Minerals Engineering 17 (2004) 671687 This article is also available online at: www.elsevier.

com/locate/mineng

Two empirical hydrocyclone models revisited

K. Nageswararao a, D.M. Wiseman
a b c

b,*

, T.J. Napier-Munn

NFTDC, Hyderabad 500 058, India David Wiseman Pty Ltd., Adelaide 5000, Australia Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia Received 2 December 2003; accepted 1 January 2004

Available online
Abstract

There has been an abundance of literature on the modelling of hydrocyclones over the past 30 years. However, in the comminution area at least, the more popular commercially available packages (e.g. JKSimMet, Limn, MODSIM) use the models developed by Nageswararao and Plitt in the 1970s, either as published at that time, or with minor modication. With the benet of 30 years of hindsight, this paper discusses the assumptions and approximations used in developing these models. Dierences in model structure and the choice of dependent and independent variables are also considered. Redundancies are highlighted and an assessment made of the general applicability of each of the models, their limitations and the sources of error in their model predictions. This paper provides the latest version of the Nageswararao model, based on the above analysis, in a form that can readily be implemented in any suitable programming language, or within a spreadsheet. The Plitt model is also presented in similar form. 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Hydrocyclones; Classication; Separation; Modelling; Simulation

1. Introduction Versatile in application, the hydrocyclone is the standard classier used in closed circuit milling in mineral processing plants. This paper focuses on that specic usage and on industrial scale units. In 1962, a small group led by Lynch started a research project on control, modelling and optimisation of mineral processing plants at the University of Queensland (later to become AMIRA project P9). Modelling of industrial cyclone classiers was an integral part of that project. The rst ever comprehensive model for the description of the performance of industrial hydrocyclones (Rao, 1966; Lynch and Rao, 1968) and its application at Mount Isa Mines were signicant outcomes. The methodology has been successfully adopted within the mineral industry (Lynch, 1977). Further hydrocyclone research at JKMRC (Marlow, 1973; Lynch and Rao, 1975; Nageswararao, 1978; Castro, 1990) resulted in a generalised model for hydrocy-

clones. An alternate model incorporating angle of inclination too has been developed (Asomah, 1996; Asomah and Napier-Munn, 1996). Combining the rst industrial database on cyclones generated at JKMRC (Rao, 1966) with his own laboratory data, Plitt (1976) developed an alternative general-purpose cyclone model. These two models (known as the Plitt and the Nageswararao models) are the two general-purpose hydrocyclone models most widely used for industrial scale simulation studies of comminution and classication circuits. In commercial simulation software both the Plitt model (MODSIM) and the Nageswararao model (JKSimMet) have been available since the early 1980s and have been used with very few changes since then.

2. Hydrocyclone models for industrial applicationan overview From the point of view of a plant engineer, the performance characteristics of interest are:

* Corresponding author. Address: P.O. Box 94, Blackwood, SA 5051, Australia. Tel.: +61-8-8370-2584; fax: +61-8-8370-2584. E-mail address: david@davidwiseman.com.au (D.M. Wiseman).

1. the quantity (tonnage) of slurry a cyclone can treat and

0892-6875/$ - see front matter 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2004.01.017

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Nomenclature C cyclone water split to overow a; b; . . . ; g parameters in equation for Rf d size of the particle, lm d50c corrected classication size, lm Dc , Do , Du , Di diameters of the cyclone, vortex nder, spigot and inlet Dc;std diameter of the standard cyclone EU Euler number EUC corrected cyclone split to underow Eoa actual cyclone split to overow F50 median size (that is, 50% passing) of feed solids f ; f1 ; . . . ; f11 functions of . . . fi size distribution of feed solids CW per cent solids (by weight) in feed slurry g acceleration due to gravity F1 ; F2 ; F3 ; F4 calibration parameters for Plitts equations H head of feed slurry (Plitts equation for ow split) h free vortex height Kpo common material dependent constant in the generalised model for performance characteristic, Pi (p Q, d , W and V respectively for throughput, cut size, water recovery and volumetric recovery equations) 0 Kpo material dependent constant in the reformulated generalised model for performance characteristic, Pi Kp1 function of Kp0 and cyclone diameter Kp2 function of Kp1 and minor design variables (DI , Lc and h) k hydrodynamic exponent, to be estimated from data, in Plitts equation (3) for d50c (default value for laminar ow 0.5) Lc m P PI Q Rf RW f RV f RV S VH , VT s P CV CV a b k m 1 , m2 g h qp qs ql length of the cylindrical section of the cyclone classication index cyclone feed pressure performance characteristics, EU, d50c =Dc , Rf , RV throughput of the cyclone, l/min recovery of water to underow recovery of water to underow calculated form equation for Rf recovery of water to underow calculated form equation for RV volumetric recovery of feed slurry to underow volumetric ow split (volumetric ow in underow/volumetric ow in overow) terminal velocitieshindered and unhindered conditions scale-up parameter percent solids in feed by volume volumetric fraction of feed solids cyclone eciency curve shape parameter cyclone eciency curve shape parameter 3 hindered settling factor, CV =1 CV , 8:05 2 1:82CV 10 =1 CV unknown/unquantiable operating/design variables liquid viscosity (in Plitts equation for d50c ) full cone angle, degrees density of feed pulp density of feed solids density of feed uid medium (water)

2. the quality of separation of the products, as quantied by the recovery of water, Rf and feed particles of each size to one product, that is, the actual eciency curve, at any given set of design and operating conditions. While theoretical methods for the prediction of cyclone performance based on considering the physical principles of motion of solid particles in a uid medium do exist, (Barrientos and Concha, 1992; Concha et al., 1996; Monredon et al., 1992, etc.), they have not yet made a signicant impact on the prediction of hydrocyclone performance in minerals processing industry applications.

2.1. Theoretical/phenomenological modelspossibilities and limitations Considerable progress is being made in the fundamental modelling of hydrocyclones using solutions of the basic uid ow equations, either directly or via commercial Computational Fluid Dynamics codes (Chakraborti and Miller, 1992; Rajamani and Milin, 1992; Concha et al., 1997; Dyakowski and Williams, 1997; Slack et al., 2000; Brennan et al., 2002; Brennan et al., 2003). It is likely that this approach will soon provide useful results, particularly with regard to the optimisation of cyclone design. However such solutions are computationally intensive; current JKMRC work on the CFD modelling of a

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hydrocyclone operating under normal industrial conditions using parallel processing in a super computer can consume two weeks of CPU time for one steady state simulation. Invoking Moores Law (Moore, 1965), we would expect solution time to halve every 11 to 2 years. Existing 2 CFD models could therefore not be expected to be useable in process simulators (12 s execution times) for at least the next 25 years. Robust empirical models that can easily be coded into process simulators or spreadsheets will therefore continue to be the main basis of process simulation and optimisation at least in the short to medium term. Indeed, it is likely that a hybrid approach, where computationally intensive models are used to assist in building empirical models, will become more common as development in theoretical and phenomenological models continues. 2.2. Practical mathematical modelling of hydrocyclones The term model in general and mathematical model in particular, have context sensitive meanings (Davis and Hersh, 1981; Edwards and Hanson, 1989; Murthy et al., 1990). In simplistic terms, we can say that a mathematical model of a system is an idealised representation of a physical reality, in the form of a set of self consistent equations. In this paper model and mathematical model have the same meaning. Typically, model equations predict output characteristics in terms of input variables. The ease of application and the usefulness of any model is dependent on the choice of characteristics to be predicted, the factors or variables that are assumed to aect the physical process and the assumptions and approximations used in expressing these variables in the mathematical structure. The independent variables for the model equations are the operating regime and design parameters of the cyclone. In view of the current limitations of the theory as outlined above, simplied models that are based on specic observed performance characteristics can provide a viable alternative. Since current understanding of the mechanics of uid ow cannot yet allow determination of the model parameters from purely theoretical considerations, these are determined from experimental data only and the models are termed empirical models. Specically with regards to cyclones, the performance characteristics that have been identied for modelling are: the pressure-throughput relationship; the corrected eciency curve and the corrected cut size, d50c ;

the reduced eciency curve, a plot of corrected eciency versus normalised size, d =d50c ; the distribution of water into the products usually, as recovery of water to underow, Rf but some times as ow ratio into the products, S . The early cyclone literature abounds with equations for one or more (for example, pressurethroughput, water split, etc.) of the above characteristics (Bradley, 1965). Their applicability was naturally limited. The initial modelling approach at the JKMRC was toward development of site-specic models (Lynch and Rao, 1968). This methodology proved eective and was extended to other operating plants (Lynch, 1977). Outside of the JKMRC, there are other examples of models of this genus, for example, those due to Brookes et al. (1984) and Vallebuona et al. (1995). These models were based on an implicitly assumed structure for each of the performance characteristics. The machine and operating variables were varied as part of the experimental design. Interpolation on such models could be used to get a reasonable estimate of the cyclone performance for a particular machine-material combination. Applicability beyond the database from which they are derived is questionable. Such models can be simplistically described as curve tting to experimental data. A recent example in this category is the model due to Firth (2003). Although characterized by the use of dimensionless groups such as Reynolds Number, Euler Number and Froude Number, together with dimensionless design variables, this model also relies on curve tting to arrive at a site-specic model. This is acknowledged in Firths unambiguous conclusion: given that the ow patterns will be expected to change with change in the cyclone diameter and geometric shape, the actual values for the empirical parameters and power indices could be expected to change. The other category includes those models in which the model parameters are not application specic. With this type of model it was possible to estimate the relative changes in performance characteristics with changes in the design and operating conditions, without resorting to further experimental work. However, such models require material specic constants, which must be determined from experimental data. The models due to Plitt (Plitt, 1976; Flinto et al., 1987), Nageswararao (1978, 1995), Svarovsky (1984), Asomah (1996) and Asomah and Napier-Munn (1996) belong to this category.

3. Hydrocyclone models for industrial applicationtwo specic models Where models are required to describe the performance of hydrocyclones used as classiers in closed

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grinding circuits in mineral industry, the most commonly reported use appears to be of those due to Plitt (1976), Flinto et al. (1987) and Nageswararao (1978). Although both of these models can be reduced to a similar form, there are distinct dierences in model formulation (that is the choice of dependent variables and model structure) and evaluation of model parameters. The development of the two models and their specic dierences are elaborated below. 3.1. Plitt model developmentPlitt (1976) and Flinto et al. (1987) Plitts development methodology was relatively straightforward. The dependent variables, chosen by Plitt were: cyclone throughput, Q; cut size, d50c ; volumetric ow split, S ; sharpness of classication, m. As design or independent variables, he chose diameters of the cyclone, vortex nder, spigot and inlet, Dc , Do , Du , Di ; 2 combinations of the above, (D2 u Do ) and (Du =Do ); free vortex height, h. When the inlets were not circular, the inlet size corresponded to circle of the same area. To account for the length of the cyclone, he used free vortex height, h, dened as the distance between the bottom of the vortex nder to the top of spigot. His choice for pressure drop across the cyclone in the equation for S is the head of feed slurry, H . Plitt also took into account that the feed solids content signicantly aects the pulp viscosity, which in turn inuences d50c . In addition, hindered settling and crowding were also considered as possible factors. To account for the inuence of solids content in the feed slurry, CV 1 (volumetric fraction of feed solids) was the preferred variable, as the rheological properties are more comparable if expressed volume basis rather than weight basis. His choice of functional relationship appears to have been governed by the results of regression analysis only. The functional relationship, which was found to best represent the eect of CV on d50c was an exponential form. This was nally incorporated only because it

provided better t than any of the other functional x x x , 1 CV =1 CV and f1 0:5CV = forms such as CV 4 x 1 CV g that were tried. The data for Plitts regression equation(s) included the industrial data of Rao (123 data sets including cyclone diameters of 2000 , 1500 , 1000 and 600 , treating such diverse materials as silica, copper ore, tailings); his experimental work which included 9 tests on 600 cyclone where the feed solids content was varied between 0.8% and 13% by weight; 28 tests on 600 , 33 tests on 2.500 and 8 tests on 1.2500 cyclones at 5% solids (by weight) in the feed slurry; 80 tests with water on 600 and 20 tests also with water on 2.500 . (These of course could be used for Q and S equations only.) The original model (Plitt, 1976) was obtained by using a stepwise multiple linear regression program. Plitt repeated the linear regression procedure with dierent functional forms (linear, power and exponential) and dierent variable combinations. He included in the model equations only those variables that were found signicant at 99% level. It is appropriate to mention here that in proposing the equations for pressure drop, P and ow split, S , Plitt used 297 sets of data, including the tests run with water only. As d50c values were not available for all the data sets, only 179 of the sets were used for the d50c equation. Only the 162 tests with sucient data points above and below d50c to form a complete classication curve, were used for the equation for m. By combining data from dierent feed materials, such as silica, copper, ore, tailings and silica our (and cyclones too) in developing the model equations, Plitt implicitly assumed that the cyclone performance is independent of feed material characteristics. He was then able to claim that the performance could be estimated with reasonable accuracy even when no experimental data are available. This is the most conspicuous feature of his model. In the original reference, Plitt (1976) oered two forms of the d50c equation, one with and the other without feed size eects. This is the Plitt (1976) equation for d50c when feed size eect is included. F50 is the weight median size of feed solids in microns (50% passing size) 2 d50c
:46 0:6 1:21 0:08CV =F 50 50:5D0 c Di Do e :71 0:38 Q0:45 q q D0 s 1 u h
P 0:52

0:5

and the Plitt (1976) equation for d50c without considering feed size eect
Plitt used the symbol b to represent volumetric fraction of feed solids. This paper uses CV to avoid confusion with the use of b in the Whiten cyclone eciency equation. When the volumetric solids P content in the feed is expressed as per cent, the symbol used is CV .
1

Note that in Eqs. (1)(6), the units are: Dc , Di , Do , Du , h (cm); Q (l/ m); P (kPa); gp (cP); CV (%); d50c (lm); qs , ql (g/cm3 ).

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:46 0:6 1:21 0:08CV 50:5D0 c Di Do e :71 0:38 Q0:45 q q D0 s 1 u h 0 :5
P

675

d50c

split, for example, that used in the Plitt model, could be made. 3.2.2. Operating and design variables The choice of independent operating variables/factors, which are relevant for modelling, was based on phenomenological considerations. A suitably modied product of the Euler and Froude numbers, fP =qp gDc g was considered an appropriate factor that could be used to account for the centrifugal force eld generated in the cyclone. The hindered settling factor vH =vT , k was chosen to account for the eect of the dierential movement of solid particles and hence the eect of feed solids concentration on d50c . It was assumed that the hindered settling factor would adequately account for the changes in pulp viscosity and viscous eects due to changes in feed solids content. The obvious choices for design variables were included: cyclone diameter, Dc ; reduced vortex nder, Do =Dc ; reduced spigot, Du =Dc ; reduced inlet, Di =Dc ; reduced length of the cylindrical section, Lc =Dc ; cone angleh.

Plitt remarks that the eect of feed size analysis is not signicant and for normal situations can be neglected. He comments however that the above equation does however show the trend that as the particle size becomes ner, the d50c size increases. The Plitt model in its current form as revised by Flinto et al. (1987) has no dependence for feed size characteristics in any of the equations and is given below: d50c F1
:46 0:6 1:21 0:5 0:063CV 39:7D0 c Di Do g e k :71 0:38 Q0:45 qs 1 D0 u h 1:6  2 0:15 Dc h 1:58S m F2 1:94 e 1 S Q
P

4 5
0:36 0:0054C P V

P F3 S F4

1:88Q1:8 e0:0055CV
:37 0:94 h0:28 D2 D2 0:87 D0 c Di u o :24 18:62q0 p Du =Do 3:31 0:54

2 D2 u Do

:11 0:24 D1 c P

6 Since Flinto et al. (1987) do not include a specic feed size term, but provide F factors for calibration it is probably safe to assume that the model should be recalibrated whenever feed data are available, in preference to using the uncalibrated equations. 3.2. Nageswararao model developmentNageswararao (1978) Although, the basic model equations as developed and in a modied form are published (Lynch and Morrell, 1992; Nageswararao, 1995; Napier-Munn et al., 1996), the details regarding its development are not. Accordingly, an outline of the methodology used is presented here. 3.2.1. Dependent variables For this generalised cyclone model, the factors considered relevant to describe cyclone performance, collectively referred to as Pi , were:  q P The Euler number, EU dened as Q= D2 . c qp The dimensionless cut size, d50c =Dc . Recovery of water to underow, Rf . Volumetric recovery of feed slurry to underow, RV . As will be discussed later, RV is a redundant factor. However, an equation for RV is developed so that a direct comparison with other available equations for water

Where the inlets were not circular, the inlet size was assumed equivalent to a circle of the same area. Clearly geometrically similar cyclones operating under identical operating conditions (that is pressure gauge reading at inlet and feed solids concentration) are not expected to show identical performance. This necessitated inclusion of cyclone size (diameter) as an independent variable. Other design variables such as interior wall roughness of the liners and type of inlet entry (such as involute, tangential, etc.) were explicitly ignored. Consequently the eects of these variables, if signicant, would introduce errors in the model. Another signicant implicit assumption in the model building exercise is the xed properties of the uid medium. This implies that the model is applicable only when water is the uid medium. To extend the range of applicability of the model, it was felt that the feed material characteristics should be considered as an independent variable. The following thought experiments elucidate this contention. If we visualise a cyclone treating two homogeneous but dierent materials (say, limestone and iron ore) under identical operating conditions, also assuming the particle size and shape distributions to be identical, such that the only dierence is the material being treated, we would still expect that the cyclone performance characteristics (Q, d50c and Rf ) would be dierent.

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Similarly, we can imagine operation of a cyclone treating a single material (say limestone) with dierent feed size distributions (say 25%270 mesh in one case and 50%270 mesh in the other) under identical operating and design conditions. In this case also, we would expect the performance characteristics to be dierent. This explains in a simple way the eects of the size distribution, density of feed material characteristics on the cyclone performance. There may be other eects. Realising that a suitable description of the feed material eect is complex, no simplications to quantify any specic material eect in terms of say, nominal product size, density, etc. was attempted. Instead, the feed material characteristics were simply combined in a single parameter Km . The above considerations can be summarised mathematically as: Pi f Km ; Dc ; Do =Dc ; Du =Dc ; Di =Dc ; Lc =Dc ; h; k; fP =qp gDc gt1 ; t2 ; . . . 7

 Pi Kp0 where

Du Dc

a 

Do Dc

b

P qp gDc d

!f kg 10

Kp2 Kp0 Dc

Di Dc

c 

LC Dc

he

11

For convenience, the eect of cyclone size and the material and other eects could be combined when scale up from one cyclone to the other is not required, as: Kp1 Kp0 Dc s 12

Clearly, t1 ; t2 ; . . . etc., are the unknown/unquantiable operating and design variables/factors and those whose independent eect, if any, we shall not attempt to determine quantitatively. 3.2.3. Model formulation In formulating the model structure, it was assumed explicitly that the eects of the independent operating and design variables on performance characteristics, Pi are separable. Eq. (7) can then be written as: Pi f1 Km f2 Dc f3 Do =Dc f4 Du =Dc f5 Di =Dc f6 Lc =Dc f7 h f8 k f9 fP =qpgDc g f10 t1 f11 t2 . . . 8 It was further assumed that the inuence of the design and operating variables (that is, f1 ; f2 ; . . . ; f11 , etc.) follows a monomial power function relationship. As a simplication, the inuence of those known factors that cannot be determined and the eect of unknown factors are clubbed together with the material eects in the form of a material specic performance constant, Kp0 . The eect of xed uid properties (water) is also absorbed by Kp0 . Eq. (8) becomes: !f  a  b  c  d Do Di Lc P s Du e Pi Kp0 Dc h kg qp gDc Dc Dc Dc Dc
9

Furthermore, it was assumed that the eect of spigot diameter on Euler number is insignicant and can be ignored. If the pressure throughput relationship is considered similar to uid ow through pipes, the factor to account for centrifugal forces need not be additionally considered as the Euler number includes both the feed pressure and pulp density factors. That is, the model parameters a and f are both zero when Pi EU in Eq. (9). Data available in the literature (for example, Bradley, 1965; Lynch and Rao, 1975) and a preliminary study (Nageswararao et al., 1974) are the basis for these additional assumptions. To account for the complex ow pattern in the cyclone (specically due to high solids concentration normally encountered in industrial practice) and consequential eect on the relative movements of solid particles, the hindered settling factor was the preferred variable. The approximation suggested by Steinour (1944) that the hindered settling factor k is proportional to the volumetric fraction of feed solids, or k CV = 3 1 CV , is used in all numerical calculations. This is certainly a simplistic approximation and does not take into account the independent eect of size distribution of feed solids in particular the clay content, which could be expected to strongly inuence pulp viscosity and hence the terminal settling velocities. However, as the material eect had already considered, it was felt that Km together with k adequately account for the overall inuence of dense slurries on the cut size. The perception is that while k encompasses the dierences in cyclone behaviour due to changes in percent solids in feed slurry, Km accounts for the changes due to material characteristics. As a consequence, the material dependent performance constants (the K values) in the model will not be the same even for similar material if the size distribution eects, in particular that of the clay content, are signicant. 3.2.4. Evaluation of model parameters The set of model equations given by Eqs. (10)(12) can only be meaningful if the numerical values of a; b; . . . ; g and the scale factor s for each of the performance characteristics, Pi , are known. As the theory of

For a system where the variables are only Do , Du , feed pressure and pulp density of the feed slurry, this could be further reduced to:

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4

the hydrodynamics within the cyclone is not developed enough to evaluate these directly, experimental data were required to calibrate 3 the model. The extensive database of Lynch and Rao (1975) from 2000 , 1500 , 1000 and 600 (38.1, 25.4, 15.2 and 10.2 cm) cyclones, treating limestone having three dierent feed size distributions, FINE (65% passing53 lm), MEDIUM (50% passing53 lm) and COARSE (40% passing53 lm) were used for this purpose as detailed below. 1. The parameters a, b, f and g in equation set (10) were evaluated from the LynchRao data (34 tests) treating FINE limestone in a 38.1 cm hydrocyclone. After suitably transforming the data, the regression method developed by Whiten (1977) was used. For this regression analysis, the design variables were assumed to be exact and it was further assumed that errors in loge EU , loge fP =qp gDc g, loge k, were 0.03, and were 0.01 in loge d50c =Dc . The special feature of the Whiten regression method is that it takes into account errors in independent variables, unlike other methods available at that time, which assumed the independent variable to be exact. The parameters thus obtained were used further to evaluate the average Kp2 for each of the data sets of the LynchRao (1975) database. 2. The Nageswararao (1978) database, also from 2000 , 00 15 , 1000 and 600 (38.1, 25.4, 15.2 and 10.2 cm) cyclones is complementary to that of Lynch and Rao (1975) in that only inlets were dierent. With each cyclone, tests were carried out with variations in vortex nder diameter, spigot, feed pressure and solids concentration. The feed material was MEDIUM limestone (containing 50%53 lm). Mean Kp2 values for each data set were then determined (using the same model parameters a, b, f and g obtained in step 1 above). These together with the Kp2 values from the Lynch-Rao data sets were used to estimate the parameter c, which quanties the eect of inlet. 3. The dependence of cyclone length and cone angle, (parameters d and e), were evaluated from data obtained on a 15.2-cm hydrocyclone, where these two variables were changed. Feed material was MEDIUM limestone as above. Using these d and e values, together with c from the earlier step, Kp1 values for each data set could be calculated. 4. The dependence of Pi on cyclone size (scale up factor, s), was estimated independently from the data for each of three size distributions studied by Lynch and Rao. The relative errors, if any, in each of Kp1 were taken into consideration and the nal scale up factors reported below are those that reect the assumed functional relationship as closely as possible.

The resulting equations are:

 0:68  0:45  0:20 Q Do Di Lc 0:10 q KQo fDc g h0:10 D D D 2 c c c Dc P =qp 13

d50c Do Du Di 0:65 KDo fDc g Dc Dc Dc Dc !0:22  0:20 Lc P h0:15 k0:93 qp gDc Dc       0:00 Do 1:19 Du 2:40 Di 0:50 Rf KWo Dc Dc Dc Dc !0:53  0:22 Lc P h0:24 k0:27 qp gDc Dc       0:00 Do 0:94 Du 1:83 Di 0:25 RV KV 0 Dc Dc Dc Dc !0:31  0:22 Lc P h0:24 qp gDc Dc

0:52 

0:50 

0:20

14

15

16

3.3. Comparison of Plitt and Nageswararao models The following section examines the assumptions and approximations in the model formulation for both models. 3.3.1. Model structure 3.3.1.1. Nageswararao model. The most signicant feature of the Nageswararao model is the a priori choice of design and operating variables and the explicit assumptions made in binding them to the model equations. This resulted in a model with an assumed structure that explicitly decoupled the machine and material characteristics. This was the rst of the models developed at the JKMRC to incorporate this important concept and represented a clear paradigm shift to a new modelling approach. Later Whiten and his students Awachie (1983) and Narayanan (1985) extended this notion to develop material specic breakage functions for crushers and grinding mills. Napier-Munn et al. (1996) emphasise that this has now become a standard practice and all JKMRC simulation models aspire to the goal of separating ore characteristics from those of the processing machine. 3.3.1.2. Plitt model. The Plitt model follows the standard practice in developing an empirical model. A set of
4 Note that in Eqs. (13)(16), the units are: Dc , Di , Do , Du , Lc (m); h (degrees); Q (m3 /h); P (kPa); g (m/s2 ); g (cP); RV , Rf , CV (fraction); d50c (lm); qp (t/m3 ).

3 The term calibration here has a dierent meaning from that used by Flinto et al. (1987). For a detailed discussion refer Nageswararao (1999b).

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regression equations for the chosen performance characteristics in terms of independent variables are developed. The choice of independent variables, as well as the equation structure, are governed by consideration of best t equations for the available database. This dierence is well illustrated by the dierent handling of the eect of feed solids concentration on d50c .
P Plitts nal choice for the independent variable (CV ) and the functional form (exponential) was driven by considerations of the best t regression equation for the model tting data set.

3.3.2.2. Nageswararao model. For the Nageswararao model the accuracy of parameters is exclusively dependent on the extensive data base of Lynch and Rao (1975) and Nageswararao (1978). 3.3.3. Evaluation of model parameters 3.3.3.1. Plitt model. In the Plitt model, the independent variables, the model parameters and the functional (linear power and exponential) relationships are governed purely by consideration of the best t under the multiple linear regression method used. Plitts regressions were based on all of the available data and he only included variables in the nal model equations if they were signicant at the 99% condence level. 3.3.3.2. Nageswararao model. In contrast, the structure of the Nageswararao model was explicitly restricted by the assumed functional relationships between the model variables and the classication process. For example, the omission of a spigot term in the equation for throughput (Eq. (13)) is based on previous experience (Lynch and Rao, 1975) and other empirical/experimental evidence, which suggested that there was no need to include the spigot eect. The signicance (t-test) of the coecient for the spigot term as obtained by regression was not the consideration for its omission. A similar rationale applies to the omission of the k term in the equation for RV (Eq. (16)). Equally, in the equation for cut size (Eq. (14)), the criteria for inclusion of a spigot term and a constant factor (Kd2 for the model tting data set) were the choice of the model structure and not the signicance level of the regression coecients in a t-test. Using this approach, if the assumptions were perfectly true and the data were precise, the number of data sets needed for evaluation of model parameters would exactly equal the number of unknown parameters. However, in practice, the assumptions are never perfect, nor the data free of errors. Regression analysis is then needed to get the best estimates of the model parameters, specically for the eects of Do , Du , k and P =qp gDc . Of the 52 tests available, those tests outside the range of interest for model application (for example, feed solids content above 70% or where classication was poor) and those with suspected high experimental error (for example, tests with poor material balances) were not included in the regression analysis. A set of 34 tests on 38.1-cm cyclones, treating FINE limestone was considered sucient. This data set alone was used to nally determine the model parameters. All other data sets could then be used to validate the model parameters and for further evaluation (eect of inlet etc.) where necessary. Conceptually we cannot use the Nageswararao model to predict the absolute values of the performance char-

On the other hand, for the Nageswararao model, both the independent variable (k) and the functional relationship (power) were explicitly assumed. The only choice available after these assumptions was the approximation(s) available for the hindered settling factor. Consequently, the only modication to the model suggested by Castro (1990) was restricted precisely by these constraints. (This is discussed in further detail below.) It should be mentioned that Plitt too forced qs ql 0:5 into the equation for d50c by assuming laminar ow. Despite his expressed reservations that the ow relative to the particles may be turbulent, this is the only explicit assumption made in building his model. 3.3.2. Model base data sets All models are subject to the limitation that they are merely approximations of the physical reality, based on simplifying assumptions or hypotheses and (usually) process measurements. Errors in any measured data used for evaluating model parameters, will be carried forward into the model and hence into the simulation results. As a consequence, the model predictions from either model will never be perfect. The only yardstick for comparison is how useful the model is for our objectivein our case, prediction of the performance characteristics, within the limits of precision of their measurement, specically, when the cyclone used as a classier in closed grinding circuits. This clearly implies that when cyclone is used as a thickener or as a washer or when the feed solids concentration is low (say around 20% by weight) we are out of the range of validity and the reliability of predictions is doubtful. 3.3.2.1. Plitt model. With regard to data from industrial units, the accuracy of the model parameters for Plitts equations is almost wholly dependent on the precision of the early database of Rao (1966). This was supplemented with data from testwork with small (600 or less) diameter cyclones, the vast majority of which were from tests at low (less than or equivalent to 5% by weight) solids, or using water only.

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acteristics (Q, d50c , etc.) without any test data for the desired material. This is a major dierence of the model compared to that of Plitt, where default model parameters were provided. That these defaults were not reliable, as acknowledged by the incorporation of the F calibration parameters in Flintos modied version, is a separate issue. At least in principle, it is possible to determine the absolute values of the performance characteristics using the Plitt model. With the Nageswararao model, when predictions are required in greeneld situations, it is necessary to source appropriate K values from previous surveys. JKMRC/ JKTech has built a considerable resource of these parameters over the course of many years of use of the model. However, even a parameter database such as this can only be used as a guide. The act of selecting K values from a library of such parameters should automatically warn the user that the simulation results are to be used with caution, since they are typically not based on experimentally determined K values for the desired material. 3.3.4. Eect of feed material characteristics 3.3.4.1. Plitt model. A distinctive feature of the version of the Plitt model in most common use (Flinto et al., 1987) Eqs. (3)(6) above), is that the equations dene cyclone performance to be independent of feed material type. The equations also ignore the eect of feed size distribution, implying that cyclone performance is independent of the feed size distribution. In the original model (Plitt, 1976) Plitt oered an optional equation, with F50 , (median feed size, that is 50% passing size) as a variable. Such a simple approximation for the feed size eect is however, questionable and the more recent implementation does not include that equation. It is to be expected that cyclone performance does depend on feed size distribution. This has been clearly shown by Lynch and Rao (1975) and Hinde (1985). Where a regression model does not take a particular eect into account the model parameters (the regression coecients), are biased accordingly. The claim for the Plitt model that it enables the performance of a hydrocyclone to be calculated with reasonable accuracy, when no experimental data are available, must therefore be treated with care. Indeed Plitt himself noted, that with experimental data, the constants in the model equations might be appropriately adjusted. Flinto et al. (1987) revised the model by incorporating calibration factors, F1 F4 , for each of the model equations, presumably taking into consideration the observations of independent researchers (for example, Apling et al., 1980) that the predictions are inaccurate. Their expectation in introducing the calibration parameters was that calibration with experimental data would give improved predictions.

3.3.4.2. Nageswararao model. Because of the observation that cyclone performance is aected by both feed material type and size distribution, the Nageswararao model is structured to allow it to be tuned to particular feed materials by parameter tting to measured plant data. In fact, the ideal use of the Nageswararao model is to determine the material specic constants from a test using a geometrically similar (or the same) cyclone on the particular feed type and to use those constants whenever that material is encountered. For example, results will certainly be more accurate in a milling circuit simulation where series cycloning is to be investigated, if two dierent sets of material specic constants are derived for mill discharge and primary cyclone overow. Of course, in practice this may be dicult to obtain and then experience with the model must be the guide. 3.3.5. Flow split and water split The importance of the recovery of water to the underow, Rf , is well understood. It also represents the minimum recovery of the near zero sized particles and is the starting point on the actual eciency curve. The manner in which this performance characteristic is modelled represents a signicant dierence between the Plitt and Nageswararao models. 3.3.5.1. Plitt model. Plitt (1976) chose ow split, S as the preferred parameter for his model, presumably following earlier researchers (for example, Stas, 1957; Moder and Dahlstrom, 1952; Bradley, 1965). Rf , which is ultimately required for subsequent calculations of the cyclone performance, can then be calculated using the equation suggested by (Hinde, 1977; Plitt et al., 1990; King, 2001). & ' n P 0:6931d =d50c m S =1 S CV 1 fi e 1 & ' Rf 17 n P m 1 CV 1 fi e0:6931d =d50c
1

To use Plitts equations (6) and (17), both feed pressure, P and throughput, Q are required. This is because the equation for S includes pressure as an independent variable and those for d50c and m include Q. This implies that for a better estimate of Rf , both P and Q need to be measured. When one of them is estimated from the model, model errors are introduced. Further model errors arise from the errors in estimation of both d50c and m, which are required for the prediction of Rf according to Eq. (17). Cilliers and Hinde (1991) also noted that Plitts equation for S (Eq. (6)) does not take the eect of feed solids concentration completely into account, even after calibration. They proposed a provisional revision with

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coecients of 1.51 for Du =Do instead of 3.31 and 0.0787 P instead of 0.0054 for the solids concentration term, CV . The conclusion is that the Plitt equation overestiP mates the eect of Du =Do and underestimates that of CV , at least for the Cilliers and Hinde data. Despite these reservations, the current version of MODSIM continues to use Eqs. (6) and (17) to predict Rf (King, 2001). Plitt used the industrial data of Rao (1966) for evaluation of his model parameters. To evaluate the equation for S , the values are calculated for the data of Rao (1966) and are shown in Fig. 1. It can be seen that the predicted values of S are subject to signicant errors even when applied to Plitts model tting database. For comparison, the predicted values of S using the Nageswararao equation for RV (Eq. (16) or (19)) are also shown. Not surprisingly, King (2001) remarks that prediction of the ow split, S (and hence Rf ) is the chief source of error in the Plitt model. A detailed discussion on ow split and water recovery in hydrocyclones is available elsewhere (Nageswararao, 2001). 3.3.5.2. Nageswararao model. The Nageswararao model included equations for both Rf and RV (repeated below):       0:00 Do 1:19 Du 2:40 Di 0:50 Rf KWo Dc Dc Dc Dc !0:53  0:22 Lc P h0:24 k0:27 18 qp gDc Dc       0:00 Do 0:94 Du 1:83 Di 0:25 RV KV 0 Dc Dc Dc Dc !0:31  0:22 Lc P h0:24 19 qp gDc Dc

For comparison with Fig. 1, the observed versus calculated data for Eq. (15) or (18) for the Rao (1966) data base are shown in Fig. 2. Since Rf can be calculated from RV in the manner of Eq. (17), dierent estimates of Rf will be obtained from each of Eqs. (18) and (19). However, due to the indirect calculation method, RV f would carry forward the errors in the estimation of corrected eciency, the same problem as identied in the Plitt method. When determining how to apply these two dierent values in a practical simulation model, a cautious approach is to average them with appropriate weighting to calculate a single predicted value for Rf . This is the procedure followed initially at the JKMRC and subsequently used in the implementation of the model in JKSimMet. 3.3.6. Reduced eciency curve Both models rely on the concept of the reduced eciency curve and each model assumes a particular form of that curve (Napier-Munn et al., 1996). The shape of the reduced eciency curve (a plot of the corrected eciency versus dimensionless size, d =d50c ) is a measure of the sharpness of separation within the hydrocyclone. Plitt explicitly included an expression for eciency. Nageswararao did not and expected the eciency curve shape factor to be obtained from testwork. 3.3.6.1. Plitt model. Plitt (1971) (as did Reid (1971)) derived a Rosin-Rammler type function: EUCi 1 e ln 2di =d50c
m

20

and assumed that the reduced eciency curve is dependent on operating and design conditions, developing Eq. (4) to describe the eect of these on parameter

40
70 Predicted flow split ( %)

35 Predicted R f (%) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Observed flow split (%) 70

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 SPlitt SNageswararao

10 15

20

25 30 35 40

Observed R f (%)
Fig. 2. Nageswararao model prediction of water recovery to underow (data ex Rao, 1966).

Fig. 1. Prediction of ow split for model tting data of Plitt (after Nageswararao, 2001).

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m in Eq. (20). However, he records the poorest correlation coecient (0.75) for this Eq. (4) among all his model equations. 3.3.6.2. Nageswararao model. Nageswararao relied on the earlier Lynch and Rao, 1975) JKMRC approach, based on regarding the reduced eciency curve as constant for cyclones of dierent physical dimensions treating the same feed material. The Whiten form of the eciency equation (NapierMunn et al., 1996), was chosen by Nageswararao, (expressed below in terms of actual recovery to overow, the typical cyclone product in comminution circuits): ! ea 1 Eoai C ad =d 21 e i 50c ea 2 Implicit in the Nageswararao model is the requirement that a, the parameter describing the shape of the eciency curve must be separately determined by test work for each material type. The invariant nature of the reduced eciency curve for a given cyclone design and feed characteristics has been well established over the last three decades of industrial experience at the JKMRC (Napier-Munn et al., 1996) and elsewhere. A detailed analysis of the reduced eciency curve is the central theme of a recent paper (Nageswararao, 1999b). That analysis also concludes that the assumption of invariance of the reduced eciency curve with cyclone geometry is an excellent approximation. 3.3.7. Eect of solids concentration on pressurethroughput relationship 3.3.7.1. Nageswararao model. From studies on 38.1, 25.4 and 10.2 cm cyclones, Lynch et al. (1975) observed that, with all other variables constant, throughput initially increases with percent solids in the feed slurry, CW reaching a maximum at approximately 1218% solids by weight. Thereafter, Q decreases with CW . This eect was quantied in later studies on a 15.2 cm cyclone (Nageswararao, 1978) when slurry was MEDIUM limestone, as: KQ2 for Water 0:80 KQ2 for Slurry 22

However, Plitts equation was developed from 297 sets of data of which 100 sets were runs with water only, 28 sets were at 5% solids (w/w), and 9 sets were between 0.8 and 13% solids. The assumption that pressure drop increases with solids concentrations is valid only for those datasets in which feed solids concentration is greater than 1218% by weight (Lynch et al., 1975). Thus, a signicant portion of the Plitt data was in an inappropriate range for the functional relationship implicitly assumed via the regression analysis. This highlights one of the problems of a regression based approach. 3.3.8. Interaction of variables A signicant dierence between the two models concerns the interactive nature of the eects of Do and Du , especially for the prediction of Q (or P ) and S (or Rf ). This is due to the way combinations of the outlet 2 areas(D2 u Do ) and (Du =Do )appear as independent variables in the Plitt model. This model will predict dierent S values for the same percentage spigot change, depending on whatever other vortex nder changes have been made. By contrast, the Nageswararao model equation predicts a constant change (in Rf ), irrespective of other variables. For example, an increase in Du of 10% will always result in an increase of 26% in Rf in the Nageswararao model, whereas the relative change in S predicted by the Plitt model will also depend on the changes to Do . 3.3.9. Eect of feed inlet Plitt explicitly ignored the independent eect of inlet on ow split, while this was identied as an independent variable in model development at the JKMRC (Nageswararao, 1978; Asomah, 1996; Asomah and NapierMunn, 1996). Although in both models, all inlet geometries are assumed equivalent to a circle of equal area, there are indications that the ow regime could be aected by the inlet shape and geometry (Rogers, 1998). Recent experimental work at JKMRC and by cyclone manufacturers indicates that the inuence of inlet design is crucial in some cases. Future modelling eorts need to necessarily take this factor into consideration. 3.3.10. Eect of cyclone length Plitt considered the free vortex height, h as an independent factor in his equation, thus simplifying the eect to be of the same magnitude whether due to change in cone angle or the cylinder length. However, a distinction between the eects of Lc and h on the cyclone performance is made in the models developed at the JKMRC.

The Nageswararao model parameters were evaluated using data with CW greater than 40%. The choice of Euler number as a performance characteristic explicitly 0 :5 assumes that Q / q , which is compatible with p empirical evidence. 3.3.7.2. Plitt model. The form of the pressure/throughput equation resulting from Plitts regression analysis implies the functional relationship that pressure drop increases with solids concentration.

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3.3.11. Eect of angle of inclination of the cyclone The signicant eect of cyclone inclination has to date only been quantied by Asomah (Asomah and Napier-Munn, 1997). Neither the Plitt, nor the Nageswararao models included the eect. However, the latter is formulated in such a manner that the eect can easily be included. 3.4. Current and potential improvements to the Plitt and Nageswararao modelswith hindsight 3.4.1. Plitt model Flinto et al. (1987) recorded that due to the structure of the model, serious modelling eorts require recalculation of the model parameters and some times even modication of the model form. If this model is to be used further, attention to several areas would seem worthwhile: Plitt observed that the equation for classication index, m, is poorly correlated. A detailed analysis of this issue (Nageswararao, 1999b) concluded that the equation for m (Eq. (4)) is of little value. King (2001) observed that the chief source of uncertainty is in the prediction of the ow split, S . Further in estimating Rf (the parameter actually required for further calculations) from S by an indirect procedure (Hinde, 1977; Plitt et al., 1990; King, 2001), additional error propagation is inevitable. In the throughput equation, (Eq. (5)), the functional relationship chosen for dependence of P on CW is clearly inconsistent with the low solids portion of the data used for regression. So far, no serious eorts to remedy these shortcomings appear to have been attempted, apart from those of Cilliers and Hinde (1991). 3.4.2. Nageswararao model 3.4.2.1. Cyclone diameter scaling 3.4.2.1.1. Throughput equation. With hindsight, it 0:10 could be argued that the scale factor, Dc in the equation for throughput (Eq. (13)) is an example of an attempt to arrive at the best possible t to the available experimental data! Removing this term from the equation would introduce an error of the order of only 7% for a 2 times scaling. This error could well be within the range of precision of the experimental measurements during original data collection. If further modelling attempts were carried out with a dierent data set using similar functional relationships, the results could well show that Euler number is independent of cyclone diameter. Alternatively, an a priori assumption that Euler number is independent of cyclone diameter and a consequent

discarding of the scale up term in the model, might prove equally as accurate as the original (Eq. (13)). Recently Tavares et al. (2002) examined discarding this scale factor. They reported good agreement between measured and predicted values, although their data were limited to 25 and 50 mm cyclones and Q varied only from 1 to 5 m3 /hr. The issue certainly merits further investigation. 3.4.2.1.2. Water split equation. The equations for Rf and RV are already independent of cyclone diameter. This is the result of observations made during the original modelling work that the Kv1 and Kw1 values, while not the same for all the cyclones treating the same feed, did not follow a monotonic relationship with cyclone diameter. 3.4.2.1.3. Cut size equationdimensional inhomogeneity. The appearance of the awkward scale up factor 0:65 Dc in an otherwise dimensionally homogeneous equation is due to the fact that the cyclone size itself is taken as an independent variable. An alternate model formulation would eliminate this infelicity. The cyclone model may be reformulated to describe the performance characteristics relative to a standard cyclone, say, Dc;std . For a cyclone of any size, Dc , the variable to be considered would be the scale ratio (say, Dc =Dc;std ). This factor would replace Dc in Eqs. (9), (11) and (12). The combined eect of feed material and unquantied variables now reect the model constants for 0 the standard cyclone, say. Kp0 . In this case, Eq. (23) would result in place of Eq. (12).  s Dc 0 0 Kp1 Kp0 23 Dc;std
0 The relation between the new material constants, Kp0 and the current Kp0 can be expressed as: 0 Kp0 Kp0 Dc;std s

24

3.4.2.1.4. Model enhancement opportunities. Backward compatibility imposes certain constraints to development. In view of the extensive database accumulated at JKMRC/JKTech and the adjustments that would need to be made to incorporate the above improvements, such changes are unlikely to be incorporated into the current JKSimMet implementation of the Nageswararao model. Similarly, the eort involved in recalculating model parameters probably prohibits their being included in an updated model implemented in Limn or other such packages. The above modications may however, be incorporated in a future hydrocyclone model where the combined benets of these and as yet unidentied improvements are sucient to warrant a move to a new model regime.

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3.4.2.2. Flow split and water split. The concept that Rf can be calculated either directly or from RV has been introduced previously. In the following discussion RW f is used to denote the result of Eq. (18), and RV the indirect result of the f applying Eqs. (17) and (19). If we examine the options available as a result of two equations for estimation of Rf :
V Case 1: Where RW f is more accurate than Rf . V There is no need to use Rf for averaging. V Case 2: RW f and Rf are equally accurate. There is no need to do extra computation. We can use RW f only, without loss of accuracy. W Case 3: RV f is more accurate than Rf .

Issues of conict with the existing parameter database, mean that this modication is unlikely to be implemented in the JKSimMet version of the model at present. 3.4.2.3. Fish hook in eciency curves. It is logical to expect that with increase in size, the recovery to underow also increases as the terminal settling velocity increases. This was the consensus among cyclone researchers until the late seventies and observations to the contrary were attributed to experimental errors. However, since Finch (Finch and Matwijenko, 1977; Finch, 1983) postulated a possible sh hook in the eciency curve, this phenomenon gained widespread acceptance resulting in ardent support (Kelly, 1991). Reports on new observations and new theories to explain the eect are many (Del Villar and Finch, 1992; Roldan-Villasana et al., 1993; Heiskanen, 1993; Brookes et al., 1984; Rouse et al., 1987; Frachon and Cilliers, 1999; Chen et al., 2000; Kraipech et al., 2002, etc.). In the early 1980s, Whiten at the JKMRC produced a modied eciency curve equation with an additional parameter (b) to allow for the eect: ! 1 bb di =d50c ea 1 Eoai C 25 eab di =d50c ea 2 The value b was introduced to preserve the denition of d50c . ie. d d50c when Eoa 1=2C . It can be computed iteratively during evaluation of Eq. (25) by use of this denition. The current version of JKSimMet continues to use the modied Whiten function, which incorporates a sh hook as an option (Napier-Munn et al., 1996). The experience at JKTech/JKMRC, where simulation of hydrocyclone performance is done routinely, is that a signicant proportion of all hydrocyclone model ts benet from inclusion of the Whiten beta parameter in the t parameter set. Whether all of these cases are genuine examples of a sh hook in the data, or simply instances where a slightly dierent shape to the eciency curve allows an improved t, is at present undetermined. It is certainly an area worth further investigation (Nageswararao, 1999a,b, 2000; Coelho and Medronoho, 2001). Until a clearer understanding is available it is likely that JKTech/JKMRC modellers will continue to apply the sh hook when the data seems to warrant it. The simpler (non sh hook) form of the model is always available by suitable choice of parameters. Limn also provides both model forms. 3.4.2.4. Eect of solids concentration on cut size equation for d50c . The Nageswararao model accounts for the eect of feed solids concentration through the use of the hindered settling factor, k. Steinour (1944) suggested the simplifying approximation that k is

This is most unlikely, since calculation of Rf from RV involves a procedure where errors would accumulate, as shown above. Such a case implies a sub-optimum equation for Rf , and we should attempt to develop a more accurate equation, rather than using an indirect method. We may therefore conclude that the direct method for prediction of Rf is at least as good and probably better than the indirect method. We are more likely to introduce errors in the estimation of Rf if it is calculated using the equation for RV and the corrected eciencies. During the original model development, all of the available data including those of Lynch and Rao (1975) were tested. The results conrmed that the direct method, that is using the Nageswararao equation (15) for Rf , was preferable (Nageswararao, 1978). In fact, it was only when the model was implemented in computer software that the indirect method was conceived. The equation for RV could be considered superuous. The more recent cyclone model from the JKMRC (Asomah and Napier-Munn, 1997) does not include an equation for RV , implying that inclusion of the RV equation does not add signicantly to the accuracy of prediction of Rf . The validity of the equation for Rf alone is illustrated with the data of Rao (1966). The results of prediction are shown in Fig. 2, where the excellent agreement between the observed and predicted values can be seen. These Rao data were not used in building the Nageswararao model (that is, evaluation of any model parameters); they represent a completely independent data set. Further, when the results are viewed in comparison with the predictions of S using Plitts equation (Fig. 1), the advantage of Eq. (15) compared to the Plitt approach is obvious. In view of the above, the implementation of the Nageswararao model in Limn does not include the equation for RV .

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proportional to CV =1 CV 3 . This approximation was considered satisfactory when the model was originally developed. Further studies by Castro, 1990), however, indicated that at low solids concentration, the complete Steinour 2 function for k, that is, 101:82CV =1 CV yielded better estimates of d50c and this modication has been included in the JKSimMet and Limn implementations of the model. In the JKSimMet implementation, a scaling factor of 8.05 in the denominator was introduced to preserve the magnitude of the K values to allow comparison with those obtained during the early usage of the model. For simplicity and transparency, inclusion of this scaling factor was not regarded as necessary for the base Limn implementation of the model, since no comprehensive database of previous results are available outside the JKMRC. The scaling factor is also not likely to be necessary in other non JKMRC implementations. However, potential users of the model should be aware that the Kd0 values obtained using the unscaled version, will be dierent from those obtained using JKSimMet. The impact of this change, on the model parameters for the d50c Eq. (14) will be small, since the feed solids content in the model tting data set varied between 41% and 70% (by weight), the range in which both expressions yield the same value for k. A comparison of the observed and predicted d50c values is shown in Fig. 3. It illustrates the small dierence between the two estimates. Also shown (Fig. 4) is a comparison of the results of calculation using the original approximation for k, and the the results of calculation using the complete Steinour expression as suggested by Castro (1990). The density of feed solids is assumed to be 2.7 and the ratio of d50c at given% solids (by weight) to d50c at 40% solids is plotted against% solids concentration.

Fig. 4. Relation between the relative d50c (d50c at desired solids content/d50c when solids content is 40% by weight) versus percent solids in feed slurry.

From this graph, it can be seen that if the test data for the evaluation of the material constants, (K values), cover the range 4070%, and predictions are desired in the same range, the estimates for d50c using either method will be similar. If however, the K values are obtained from data in the same feed solids range, but predictions are required at lower feed concentrations, say, less than 30%, then the d50c predicted with the Castro correction, as implemented in the current JKSimMet version of the model, will be higher. 3.5. Experience with the Nageswararao model There can be no doubt that the Nageswararao model has proven useful in control and design applications (Napier-Munn et al., 1996). This model has been in continuous use at JKMRC since its development in 1978. Others have also applied it extensively via the JKSimMet simulator. Reports (Finch and Matwijenko, 1977; Finch, 1983, etc.) that the actual eciency curve is not monotonic, that is, the possibility that a dip or sh hook could exist, have appeared in the literature. It was also felt that the over ow product is really the product of interest to plant engineers and accordingly, usage of eciency curve to overow (complementary to the conventional actual eciency curve to underow used by most schools) became common at the JKMRC and remains so (Napier-Munn et al., 1996). The emergence of JKSimMet in the mid 1980s (Wiseman and Richardson, 1991; Napier-Munn et al., 1996, etc.) provided an avenue for more wide spread use of the Nageswararao model. Further experience led to the modication in the equation for cut size, as has been discussed.

Fig. 3. A comparison of observed and predicted values of d50c for the model tting data set with the hindered settling factor used initially (Nageswararao, 1978) and with the modication (Castro, 1990).

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Experience with the Nageswararao model indicates that it provides results with the same order of accuracy as the data that is typically obtained from surveys in minerals processing operations. This, coupled with the existence of a large data and experience base in the use of the model within JKTech/JKMRC has given rise to an interesting dilemma. Any changes to the model will require a re-evaluation of the database. While potential improvements have been identied, the improvements are relatively minor, making the eort dicult to justify. This dilemma extends to the use of the model outside JKSimMet. Potential users of the published equations may wish to maintain compatibility with the JKMRC database. In the case of the Limn implementation, two forms of the model are provided, one close to the JKMRC model, and a simpler version for general use when there are no compatibility issues.

6. The complete Steinour approximation for hindered settling factor, proposed by Castro, is considered worthwhile. 7. The extensive industrial database and experience gained using the Nageswararao model in JKSimMet that is now available at the JKMRC and elsewhere presents an interesting dilemma. Any changes to the model will require reinterpretation of the database and validation against experience. While the existing model is seen as suciently accurate, it is dicult to justify such eort. 8. For non JKMRC applications of the model, unless it is necessary to maintain compatibility with the JKMRC database or to transfer parameters from another source of parameters using the JKSimMet implementation of the Nageswararao model, the simpler implementation model using just Rf and the unscaled version of the complete Steinour approximation, is appropriate.

4. Summary and conclusions 1. Fundamental uid ow models of hydrocyclones are improving all the time and are now beginning to be useful, especially in design. However unresolved problems in managing the fundamental uid ow equations and the computational intensity required for CFD simulations ensure that for the foreseeable future empirical models will continue to be the main simulation environment for mineral processing engineers. 2. In the development of the Nageswararao model, dimensionless design variables and operating variables chosen on phenomenological considerations are bound together in a structure based on explicit assumptions to obtain equations for performance characteristics. Observation of both laboratory and industrial cyclones provided the basis for these assumptions. 3. The domain of application of the Nageswararao cyclone model and its successful use in the mineral industry over the last 25 years both at JKMRC and elsewhere indicate that the original assumptions made in formulating the model are realistic and are reasonable representations of the actual separation processes taking place in the cyclone. 4. Because the model was published in full and thus enterered the public domain, the Plitt model saw widespread early use, particularly as a teaching tool. Following the addition of the Flinto corrections, the Plitt model has also seen industrial use. With the proviso (as in the Nageswararao case) that, if at all feasible, the model should be tted to data obtained under conditions as close as possible to those to be simulated, the model can be expected to give useful results. 5. For the estimation of water recovery to underow, the equation for Rf is suciently accurate. The separate equation for RV can be considered redundant at least as far the estimate of Rf is concerned. Acknowledgements Nageswararao (Nagu) Karri wishes to thank Drs. A.J. Lynch, AO and T.C. Rao, from whom he learnt the ABC of hydrocyclones, Dr. Bill Whiten from whom he learnt computer arithmetic and Dr. Lutz Elber from whom he learnt how to survive during his stay in Australia. Tim Napier-Munn acknowledges useful discussions with his colleagues at the JKMRC. Dave Wiseman thanks friends, colleagues and customers, for advice, encouragement and feedback.

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