UNIT 1 Electric Circuit

Task 1: Match the words in column A with the definitions in column B. A 1. cell 2. circuit 3. generator 4. potential 5. relay B a. component which changes a form of energy (usually chemical energy) into electrical energy. b. energy of an electric charge expressed in volts c. electromechanical switch operated by an electromagnet d. closed path around which a current can flow e. device which produces electrical energy. Task 2: Read the following passage and check your answer in task 1 Current moves from a point of high potential energy to one of low potential. It can only do so if there is a path for it to follow. This path is called an electric circuit. All circuits contain four elements: a source, a load, a transmission system and a control. The source provides the electromotive force. This establishes the difference in potential, which makes current flow possible. The source can be any device, which supplies electrical energy. For example, it can be a generator or a battery. The load converts the electrical energy from the source into some other form of energy. For instance, a lamp changes electrical energy into light and heat. The load can be any electrical device. The transmission system conducts the current round the circuit. Any conductor can be part of the transmission system. Most systems consist of wires. It is often possible, however, for the metal frame of a unit to be one section of its

transmission system. For example, the metal chassis of many electrical devices are used to conduct current. Similarly, the body of a car is part of its electrical transmission system. The control regulates the current flow in the circuit. It may control the current by limiting it, as does a rheostat, or by interrupting it, as does a switch. switch 3.0 V 0.3 w bulb

wire s Figure 1

Study Figure 1. In this simple flashlight circuit, the source comprises two 1.5 V cells in series. The load is a 0.3 W bulb. Part of the transmission system is the metal body of the flashlight, and the control is a sliding switch.

Rela y Battery of solar cells Televisi on camera

Transmission system Figure 2 Compare Figure 2. The function of this circuit is to operate a television camera aboard a space satellite. Here the source is a battery of solar cells. A solar cell is an electric cell, which converts sunlight into electrical energy. The load is the television camera. The transmission system is the connecting wires. The control is a relay actuated by transmissions from ground control. Although the function of this circuit is much more complex than that of the flashlight, it too consists of the four basic elements.

Task 3: Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the words in italics with expressions from the passage in task 2 which have a similar meaning. 1. A lamp converts electrical energy into light. 2. The generator provides the circuit with electromotive force. 3. The metal frame of the oscilloscope is part of its transmission system. 4. The rheostat controls the current flow in the circuit. 5. A battery of solar cells supplies power to the circuit. Task 4: Meaning from context What do the pronouns in italics in these sentences refer to? 1. Current moves from a point of high potential energy to one of low potential. (a) current (b) energy (c) a point 2. For example, it may be a generator or a battery. (a) the source (b) a device (c) electromotive force 3. It is often possible, however, for the metal frame of a unit to be one section of its transmission system. (a) the metal frame's (b) the unit's (c) the circuit's 4. Although the function of this circuit is much more complex than that of the flashlight, it too consists of the four basic of elements. (a) this circuit (b) the function (c) the flashlight Task 5: Checking facts and ideas Decide if these statements are true or false. Quote from the passage to support your decisions. 1. A difference in potential is required before a current can flow in a circuit. 2. A generator is a source of electromotive force. 3. Loads convert electrical energy into light and heat.

4. Transmission systems must consist of wires. 5. A rheostat may be used as a control. 6. The load in the flashlight circuit is a bulb. 7. The source in the satellite circuit is a solar cell. 8. The current flow in the satellite circuit is regulated by a relay. 9. The flashlight circuit differs basically from the satellite circuit. Task 6: Further reading In conventional power generation, fuel such as oil or coal is burned. The burning fuel heats boilers to produce steam. The steam is used to drive turbo alternators. The Magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) process generates electricity without requiring a boiler or turbine. MHD generation works on the principle that when a conductor cuts a magnetic field a current flows through the conductor. In MHD generation the conductor is an ionized gas. Small amounts of metal are added to the gas to improve its conductivity. This is called seeding the gas. The seeded gas is then pumped at a high temperature and pressure through a strong magnetic field. The electrons in the gas are collected at an electrode. This movement of electrons constitutes a current flow. Tow methods of MHD generation can be used: the open cycle and closed cycle. In the open cycle method the hot gas is discharged. In the closed cycle method it is recirculated. The open cycle method uses gas from burning coal or oil. The gas is seeded and then passed through a magnetic field to generate current. The seeding elements are recovered and the gas then be used to drive a turbine before being allowed to escape. The closed cycle method uses an inert gas, such as helium, which is heated indirectly. The gas is circulated continually through the MHD generator. MHD generation is still in its early stages but already an efficiency rate of 60% has been reached. This compares with a maximum of 40% from conventional power station. Answer the questions which follow 1. How does the MHD process differ from conventional systems? 2. What principle does MHD generation make use of?

3. What form does the conductor take in the MHD process? 4. What happens to the gas? 5. What methods of MHD generation are in use? 6. How do the two methods differ? Task 7: Describing the position and connection EX: The turning capacitor is connected across the coil Now complete each sentence using an appropriate phrase from this list: 1.located within 4.connected to 2.connected across 5.connected between 3.applied to 6.mounted on
cor e

a. The bulbs are _____the battery

27pF

b. The core is _______the pole pieces

c. The 27pF capacitor is ______the collector and the base

d. The feedback voltage is______the base of transistor through the C1

rotor

e. The antenna is ______the coil

f. The rotor is _______the shaft

UNIT 2 Electric Energy

2 3 4

S
6 5

4 7

1. brush bar and brushes 2. driving shaft 3. terminals (main) 4. commutator

5. induction coil winding 6. main pole 7. wire loops

Figure 1: A typical DC machine with a section removed

Task 1: Match the words in column A with the definitions in column B. A 1. armature 2. core 3. electrolysis 4. impedance 5. pole B a. positive or negative terminal b. chemical decomposition by action of electric current c. wire - wound core of dynamo or electric motor d. central solid conductor e. combined resistance to AC and DC

Task 2: Read this passage. An electric motor is a machine for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. Motors can be designed to run on direct (DC) or alternating current (AC). The motor shown in Figure 1 is a DC motor. Its most important parts are the rotor, the stator and the brush gear. The rotor is the moving part. It contains an armature, which is a set of wire loops wound on a steel core. When current is fed to the armature, these windings produce a magnetic field. The armature and the core are mounted on a shaft, which runs on bearings. It provides a means of transmitting power from the motor. The rotor also contains a commutator. This consists of a number of copper segments insulated from one another. The armature windings are connected to these segments. Carbon brushes are held in contact with the commutator by springs. These brushes allow current to pass to the armature windings. As the rotor turns, the commutator acts as a switch making the current in the armature alternate. The stator does not move. It consists of magnetic and electrical conductors. The magnetic circuit is made up of the frame and the poles. Wound round the poles are the field coils. These form the stator's electric circuit. When current is fed to them, a magnetic field is set up in the stator. The motor operates on the principle that when the current- carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force is produced on the conductor. The interaction of the forces produced by the magnetic field of the rotor and the stator makes the rotor spin. Task 3: Complete the diagram follow:

DC MOTOR

Brush gear

Commutat or Cor e Magnetic conductor

Spring

Electric conductor
8

Pole

Task 4: Meaning from context Select a word from the three alternatives given which is most similar in meaning to the word in italics as it is used in the passage in Task 1. 1. provides (line 8) (a) produces (b) supplies (c) allows 2. segments ( line 9) (a) sections (b) pieces (c) wires Task 5: Making definition Study these two sentences: The cables were undamaged The cables were armored We can link them in two ways using relative clauses 3. alternate (line 13) (a) reverse (b) change (c) flow in one direction then in another 4. interaction (line19) (a) acting together (b) operation (c) result

1.The cables which were armored were undamaged

2. The cables, which were armored, were undamaged -Sentence 1 means that only the armored cable were undamaged. Other cables, for example PVC coated cables, were damaged. The relative clause is a defining one. It defines the type of the cables, which was undamaged. It carries essential information. - Sentence 2 means that all the cables were undamaged and all the cables were armored. The relative clause is a non-defining one. It adds some extra information to the sentence but it is not essential. We can remove it from the sentence still makes good sense. It is separated the rest of the sentence by the commas. Study this diagram:
(a) a solar cell

i s

(b) an electric cell

whic h

(c) convert sunlight into electrical energy

Now make the definition using the information from this table: A a generator an insulator an alternating currents a direct current a conductor a device B a material An instrument a current C converts mechanical energy into electrical energy readily released electrons flow first in one direction, then in the other does not readily released electrons flows in one direction

Task 6: Describing the cause and effect

When a sentence contains a cause and effect, we can link them as follow: Cause causes Insulation Break down results in produces leads to We can put the effect first: Effect is caused by Short circuit is the result of is due to is the effect of When a cause has several effects or when an effect has a number of possible causes, we can put can or may before the causative expression Example: Sparkling MAY be caused by worn brushes. Sparkling CAN be caused by worn commutator. Now match these causes and the effect pairs. The link them using the expressions given above. Cause 1. Glare 2. Eddy current 3. Excessive heat 4. Faulty soldering 5. Sparking Effect a. Bad join b. Discomfort to the eyes c. Power losses in transformer d. Damage to the semiconductor e. Arcing across the point Result insulation break down short circuit Effect

Task 7: Further reading

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The effects of an electric current are thermal, luminous, chemical and magnetic. When a current flows through a conductor it may heat the conductor. This heat is sometime undesirable and has to be reduced. For this reason many electric motors and generators contain a fan. However, domestic appliances, such as electric cookers and many industrial processes depend on the heating effect of an electric current. The passage of a current may produce light. This can happen in a number of ways. The heat generated by the current may be so great that the conductor become incandescent. For example the filament of a light bulb emits intense white light when heated by a current. Light is also produced when a current ionizes a gas. The color of the light will vary according to the gas used. Mercury vapor lamps give greenish blue light. An electric current can separate a chemical compound into its components. This is called electrolysis. Chloride is generated by the electrolysis of salt water. Electrolysis can also be used to break down water into hydrogen and oxygen. Because pure water does not conduct well, sulphuric acid has to be added before the electrolysis takes place. A current flowing through a conductor creates a magnet field around it. This field has three applications. It can magnetize magnetic material and attract them to the conductor. The electric relay works on this principle. If the magnetic field is cut by another conductor, an electromotive force will be introduced in that conductor. For instance, the change in current flowing through the primary of a transformer will induce a current in the secondary. This principle is also used in generator. Thirdly, if a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force will be exerted on it. This effect is utilized in the electric motor.

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UNIT 3 The cathode ray tube

Task 1: Match the words in column A with the definitions in column B. A 1. cathode 2. anode 3. oscilloscope 4. cathode ray tube 5. lens B a. large valve used to produce a display by firing a beam of electrons at the phosphor coated screen. b. negative electrode which emits electrons c. positive electrode which attracts electrons d. electronic instrument for measuring and displaying changing signals on a screen using a cathode ray tube e. piece of glass or other transparent materials with one or more curved surfaces used to make things appear clearer larger or smaller when viewed through it.

Task 2: Read this passage and complete the diagram, which follows. The cathode ray tube (CRT) is used in oscilloscopes, radar receivers and television sets. The type described here is that used in oscilloscopes. By means of a CRT, an oscilloscope not only shows the size of a signal, but although the signal varies with time. In other words it shows the waveform of the signal. The CRT operates as follows. First electrons are emitted from a heated cathode. Then these electrons are accelerated to give them a velocity. Next they are formed into a beam, which can be deflected vertically and horizontally. Finally they are made to strike a screen coated on this inner surface with a phosphor. The CRT comprises an electron gun and a deflection system enclosed in a glass tube with a phosphor coated screen. The electron gun forms the electrons into a beam. It contains a cathode, which is heated to produce a stream of electrons. On the same axis as the cathode is a cylinder known as the grid. By varying the
1 12

negative potential on the grid, the intensity of the beam can be varied. A system of three anodes follows. These accelerate the beam and also operate as a lens to focus the beam on the screen as a small dot. Varying the potential on the central anode, a2, allows the focus to be adjusted. On leaving the electron gun, the beam passes through two sets of plates, which are at right angle to each other. The first sets of plates are the Y plates. As these are nearer to the anodes, they have a greater effect on the beam oscilloscope. Therefore the signal is applied to this set. They control the vertical deflection of the beam.

2 Electric gun

6 8 9

Heat er Deflection system 1

Figure 1 The second sets are the X plates. On an oscilloscope the output from a timebase oscillator is applied across these plates as a means of moving the beam horizontally at regular intervals. Hence the horizontal axis of an oscilloscope is the time axis. By means of the deflection system, then, the beam can be made to traverse the screen both horizontally and vertically. The final element is the phosphors coated screen. When the electron beam strikes the screen, the phosphor coating fluoresces. Various colors of light are produced depending on the phosphor used. Task 3: Meaning from context

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Select a word from the three alternatives given which is most similar in meaning to the words in italics as it is used in the passage in task 1. 1. emitted (line 5) a. scattered b. given off c. absorbed 2. deflected (line7) a. moved b. bent c. changed 3. intensity (line 12) a. focus b. brightness c. shape 4. adjusted (line 15) a. reduced b. varied c. increased 5. regular (line 21) a. frequent b. equally timed c. varying 6. fluoresces (line 25) a. lights b. emits electrons c. turns green

Task 4: Finding out facts Answer these questions about the passage in task 2 1. Why is an oscilloscope better than a meter? 2. What is the source of electrons for the electron gun? 3. What is the function of the electron gun? 4. How is the intensity of the beam controlled? 5. In what way is the system of anodes like a lens? 6. Why is the signal applied to the Y plates? 7. What dose the time base do? 8. Why is the horizontal axis of an oscilloscope called the time axis? Task 5: Further reading A stream of electron is emitted from the surface of the cathode (C) when it is heated by the heated filament. The electron are accelerated towards the screen by a set of three positively charge cylinder anodes (A1, A2, A3). Each anode has a higher charge than the one before. As the electrons move toward the anodes, they pass through a hole in a negatively charged metal disc. This disc is known as the

14

control grid. By adjusting the intensity control on the oscilloscope, the charge on the grid can be varied. This allowes the number of electrons reaching the screen, and therefore the brilliance or brightness of the spot on the screen, to be adjusted. The three anodes form the electron lens. The oscilloscope focus control allows the voltage on the second anode (A2) to be varied and causes the stream of electrons to be formed into a narrow beam. If the oscilloscope has an astigmatism control, it is used to vary the voltage on the third anode (A3). This allows the shape of the spot on the screen to be adjusted to make it perfectly round.

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UNIT 4 Television
Task 1: Match the words in column A with the definitions in column B. A 1. frame 2. raster pattern 3. line scan signal 4. frame scan rate 5. field sync pulse B a. complete picture in a video display consisting of two fields b. number of times per second that a video frame is display on a screen c. scan path of an electron beam going across and down the screen of a television receiver d. part of a video signal which adjusts the timing for the display of a frame on a television screen e. part of a video signal which controls the movement of spot across the television screen.

Task 2: Read this passage and check your answers in task 1. A television picture is built up gradually by moving a spot of light across and down a screen in a raster pattern (see Figure 1).

Figure 1 The video signal causes the brightness of the spot to vary in propagation to the intensity of light in the original image. The movement of the spot light across the screen is controlled by the line scan signal. Each time the spot reaches the right

16

side of the screen it is blanked and moved rapidly back to the left side ready to start the next line. This rapid movement back to a starting position is known as fly back. Each complete image or frame require as minimum of 500 lines to give a picture of acceptable quality. The present European TV system uses 625 lines per frame. The movement of the spot down the screen is controlled by the field scan signal. When the spot reaches the bottom of the screen, it is blanked and moves rapidly back to the top of the screen. The frame must be scanned at least 40 times per second to prevent the screen from flickering. The European TV system has a frame scan rate of 50 Hz. The video signal contains line and field sync pulses to make sure that the TV receiver starts a new line and new frame at the same time as the TV camera (see figure 2).
Video signal

Field sync pulses (during field fly back)

Line sync pulses (during line fly back)

Figure 2 To allow the video signal to be transmitted using a smaller range of frequencies each frame is in two separate halves, known as field. The first time the spot travels down the screen it displays the first field, which consist of the odd numbered frame lines. The second time the spot travels down screen it displays the second field, which consists of the even numbered frame lines. Combining two fields in this ways is known as interlacing. Although the fields are displayed one after the other, it happens so quickly that the human eye sees them as one complete picture.

17

Task 3: Answer these questions 1. What controls the movement of the spot light across a television screen? 2. What name is given to the rapid movement of the spot back across the screen to the start of the next line? 3. How many lines are used to build up a frame in present European television system? 4. What happens to a screen if the frame is not scanned at least 40 times per second? 5. Why are the sync pulses added to the video signal? Task 4: Meaning from context Select a word from the three alternatives given which is most similar in meaning to the word in italics as it is used in the passage in task 2. 1. Image (line 4) (a) brightness (b) picture (c) video signal 2. Rapid (line 7) (a) quick (b) repeated (c) to the left side 3. flickering (line 14) (a) displaying (b) breaking (c) varying in brightness 4. them (line 23) (a) two fields (b) odd number lines (c) even number lines

Task 5: Read this passage and fill in the table, which follows. In this passage we will examine briefly how an object in front of a television camera becomes a picture on a television screen. A television camera contains a lens system, which is used to focus an image of the object on to the face of the camera tube. This tube contains a photo-cathode, which emits electrons in response to light. The brighter the light from the image the more electrons are emitted by the photo-cathode. In a black and white camera, the photo-cathode responds only to brightness, hence it is at this point that information on the color of the image is lost. The electrons from the cathode are now made to strike a target electrode causing some of its atoms to become positively charged.

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The target electrode is scanned by electron beam. The beam sweeps the target electrode in a series of closely spaced lines. There are 405 or 625 of these lines depending on the system used. When the beam reaches the end of the top scan line, it is brought quickly back to the beginning of the next line, which is slightly lower. This return is called fly back and is much quicker than a line scan. The scanning beam loses electrons to the positively charged atoms on the target electrode and is thus charged or modulated. Its density is thus proportional to the light intensity of the original image. In this way the camera produces a continuous waveform, which contains information on the brightness of the original image. This video waveform has information added to it, sync pulses, to synchronize the start of each scanning line and frame. The video signal is transmitted and received in a similar fashion to sound transmission. After detection and amplification it is fed to the cathode of the CRT in the television receiver thus controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The sync pulses ensure that the beam in the CRT is in exactly the same position as the beam in the television camera. The beam is made to move sideways and progressively downwards matching line by line the scanning of the television camera. As the electron beam strikes the television screen, the phosphor coating on the screen emits light. This light varies in whiteness according to the brightness of the original image. Because the line by line build up of the picture takes place so quickly, the eye sees only a complete picture of the object in front of the television. 1. What part of the camera tube is scanned? 2. Why is the color information lost? 3. What two types of information does the video-waveform carry? 4. What is the function of the sync pulses? Task 6: Further reading The characters and pictures that we use on the screen are made up of dots, also called picture elements (pixels). The total number of pixels in which the display is divided both horizontally and vertically is known as the resolution. If the number of pixels is very large, we obtain a high- resolution display and therefore a

19

sharp image. If the number of pixels is small, a low resolution is produced. Typical resolutions are 640 x 480 or 1024 x768 pixels. The diagrams below show how pixel density affects the image: a large number of pixels give a much clear image. The cathode ray tube of the monitor is very similar to that of a TV set. Inside the tube there is an electron beam, which scans the screen and turns on or off the pixels that make up the image. The beam begins in the top left to right in a continuous sequence, similar to the movement of our eyes when we read, but much faster. His sequence is repeated 50, 60 or 75 times per second, depending on the system. If the rate of this repetition is low, we can perceive a flickering, unsteady screen, which can cause eye fatigue. However, a fast-moving 75Hz refresh rate eliminates this annoying flicker. What we see on the screen is created and stored in an area of RAM, so that there is a memory cell allocated to each pixel. This type of display is called bitmapped. On monochrome monitors, bits 0 are visualized as white dots, and bits 1 as black dots. On color displays, there are three electron guns at the back of the monitors tube. Each electron gun shoots out a beam of electrons; there is one beam for each of the three primary colors: red, green and blue. These electrons strike the inside of the screen, which is coated with substances called phosphors that glow when struck by electrons. Three different phosphor materials are used one each for red, green and blue. To create different colors, the intensity of each of the three electron beams is varied. The monitor is controlled by a separate circuit board, known as the display adaptor, which plugs into the motherboard driving different types of displays. For example, the VGA (video graphic array) card has become a standard for color monitor. Portable computers use a flat liquid-crystal display (LCD) instead of a picture tube. An LCD uses a grid of crystals block the light in different amounts to generate the dots in the image.

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UNIT 5 Propagation of Waves

Task 1: Match the words in column A with the definitions in column B. A 1. absorption 2. aerial 3. attenuation 4. frequency 5. reflection B a. how often a pattern is repeated a second b. process of taking in energy c. device for collecting or sending out signals being transmitted through free space d. change of direction of a wave after hitting a surface e. magnitude reduction of a signal Task 2: Read this passage and check your answers in task 1. A signal from a transmitter may be propagated in three ways: by ground waves, by space waves and by sky waves. Ground waves travel round the surface of the earth for short distances. As they travel, they lose energy. This loss of power, or attenuation, depends on the nature of the surface. Attenuation also varies with the frequency of the signal; the higher the frequency, the greater the ground wave attenuation. At frequencies above 20 MHz the range is reduced to the line of sight. Propagation by space waves applies mainly to very high frequencies. Part of the transmitted signal travels in a direct line from transmitting antenna to receiving antenna. Partly the signal is reflected from the ground. The higher the frequency, the greater the possible ground wave reflection. The range of the space wave propagation is restricted to approximately twice the direct optical path. The range covered by ground waves and space waves is limited. Greater distances can be achieved using sky waves. Sky wave propagation depends on the ionosphere.

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B A

Figure 1 A signal transmitted from point A would not be received at B because of the curvature of the earth if it were not for the ionosphere. This consists of a number of layers of ionized gas in the upper atmosphere. If a transmission is directed towards these layers, it will be reflected back to the earth as shown in Figure 2.

C B

Figure 2 The wave may then be reflected back from the earth to the ionosphere. Indeed it may be carried right round the earth by successive reflections although it will lose power both in the earth and in the ionosphere at each bounce. A receiver at point C, which is outside ground wave range yet closer than B, will not receive the transmission. The bending effect of the ionosphere depends on the frequency of the signal and the angle of radiation. The higher the frequency the less the bending. At a certain frequency, signal will pass straight through the layers and be lost in space.

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The smaller the angle of radiation, the greater the distance, which can be covered in one reflection. At any time there is a maximum usable frequency for transmissions from a given site over a particular path. This frequency depends on the state of the ionosphere, which varies according to many factors including the time of the day and the season of the year. The lower the frequency of a transmission the greater the number of reflections needed to cover the required distance and hence the weaker signal will be. For this reason, it is best to used a frequency as high as possible without exceeding the maximum usable frequency as this will cover the required distance with the smallest number of reflections and hence the least attenuation. Task 3: Answer these questions about the passage in task 2. 1. List three types of propagation. 2. How do ground wave travel? 3. What is attenuation? 4. Name two factors, which affect the attenuation of ground waves? 5. What frequencies are propagated by space wave? 6. Name two days in which space waves travel. 7. What range have space wave? 8. What controls sky wave propagation? 9. What is the ionosphere? 10. How do sky waves cover great distances? 11. Name two factors, which determine the bending effect of the ionosphere. 12. What is the maximum usable frequency? Task 4: Meaning from context Select a word from the three alternatives given which is most similar in meaning to the word in italics as it is used in the passage in task 2.

1. varies with ( line 4 ) a. is proportional to b. is directly proportional to

3. This ( line 15 ) a. the ionosphere b. the atmosphere

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c. is inversely proportional to 2. approximately ( line 11 ) a. nearly b. over. c. around Task 5: Further reading

c. transmission 4. bounce ( line 20 ) a. reflection b. attenuation c. receiving

Radio waves from a transmitting aerial can travel in one or more of three different ways. Surface or ground waves: This travels along the ground, following the curvature of the earth's surface. Its range is limited mainly by the extent to which energy is absorbed from it by the ground. Poor conductors, such as sand, absorb more strongly than water, and the higher the frequency, the greater the absorption. The range is about 1500 km at low frequencies (long waves). Sky waves: It travels skywards and, if it is below a certain critical frequency (typically 30 MHz), is returned to earth by the ionosphere. This consists of layers of air molecules stretching from about 80 km above the earth to 500 km. On striking the earth, the sky wave bounces back to the ionosphere where it is again gradually refracted and returned earthwards as if by " reflection ". This continues until it is completely attenuated. The critical frequency varies with the time of day and the seasons. Sky waves of high frequencies can travel thousands of kilometers but at VHF and above they usually pass through the ionosphere into outer space. Space waves: For VHF, UHF, and microwave signals, only the space wave, giving line of sight transmission, is effective. A range up to 150 km is possible on earth if the transmitting aerial is on high ground and there are no intervening obstacles such as hills, buildings, or trees. Space waves are also used for satellite communications. Fill in the table, which follow Surface waves Sky waves Space waves

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Frequencies Travels Range Difficulties

.............................. . .............................. .. .............................. . ............................. .............................. .............................. ............................. ............................... ............................... ............................. ............................. ..............................

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UNIT 6 Transmission
Task 1: Match the words in column A with the definitions in column B. A 1. amplitude 2. broadcasting 3. distortion 4. inductance 5. modulation B a. unwanted change of shape of a signal b. shaping of a carrier wave by combining it with a signal to be carried c. size of a wave at any given time d. resistance to AC e. transmitting radio or TV signals Task 2: Read the passage We can only communicate information by radio waves by changing the wave in some ways. This change is known as modulation. The simplest form of modulation is to turn the wave on or off. This method was used in the early days of radio for telegraphic signals. The wave was stopped and started to present the dots and dashes of the Morse code by means of a telegraph key. Speech and music produce audio frequencies, which cannot be transmitted directly. But they can be used to modulate radio waves. The modulated radio wave is then transmitted. When it is received, the wave is demodulated and the original audio- frequency signal is recovered. The high frequency radio acts only to carry the audio - frequency signal and is called the carrier wave. The audio - frequency signal is termed the modulating signal. The wave has three quantities: amplitude, frequency and phase. Any of these quantities can be modulated. The two commonest methods of modulation are amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation, (FM). In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave is changed according to the amplitude of the modulating signal. The frequency of the carrier is kept constant. Figure 1 presents part of an audio - frequency signal, which might be generated by a microphone. Figure 2 represents a radio wave of much higher

26

frequency. Figure 3 shows the same radio frequency wave after it has been modulated by the audio - frequency signal in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3 In frequency modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave is kept constant, but the frequency is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal. Frequency modulation has several advantages over amplitude modulation. The most notable is that reception is less likely to be disturbed. This is because atmospheric disturbances and " noise " generated in the receiver itself result in a change in the amplitude of the received signal. However, changes in only the frequency would distort the modulated information. In FM sound broadcasting, the limit of modulation is usually 75 kHz above and below the frequency of the unmodulated carrier wave. In other words, FM

27

broadcasts spread 75kHz either side of the carrier frequency. This is one reason why FM stations broadcasts in the VHF band (30- 300 MHz) where stations can be spaced more than several hundred kilohertz apart unlike the medium frequency bands where spacing of only 9 to 10 kHz are common. Task 3: Find the answers to these questions in the passage, which follows. (Work as quickly as you can. Try to ignore information, which will not help you to answer these questions) 1. What is modulation? 2. Which three quantities of a wave can be modulated? 3. Why is frequency modulation better than amplitude modulation? Task 4: Meaning from context Select a word from the three alternatives given which is most similar in meaning to the word in italics as it is used in the passage in task 2. 1. form (line 2) a. change b. communication c. method 2. termed (line 10) a. called b. modulated c. used Task 5 : Checking facts and ideas support your decisions. 1. The first application of radio wave modulation was for telegraphic signals. 2. Phase modulation is commonly used. 3. In amplitude modulation, the frequency of the carrier wave is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal. 4. FM reception is less likely to be disturbed than AM. 5. FM stations broadcast in the VHF band. Task 6: Now read the passage carefully. Each of these sentences summarizes part of the passage. Identify the lines summarized. 3. these (line 11) a. three quantities b. frequencies c. methods 4. constant (line 15) a. changed b. unchanged c. varied

Decide if the statements are true or false. Quote from the passage in task 2 to

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1. In FM the frequency of the carrier wave is modulated according to the amplitude of the modulating signal. (lines...) 2. Audio frequencies cannot be transmitted. (line...) 3. The amplitude, frequency and phase of a wave can be modulated. (line...) 4. FM broadcasts are in the VHF band partly because FM stations require greater spacing. (line...) 5. The carrier wave is demodulated by the receiver and the audio - frequency signal recovered. (line...) 6. No information can be communicated by radio waves without modulating them. (line... ) 7. In AM, the amplitude of the carrier wave is modulated according to the amplitude of the modulating signal. (line...) 8. Stopping and starting the wave is the simplest method of modulation. (line...) 9. FM is better than AM because there is less interference. (line... ) 10. Audio frequencies can be used to modulate high frequency radio waves, which can then act as carriers of the audio - frequency signal. Task 7: Further reading Radio frequency (AF) waves are used to carry audio frequency (AF) waves over long distances through the air. The audio signals can be combined with the RF carrier wave in such a way that it varies the amplitude of the carrier. This gives an amplitude - modulated (AM) carrier wave (see Figure 4).

AF signal

RF carrier

Modulated RF carrier

FIGURE 4

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If frequency-modulated (FM) wave, the audio signal is combined with the RF carrier wave to vary the frequency of the carrier (see Figure 5).

AF signal

RF carrier

FM carrier

FIGURE 5 The block diagram of a radio is shown in Figure 6 below. The tuner selects the required RF wave from those picked up by the aerial. The selected RF wave is amplified and passed to the detector, which separates the audio modulation from the RM carrier wave. The audio frequency amplifier amplifies the audio signal to make it strong enough to drive the loudspeaker.
aeria l Amplified Modulate d Modulated RF RF carrier carrier Detector RF RF or Amplifie tuner demodula r tor Amplified AF AF AF amplifie r AF power amplifie r Loud speaker

FIGURE 6 Tuner A typical radio tuner circuit consists of an inductor and capacitor connected in parallel (see Figure 7). The size of the aerial inductance coil can be kept small by winding it on a ferrite rod core.

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Aerial

FIGURE 7 The RF waves fed to the tuner cause the circuit to oscillate. The impedance of the circuit is smallest and the oscillation is greatest at a particular frequency known as the resonant frequency. This frequency is determined by the values of the inductance and the capacitance. By using a variable capacitor, the circuit can be tuned to the required radio frequency, and selected RF wave passed on to the RF amplifier.

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UNIT 7 Semiconductors
Task 1: Match the words in column A with the definitions in column B A 1. bias 2. crystal 3. induction 4. leakage current 5. metal detector B a. clear transparent colorless mineral b. electronic device for indicating the presence of objects under the ground c. unwanted current in a transistor d. production of an electric or magnetic effect at a disk e. apply a Dc voltage to a component to control its operating point Task 2: Read this passage and find a sentence in which is similar in meaning to each of the following sentences

Reverse voltage 6.0 4.0

2.0 1.0 2.0

Forward current Forward voltage

If two crystals of semiconductor material, one of p-type and one of n-type are joined together a pn junction is formed. This junction can be used as a rectifier and is known as a pn junction diode. Figure 1 illustrates what happens when a voltage is applied across a silicon pn junction diode. The first quadrant of the graph shows the characteristics of the

Reverse current

Figure 1

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diode when the source is connected with the positive to the p-side of the junction and the negative to the n-side. In the other words, the diode is forward biased. With forward bias, the current at first increased slowly. When the applied voltage reaches about 600 mV, the current rises rapidly. The diode is then a good conductor. The current will continue to rise with increased voltage but eventually a point will be reached where the diode is destroyed by heat. The third quadrant shows the characteristics when the source is connected with the positive the n- side and the negative to the p-side. When the diode is reverse biased, there is almost no current flow. The junction is therefore a good rectifier it conducts well in one direction and not all in the other. However, there is a small reverse leakage current, this leakage current remains substantially constant until what is known as breakdown voltage (Vb) is reached. At this point, there is a sharp increase in the reverse current. This sudden increase in current is called the Zener effect. Normal diodes are never operated in the breakdown region but Zener diode is designed to make use of the breakdown phenomenon. Because any slight increase in voltage beyond the breakdown point causes a large increase in current. Zener diodes are often used as a kind of overspill to protect sensitive circuit from fluctuations in the power supply. 1. The positive of the source is connected to the p-side of the diode and the negative to the n-side. 2. When a forward voltage is applied across the diode, there is, at first, only a slow rise in current. 3. The diode allows current to flow freely 4. If a reverse voltage is applied to the diode, it conducts badly 5. There is almost no change in leakage current until the reverse voltage reaches breakdown point. Task 3: Meaning from context Select a word from three alternatives given which is most similar in meaning to the word in italics as it is used in the passage in task 2:

1. characteristics (line 5) a. typical behavior

4. phenomenon (line 20) a. voltage

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b. voltage figures c. graph 3. sharp (line 17) a. slight b. steep c. cutting 2. substantially (line 16) a. almost b. greatly c. hardly

b. effect c. result 5. fluctuations (line 22) a. rises and falls b. increases c. failures

Task 4: Complete this description of the current-voltage characteristics of silicon diode. Use the passage in task 2 and Figure 1 to help you. At first, when a forward voltage is applied, . When the forward voltage has reached about 600 mV, .. If the forward voltage is further increased, . . only a very small leakage current flows. When the breakdown voltage is reached After the breakdown point, any further increase in reverse voltage causes Task 5: Checking facts and ideas Decide if these statements are true or false. Quote from the passage in task 2 to support your decisions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The first quadrant of the graph shows the characteristics of the For forward voltages over 600mV, the diode conducts well. When the source is connected with the negative to the n-side and When a reverse voltage is first applied, a diode conducts badly. Zener diodes are never used beyond breakdown point. diode in forward bias.

the positive to the p-side, the diode is reverse biased.

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Task 6: Writing description from graphs This graph describes the characteristics of a tunnel diode. Use the information it contains to complete the description below:

Reverse voltage

Forward current

1. 2 1. 0 0. 8 0. 6 0. 0.2 4 0.1 0. 2

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0. 0.6 2 Forward 0. voltage 4 0. 6 0. 8

As the forward voltage is increased, the current (1).......................until point P is reached. P is as known as the peak point. The peak voltage for a germanium tunnel diode is about (2) ............................ After P the current (3) ................. until V. V is known as the valley point. From P to V the diode has a negative resistance. The forward voltage at V is about (4) ............ After the volley point, the current (5) ....................... with increased voltage and the diode behaves like a normal diode. When a reverse voltage is applied however, the reverse current (6)........................... unlike normal diodes. Task 7: Making predictions. A prediction is a statement about a particular subject in which we say what we think will happen in the future. Predictions are not always absolute, but can be expressed with different levels of certainly, according to the context in which they are made. 1. Certainty can be expressed by: will (definitely, certainly) certain, sure without doubt, without question

Reverse current

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2. Probability can be expressed by: probable, probably, likely most/highly probable, most probably most/highly likely 3. Probability can be expressed by: may (not), might (not), can, could possible, possibly, perhaps 4. Improbability can be expressed by: improbable, unlikely doubtful, questionable probably not most/ highly improbable/ unlikely most/ highly doubtful, questionable most probably not 5. Impossibility probably not present or future can not, could not not possible, impossible could not not possible, impossible past

These expressions are used in sentences in different ways: EXAMPLES 1. Computers will definitely be cheaper in the coming time. 2. It is (highly) probable / likely that computers will be cheaper in the coming time. 3. Computers MAY/ MIGHT be cheaper in the coming time. 4. PERHAPS, computers will be cheaper in the coming time. 5. It is unlikely/ doubtful that computers will be cheaper in the time. 6. Computers will most probably not be cheaper in the coming time. 7. Computers will definitely not be cheaper in the coming time. 8. It is impossible that computers will be cheaper in the coming time. coming

Sometimes predictions are made subject to certain conditions. In such cases,

sentences typically have to parts: the if- clause and the main clause.

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EXAMPLES 1. If 120 V AC is applied across the transformer primary, a voltage of 12 V will be induced in the secondary. 2. If the switch is closed, the lamp will light. When the if- clause comes second, there is no comma between the two clauses. EXAMPLES 1. The bell will ring if the switch is pressed. 2. The motor will break down if we exceed the motor rating.

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UNIT 8 Logic Circuit

Task 1: Match the words in column A with the definitions in column B A 1. integrated circuit 2. memory 3. microprocessor 4. silicon chip 5. transistor B a. semiconductor component with three electrodes (emitted base and collector) used for switching or amplifying an electronic signal. b. electronic circuit for storing information c. very small piece of silicon carrying a complex electric circuit. d. electronic circuit containing many components on a single silicon chip. e. chip for controlling the device. Task 2: Read this passage and answer the questions, which follow: Logic gates are electronic switching devices. Figure 1 represents in simple terms the function of one type of logic gate, the OR gate.
A Inpu t B Output Z

FIGURE 1 If switch A is closed, the output Z will equal the input. Similarly if B is closed, or if both A and B are closed, the output and input will be equal. Any of these three conditions will permit an output Z to flow.

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Logic gates contain semiconductors, not mechanical switches, which can be opened and closed. But they have only two levels of input and out put: a high level and a low level. These correspond to the closed and open states of the switches in Figure 1. The high level is presented by 1 and the low level by 0. All information in digital systems is transmitted in terms of these two levels. We can make a table to represent the out put value of an OR gate for all possible combinations of inputs. Such a table is called a truth table. A truth table can be made for any logic gate. input A 0 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 Figure 2 We can summarize this table by the formula Z = A+B where the symbol + stands for OR Other common digital devices are AND, NOR and NAND gates, and inverters. AND gates will have an output of 1 only if 1 is present on all inputs. An inverter is a device, which inverts its input. Thus, an input of 0 will have an output of 4 and vice-versa. Complex circuits are made by combining these basic devices. Their circuit symbols are as follows: output Z 0 1 1 1

inverter

AND

NAND

OR

NOR

Figure 3 1. 2. In what ways are logic gates like mechanical switches? This circuit represents the function of an AND gate:

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inpu t

Output Z

Complete this truth table for an AND gate: A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Z 0 0 0 1

3.What will be the output of this circuit for an input of 1 at B and 0 at A and C
A B C

Task 3: Meaning from context Select a word from the three alternatives give which is the most similar in meaning to the word in italics as it is used in the passage in task 2.

1. terms (line 1)
(a) ways (b) methods (c) words

3. stands for (line 14)

represents means symbolizes

2. levels (line 7)
(a) values (b) classes (c) grades

4. vice-versa (line 17)

(a) (b) (c) opposite against inversely

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Task 4: Describing the operation of a burglar alarm. Start your description like this: The relay is set by closing the main switch and press the reset button. This allows the current from the battery
Contacts on closed door and windows

Rese t butto n

Main switch

Bell

Task 5: Further reading The decision - making circuits used in modern computers are mainly composed of combinations of digital switching circuits known as logic gates. The output of each gate depends on the combination of its inputs. This is known as combinational logic. The output for all possible inputs is shown using a truth table. The truth tables show that the output of an AND gate is only high (i.e. logic level 1) when all its inputs are high. The output of a NOT gate (also known as an inverter) is always the opposite of its input.
Vcc 14

4B
13

4A 12

4Y 11

3Y 10

3B 9

3A 8

Quad 2 input NAND gates TTL 7400 (CMOS 4011

7 GND

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Computers use ICs, which contain a number of logic gates on one chip. An IC pin-out diagram shows the arrangement of the gates and the function of each pin on the chip. The number of ICs used in a computer, i.e. the chip count, can be reduced by connecting NAND gates together to form other types of gates as follow:

Its scale of integration as shown in Table1 indicates the number of components in an IC. The IC shown there is an SSI device but microprocessors used in computers are VLSI or SLSI devices Scale of integration Small - scale integration Medium - scale integration Large - scale integration Very large - scale integration Super large - scale integration TABLE 1 There are two common families of logic ICs used in computers. TTL (transistor - transistor logic) ICs use bipolar transistors to form each gate whereas CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) ICs use field effect transistors (FETs). The different characteristics of each family determine which will be used in a particular computer (see Table 2). For example, TTL ICs are used in large, highAbbreviation SSI MSI LSI VLSI SLSI No. of active components 1 to 10 10 to 102 102 to 103 103 to 10 4 104 to 105

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speed computers and CMOS ICs are better for battery - powered portable computers. TTL +5V+0.25% mA mW fast low TABLE 2 1. What terms are used in the passage for each of the followings? a. a digital switching circuit b. the output of each gate depending on the combination of its input c. the number of ICs used in a computer d. an indication of the number of components used in an IC 2. What is shown by a. a truth table? 3. What is another name for a NOT gate? 4. What are the two common families of logic ICs? 5. What do these abbreviations stand for? a. TTL b. VLSI c. CMOS d. MSI 6. Which of these statements are true for CMOS ICs? a. They contain bipolar transistors. b. They contain field effect transistors. c. They are particularly suitable for use in battery - operated portable computers. d. They are particularly suitable for use in large, high - speed computers. b. a pin - out diagram? CMOS +3 V to + 15 V A W relatively slow high

Properties Supply voltage Supply current Power dissipation Switching speed Input impedance

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44

UNIT 9 Transmission Lines

Task 1: Match the words in column A with the definitions in column B. A 1. cable 2. exchange 3. interference 4. laser 5. light emitting diode B a. unwanted signals. b. semiconductor which converts electrical energy into light c. device giving strong beam of radiation in one direction. d. switching center for switching signals from one telephone line to another. e. insulated wire or set of wires used for carrying electrical current or signals. Task 2: Read this passage and answer the questions, which follow. Telecommunications involves the transmission of information, including voice, data, TV, and radio over long distances. The transmission medium can be free space (ground, space, and sky waves), or the information can be guided between transmitters and receivers using transmission line cables of various kinds. These include:

Parallel wire copper conductor

Wire insulator

Parallel wires: This is the simplest type of transmission line consisting of a pair of insulated copper wires running side- by-side and covered by a plastic sheath. It is

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prone to interference and is only used to carry information over small distances such as telephone connections with a building.
Insulator sheath

Coppering wire conductor insulator covering wire

Twisted pair: Two insulated copper wires are twisted together to reduce interference effects and are enclosed in an insulating polyethylene sheath Because the wires are twisted, unwanted stray signals picked up by one tend to be cancelled by similar signals picked up by other. They are used for communications over longer distances, for example to connect telephones to their local exchange.

Inner conductor

PVC sheath

Copper braid

Dielectric

Coaxial cable (coax) Flexible coax has a copper wire core surrounded by copper braid. The core and braid are insulated from each other by a dielectric material such as polyethylene and covered by a PVC sheath. The braid helps to screen the signals from interference. Coax can carry a large number of signals over long distances at frequencies up to 1000MHz. It is used to connect telephone exchanges and for cable television.

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Connecting flange

Rectangle wave guide

Power flow

Waveguide Microwaves can be guided along rectangular copper ducts by a series of reflections from the inner walls. The exact dimensions of the ducts are determined by the frequency to be transmitted. Suitable frequencies are between 1 GHz and 300 GHz. Waveguides are used to carry microwave signals between dish receivers.
Sidewall of waveguide

Sidewall of waveguide

Optical fibres An inner core made from the very pure silica fibre is surrounded by a similar glass sheath, known as cladding. This is covered by a protective plastic sheath. Nonvisible light from lasers or LEDs (light emitting diodes) can travel along the fibre by reflection from the surface where the core and the cladding meet Although the optical fibre has a smaller diameter than a human hair, it can be no interference from other signals. Optical fibre cable can be used in corrosive environment, and light, flexible and cheap. This type of cable is gradually replacing conventional copper wire for connecting telephones and computer networks. 1. Why are wires sometimes twisted together in transmission lines? 2. What are the purposes of the dielectric material in coaxial cable? 3. What are the advantages of optical cable?

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Task 3: Meaning from context Select a word from the three alternatives given which is the most similar in meaning to the word in italics as it is used in the passage in task 2.

1. medium (line2)
b. line c. means d. relative

3. sheath (line 16)

a. coating b. housing c. cover

2. side by side (line 6)

a. together b. close c. in parallel

4. dimensions (line 22)

a. length b. width c. size

Task 4: Complete this table using information from the passage in task 2 Transmission line Component materials Examples of use Telephone connections within buildings twisted pair Copper wire, plastic insulation Copper wire, copper braid, polythylene sheath Copper ducts Opical fibres Task5: Further reading Telephones, connected by a network of cables, are commonly used for twoway transmission of speech. The signals are switched from one line to another at switching center known as telephone exchanges. Lines in a small area are switched by local exchanges are connected through trunk exchanges, and trunk exchanges are connected to other countries by international exchanges. Such a system is called a Public Switching telephone networks (PSTN) Trunk telephone lines

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Local

Trunk

International exchange

International exchange

Trunk

Local

Modern digital telephone networks can use videophones to transmit video images as well as speech. The telephone network is used by video-conferencing services to interconnect small television studios. In this way, business people can hold conferences at a distance. Public telephone networks are used by many other data communications services. One of the oldest is the telex system. This enables messages, typed on Teletype terminals, to be automatically printed by distant teleprinters. Telex can only transmit simple text containing capital letters and punctuation marks. It is also slow, about 100 words per minute A newer, more advances telex system, known as teletex, is also available. This uses VDU (visual display unit) terminals to transmit a variety of text and graphics characters. High quality formats can be used and it is much faster than telex, operating at speeds up to 2600 words per minute A facsimile (FAX) system allows the transmission of text, graphics and photographic images. Contacting people on the move is possible using radiopaging service. By carrying a small radio receiver called radiopaper, people can be contacted wherever they are. Keying their number in on a telephone causes the paper to beep. The person then goes to the nearest telephone to get in touch with the caller. Telephone network can be used to connect personal computers to an electronic mail ( e-mail ) system. Messages sent from a personal computer are stored on a central computer. User can read and reply to these messages using their own computer.

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Videotex or viewdata systems transmit papers of text and graphics through the PSTN to be displayed on a viewdata terminal or a television screen. The data comes from a central computer. It is an interactive system, allowing the user to send messages back to the computer using a keyboard. The user can perform various tasks from home such as ordering goods and controlling bank accounts. A similar data communications service, known as teletext, uses the television broadcasting system rather than the PSTN. Text and graphics are transmitted as part of the television video signal. The user can switch between pages on the screen using special keys on a remote control unit. Unlike viewdata, teletext is not interactive but does provide a similarly wide variety of useful information, such as news and travel information. Figure 9 shows a teletext screen. An Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is gradually being developed which uses telephone networks with microwave links and satellite communications to interconnect all types of data communications services throughout the world. Task 6: Match the services with the given type of signal Communications service 1. telephone 2. teletex 3. viewdata 4. radiopaging 5. fax 6. videophone 7. e-mail 8. teletext 9. telex Type of signal transmitted a. high - quality text, graphics characters b. video, speech c. simple text, punctuation d. messages e. radio signal beep f. text, graphics, photographic images g. speech h. interactive information, e.g. travel, shopping, banking. i. general information, e.g. news, sports results.

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UNIT 10 Internet Ptotocol Version6 - Ipv6

Reading passage 1. Introduction IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is the latest revision of the Internet Protocol (IP), the primary communications protocol upon which the entire Internet is built. It is intended to replace the older IPv4, which is still employed for the vast majority of Internet traffic as of 2012. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the long-anticipated problem of IPv4 running out of addresses. Each device on the Internet, such as a computer or mobile telephone, must be assigned an IP address, a number with a certain number of binary digits (each presented by one bit), in order to communicate with other devices. With the everincreasing number of new devices being connected to the Internet, there is a need for more addresses than IPv4 can accommodate. IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses,

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allowing for 2128, or approximately 3.41038 addresses - more than 7.91028 times as many as IPv4, which uses 32-bit addresses. IPv4 allows for only 4,294,967,296 unique addresses worldwide (or fewer than one address per person alive in 2012), but IPv6 allows for around 4.81028 addresses per person - a number unlikely to ever run out. However, this means the two protocols are not compatible, complicating the transition to IPv6. IPv6 addresses, as commonly displayed to users, consist of eight groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by colons, for example 2001:0db8:85a3:0042:1000:8a2e:0370:7334. The deployment of IPv6 is accelerating, with a symbolic World IPv6 Launch having taken place on 6 June 2012, in which major internet service providers, especially in countries that had been lagging in IPv6 adoption, deployed IPv6 addresses to portions of their users. Data from Arbor Networks showed a peak of 0.2% of Internet traffic on IPv6 during the launch. As of late November 2012, IPv6 traffic share was reported to be approaching 1%.

IPv4 addreses and IP v6 addresses

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The main advantage of IPv6 over IPv4 is its larger address space. The length of an IPv6 address is 128 bits, compared to 32 bits in IPv4. The address space therefore has 2128 or approximately 3.41038 addresses. By comparison, this amounts to approximately 4.81028 addresses for each of the seven billion people alive in 2011. In addition, the IPv4 address space is poorly allocated, with approximately 14% of all available addresses utilized. While these numbers are large, it wasn't the intent of the designers of the IPv6 address space to assure geographical saturation with usable addresses. Rather, the longer addresses simplify allocation of addresses, enable efficient route aggregation, and allow implementation of special addressing features. In IPv4, complex Classless InterDomain Routing (CIDR) methods were developed to make the best use of the small address space. The standard size of a subnet in IPv6 is 264 addresses, the square of the size of the entire IPv4 address space. Thus, actual address space utilization rates will be small in IPv6, but network management and routing efficiency is improved by the large subnet space and hierarchical route aggregation. Renumbering an existing network for a new connectivity provider with different routing prefixes is a major effort with IPv4.[24][25] With IPv6, however, changing the prefix announced by a few routers can in principle renumber an entire network, since the host identifiers (the least-significant 64 bits of an address) can be independently self-configured by a host. 2. Multicasting Multicasting, the transmission of a packet to multiple destinations in a single send operation, is part of the base specification in IPv6. In IPv4 this is an optional although commonly implemented feature. IPv6 multicast addressing shares common features and protocols with IPv4 multicast, but also provides changes and improvements by eliminating the need for certain protocols. IPv6 does not implement traditional IP broadcast, i.e. the transmission of a packet to all hosts on the attached link using a special broadcast address, and therefore does not define broadcast addresses. In IPv6, the same result can be achieved by sending a packet to the link-local all nodes multicast group at address ff02::1, which is analogous to IPv4 multicast to address 224.0.0.1. IPv6 also provides for new multicast

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implementations, including embedding rendezvous point addresses in an IPv6 multicast group address, which simplifies the deployment of inter-domain solutions. In IPv4 it is very difficult for an organization to get even one globally routable multicast group assignment, and the implementation of inter-domain solutions is very arcane. Unicast address assignments by a local Internet registry for IPv6 have at least a 64-bit routing prefix, yielding the smallest subnet size available in IPv6 (also 64 bits). With such an assignment it is possible to embed the unicast address prefix into the IPv6 multicast address format, while still providing a 32-bit block, the least significant bits of the address, or approximately 4.2 billion multicast group identifiers. Thus each user of an IPv6 subnet automatically has available a set of globally routable source-specific multicast groups for multicast applications. 3. IPv4-mapped IPv6 addresses Hybrid dual-stack IPv6/IPv4 implementations recognize a special class of addresses, the IPv4-mapped IPv6 addresses. In these addresses, the first 80 bits are zero, the next 16 bits are one, and the remaining 32 bits are the IPv4 address. You may see these addresses with the first 96 bits written in the standard IPv6 format, and the remaining 32 bits written in the customary dot-decimal notation of IPv4. For example, ::ffff:192.0.2.128 represents the IPv4 address 192.0.2.128. A deprecated format for IPv4-compatible IPv6 addresses was ::192.0.2.128. Because of the significant internal differences between IPv4 and IPv6, some of the lower-level functionality available to programmers in the IPv6 stack does not work identically with IPv4-mapped addresses. Some common IPv6 stacks do not implement the IPv4-mapped address feature, either because the IPv6 and IPv4 stacks are separate implementations (e.g., Microsoft Windows 2000, XP, and Server 2003), or because of security concerns (OpenBSD). On these operating systems, a program must open a separate socket for each IP protocol it uses. On some systems, e.g., the Linux kernel, NetBSD, and FreeBSD, this feature is controlled by the socket option IPV6_V6ONLY, as specified in RFC 3493. Task 1 Answer the following questions

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1. What is Ipv6? 2. What is the advantage of Ipv6 over Ipv4? 3. What is multicasting? 4. What are IPv4-mapped IPv6 addresses? Task 2. Underline all the noun phrases in the reading passage and translate them into Vietnamese.

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