1.

1 Introduction to fuel cell and hydrogen fuel systems

Fuel cells generate electricity from an electrochemical reaction in which oxygen (from air) and a fuel
(e.g. hydrogen) combine to form water. The electricity produced can be used to power cars, buses,
laptops and mobile phones. The by-product, heat, can also be used.
a fuel cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy, water, and heat through
electrochemical reactions.
When the cell operates, the fuel is oxidized and the chemical reaction provides the energy that is
converted into electricity. Main uses in power production, automotive vehicles and in special military
use. Since hydrogen and oxygen are the gases the fuel cell requires a solid electrical conductor to
serve as a current collector and to provide a terminal at each electrode. The solid electrode material
is generally porous. Porous nickel electrodes and porous carbon electrodes are generally used in fuel
cells for commercial applications. Most existing fuel cells operate below 200 degree Celsius. At the
electrode, hydrogen is diffused through permeable nickel in which is embedded a catalyst. The
catalyst enable the H2 molecules to be absorbed and on electrode hydrogen atom reacts with
hydroxyl ions in electrolyte to form water.

 Fuel and air react when they come into contact through a porous membrane (electrolyte) which
separates them.
 This reaction results in a transfer of electrons and ions across the electrolyte from the anode to
the cathode.
 If an external load is attached to this arrangement, a complete circuit is formed and a voltage is
generated from the flow of electrical current. The voltage generated by a single cell is typically rather
small (< 1 volt), so many cells are connected in series to create a useful voltage.

Fuel cell principle was first discovered by William Groove in 1839. Groove used four large cells , each
containing hydrogen and oxygen, to produce electrical power which was then used to split the water
in the smaller upper cell.
How fuel cells work?
The catalyst in the anode separates hydrogen atom into protons and electrons. The electron flow
through circuit to cathode, forming an electric current to do useful work.
Hydrogen fuel cell
  Open system
 Anode and cathode are in gaseous state in contact with a platinum catalyst.
 Reactants are externally supplied
 No charging required

Galvanic Cell(Battery)

 Closed system
 Anode and cathode are made up of metal plates
 Charging is required periodically
 Reactants are internally consumed

Fuel cell vs ICE

Similarities
 Compressed air is used as an oxidant in both cases.
 Both require cooling.
 Both use hydrogen rich fuel.

Differences

 In ice fuel and oxygen is combusted whereas in fuel cell they are mixed electrochemically to form
water and heat.
 Everything is converted into electrical energy and heat in case of fuel cell whereas in the case of
ice the obtained result is mechanical work.
 in fuel cell little or no pollution, in case of ice extreme pollution.

Reformer
Applications of fuel cells hydrogen hydrogen
 stationary systems rich fuel to fuel cell
 transportation
 space systems H2O (l) CO2
 portable systems such as mobiles, laptops, etc. heat
Terminologies
a. inverter: It is a device used to convert dc electricity produced by the fuel cell into alternating
current.
b. Reformer: It is a device which extracts pure hydrogen from hydrocarbons. A common fuel
reformer is a steam reformer.
c. Stack: individual fuel cell connected in series within a generating assembly.

Fuel cell

 Chemical constantly flows into the cell so it never goes dead.

 As long as there is flow of chemical into the cell, the electricity flows out of the cell.
 Most fuel cells use hydrogen and oxygen as chemicals.
 Generates electricity through an electrochemical process, in which the energy stored in the fuel
is converted directly into direct current electricity.
Four types of fuel cell based on electrolyte employed
a. Phosphoric acid fuel cell(PAFC)
b. Molten carbonate fuel cell
c. Solid oxide fuel cell
d. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell

a. PAFC : uses liquid phosphoric acid as electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 40-80% and operating
temperature is from 150 to 200 degrees C. existing phosphoric acid cells have output upto
200KW ,and 11MW units have been tested.PAFCs tolerate a carbon monoxide concentration
of about 1.5% ,which broadens the choice of fuels they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulphur
must me removed. Platinum electrode-catalysts are needed, and internal parts must be able
to withstand the corrosice acid.Acid is contained in a Teflon bonded silicon carbide matrix.
Keeps the acid in place through the capillary action, due to small pore structure of this
matrix.platinum catalyzed porous carbon electrodes are used.To increase voltage output,
several fuel cells are stacked together.
It is the most commonly developed fuel cell. Mainly used in stationary power plants.

Advantages:
• H2O rejecting electrolyte
• high temps favor H2O2 decomposition
• O2 + H2O +2e-  H2O2
• Stable H2O2 lowers cell voltage and corrodes electrode
Problems:
• O2 kinetic hindered
• CO catalyst poison at anode
• H2 only suitable fuel
• low conducting electrolyte
b. Molten carbonate fuel cell: uses molten carbonate salt mixture as electrolyte. Efficiency
ranges from 60 -80%.units with output upto 2MW have been constructed, and design exists
for units upto 100MW. Their nickel electrode-catalysts are inexpensive compared to the
platinum used in other cells. But the high temperature also limits the mateirals and safe uses
of MCFCs-they would probably be too hot for home use. Also, carbonate ions from the
electrolyte are used up in the reactions ,making it necessary to inject carbon dioxide to
compensate.Consists of lithium carbonate and potassium carbonate. Electrolyte is liquid and
good ionic conductor at 650 degree Celsius.electrolyte is suspended in porous, insulating and
chemically inert ceramic matrix. Due to high operating temperature of MCFC,the natural gas
could be reformed to produce hydrogen within the fuel cell itself.
ANODE: highly porous sintered nickel powder alloyed with chromium
CATHODE: porous nickel oxide material doped with lithium.

c. Solid oxide fuel cell(SOFC): uses a ceramic solid-phase electrolyte.To achieve adequate ionic
conductivity, the system must operate at about 1000 degree Celsius.Waste heat can be
recycled to produce additional electricity. Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC) use a hard, ceramic
compound of metal (like calcium or zirconium) oxides (chemically, O2) as electrolyte.
Efficiency is about 60 percent, and operating temperatures are about 1,000 degrees C (about
1,800 degrees F). Cells output is up to 100 kW. At such high temperatures a reformer is not
required to extract hydrogen from the fuel, and waste heat can be recycled to make additional
electricity. However, the high temperature limits applications of SOFC units and they tend to
be rather large. While solid electrolytes cannot leak, they can crack.

d. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell: polymer electrolyte in the form of thin polymer sheet.
Its efficiency is about 40-50 %. Cell output generally ranges from 50 to 250 KW. The solid,
flexible electrolyte will not leak or crack, and these cells operate at low enough temperature
to make them suitable for homes and cars. But their fuels must be purified, and a platinum
catalyst is used in both sides of the membrane, raising costs. Operating temperature is -80
degree Celsius. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell is defined as that fuel cell which is
capable of generating an electric current by converting the chemical energy of the fuel directly
into the electrical energy.
 Working principle
Hydrogen gas is supplied to one electrode and the oxygen gas (air) to another electrode.
Between the electrodes is a layer of electrolytes. The electro-chemical reaction occurring at
the electrodes of hydrogen- oxygen cell may vary with the nature of electrolyte, but basically
they are as follows: At the negative side of the electrode, the hydrogen gas is converted into
H+ ions, plus an equivalent number of electrons.
At this electrode, hydrogen is diffused through permeable nickel.
When the cell is operating and producing current, the electrons flow through external load to
positive electrode, here they interact with oxygen and water from the electrolyte to form
negatively charged hydroxyl ions.
The hydrogen and hydroxyl ions then combine in the electrolyte to produce water. The
electrolyte is usually 40% KOH solution.

e. Alkali fuel cells

Alkali fuel cells operate on compressed hydrogen and oxygen. They generally use a solution
of potassium hydroxide (chemically, KOH) in water as their electrolyte. Efficiency is about 70
percent, and operating temperature is 150 to 200 degrees C, (about 300 to 400 degrees F).
Cell output ranges from 300 watts (W) to 5 kilowatts (kW). Alkali cells were used in Apollo
spacecraft to provide both electricity and drinking water. They require pure hydrogen fuel,
however, and their platinum electrode catalysts are expensive. And like any container filled
with liquid, they can leak.

 Gas diffusion layer is on the both sides of the electrode. Allow transfer of gases through it as it is
porous medium. Also helps in removing water formed by providing compartment. Should be
conductor of both heat and electricity.
 Voltage generated by a single fuel cell is 0.5 or 0.6 volt. So, fuel cells are stacked in series.Hence,
bipolar plates are used in order to support connection between the fuel cells.Bipolar plates acts
as electricity collector. It also helps in distribution of gases in the both sides of the plate.
 Current collector is used to take electricity produced to the external circuit.

Pros and cons of fuel cells

Pros
 Green source of energy –if fuel used is hydrogen
 High power density
 High efficiency(40-60%)
 Quiet operation

Cons
 High cost
 High maintenance
 Produces direct current

Hydrogen
 hydrogen does not occur free in nature. So it is made from natural gas or it can be made by
passing electric current through water.
Two possible sources of hydrogen
 electrolysis of water
 reforming fossil fuels
ADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN FUEL
• When hydrogen is burned, the only emission it makes is water vapor, so a key advantage of
hydrogen is that when burned, carbon dioxide (CO2) is not produced.
• Clearly, hydrogen is less of a pollutant in the air because it omits little tail pipe pollution.
• Hydrogen has the potential to run a fuel-cell engine with greater efficiency over an internal
combustion engine.
DISADVANTAGES
• Currently, it still costs a considerable amount of money to run a hydrogen vehicle because it takes
a large amount of energy to liquefy the fuel.
• Research shows that cars could store hydrogen in high pressure tanks like those used for
compressed natural gas.
The Department of Energy's goal is to produce hydrogen at $2 to $3 per gallon by 2015. Right
now, the cost per gallon is between $6 and $8.

 fuel processor or reformer is used to split hydrogen off the carbon in a hydrocarbon relatively
easily,and then use hydrogen. Oil and natural gas contain hydrocarbons.
Infrastructure required and challenges for hydrogen production, storage and utilization
a. production by electrolysis
 metal electrodes
 electrolytic solution
 source of pure DC current
 water
  diaphragms
b. production by thermo nuclear methods
 containment materials
 source of heat
c production by fossil fuel method
 fossil fuel
 steam
 acid absorbers
 vessels
d for production by solar energy methods
 electrodes
 semi-conductors(PV cells)
 steam
 condenser
 turbo alternator

infrastructure needed for storage and and utilization of hydrogen gas

 high pressure cylinders for the storage of compressed H2 gas
 vacuum insulated or super insulated storage tank for storing H2 as liquid
 vacuum jackets
 primary refrigeration system
 metals for storing H2 gas as metal hydrides
 reservoirs and aquiters
 lighter tanks for utilization in aircrafts

challenges

 only small amount of hydrogen can be stored in large tank

 hydrogen gas boils at -253 degree Celsius hence highly insulated vessel with vacuum
is needed for storing the liquid hydrogen.
 Temperature required for production of hydrogen gas is about 950 degree Celsius. Or
more. Hence fuel with high heating values in high amount should be used.
 Hydrogen gas has very high diffusive property I.e; it spreads more quickly.
 Hydrogen gas is the lightest gas having least atomic weight. Hence , special kind of
collectors should be used during production.

Hydrogen production processes

A. Electrolysis or electrolytic production of hydrogen
The process of splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen by means of direct current is called
electrolysis.
Principle :
An electrolytic cell consists of two electrodes, commonly flat metal or carbon plates,
immersed in the aqueous conducting solution known as electrolyte. An electric current flows
 from anode to cathode. As a result , the water in the electrolytic solution decomposes into
hydrogen gas which is released in cathode and oxygen gas which is released in anode.

B. Thermochemical method
Uses heat and chemical reaction for the production of hydrogen. Energy supplied is heat at
one or more of the chemical stage. The net result is the decomposition of water into
hydrogen and oxygen.
It is multi-step thermochemical method which offers potential for process that could use high
temperature nuclear heat and be contained in conventional chemical equipment.
The maximum temperature in a thermochemical method is considered to be about 950
degree Celsius. Heat energy should then be converted into hydrogen with the efficiency of
50%. This process is improvement over electrolysis.

Hence ,only water is split, other materials are recycled.

C. Fossil fuel method

Mostly a gaseous mixture of carbonmonoxide and hydrogen is formed in the first stage in the
production of hydrogen using fossil fuel(ie natural gas, petroleum or coal). Such a mixture can
be made by any method used for an intermediate heat value fuel gas. To remove the carbon
monoxide, the mixture is submitted to the water gas shift reaction with steam.CO is thereby
converted into carbon dioxide with the formation of additional hydrogen.

Carbondioxide is an acidic gas which can be absorbed in an alkaline medium.

 D. Solar energy method
This includes two approaches:
 Bio – photolysis: utilize living system to split water to its constituents hydrogen and
oxygen. In normal photosynthesis in green plants the green pigment chlorophyll takes
up energy from sunlight and in complex series of reactions breaks up water molecule
into oxygen gas and hydrogen ions. The oxygen is evolved and hydrogen ions and
electrons are removed by interaction with carbondioxide.
 Photo – electrolysis : In photoelectrolysis , current is generated by exposing both
electrode into sunlight.

1. production from natural gas

a. steam methane reforming (SMR)
b. partial oxidation (POX)
c. autothermal reforming (ATR)

HYDROGEN STORAGE
 In an energy system, there is a need to be able to store energy somewhere between production point and
utilization point. need of storage is due to the mismatch of optimum production rate of energy and fluctuation
in demand energy by users.
 One of the advantages claimed for hydrogen energy system is that hydrogen energy is storable.
There are five principle methods that have been considered for hydrogen storage
I. Compressed gas storage
Hydrogen gas is conveniently stored for many applications in high pressure cylinders. This method of
storage is rather expensive and bulky as it requires large quantity of steel to contain small amount of
hydrogen.
II. Liquid storage
 In this type hydrogen is stored as liquid at low temperature(i.e cryogenic storage). For example : liquid
hydrogen fuel is used in rockets. Liquid hydrogen boils at -253 degree Celsius. Hence the temperature
must be kept below it.so, it is necessary to use vacuum-insulated materials.
III. Line packing
Use of line pack storage in natural gas industry provides a relatively small capacity storage system, but
one with very fast response time can take care of instant demand. This system allows the pressure in
transmission or distribution to vary. This system allows the pressure in transmission or distribution to
vary.
IV. Underground storage
It is the cheapest way to store large amount of hydrogen. It uses underground facilities similar to those
used in natural gas. This is the practice of hydrogen storage in underground caverns, salt domes and
depleted gas fields.
V. Metal hydrides
Storage of hydrogen in the form of metal hydrides. A number of metals and alloys form solid
compounds, called metal hydrides, by direct reaction with hydrogen gas. When the hydrides are
heated, the hydrogen is released and origin metal/ alloy is recovered.

Utilization of hydrogen gas(RITA-E)

a. Residential uses
 Electricity for lighting, and for operating domestic appliances( refrigerators) could be generated by means
of fuel cells.
 Hydrogen gas can be used in domestic cooking. But the heating value of hydrogen gas is less than that of
natural gas. So a large volume of burner is required.
 Hydrogen will be useful in radiant space heaters, because of possibility of flameless combustion of catalytic
surface.
b. Industrial use
 Used as fuel or chemical reducing( i.e; oxygen removal) agent if economics are favourable.
For example, for several industrial processes natural gases has been the most satisfactory
source of heat. Hydrogen could replace it
 Instead of coal- derived gases, hydrogen can be used.
c. Alternative transport fuel
 Hydrogen can be used as a fuel in internal combustion engines for automobiles, buses,
trucks, and farm machinery. Because of fuel is a gas, the conventional carburetor of the
internal combustion engine must be modified for use in hydrogen.
d. Aircraft applications
 Earliest application of liquid hydrogen fuel is expected to be in a jet air craft. Main
advantage is that much lower overall weight of fuel and storage tank than for ordinary fuel
jet. Volume of liquid hydrogen would be greater than for regular fuel, but thus can be
accommodated for larger aircraft.
e. Electric power generation
 Hydrogen can be used as a means of storing and distributing electric energy.
 It can produce electricity by using hydrogen in fuel-cell systems.
 Battery fundamentals

 Open circuit voltage: tha vayeko kuro nai ho.tapai lai vanirakhnu pardaina jasto van vairaheko xa
malai
 Power capacity: the rate at which the stored energy can safely be taken out of the battery and
restored
 Specific power : it is the maximum rated power output.
 Energy efficiency: it is the ratio of useful energy out to the re-charge energy
o Whether a battery may be recharged or not depends on the cells used to
make up the battery.
o A primary cell cannot be recharged because the internal chemical
reaction cannot be restored.
o A secondary cell, or storage cell, can be recharged because its chemical
reaction is reversible.
o Dry cells have a moist electrolyte that cannot be spilled.
o Sealed rechargeable cells are secondary cells that contain a sealed
electrolyte that cannot be refilled.
o There are several different types of primary cells in use today:
 Carbon-zinc dry cells.
 Alkaline cells.
 Zinc chloride cells.
 Mercury cells.
 Silver oxide cells.

Types of batteries arrangement

a. Series combination:
b. Parallel combination:
Mathi ko sab chij ko barema yaha harulai tha vayeko nai ho.huss ta dhanyawad.

Classification of batteries
1. Conventional batteries: lead acid, nickel cadmium, nickel iron, nickel zinc, silver zinc,
silver cadmium, etc.
2. Metal gas batteries: iron- air , nickel- hydrogen, zinc-air, zinc-hydrogen, zinc-chlorine,
cadmium-oxygen, aluminium-air, sodium-air, lithium-sulphurdioxide.
3. Alkali-metal high temperature batteries: sodium-sulphur, sodium-chlorine, lithium-
sulphur, lithium-chlorine, lithium-copper, aluminium-chlorine, etc