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Advanced Turbines
Reciprocating Engines
Microturbines
Fresh air is drawn into a compressor where spinning rotor blades compress the air, elevating its temperature and pressure This hot, compressed air is mixed with fuel (natural gas, LPG, kerosene) and burnt in the combustion chamber The hot exhaust gases are expanded in a turbine and released to the atmosphere The compressor and turbine shares a common shaft, so that a portion, typically more than half, of the rotational energy created by the turbine is used to power the turbine
Carnot efficiency reveals that the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine is limited by a low-temperature sink as well as by a high-temperature source With exhaust gases leaving a gas turbine at temperatures frequently above 5000 C, overall efficiencies are low, in the 30% range A heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) can capture some of that waste heat for process steam whereby the gas turbine waste heat can be used to power a second stage steam turbine Working together such combined cycle power plants have achieved efficiencies above 50%
Recently, a new generation of very small gas turbines entered the marketplace. Often referred to as microturbines, these units generate anywhere from about 500 W to several hundred kW. Incoming air is compressed and sent through a heat exchanger called recuperartor, where its temperature is elevated by the hot exhaust gases. By preheating the compressed incoming air, the recuperator helps boost the efficiency The hot, compressed air is mixed with fuel in the combustion chamber and is burnt. The expansion of hot gases through the turbine spins the compressor and the generator The exhaust gas is released to the atmosphere after transferring much of its heat to the incoming compressed air in the 5 recuperator
Microturbines
Example
The Elliott TA 100A microturbine at its full 105 kW output burns 1.24 X 106 Btu/hr ( 1Btu = 1055J ) of natural gas. Its waste heat is used to supplement a boiler used for water and space heating in an apartment house. The design calls for water from the boiler at 1200 F to be heated to 1400 F and returned to the boiler. The system operates in this mode for 8000 hours per year. a) If 47% of the fuel energy is transferred to the boiler water, what should the water flow rate be ? b) If the boiler is 75% efficient, and it is fueled with natural gas costing $6 per million Btu, how much money will the microturbine save in displaced boiler fuel ? c) If utility electricity costs $0.08/kWh, how much will the microturbine save in avoided utility electricity ? d) If O&M is $1500/yr, what is the net annual savings for the microturbine ? e) If the microturbine costs $220,000, what is the ratio of annual savings to initial investment (called the initial rate of return) ?
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Solution
a) The heat Q required to raise a substance with specific & by a temperature heat c and mass flow rate m difference of T is Q = m & CT. Since it takes 1 Btu to raise 1 lb of water by 10 F, and one gallon of water weighs 8.34 lb, we can write, & = 0.47X 1.24 X 106 Btu/h X 1/60 h/min Water flow rate m 1 Btu/lb0F X 200F X 8.34 lb/gal = 58 gpm b) The fuel displaced by not using the 75% efficient boiler is worth, Fuel savings = 0.47 X 1.24 X 106 Btu/h X $6 X 8000 h/yr
0.75 = $37,300/yr
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106 Btu
Solution
c) The utility electricity savings = 105 kW X 8000 h/yr X $0.08/kWh = $67,200/yr d) The cost of fuel for the microturbine is = 1.24 X 106Btu/h X ($6/106 Btu) X 8000 h/yr= $59,520/yr So the net annual savings of the microturbine, including $1500/yr in O&M, is = ($37,300 + $67,200) - $59,520 $1500 = $43,480/yr e) The initial rate of return on this investment would be = Annual savings = $43,480/yr = 0.198 = 19.8%/yr Initial investment $220,000
Fuel Cells
Why the Hydrogen hype ?
Hydrogen is the only non-polluting fuel available High energy density
Energy density of some materials Gasoline Lead/acid batteries Flywheel, steel Flywheel, Carbon fiber kWh/kg 14 0.04 0.05 0.2 0.9 38 2/m3
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Hydrogen can be produced Flywheel, fused Silica either from Methane or by Hydrogen splitting water
Compressed air
Fuel Cells
In the archetypal example of a hydrogen/oxygen proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), a proton-conducting polymer membrane, (the electrolyte), separates the anode and cathode sides. On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it dissociates into protons and electrons. The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water. In this example, the only waste product is 10 water vapor and/or liquid water.
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When combined, the above equations result in the equation for combustion of hydrogen: H2 + (1/2)O2 H2O
One way to think about enthalpy is that it is a measure of the energy that it takes to form that substance out of its constituent elements. The difference between the enthalpy of the substance and the enthalpies of its elements is called the enthalpy of formation (H).
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The negative signs for the enthalpy changes in above tells us these reactions are exothermic: that is, heat is released.
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Example
Find the HHV of methane (CH4) in kJ/mol and kJ/kg when it is oxidized to CO2 and liquid H2O.
SOLUTION
The reaction is written below, and beneath it are enthalpies. Notice that we must balance the equation so that we know how many moles of each constituent are involved.
CH4(g) + (-74.9) 2O2(g) 2X(0) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) (-393.5) 2X(-285.8)
Notice, too, that we have used the enthalpy of liquid water to find HHV. The difference between the total enthalpy of the reaction products and the reactants is H = [(-393.5) + 2 X (-285.8)] [(-74.9) + 2 X (0)] = -890.2 kJ/mol of CH4 Since the result is negative, heat is released during combustion; that is, it is exothermic. The HHV is the absolute value of H which is 890.2 kJ/mol. Since there are 12.011 + 4X1.008 = 16.043 g/mol of CH4, the HHV can be Written as 23 HHV = (890.2 kJ/mol) / (16.403 g/mol) X1000 g/kg = 55,490 kJ/kg
Enthalpy in H
Fuel Cell
We Enthalpy Output
Rejected Heat Q
Example
Suppose a fuel cell that operates at 250C (298K) and 1 atm forms liquid water (that is we are working with the HHV of the hydrogen fuel): H2 + ( )O2 H2O(l) H = -285.8 kJ/mol of H2 a) b) Find the minimum amount of heat rejected per mole of H2. What is the maximum efficiency of the fuel cell ?
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Solution
a) From the reaction, 1 mole of H2 reacts with mole of O2 to produce 1 mole of liquid H2O. The loss of entropy by the reactants per mole of H2 is found as follows: Sreactants = 0.13 kJ/mol-K X 1mol H2 + 0.205 kJ/mol-K X (1/2) mol O2 = 0.2325 kJ/K The gain in entropy in the product water is Sproduct = 0.0699 kJ/mol-K X 1mol H2O = 0.0699 kJ/K The minimum amount of heat released during the reaction is therefore Qmin = T( Sreactants - Sproduct ) = 298 K (0.2325 0.0699) kJ/K = 48.45 kJ per mole H2 b) The enthalpy made available during the formation of liquid water from H2 and O2 is H = 285.8 kJ/mol of H2. The maximum efficiency possible occurs when Q is a minimum; thus 27 max = 1 Qmin/H = 1 48.45/285.8 = 0.83 = 83%
Example
What is the maximum efficiency at STP of a protonexchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell based on the higher heating value (HHV) of hydrogen ? SOLUTION The HHV corresponds to liberated water in the liquid state so that the appropriate reaction is H2 + ( )O2 H2O(l) H = -285.8 kJ/mol of H2 The Gibbs free energy of the reactants H2 and O2 are both zero, and that of the product, liquid water, is -237.2 kJ. Therefore, G = -237.2 (0+0) = -237.2 kJ/mol. So, max = G / H = -237.2/(-285.8) = 0.83 = 83% This is the same answer that we found in the previous example.
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0.25 V/(A/cm2)
Fitting the V-I curve in the ohmic region for the fuel cell, V = 0.85 0.25J = 0.85 (0.25/A)I where A is the cell area (cm2), I is current (A) and J is current density(A/cm2).
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Energy storage
Why energy storage? Utility load levelling: to improve load factors, reduce pollution in populated urban areas and to make better use of available plants and fuels Utilization of renewable energy in its various forms to relieve the burden on finite fossil fuel resources and to improve the environment Storage for remote users Uninterruptible power supplies
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Superconductors
What is a superconductor? Materials in which the electrical resistance disappears at some critical temperature (Mercury Tc = 4.2K; Niobium-Tin Tc = 23K). Why superconductors? Joule losses (I2R)! True workable room temperature superconductors would revolutionize technology. Efficiency of electric generators -Conventional electric generators are 98.6% efficient. -Superconducting generators will be ~99.5% efficient. Is this gain worth it? Room-temperature superconducting transmission lines would save 10-15% for short-distance transmission 2% for long-distance transmission. What does this mean? -1% improvement in transmission $1 billion in savings.
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Superconducting winding
Flywheels
Flywheels are an old technology. Storing energy in a slow moving heavy object has been around for a long time. Example: The car engine So what is new about flywheels?.... It is the material....strong plastics and epoxy allow edge speed of 1400 m/s! It is now feasible to create cars which store energy in flywheels. These could be powered by electricity, natural gas, etc. The presently available flywheels for cars rotate at 30,000 rpm and can deliver 0.55 kWhe. These may be considered flywheel batteries. The Prius uses flywheels to store energy!
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Flywheels
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Flywheels
A wheel winds up through some system of gears and then delivers rotational energy until friction dissipates it Stored energy = sum of kinetic energy of individual mass elements that comprise the flywheel Kinetic Energy = (1/2)*I2 I = moment of inertia ability of an object to resist changes in its rotational velocity = rotational velocity To optimize the energy-to-mass ratio, the flywheel needs to spin at the maximum possible speed. This is because kinetic energy only increases linearly with mass but goes as the square of the rotation speed.
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Flywheels
Rapidly rotating objects are subject to centrifugal forces that can rip them apart. Centrifugal force for a rotating object goes as: MR2 Thus, while dense material can store more energy it is also subject to higher centrifugal force and thus fails at lower rotation speeds than low density material. Tensile Strength is More important than density of material. Long rundown times are also required. Frictionless bearings and a vacuum to minimize air resistance can result in rundown times of 6 months steady supply of energy. Flywheels are about 80% efficient (like hydro) Flywheels do take up much less land than pumped hydro systems 41
Batteries
The oldest electrical storage device is the battery. The lead-acid battery in a car is capable of producing 50-100W/kg for a total stored energy of 25-35 Wh/kg. However lead is expensive. Other alternatives include: - sodium-sulfur battery (100 kWh - GE) - zinc-chloride prototype (50 Wh - Gulf) - lithium-aluminum (100 Wh/kg - ANL) - lithium-water (55 Wh/kg - Canada) Batteries comprise two electrode systems and an electrolyte, placed together in a special container and connected to an external circuit or load. These two electrodes, fitted on both sides of an electrolyte and exchanging ions with the electrolyte and electrons with the external circuit, are called anode and cathode respectively. Today batteries are mainly used in emergency standby supplies duty for DC auxiliaries.
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