electron Electron Fluid Fluid vs vs
SOR Potential SOR Potential Solver Solver
Grid Grid Size Size: 40x40x40 : 40x40x40
300,000 300,000 Computer Computer- -Particles Particles
118
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
X [m]
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
Z
[m
]
5.67E+17
1.30E+17
2.99E+16
6.85E+15
1.57E+15
3.61E+14
8.28E+13
1.90E+13
4.36E+12
1.00E+12
Ion Density [m
-3
]
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
X [m]
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
Y
[m
]
1.24E+01
7.25E+00
4.24E+00
2.48E+00
1.45E+00
8.51E-01
4.98E-01
2.92E-01
1.71E-01
1.00E-01
Backflow Current Density Distribution to Surface [Am
-2
]
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
Y [m]
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
Z
[
m
]
5.20E+16
1.55E+16
4.65E+15
1.39E+15
4.17E+14
1.25E+14
3.73E+13
1.12E+13
3.34E+12
Total Ion Density [m
-3
]
Solar Array
SMART-1 Spacecraft
Yoke
119
120
6. 6. Micropropulsion Micropropulsion
Computer and Computer and microstructure microstructure is is advancing advancing Microspacecraft Microspacecraft requires requires
Micropropulsion Micropropulsion technology technology can can reduce reduce thrust thrust to to mass mass ratio ratio
Microsatellit Microsatellit (100 kg), (100 kg), Nanosatellite Nanosatellite (10 kg), (10 kg),
Picosatellite Picosatellite (1 kg) (1 kg)
Requires Requires MicroElectroMechanical MicroElectroMechanical Systems Systems
(MEMS) engineering (MEMS) engineering capabilities capabilities
Relatively Relatively new new area area investigating investigating drastic drastic reduction reduction of thruster of thruster size size and and mass mass
21
121
6.1 6.1 Chemical Chemical Micropropulsion Micropropulsion
Solid Solid Microthrusters Microthrusters
Micro Bi Micro Bi- -Propellant Thruster Propellant Thruster
Solid Solid propellant propellant heated heated and and microvalve microvalve is is
opened opened
Simple Simple concept concept digital digital microthrusters microthrusters: :
multitude multitude of of single single- -shot shot thrusters thrusters on on silicon silicon
chip chip (e.g. (e.g. from from Honeywell Honeywell: 10 : 10
6 6
thrusters thrusters on 10 on 10
cm cm wafer wafer, , each each can can provide provide 3 3 Ns, total Ns, total mass mass
2.4 g) 2.4 g)
Studied Studied at MIT and at MIT and Mechatronic Mechatronic (A) (A)
MIT MIT aims aims at 15 N and 5 g/s at 15 N and 5 g/s
Honeywell Honeywell / / Princton Princton Megapixel Thruster Megapixel Thruster
122
Cold Gas Thruster Cold Gas Thruster
Nitrogen Nitrogen fed fed through through valve valve and and nozzle nozzle
Valve Valve leakage leakage typicalle typicalle 10% 10%
MOOG MOOG built built 4.5 mN thruster 4.5 mN thruster with with 34.5 kPa 34.5 kPa
and and I I
sp sp
of 65 s (total of 65 s (total weight weight 7.34 g) 7.34 g)
MEMS MEMS version version under under study study in in Sweden Sweden
Cold Gas Thruster Cold Gas Thruster
4 mm
Microheater Microheater Higher Higher I I
sp sp
6.1 6.1 Chemical Chemical Micropropulsion Micropropulsion
123
6.2 Electric 6.2 Electric Micropropulsion Micropropulsion
Micro Ion Thruster Micro Ion Thruster
Low Power Hall Thruster Low Power Hall Thruster
Kaufmann thruster Kaufmann thruster with with 1 1 3 cm 3 cm range range under under
development development at University of Southern at University of Southern California California and and
JPL JPL
A A few few N N targeted targeted
Requires Requires field field emission emission technology and high technology and high
magnetic magnetic field field strengths strengths
4 mm 4 mm diameter diameter Hall thruster Hall thruster developed developed at MIT at MIT
1.8 mN, 865 s, 126 W and 6% 1.8 mN, 865 s, 126 W and 6% efficiency efficiency
50 W Hall 50 W Hall thrusters thrusters under under development development at at Keldysh Keldysh
Research Center and Research Center and Busek Busek (100 W, 4 mN and 20%) (100 W, 4 mN and 20%)
124
Micro PPT Thruster Micro PPT Thruster
MEMS Colloid/FEEP MEMS Colloid/FEEP
Under Under development development at Air Force Research at Air Force Research Laboratories Laboratories
Size Size of of standard standard TV TV coaxial coaxial cable cable
Complete Complete thruster thruster including including electronics electronics weights weights 0.5 kg, 2 0.5 kg, 2- -30 N and 1 30 N and 1- -20 W 20 W
MEMS MEMS field field emission emission cathode cathode technology technology
used used for for ion ion sources sources
Microvolcano Microvolcano structure structure successfully successfully built built at at
SRI SRI
Variable Variable I I
sp sp
with with additional additional grid grid adjustable adjustable
power power- -to to- -thrust thrust ratio ratio
125
400 400 single single emitters emitters on 5x5 mm ! on 5x5 mm !
6.2 Electric 6.2 Electric Micropropulsion Micropropulsion - - FEEP FEEP
126
6.2 Electric 6.2 Electric Micropropulsion Micropropulsion - - FEEP FEEP
22
127
Standard 1 W Standard 1 W diode diode laser laser used used to pump to pump microchip microchip laser laser to to transform transform into into high high
intensity intensity pulsed pulsed laser laser light light
Propellant Propellant tape tape e.g. Teflon e.g. Teflon coated coated with with Aluminium Aluminium
Material Material is is heated heated, , ablated ablated and and ejected ejected at high thermal at high thermal velocities velocities
Complete Complete thruster thruster weight weight 400 g 400 g including including PCU, 0.3 nN PCU, 0.3 nN 3 3 N at 6.5 W N at 6.5 W
Specific Specific Impulse 1,000 s Impulse 1,000 s
Efficiency Efficiency around around 1% 1%
Microchip Laser Thruster Microchip Laser Thruster
128
Propellantless Propellantless Propulsion Propulsion
129
7. 7. Propellantless Propellantless Propulsion Propulsion
Momentum Exchange Tether Momentum Exchange Tether
Atmospheric Atmospheric drag will drag will slow slow down and down and heat heat up up tether tether significantly significantly
Difficult Difficult for for Earth Earth environment environment, , possible possible for for Moon Moon or or Mars Mars
Tethers Tethers are are long long cables cables connected connected to a to a spacecraft spacecraft
130
7.1.2 7.1.2 Electrodynamic Electrodynamic Tether Tether
R
v l B
F
2 2
=
( )
R
v l B
v F P
2

= =
Propulsion Propulsion
Resistance Resistance
Example Example: : B=20 B=20 T (LEO) T (LEO)
v=6,800 m/s v=6,800 m/s
L=5 km L=5 km
R=185 R=185 (5 km (5 km
Aluminium) Aluminium)
F=0.36 N F=0.36 N
Power Power
P=2.4 kW P=2.4 kW
Can Can be be used used to to re re- -boost boost ISS, ISS,
de de- -orbit orbit satellites satellites, etc. , etc.
Problems: Problems: Deployment Deployment
mechanism mechanism, HV , HV arcing arcing
131
7.2 7.2 Propellantless Propellantless Electric / Electric / Nuclear Nuclear Propulsion Propulsion
Ionise Ionise and and Accelerate Accelerate Ambient Neutral Gas Ambient Neutral Gas Atmosphere Atmosphere (LEO Orbit, (LEO Orbit, low low altitude altitude
Mars Orbit, ...) Mars Orbit, ...)
In LEO, In LEO, Power Power- -to to- -Thrust Thrust ratios ratios of 80 W/mN of 80 W/mN achievable achievable
Interstellar Ramjet Interstellar Ramjet Collect Collect interstellar interstellar hydrogen hydrogen
Use Use it it as as fuel fuel in in fusion fusion reactor reactor and and create create thrust thrust by by
expelling expelling it it
10,000 km 10,000 km
2 2
collection collection area area are are needed needed for for 10 ms 10 ms
- -2 2
132
7.3/4 Photon Rocket, 7.3/4 Photon Rocket, Beamed Beamed Energy Energy
f h W =
c
R f h
c
W
F

= =
g
c
I
sp
=
Directly Directly converts converts electric electric energy energy into into kinetic kinetic energy energy via via the the
use use of a of a laser laser
Energy emitted by Laser Energy emitted by Laser Propulsion Characteristics Propulsion Characteristics
Example Example: : 1 MW 1 MW laser laser will will produce produce 3.3 mA at 3x10 3.3 mA at 3x10
7 7
s ! s !
Photon Rocket Photon Rocket
Beamed Energy Earth Beamed Energy Earth- -to to- -Orbit Propulsion Orbit Propulsion
Laser Laser can can heat heat air and air and create create
thrust thrust
Estimated Estimated at 1 MW / kg at 1 MW / kg
US Air Force US Air Force is is experimenting experimenting
with with small small prototype prototype ( (Lightcraft Lightcraft) )
23
133
7.3 7.3 Rubbias Rubbias Photon Photon Propulsion Propulsion Concept Concept
134
7.5 Solar 7.5 Solar Sail Sail
Pressure Pressure of solar of solar photons photons used used to to
create create thrust thrust
In In Earth Earth' 's s orbit orbit around around 9 N/km 9 N/km
2 2
, ,
decreasing decreasing with with 1 / r 1 / r
2 2
from from the the sun sun
Sail Sail material material under under study study has has thickness thickness
of 1 m ( of 1 m (limited limited by by stresses stresses during during
launch launch space space manufacturing manufacturing ?), ?), gives gives
thrust thrust- -to to- -weight weight ratio of 10 ratio of 10
- -5 5
N/kg N/kg
Problem: Problem: Deployment Deployment mechanism mechanism
Improvement Improvement
Separating Separating function function of of collecting collecting photons photons
and and reflecting reflecting them them to to create create thrust thrust
135
7.6 7.6 Magnetic Magnetic Sail Sail
Superconducting Superconducting Current Current Loop Loop forms forms Dipole Dipole which which deflects deflects Solar Wind Solar Wind
Solar Wind Solar Wind travels travels at 300 at 300 - - 800 km/s (Voyager 800 km/s (Voyager spacecraft spacecraft 17 km/s) 17 km/s)
Mission Mission Applications Applications: : Interplanetary Interplanetary Cargo Cargo - - Interstellar Interstellar Precursor Precursor
Superconducting Superconducting Technology Technology - - Cooling Cooling, , forms forms Radiation Radiation Belt, Belt, Structures Structures - -
Weight Weight
Major Major Technical Technical Difficulties Difficulties
136
7.6 7.6 Magnetic Magnetic Sail Sail / M2P2 / M2P2
Injects Injects plasma plasma (e.g. Argon) to (e.g. Argon) to
enlarge enlarge magnetic magnetic field field from from
electromagnet electromagnet
Couples Couples to solar wind to solar wind like like
Magnetosphere Magnetosphere
20 km 20 km magnetic magnetic bubble bubble seems seems
possible possible
Mini Mini- -Magnetosphere Propulsion (M2P2) Magnetosphere Propulsion (M2P2)
137
7.6 7.6 Magnetic Magnetic Sail Sail / M2P2 / M2P2
M2P2 M2P2 Ground Ground Experiments Experiments
138
Breakthrough Breakthrough Propulsion Propulsion
e
m
x
e
m
e
m
g
g
= = =
21 0
0
10 41 . 7
24
139
8. 8. Breakthrough Breakthrough Propulsion Propulsion
Classical Classical technology limits technology limits already already reached reached are are known known (e.g. LO (e.g. LO
2 2
/LH /LH
2 2
Space Space
Shuttle Shuttle engine engine has 95% has 95% efficiency efficiency not not much much room room for for improvement improvement) )
Nuclear Nuclear propulsion propulsion like like NERVA NERVA is is ready ready to to use use will will enable enable manned manned
interplanetary interplanetary missions missions
How How can can we we explore explore OTHER solar systems OTHER solar systems within within a a crew crew' 's s lifetime lifetime ? ?
Proxima Proxima Centauri: Closest three star system Centauri: Closest three star system
Alpha Alpha Centauri Centauri is is 4.3 4.3 lightyears lightyears away away
v v required required to to reach reach it it in 10 in 10 years years is is 100.000 km/s, 100.000 km/s, compared compared to to today today' 's s robotic robotic
missions missions of 10 km/s of 10 km/s
Even Even with with nuclear nuclear rockets rockets we we are are 2 2 orders orders of of magnitude magnitude away away from from this this goal goal
We need a breakthrough in physics ! We need a breakthrough in physics !
140
8. 8. Breakthrough Breakthrough Propulsion Propulsion
Todays Limits Todays Limits
Thermodynamics Thermodynamics: : Energy Energy can can only only be be transformed transformed but but not not created created out of out of nowhere nowhere
(no Perpetuum Mobile) (no Perpetuum Mobile)
Relativity Relativity Theory Theory: : The The fastest fastest possible possible speed speed is is the the speed speed of light, of light, mass mass is is a a
function function of of spacetime spacetime curvature curvature ( (we we need need something something like like a a black black hole to hole to modify modify
space space, time and , time and mass mass) )
It It was was scientifically scientifically proved proved that that machines machines heavier heavier than than air air can can not not fly fly, , that that we we can can not not
go go to to the the Moon, and Moon, and that that we we can can not not go go to to other other stars stars ... ...
In 1996, NASA In 1996, NASA estabilshed estabilshed the the Breakthrough Breakthrough Propulsion Propulsion Physics Physics
Program Program, US Department of , US Department of Energy Energy, and ESA , and ESA followed followed
How How can can we we use use present present theories theories to to overcome overcome those those limits ... ? limits ... ?
141
8.2 Quantum 8.2 Quantum Theory Theory
Heisenberg Heisenberg' 's s uncertainty uncertainty principle principle requires requires that that atoms atoms still still move move at at zero zero Kelvin Kelvin
Average Average energy energy is is called called Zero Zero- -Point Point- -Energy Energy
2
hf
E
ZPE
=
4
480L
hc
A
F
=
4
56
II
10 59 . 1
1
L c
c

+ =
Example Example: : 1 m 1 m
2 2
at 1 at 1 m distance m distance
gives gives 1 mN 1 mN
Casimir Casimir Effect Effect (1948) (1948)
Scharnhorst Scharnhorst Effect Effect (1990) (1990)
Can Can also also be be used used to to explain explain inertial inertial mass mass and and how how it it can can be be modified modified! !
142
8.2 8.2 Coupling Coupling of Gravitation and EM of Gravitation and EM
General General
Relativity Relativity
Theory Theory
1916 1916
Linearization Linearization
Extension to Extension to Time Time- -Dependent Dependent Systems Systems
Gravitational Gravitational Poynting Poynting Vector Vector
( (Heaviside Heaviside) )
Conservation Conservation of of Energy Energy & & Momentum Momentum
( (Jefimenko Jefimenko) )
Einstein Einstein
Newton Newton Maxwell Maxwell
143
General Relativity Theory General Relativity Theory
Gravitoelectric Gravitoelectric Part Part Gravitomagnetic Gravitomagnetic Part Part
Lense Lense- -Thirring Thirring Effect Effect
Frame Frame Dragging Dragging
Gravity Gravity Probe B Probe B
Induction Induction
Newtonian Newtonian Gravity Gravity
144
e
m
x
e
m
e
m
g
g
= = =
21 0
0
10 41 . 7
t
g
c
v
m
e
B rot
t
B
E rot
m
g
+ =

=
v
v
v
v
v
2
0
1 1
1
t
E
c
v
e
m
B rot
t
B
g rot
g g
=
r
v
v
v
v
2
1

Gravitation Gravitation Electromagnetism Electromagnetism Electromagnetism Electromagnetism Gravitation Gravitation

Coupling Coupling Coefficient Coefficient
25
145
8.3 Experiments 8.3 Experiments leading leading to to Breakthroughs Breakthroughs
Superconductor Gravitational Shielding Superconductor Gravitational Shielding
Discovered Discovered by by Podkletnov Podkletnov in 1992 in 1992
Maximum Maximum weight weight shiedling shiedling 2% 2%
146
James James Woodward Woodward - - Rotating Rotating Masses Masses Charge up Charge up during during Rotation, Rotation,
Projectiles Projectiles Induce Induce Charge on Charge on Target Target
a m q Constant
Coupling of Charge, Mass and Acceleration Coupling of Charge, Mass and Acceleration
147
Yamashita Yamashita/ /Toyama Toyama - - Weight Weight Change of Change of Rotating Rotating Charged Charged
Cylinder Cylinder
Positively Positively Charged Charged + 4 + 4 grams grams (out of 1300 (out of 1300 grams grams total) total)
Negatively Negatively Charged Charged - - 11 11 grams grams
Weight Weight changed changed according according to to speed speed of rotation (no of rotation (no electrostatic electrostatic) )
No No change change of of weight weight difference difference if if orientation orientation of of ratation ratation changed changed (no (no magnetic magnetic) )
148
Inside Quantum Materials Inside Quantum Materials
Mechanical Mechanical
Momentum Momentum
Magnetic Vector Magnetic Vector
Potential Potential
Both Both vector vector fields fields are are
linked linked to to each each other other
( )
2
nh
l d A e v m l d p
s s
= + =

v v
v
v
v
v
v
=
e
m
B
2
London Moment London Moment
Magnetic Magnetic Field Field is is generated generated without without
the the influence influence of of the the permeability permeability ! !
149
How How well do experimental well do experimental values values fit fit quantum quantum theory theory ? ?
London Moment London Moment Ginzburg Ginzburg- -Landau Landau
experiment
theory
1
B
B
v
v
Normal SC 3 Normal SC 3- -15 % 15 %

(Hildebrandt, PRL 1964) (Hildebrandt, PRL 1964)
High High- -T T
c c
SC, SC,
heavy heavy fermion fermion SC 5 SC 5- -10 % 10 %
( (Sanzari Sanzari, APL 1996) , APL 1996)
etc. etc.
Most Most accurate accurate
measurement measurement from from
Tate et al (PRL, 1989) Tate et al (PRL, 1989)
0.999992
2
Pair Cooper
=
e
m
m
1) 1.000084(2
2
Pair Cooper
=
e
m
m
Including Quantum and
Relativistic Corrections
Measured Measured discrepancy discrepancy between between
experiment experiment and and quantum quantum theory theory! !
150
Inside Quantum Materials Inside Quantum Materials
Mechanical Mechanical
Momentum Momentum
Magnetic Vector Magnetic Vector
Potential Potential
All All three three vector vector fields fields
are are linked linked to to each each other other
Expand Expand Canonical Canonical Momentum Momentum to to Include Include Gravitational Gravitational
Effects Effects. .
( )
2
nh
l d A m A e v m l d p
g s s
= + + =

v v v
v
v
v
Already Already done done by by DeWitt DeWitt in 1970s (Princeton) in 1970s (Princeton)
Gravito Gravito- -Magnetic Magnetic
Vector Potential Vector Potential
26
151
152
8.4 8.4 When When will will we we Revolutionize Revolutionize Space Space Travel Travel
When When will will we we revolutionize revolutionize Space Space Travel Travel
? ?
Rocket Rocket propulsion propulsion is is 1,000 1,000 years years old old
Lastet Lastet until until 1940 to 1940 to suddenly suddenly develop develop the the V V- -2 2
Technology Technology stayed stayed the the same same until until JFK JFK decided decided to to go go to to the the Moon Moon
Space Space Shuttle technology Shuttle technology from from 1970 1970' 's s shall shall be be used used up to 2020 up to 2020
Slow Slow implementation implementation of of new new technologies technologies (air (air breathing breathing, etc.) , etc.)
Breakthrough Breakthrough When When ? ?
As As history history taught taught us us, , it it can can happen happen very very quick and quick and very very soon soon ... ...
153
8.4 8.4 When When will will we we Revolutionize Revolutionize Space Space Travel Travel

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Advanced Advanced Space Space Propulsion Propulsion Systems Systems

Balance of gravitational Balance of gravitational

Small Small thrusters thrusters with with

Gravitation Gravitation Electromagnetism Electromagnetism Electromagnetism Electromagnetism Gravitation Gravitation

Normal SC 3 Normal SC 3- -15 % 15 %

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