How Fuel Cells Work

Fuel Cells ( 燃料電池 ):

Making power more efficiently
and with less pollution.
 Fuel Cell
- an electrochemical energy
conversion device
 To convert the chemicals hydrogen and oxygen
into water, and in the process it produces
electricity.
 Battery ( 電池 ): the other electrochemical device
that we are all familiar.
 A battery has all of its chemicals stored inside,
and it converts those chemicals into electricity too.
 This means that a battery eventually "goes dead"
and you either throw it away or recharge it.
 For a fuel cell

 Chemicals constantly flow into the cell so it

never goes dead.
 As long as there is a flow of chemicals into
the cell,
 the electricity flows out of the cell.
 Most fuel cells in use today use hydrogen
and oxygen as the chemicals.
 Fuel Cell Descriptions
 Fuel Cells generate electricity through an
electrochemical process
 In which the energy stored in a fuel is
converted directly into DC electricity.
 Because electrical energy is generated
without combusting fuel,
 Fuel cells are extremely attractive from an
environmental stand point.
 Attractive characteristics of
Fuel Cell
 High energy conversion efficiency
 Modular design
 Very low chemical and acoustical pollution
 Fuel flexibility
 Cogeneration capability
 Rapid load response
 A functioning cell
in a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell stack
 It consists of three components - a cathode, an anode,
and an electrolyte sandwiched between the two.
 Oxygen from the air flows through the cathode
 A fuel gas containing hydrogen, such as methane, flows
past the anode.
 Negatively charged oxygen ions migrate through the
electrolyte membrane react with the hydrogen to form
water,
 The reacts with
the methane fuel
to form hydrogen (H2) &
carbon dioxide (CO2).
 This electrochemical reaction generates electrons, which
flow from the anode to an external load and back to the
cathode,
 a final step that both completes the circuit and supplies
electric power.
 To increase voltage output, several fuel cells are stacked
together to form the heart of a clean power generator.
 Cool Fuel Cells
 Fuel cells promise to be the environmentally-
friendly power source of the future,
 but some types run too hot to be practical.
NASA-funded research may have a solution.
 All fuel cells have the same
basic operating principle.
 An input fuel is catalytically reacted
(electrons removed from the fuel elements)
in the fuel cell to create an electric current.
 Fuel cells consist of an electrolyte material which is sandwiched
in between two thin electrodes (porous anode and cathode).
 The input fuel passes over the anode (and oxygen over the
cathode) where it catalytically splits into ions and electrons.
 The electrons go through an external circuit to serve an electric
load while the ions move through the electrolyte toward the
oppositely charged electrode.
 At the electrode, ions combine to create by-products, primarily
water and CO2. Depending on the input fuel and electrolyte,
different chemical reactions will occur.
Basic Configuration
PEMFC
Animation of PEMFC
 U
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Applications of Fuel cells
Woking Park Fuel Cell CHP schematic
 U
 Four primary types
of fuel cells
They are based on the electrolyte employed:

 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells
-PAFCs
 The most mature fuel cell technology in terms of system
development and commercialization activities.
 Has been under development for more than 20 years
 Has received a total worldwide investment in the development
and demonstration of the technology in excess of $500 million.
 The PAFC was selected for substantial development a number
of years ago because of the belief that, among the low
temperature fuel cells,
 It was the only technology which showed relative tolerance for
reformed hydrocarbon fuels and thus could have widespread
applicability in the near term.
 PAFC Design and Operation
 The PAFC uses liquid phosphoric acid as the
electrolyte.
 The phosphoric acid is contained in a Teflon bonded
silicone carbide matrix.
 The small pore structure of this matrix preferentially
keeps the acid in place through capillary action.
 Some acid may be entrained in the fuel or oxidant
streams and addition of acid may be required after
many hours of operation.
 Platinum catalyzed, porous carbon electrodes are
used on both the fuel (anode) and oxidant (cathode)
sides of the electrolyte.
 Fuel and oxidant gases are supplied to the backs of the porous
electrodes by parallel grooves formed into carbon or carbon-
composite plates.
 These plates are electrically conductive and conduct electrons
from an anode to the cathode of the adjacent cell.
 In most designs, the plates are "bi-polar" in that they have
grooves on both sides - one side supplies fuel to the anode of
one cell, while the other side supplies air or oxygen to the
cathode of the adjacent cell.
 The byproduct water is removed as steam on the cathode (air or
oxygen) side of each cell by flowing excess oxidant past the
backs of the electrodes.
 This water removal procedure requires that the system be
operated at temperatures around 375oF (190oC).
 At lower temperatures, the product water will dissolve in the
electrolyte and not be removed as steam. At approximately 410 oF
(210oC), the phosphoric acid begins to decompose.
 The byproduct water is removed as steam on the cathode
(air or oxygen) side of each cell by flowing excess oxidant
past the backs of the electrodes.
 This water removal procedure requires that the system be
operated at temperatures around 375oF (190oC).
 At lower temperatures, the product water will dissolve in
the electrolyte and not be removed as steam. At
approximately 410oF (210oC), the phosphoric acid begins
to decompose.
 Excess heat is removed from the fuel cell stack by
providing carbon plates containing cooling channels every
few cells.
 Either air or a liquid coolant, such as water, can be passed
through these channels to remove excess heat.
 Electrochemical reactions in
PAFC

 At the anode:
 Hydrogen is split into two hydrogen ions (H+), which
pass through the electrolyte to the cathode, and
 two electrons which pass through the external circuit
(electric load) to the cathode.
 At the cathode:
 the hydrogen, electrons and oxygen combine to form
water.
Electrochemical reactions in PAFC
 PAFC Performance Characteristics
 PAFC power plant designs show electrical efficiencies in
the range from 36% (HHV) to 42% (HHV).
 The higher efficiency designs operate with pressurized
reactants.
 The higher efficiency pressurized design requires more
components and likely higher cost.
 PAFC power plants supply usable thermal energy at an
efficiency of 37% (HHV) to 41% (HHV).
 A portion of the thermal energy can be supplied at
temperatures of ~ 250oF to ~ 300oF.
 However, the majority of the thermal energy is supplied at
~150oF.
 The PAFC has a power density of 160-175 watts/ft2 of
active cell area
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
- MCFC
 A molten carbonate salt mixture is used as its
electrolyte.
 They evolved from work in the 1960's aimed at
producing a fuel cell which would operated directly on
coal.
 While direct operation on coal seems less likely today,
 The operation on coal-derived fuel gases or natural gas
is viable.
 Molten Carbonate Salt
used as Electrolyte in MCFC
 A molten carbonate salt mixture is used as its electrolyte.
 The composition of the electrolyte (molten carbonate salt
mixture) varies, but usually consists of lithium carbonate
and potassium carbonate.
 At the operating temperature of about 650oC (1200oF), the
salt mixture is liquid and a good ionic conductor.
 The electrolyte is suspended in a porous, insulating and
chemically inert ceramic (LiAlO3) matrix.
 Reactions
in MCFC
 The anode process involves a
reaction between hydrogen
and carbonate ions (CO3=)
from the electrolyte.
 The reaction produces water
and carbon dioxide (CO2)
while releasing electrons to
the anode.
 The cathode process combines oxygen
and CO2 from the oxidant stream with
electrons from the cathode to produce
carbonate ions which enter the
electrolyte.
 The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream
requires a system for collecting CO 2
from the anode exhaust and mixing it
with the cathode feed stream.
Reactions
in MCFC
 Description of reactions in MCFCs
 The anode process involves a reaction between hydrogen
and carbonate ions (CO3=) from the electrolyte.
 The reaction produces water and carbon dioxide (CO2)
while releasing electrons to the anode.
 The cathode process combines oxygen and CO2 from the
oxidant stream with electrons from the cathode to produce
carbonate ions which enter the electrolyte.
 The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream requires a system
for collecting CO2 from the anode exhaust and mixing it
with the cathode feed stream.
 As the operating temperature increases,
 the theoretical operating voltage for a fuel cell decreases and
with it the maximum theoretical fuel efficiency.
 On the other hand, increasing the operating temperature
increases the rate of the electrochemical reaction and
 Thus increases the current which can be obtained at a given
voltage.
 The net effect for the MCFC is that the real operating voltage is
higher than the operating voltage for the PAFC at the same
current density.
 The higher operating voltage of the MCFC means that more
power is available at a higher fuel efficiency from a MCFC than
from a PAFC of the same electrode area.
 As size and cost scale roughly with electrode area, this suggests
that a MCFC should be smaller and less expensive than a
"comparable" PAFC.
 As size and cost scale roughly with electrode area, this
suggests that a MCFC should be smaller and less expensive
than a "comparable" PAFC.
 The MCFC also produces excess heat at a temperature which
is high enough to yield high pressure steam which may be fed
to a turbine to generate additional electricity.
 In combined cycle operation, electrical efficiencies in excess of
60% (HHV) have been suggested for mature MCFC systems.
 The MCFC operates at between 1110°F (600°C) and 1200°F
(650°C) which is necessary to achieve sufficient conductivity of
the electrolyte.
 To maintain this operating temperature, a higher volume of air
is passed through the cathode for cooling purposes.
 As mentioned above, the high operating temperature of the
MCFC offers the possibility that it could operate directly on
gaseous hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas.
 The natural gas would be reformed to produce hydrogen
within the fuel cell itself.
 The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream requires that CO2
from the spent anode gas be collected and mixed with the
incoming air stream.
 Before this can be done, any residual hydrogen in the spent
fuel stream must be burned.
 Future systems may incorporate membrane separators to
remove the hydrogen for recirculation back to the fuel
stream.
 At cell operating temperatures of 650oC (1200oF) noble
metal catalysts are not required.
 The anode is a highly porous sintered nickel powder,
alloyed with chromium to prevent agglomeration and creep
at operating temperatures.
 The cathode is a porous nickel oxide material doped with
lithium.
 Significant technology has been developed to provide
electrode structures which position the electrolyte with
respect to the electrodes and maintain that position while
allowing for some electrolyte boil-off during operation.
 The electrolyte boil-off has an insignificant impact on cell
stack life.
 A more significant factor of life expectancy has to do with
corrosion of the cathode.
 The MCFC operating temperature is about 650 oC (1200oF).
 At this temperature the salt mixture is liquid and is a good
conductor.
 The cell performance is sensitive to operating temperature.
 A change in cell temperature from 650 oC (1200oF) to 600oC
(1110oF) results in a drop in cell voltage of almost 15%.
 The reduction in cell voltage is due to increased ionic and
electrical resistance and a reduction in electrode kinetics.
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
 The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) uses a ceramic,
solid-phase electrolyte which reduces corrosion
considerations and eliminates the electrolyte
management problems associated with the liquid
electrolyte fuel cells.
 To achieve adequate ionic conductivity in such a
ceramic, however, the system must operate at about
1000oC (1830oF).
 At that temperature, internal reforming of
carbonaceous fuels should be possible, and the waste
heat from such a device would be easily utilized by
conventional thermal electricity generating plants to
yield excellent fuel efficiency.
 The fuel cell will compete with many other types of energy
conversion devices, including
 the gas turbine in city's power plant,
 the gasoline engine in your car and
 the battery in your laptop.
 Combustion engines like the turbine and the gasoline engine
burn fuels and
 use the pressure created by the expansion of the gases to
do mechanical work.
 Batteries converted chemical energy back into electrical
energy when needed.
 Fuel cells should do both tasks more efficiently.
 A fuel cell provides a DC (direct current) voltage that can be
used to power motors, lights or any number of electrical
appliances.
 Classification of Fuel Cells
 There are several different types of fuel cells, each using a
different chemistry.
 Fuel cells are usually classified by the type of electrolyte
they use.
 Some types of fuel cells work well for use in stationary power
generation plants.
 Others may be useful for small portable applications or for
powering cars.
 The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is one
of the most promising technologies.
 This is the type of fuel cell that will end up powering cars,
buses and maybe even your house. Let's take a look at how
they work...
 Tiny Fuel Cell to Power Sensors
 A fuel cell prototype that is the size of a pencil eraser and can deliver small amounts
of electricity was developed at Case Western Reserve University (CWRU).

 The fuel cells are 5 mm3 in volume and generate 10 mW of power with short pulses of
up to 100 mW.
 The cell power is so limited
 There is no practical consumer use yet.
 A cell phone, e.g., needs ~ 500 mW.
 The first use will be in sensors for the military.
 Microfuel cell
 The prototype microfuel cell uses an electrochemical process to directly
convert energy from hydrogen into electricity.
 The fuel cell works like a battery, using an anode and cathode, positive and
negative electrodes (solid electrical conductors), with an electrolyte.
 The electrolyte can be made of various materials or solutions. The hydrogen
flows into the anode and the molecules are split into protons and electrons.
 The protons flow through the electrolyte, while the electrons take a different
path, creating an electrical current.
 At the other end of the fuel cell, oxygen is pulled in from the air and flows
into the cathode.
 The hydrogen protons and electrons reunite in the cathode and chemically
bond with the oxygen atoms to form water molecules.
 Theoretically, the only waste product produced by a fuel cell is water.
 Fuel cells that extract hydrogen from natural gas or another hydrocarbon will
emit some carbon dioxide as a byproduct, but in much smaller amounts than
those produced by traditional energy sources.
 PEMFC: Proton Exchange
Membrane Fuel Cell
Animation: fuel-cell-animation.swf
 The cell uses one of the simplest reactions of any fuel cell.
 Four Basic Elements in a PEMFC
 Anode: the negative post of the fuel cell, has several jobs.
 It conducts the electrons that are freed from the hydrogen
molecules
 so that they can be used in an external circuit.
 It has channels etched into it that disperse the hydrogen
gas equally over the surface of the catalyst.
 Cathode: the positive post of the fuel cell,
 has channels etched into it that distribute the oxygen to the
surface of the catalyst.
 It also conducts the electrons back from the external circuit
to the catalyst,
 where they can recombine with the hydrogen ions and
oxygen to form water.
 Four Basic Elements in a PEMFC
 The electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane.
 This specially treated material, which looks something like
ordinary kitchen plastic wrap,
 only conducts positively charged ions.
 The membrane blocks electrons.
 The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the
reaction of oxygen and hydrogen.
 It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated
onto carbon paper or cloth.
 The catalyst is rough and porous so that the maximum
surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the
hydrogen or oxygen.
 The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the PEM.
 Chemistry of a Fuel Cell
 Anode side:
2H2  4H+ + 4e-
 Cathodeside:
O2 + 4H+ + 4e-  2H2O
 Net
reaction:
2H2 + O2  2H2O
 Animation of a fuel cell working
fuel-cell-animation.swf
 The pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) entering the
fuel cell on the anode side.
 This gas is forced through the catalyst by the
pressure. When an H2 molecule comes in
contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits
into two H+ ions and two electrons (e-).
 The electrons are conducted through the anode,
where they make their way through the external
circuit (doing useful work such as turning a
motor) and return to the cathode side of the fuel
cell.
 Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell,
oxygen gas (O2) is being forced through the catalyst,
where it forms two oxygen atoms.
 Each of these atoms has a strong negative charge.
 This negative charge attracts the two H+ ions through
the membrane, where they combine with an oxygen
atom and two of the electrons from the external circuit
to form a water molecule (H2O).
 This reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about
0.7 volts.
 To get this voltage up to a reasonable level, many
separate fuel cells must be combined to form a fuel-
cell stack ( 電池堆 ).
 PEMFCs operate at a fairly low temperature
(about 176oF~80oC),
 It means they warm up quickly and don't require
expensive containment structures.
 Constant improvements in the engineering and
materials used in these cells have increased
the power density to a level where a device
about the size of a small piece of luggage can
power a car.
 Problems with Fuel Cells
 The fuel cell uses oxygen and hydrogen to produce electricity.
 The oxygen required for a fuel cell comes from the air.
 In fact, in the PEM fuel cell, ordinary air is pumped into the
cathode.
 The hydrogen is not so readily available, however.
 Hydrogen has some limitations that make it impractical for use
in most applications.
 For instance, you don't have a hydrogen pipeline coming to
your house, and you can't pull up to a hydrogen pump at your
local gas station.
 Hydrogen is difficult to store and distribute, so it would be much
more convenient if fuel cells could use fuels that are more
readily available.
 This problem is addressed by a device called a reformer.
 A reformer turns hydrocarbon or alcohol fuels into hydrogen,
which is then fed to the fuel cell.